Zoroastrian Ethic
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The Gnekwad Stu
Rdi/tuii
and
Plcilu-^oph i/
:
/I
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
l.y
IVintod at the Mirfsion Press, Siirat n. K. 8colt, and imblislieil l»y A. G. Wi(l;.'ery the Collej,'e, Baroda. I. V. 1919.
ZOROASTHIAN ETHICS
By
MAGAXLAL
A.
BUCH, M.
A.
Fellow of the Seminar for the Comparative Stn
With an Infrnrhicfion hv
ALBAN
n.
WrDGERY,
Professor of Philosophy
Study
and
of PiPlii^doiis,
BAK
DA
515604
^f.
of the
A.
Comparative
Baroda.
P n E FACE
The present small volume was undertaken as
one
subject
Seminar
for the
established
study
of
as
Fellow
Comparative Study the
in
College,
in
the
of Religions
Baroda, by
His
Highness the Maharaja Sayaji Eao Gaekwad,
K
C.
by
Professor
S.
etc.
I.
The
subject was suggested
Widgery who
guided the
also
author in the plan and in the general working out of the theme.
It is
his
hope that companion
volumes on the ethical ideas associated with other
Such
religions
will
shortly
the aim which His Highness establishing the Seminar. treats
of
religious
the
elaborate than Dr.
be
undertaken.
ethical studies form an important part of
it
had
in view in
The chapter which conceptions
is
less
might well have been, because
Dhalla's masterly volume on Zomasfrirm
Theolof/y^
New
York, 1914, cannot be dispens-
ed with by any genuine student of Zoroastrianism,
and
all
important details
may
be learned
from
it.
Widgcrv and
for
It
lor
his
only remains to thank writinf,'
a
continued
L;enoral
help
I'rotessor
introduotion
thronghont tho
process of the work.
ma(;am.ai.
a. imcii
n
CONTENTS hit I'uduct Lull Blblluf/raj'hi./
I,
•••
•••
1
Ahbrfji'latiuiiS'"
•••
17
•••
and
...
PART Available
T he
Literature 11.
The H
i
s t
[
Z u ro
or
i
ea
Conditions
a
1
•
•
a
s t r
•
•
•
III.
Psychological Conceptions
IV.
The General Moral Attitude
V.
The Value
VI.
:
.••
and
Deceit:
VIll.
Virtues IX.
The Ethical
Vices
other
:
...
•••
in
Legal
Theological
• • •
30
...
41
•«•
5-5
and
60
...
cSO
...
Ill
and ...
loi^
Pieferences ...
167
Metaphysical
171)
in Zoroastrian Literature
X.
1
Purity
Ethics of Sex Relations
Benevolence
a
...
•"
and Impurity '.•
MI. The
i
Industry and
•••
Truthfulness
oe
24
II
of Life
Indolence
a •••
8
nd
•
PAKT
i
•••
•••
Conceptions Lidej:
I'jy
INTRODUCTION The age in
which we
in
many ways by
practical "
" the
of
live
distinguished
is
In the realm
realism.
its
there
wide- spread
a
is
impatience amongst the educated against the
dominance the
scope
sacrifice
of traditional ideas tending to limit
enjoyment of the
of
concrete
experience
good or
to
sake
of
for the
In the realm of thought
abstractions.
there has been and
itself
a decided revolt against
is
the over emphasis of abstract universal principles as distinct
from actual particulars with
their individual characteristics. is
more
or
less
common
branches of thought is
especially
reflections
some
real
relation
in
to
all
significance for ethics
important.
of
Men
ask
moral philosophers
the
that
shall
have
and important bearing on the problem
of
what the moral
it
should be lived.
a definite
its
:
This attitude
life
how
should contain and
Ethics
is
required to have
and intimate relation with the
indi-
vidual details of morality and not to remain in the discussion of the purely formal. spirit of
Kant
ethics
spirit of Aristotle.
now
From
the
turns again to the
2
/•
:;/oii/>f*jii'iii4^;PTHics
'
Though
the view that the good cannot be
defined has incidentally been implied at various
times in the history of moral philosophy,
only within recent years that
has begun to be realised.
its
In the
involves that moral experience
it
is
true import
place
first
it
immediate,
is
that the knowledge included in any science of
though
ethics,
it
may
be knowledge by descrip-
dependent upon knowledge by direct
tion, is
Moral good
acquaintance.
form of intuition, and terms of
is
In the
itself.
is
known
intelligible only
second place
become more and more evident that to
some
in
all
in
has
it
attempts
explain moral good in a general manner,, duty, or as that which brings the greatest
e.g. as
amount of pleasure,
or as the
and
or as self-realisation,
way
of deliverance,
so on,
are of only
secondary value and importance.
The
chief result of these
with relation
make
it
to
the
much more
of the past there has
empirical.
but too
this
of ethics
attempt
to
In the ethics
and ultimate problems^
discussion has
relation to the ethical facts of actual to
is
been much keen discussion
of abstract principles
often
modern tendencies
science
had life.
little
The
bring about a closer relation has
INTJfiqDUGTrOX
s
involved a superimposition of the principles
upon actual conduct
as
were from without.
it
In consequence the conceptions of the ideal have almost all lacked content,
have, in
been conspicuous by their poverty.
fact,
Spinoza in order
had
moral
to pass
of thought
As
an account of substance
to give
almost immediately to the attributes
and extension and then
explain these had to pass on
in order to
modes, thus
to
eventually taking in the immediate experiences of actual
so ethical
life,
bring their conceptions
writers
order to
in
into touch with facts
have been forced back
to particular experiences.
From
we begin
these only can
we wish
if
an understanding of what the moral
must be regarded
as a natural science concerned
with the data of moral
effort
'*
life.
Ethics" as a science we understand the
to
come
a complete
to
comprehension of the moral similar
to
that
which,
in
and systematic
life,
for
in a
manner
example, the
science of botany
is
prehension of
the forms of plant-life
all
concerned with the com-
the relations between these forms. task,
for
includes
In other words, the science of ethics
in detail.
By
life
therefore,
is
a
survev
of
The
and first
the facts of
)
;^(HiOX.S.'FKIAiN.'>;TKICS
morality.
The
facts
with which
necessary
it is
to beirin in order to form a science of ethics are
These judgments are
moral judgments.
to
be
grouped as clearly as possible into classes and the relationship
between
surveyed
classes
with
coherent and
hope
and forming
principles
general
complete
and the
the facts
the
as
of a
possible.
miirht be divided as follows in a
finding
whole
manner
as
Ethics similar
a division elsewhere adopted for the study
to
of Theology.
'
i<:thics.
KMPllUCAL ETHICS.
\.
The
a.
II.
i)sycliological facts
of tlie
Moral
Critical
{
Examination
of empirical data
Life.
History of floral Systems.
riie
}).
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. a.
b.
Constructive
(
Forma-
tion of ideal system).
The Comjiarative Study
c. :
of
Moral Systems.
In the realm of ethics as in any other branch of knowledge there seems no adequate ground for
any claim
to
tnc actual possession of
complete
coherent
Here as
elsewhere
system
of
humanity
with developing knowledge.
moral is
a
goods.
concerned
The course
of
the development will be an important consideration for understanding the system. *
The Comparative Study
of Religions. Raroda, 1919 p. 10.
IJsTRODUCTION
&
Brief reflection on this view of the science of it
ethics
will
implies
that
ly important
is
historical
the necessity of acknowledging
The ultimate problem
ledge.
in all
recognition that
development of ethical know-
between these two
in
the
to
the human mind possesses a making moral judgments. Equal-
capacity for
the
lead
knowledge
some
relative
:
is
of the relation
similar to that involved
the recognition of reason as
manner absolute and not merely
must be united with the acceptance
a theory of evolution of knowledge.
It
of
appears
deny either the power of
alike impossible to
reason or the evolution
of knowledge.
only way in which they
may
be united
The is
to
regard the evolution or development of knowledge as dependent on
the
increasing degree
with which reason comes into relation with subject
its
any particular branch of
matter in
may
experience.
This
contact with
details
or
be either
by a closer
by attention
to
new
parts of experience.
A
survey of the actual course of history
suggests that the advance of ethical as of other
knowledge of a larcre
is
chiefly
number
due
to the
accumulation
of small contributions
made
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS by
number
large
a
not
least
are individuals
'insight"
of
To them
capacity.
special
there
degree
workers.
and certainly
sphere,
morality,
in
with a remarkable
individual
of
every
Nevertheless, in
or
due radical
are
changes and great advances, even though these
have usually been prepared of the
many.
by the
for
etibrts
not in contradiction with the
It is
knowledge that some
belief in the evolution of
such individuals have attained an intuition or
immediate
good with
majority
to-day, have not
more which
of
enlightened
men,
of
the degree of philosophical
Aristotle.
But we do
deny the
reality of
For part
of
more men
not, in consequence,
any evolution of knowledge.
this evolution
that of bringing
is
to the appreciation of the
which profound its
or
and knowledge possessed by Plato
capacity
and
one
clearness
Obviously, the majority of men,
ly reached.
the
a
them have never independent-
others even after
even
with
acquaintance
aspects of the
earlier
knowledge
minds attained, and
to
detailed application.
The general
practice of
men
accords with this contention froni pu1>lic o[)inion,
:
in ordinary life
for
when, apart
they look for knowledge
INTRODUCTION of the requirements of morality, they turn to
the
ofreat
moral teachers of the race.
attempt to form a science
method must be
In the similar
of ethics a
in part adopted.
In the moral
Judgments of outstanding moral teachers are to be found the most important facts for the
The study
science.
of the writings
these judgments and those of the
which
more promin-
ent followers of these teachers are will
in
embodied,
have the task of systematising the judg-
ments- and relating the various groups together
knowledge of what the The examination of the
in order to arrive at a
moral
life
includes.
groups of particular judgments should lead to the recognition of the principles which unite
them
in
such groups.
Though the moral judgments
of saints
and
moral teachers are the most important part of the data of ethics, advance in ethics
depends
partly on advance in other branches of ledge.
not
For
this reason,
possible for
judgments made necessary
may al
if
for
no other,
knowit
is
us to be satisfied solely with at a
time when any particular
knowledge
was not available.
take an example.
knowledge tends
to
The advance
We
of medic-
give good reasons for
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS the insistence on the moral
judgment found
amongst most peoples against the marriage of persons
closely related
have appeared arbitrary
man
enables
how
accurately
of the keenness
due
to ascertain
and
On
accord
to
of medical
more
or
from
far the abstinence
marriage should go.
proval of
now seen
is
The advance
with facts of n^iture. science
What may
by blood.
inter-
much
the other hand
force of the
less
moral disap-
promiscuous sexual relations has been
to the cognisance of the possible evil
sical results.
phy-
Let us suppose, as seems probable,
that medical science should eventually find an absolutely reliable
means
preventing these
of
This would not constitute
results.
throw of the moral judgment cuous
sex
throw
the
relationships
emphasis
over-
against promis-
rather
:
an
it
would
on the genuinely moral
aspect by taking the attention from the merely
physical
consequences.
Increased
knowledge
of the conditions necessary for the best life
of
the
individual and for the stability of
the social organisation would then form a
higher inducement to abstain
moral
moral
laws in this direction.
important than
all else is
from
much
breaking-
For ethics more
the moral judgment
INTRODUCTION
intrinsic
first
of a scientific ethics should be in
place to throw
which are
such
the
as
the non-moral
then
separate
treated
The
question.
as
a
failure
to
from
The
religious.
relation of the moral to
be
goods
relief the
into
intrinsically ethical as distinct
goods,
other
the insistence on the
worth of chastity and purity as such.
The aim the
instance
this
in
itself,
^
make
may
subsidiary the
clear
distinctions thus implied has led to hindrances to
moral
by reason
progress
of
confusions
resulting, for example, in regarding as authori-
some obsolete precepts
tatively religious
earlier ethical attitude, or
of practices
as
of
an
again in the retention
moral which are simply the
practical application, for obviously prudential of
reasons, sanitation.
not
the
These
defects
ethics, but of the
duties,
ideas
early
are.
of
it
on
physiology
need hardly be
philosophical
more
or
said,
systems of
practical codes of moral
found most frequently in the sacred
writing's of the reliorions.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
10
A
survey of moral judgments in a particular
literature,
such as
attempted here,
is
required for other sacred literatures.
commence with
reasons led us to
The
of Zoroastrianism.
ethical
Zovoastrianism has always been
the literature
character
of
recognised
in
We
a general way and frequently eulogised.
wish
matter
the
that
systematically and in
reason
ficant
character
might
The
are
least
of
the moral
some
life
of the
as lived in this
it
practical character of the Zoroas-
be a cause for Parsis taking
so detinite a part ial
and industrial
of
the
virtues
is
at
aspects
may
trian ethics
signi-
practical
moral precepts of Zoroastri-
here
attain,
universal
world.
pages
essentially
To whatever heights
anism.
most
be considered
Another
detail.
the
is
the
of
should
also
is
Various
in
modern Indian commerc-
life.
A
emphasised
fuller appreciation
the following
in
required amongst some non-Zoroastrian
circles of Indian
society.
Iii
saying this
it is
not meant to imply that the Zoroastrian system as
a
whole
system
in
is
superior to that of any other
India or
elsewhere
simply concerns the need of to these
particular virtues.
:
the question
greater
attention
INTRODUCTION
II
ZoroAstrian ethics impress one with a remark-
able vigour, giving reality and earnestness to the moral
made
Whatever objections ma}^ be
life.
to the view, the idea of a radical distinc-
tion between the
good and the bad
Historically the insistence on
of this vigour.
the
reality of
the
the ground
is
may have become
conflict
thus pronounced on account of actual struggles in
which Zarathushtra was involved.
amongst the Parsis
whether
question
to
open
It is
in
India the struggle of the good against the bad lias
not in recent times assumed too individualform, whereas for Zarathushtra and for
istic a
the greater part of Parsi literature the conflict
was most probably
far
more
The general character
social.
of the ethics suggests
There
a certain Lehensiueisheit, a savoir vivre. is
a healthy recognition of physical goods and
of the duty
striving
of
for
them.
In
the
distinction between the different types of occup-
there
ation,
an admirable absence of any
is
manual labour
depreciation of .with
(
so-called
)
intellectual
as
compared
occupations,
In
depreciation otherwise very wide-spread. India, especially,
this
attitude
of
it
would be an advantage
the Zoroastrian
ethics
a
if
were
Z(^ROASTRIAN ETHICS
12
more widely adopted ceive of no
way
in practice.
which a wealthy Parsi might
in
and the
better carry out the spirit
the
that
It
is
practical
letter of the
the encouragement
Parsi moral code than by of agriculture.
can con-
I
no excuse
maintain
to
regard
with
precepts
to
agriculture were for another age or for particular individuals
;
human
depends now as much
life
The main
as ever on their fulfilment. in this
direction between
past
that today
is
the present
there
is
or
communally,
and the
urgent need for
attention to scientific methods. idually
difference
Parsis, indiv-
more
might adhere
closely to their moral precepts
by doing some-
thing definitely for advance in this direction.
The breadth with
its
of the Zoroastrian moral ideal,
little
and
physical
admirable though
its is
it is,
spiritual
emphasis on the duty of intellectual
and the search
for
knowledge.
which have come most
first in
too
effort
The peoples
definitely
under the
iniluence of Zoroastrianism do not rank
the
goods,
associated with
among
intellectual research with regard to
the scientific study of nature or of history or of
j)hilosophy.
thought
"
and
The " right
on
insistence
word
"
is
not
"right often
INTRODUCTION applied
13
such a manner as
in
to
encourage a
life of scholarship.'"''
More heif "
serious than this,
seems
In the literature that
self-sacrifice.
us
with
find
much
any kind.f This
self-sacrifice of
also
to
difficult
is
it
very "Lehensiveis-
against the virtue of
militate
to
its
almost
the
is
left to
reference to
is
in
complete
harmony
absence
of
any thing which suggests a If on the one hand the form of mysticism.
asceticism,
sane
and
of
practicality,
virility
which
common
of Zoroastrian
the attention
sense,
and
are
aspects
ethics
of non-Zoroastrians
be directed, on the other hand
non-Zoroastrians the moral will
life
may
which
the
to
may
ethics
of
present other aspects of to the Zoroastrian breadth
add a greater depth.
The Zoroastrian system
of ethics,
historical systems, has a theological to this, for the reason
is,
as
most
background;
mentioned in the preface,
the author refers only briefly. fact
the
The
significant
however, worth emphasising here that
* In the nineteenth century and since many scholarly dasturs have devoted themselves strenuously to the study of their sacred scriptures. t The part played by " charity " in Parsi morality
is
not thus denied.
See Chapter VIII.
ZOIIOASTKIAN ETHICS
14
system
the
no
contains
conception
pantheistic
Zoroastrianism
of
any
of
In
reality.
agreement
in
is
evidence
this,
other
with
fundamentally ethical systems, such as .Judaism, Christianity and Islam. that
suirijcsted
It
may, therefore, he
consideration
closer
the
of
nature of moral distinctions and their implications
would tend
ahandonment
modihcation and even
of the
facts of
moral codes, especially in their
different
devolopment
historical
pantheistic
essentially
The empirical study
systems. the
to a
the
of
may have
influence on philosophical .opinions
greater
a
than has
yet been the case.
The aim
of the science of ethics being to
arrive at an accurate of
the
contents
of
and complete statement the moral
in
life
their
relationship as judged by the moral consciousness,
it
may
be reasonably supposed that no
2)articular existent
may
pleteness
system
is
Com-
complete.
graduall}' be obtained
by the
development and comparison of the different systems.
In such comparison, though insistence
on the aspects of similarity may strengthen conviction
concerning the
aspects, a wider
validity
of
these
and richer view than any
will.
INTRODUCTION obtained only
be
differences,
the
aid
to
due attention
by
especially those
common
way
the
attainment
knowledge of the ideal
the
to
which supplement
At present the best
elements. in
15
is
of
wider
a
by careful sj^stematic
common
study of individual systems upon a plan.
From
the foregoing
formed that the ideal
easily be
to the
knowledcre of which we wish to attain a kind of
and
sum
total of different
relations, but with
This impression
ciple.
complete
is
eclectic,
good qualities
no one dominant prinis
such dominant principle therefore
of the
meant that
different systems together
a
is
moral
to
life,
survey
of
might not lead
recognition of such a principle.
upon
For
not justifiable.
though no reference has yet been made not
may
impression
the
What
that from no principle does
is it
to
any it is
the the
insisted
appear
possible to deduce, without empirical consideration, all the
goods which the moral
life
includes.
In the following account of Zoroastrian ethics several fundamental principles are emphasised,
but personally principle.
I
do not find any one supreme
The only principle of which I am which might serve the purpose of
at all aware,
/OKOAS'I'KIAN ETHICS
H)
unifying the elements of the moral
life,
is
one
which, found detinitely in the literature of the has
Jews,
become
central
the
in
ethics of
The warning - viewed as the
(Christianity, the yriiicii>le of lore. is
perhaps
necessary
that,
supreme imifying principle of the moral love
no
im[)lies
simply
and
service
binding
feeble
solely
moral virtues.
the
together
life
sentimentalism
—
but
motive of an active all
the
individual
BIBLIOGRAPHY Andarz-i Pahlavi
Atarpat-i
text, edited
The
Maraspand.
and translated by Peshutan
Bombay, 1885. Andarz-i Khusru-i Kavatan. The Pahlavi text, edited and translated by Peshutan Dastur Dastur Behramji Sanjana.
Behramji Sanjana.
Arda
Viraf.
Bombay, 1885. The Pahlavi text, edited and
translated by Hoshangji Jamaspji Asa, Martin
Haug, and E. W. West. Bombay, 1872. Avesta.
Translated into English by James
Darmesteter and L. H. Mills. Boohs of
the East, vols.
Bahman
Yasht.
Pahlavi text by E.
Books of
the East,
In
Tlte
Sacred
4,23,31.
Translated
W. West.
In
from Tlte
the
Sacred
vol. 5.
Bharucha, Sheriarji D.
A
Brief Sketch of
the Zoroastrian Religion and Customs.
Bombay,
1893. Bilimoria, N. F.
Light of Theosoph}^
Bundahishn. text by E.
in
the
Bombay, 1896.
Translated from the Pahlavi
W. West.
the East, vol.
Zoroastrianism
In The Sacred Books of
5.
Casartelli, L. C.
The Philosophy
of the
Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. 9.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
18
Translated from the French by Firoz Jamaspji
Jamasp Asa.
i^ombay, 1889.
Dadistan-i
Dinik.
Pahlavi text by
Boohn of the Ea^f,
the
The Sacred
In
vol. 18.
Dadachanji, F. K.
Light of
Avesta
the
Bombay, 1913.
and the Gathas. Dhalla M.
from
Translated
W. West.
E.
New
Theology.
Zoroastrian
York, 1914.
Dinkard.
from
lated
and
Darab
Books 3-7. the
Pahlavi
Edited
and trans-
by Peshutan
text
Bombay,
Vols. 1-18.
Sanjana.
1874-1912. Dinkard.
lk)oks 7-9.
Pahlavi text by E.
Translated from the
W. West.
In
TJie
Sacred
Books of the East, vols. 37, 47.
Encyclopaedia of Religion by James Hastings.
Edited
and Vols.
Ethics. 1
—
9.
Edinburgh, 1908-1917. Epistles
of
Mannshchihar.
from the Pahlavi text by Sacrrd
BooJx'x
K.
Ganj-i Shayigan.
Translated
W. West.
In
Tlo>
18.
The Pahlavi
text, edited
and translated by Peshutan Dastur Bchramji Sanjana. Bombay, 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Geiger, Wilhelm.
19
Civilization of the Eastern
Iranians in Ancient Times.
the
German
Sanjana.
Darab
by
2 vols.
Translated from
Peshutan
Dastur
London, 1885, 1886.
The Pahlavi
Hadokht Nask.
Hoshangji
and translated by
W.
Martin Haug, and E.
Haug, Martin.
edited
text,
Jamaspji
Asa,
West. Bombay, 1872.
Essays
on
the
Sacred
Language, Writings, and Eeligion of the Parsis. Edited and enlarged by E.
3rd ed.
W. West,
London, 1884.
Hodivala,
K.
S.
and
Zarathustra
Contemporaries in the
Rig
Veda.
His
Bombay,
1913. Jackson, A. V. Williams.
Prophet of Ancient Iran.
Kapadia,
and the
S.
Xew
Zoroaster,
The Teachings
A.
Philosophy
of
the
the
York, 1899. of Zoroaster
Parsi Eeligion.
London, 1905.
Menant D. and Murzban M. in India.
Eng.
Mills, L. H.
with
the
Books
ed.
The Parsis
Bombay, 1917.
Avesta Eschatology compared of
Daniel and Revelations.
Chicago, 1908. Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids
and
Israel.
Leipzig, 1905, 1906.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
^)
— Our Own Religion
Ancient Persia, 1913.
in
Minu-i Khrat. Translated from the Pahlavi text by E.
W. West.
In The Sacred Books of
the Ecu^t, vol. 24.
Mistri, R.
Bombay,
I
H. Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.
DOG.
Modi, Jivanji J.
The Religious System
of
the Parsees. Bombay, 1885.
Moulton, James H. Early Religious Poetry Cambridge, 1011.
of Persia.
London, 1913.
Early Zoroastrianism.
The Treasure
of the Magi.
London, 1917.
Rapp, A. The Religion and Customs Persians
of the
and other Iranians, as described by
the Grecian and
Roman
Authors.
Translated
from the German by K. R. Cama. Bombay,
1876-1879.
Sad Dar.
Pazand text by Books of the
from
Translated E.
luisf,
W. West, Vol.
in
in
Pahlavi-
The
Sacred
24.
Sanjana, Rustamji E. Zarathushtrianism
the
the
and
Zarathushtra
Liepzig,
Avosta.
190G.
Airan.
Shatroiha-i Pahlavi
text
by
Bombay, 1899.
Translated
Jivanji
from
.lamshedji
the
Modi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Shikand Gumanik Vijar.
2t
Translated from
W.
the Pahlavi-Pazand text by E.
The Sacred Bools Tiele, C- P.
Peoples.
West.
In
of the East, vol. 24.
The Religion from
Translated
of the
the
Iranian
German
by "
G. K. Nariman.
Wadia, Ardaser
Part S.
1,
Bombay, 1912.
The Message
of Zoroaster.
London, 1912. Wilson, John. The Parsi Religion. Bombay, 1843.
ABBREVIATIONS AnAtM
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS PART
I
PreliTnincu^y
Before embarking upon the special study of Zoroastrian Ethics three preliminary enquiries are necessary
very
:
these
we intend
to
undertake
briefly.
A. The question as to the character of the literature available for the study.
The
B.
social
and
historical
conditions, so
far as
they can be known, in which the moral
ideas
arose and the changes and modifications
were made. C.
The problem concerning the psychological
nature of man, as understood by the authors of this
literature, so
far
as
these
psychological
views have a bearing on ethical questions.
CHAPTER A.
I
THE AVAILABLE ZOKOASTRLVN LTTEKATUliE
The early Zoroastrian literature falls into two main divisions the Avestan and the :
Pahlavi. I.
down
The Avestan writings which have come fragment of the ancient
to us are only a
literature
much
which has perished.
of
These
consist of (a) the Yasnaj including the Gafhas^ (b) Vlsperad, (a)
Yitsna
(c) is
Yashfa, (d) Vendidad.
to invoke, or to Avorship. in its entirety
in
The whole book chapters. three parts
chapters
parts
of
the
It
is
praise^ recited
Ya^^na ceremony.
consists of seventy-two
be
the Gatlnts
seven
later part.
the
may
It :
= to
from zaz
derived
;
and
Yasna
Tho Gathas
divided ;
the
which (yf.
into
Yasna of tho
ga
remaining forms
= to
a
sing).
THE AVAILABLE LITERATTTRE There are
psalms.
are
J.
H. Moulton, assign
1000
date
the
these
to
Dr.
b.
Yasna of the seven chapters
is
Yasna
is
ated
with
sacred
a prose
The
prayers.
Zarathustra
objects.
dominating personality
the
The
c.
also full of prayers associ-
later
is
of
consisting
writing,
divisi/ojis
Roughly we
17 hymns.
consisting of
may, with
rive
2iy
the
in
whole Avestan literature and particularly in
(b)
the Gathas.
Visperad lords'
(Av.
^"ispe
ratavo
resembles the Yasna
)
'
the
all
in language,
form and subject. (c)
The
Yaslds
praise')
(
Av.
Yeshi
'
worship
by
form a poetical collection of 21
hymns, glorifying the angels and heroes of ancient Iran. (d)
The Vendidad {vi-daeva-data-nhe law against the demons ') is a priestly code of laws,
written in the form of a
dialogue
between
ations
and
penalties.
and
Ahura-Mazda
Zarathustra, containing
the various kinds of
prose
an
account
purification, It
may
of
expi-
be located
in the post-Alexandrian period.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
26
P'tlilavi
II.
heroic
Parthian,'
(<
times
or
)
i.
'belonging to
e.
Persian literature
Middle
'
dates from the 3rd century
century
a.
has
roots
its
It is
d.
the
in
the
to
d.
a.
9th
not an abrupt growth, but
The
Avestan writing.
contents of the Avestan books are explained
and elaborated
Pahlavi writing.
in the
Zoro-
aster appears no longer as a merely historical
personage but
is
transformed practically into a
superhuman being. The concepts
of the Gathic
period lose something of their original charac-
and become
ter
more
and
formal,
definite,
stereotyped.
Ancktrz-i Atrepat-l Mara.f<pandan precepts concerning
religion
contains
and worldliness
delivered by Dasturan Dastur Adarbad
respand to his son in the time of
Zarthost.
It
Hormazd Shapur,
Mah-
was written
the grandson
of the founder of the Sassanian dynasty.
The Arda-Vi /'((/, written about the sixth century
heaven and is
supposed *
a. d.,
sets forth
hell, as related
to
or
descriptions of
by Arda-Viraf, who
have visited them.
Ganj-t-Skayl(jan* was written in the reign
of Noshirwan the Just, about 505 his
fifth
minister
Vizorg-Meher.
It
A.
D.,
by
distinguishes
THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE
27
between permanent and evanescent wealth and lays is
down
precepts to acquire such wealth as
and
permanent,
happiness of
conducive
The Dined- Menuk-i'Khrat spirit
of
to
the
true
mankind.
wisdom
(
*
opinions of the
was written
)
in the sixth
'
century, by a devoted Mazda-worshipper.
It
contains questions on religion answered by the spirit of
wisdom.
The Shayast-la-Shayast
improper')
customs regarding ceremonies.
(*'
the proper and the
sins, impurities
and religious
was probably written
It
and
miscellaneous laws
contains
the Muslim conquest,
(a. d.
before
636-651).
The Shikaud-Giimanik Vijar ('doubt-dispelling explanation
is
)
a
work,
controversial
'
which attempts
to prove that
good and
not come from the same source.
evil
do
It criticizes
the attitude of Judaism, of Christianity, and
Manichaeanism.
It
was written
after
the
middle, but before the end of the 9th century.
The Dinkard ^-reatest of the
was compiled ninth century.
(
*
Acts of the Religion
'
),
the
Pahlavi works of the period,
by It
a high-priest, is
'a large
during the colleption of
information regarding the doctrines, customs,
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
•28
and literature of the Mazda-worship-
traditions,
W.
pin<( reli<(ion/ (E.
West).
The Dadlstan-i-Diiuk ('religious opinions or decisions
'
ninety-two questions on
contains
)
religious subjects put to a high priest with the
answers given by him. years before 881
was written some
It
a. d.
The Epistles of Mauushchihar give some light
upon the condition
of the
(a. d. 881
at the time.
The Bundahishn
*
(
Mazda- worshippers
).
original creation
'
)
deals
with the cosmogomy, mythology, eschatology of the Zoroastrian
about
A. D.
faith,
Aii/adf/arl-Zarh'an Zarir.
having been written
88G.
Referring to
introduction to
i.
it,
The Memoir of
e.,
Firdausi says
Shah Namah
'^
:
in
his
There was a
book of ancient times which contained many episodes. different
It
was scattered
Mobeds
the family of the
works
hands of
fond of
history of ancient
So he called aged Mobeds from
parts of the country
him
the
He was
Dehkans
collecting materials for the
times.
in
There was a Pehelwan of
These
and
great
all
collected the historical
men
narrated
before-
the accounts of the kinirs and of the events
THE AVAILABLE -LITERATURE
When
of the world.
that
great
29
man
heard
from them the narratives, he laid on them the foundation of a great book.
became a memoir
Thus
(
the
work
The Buhra'in Yashf was written after
had been over-run by to the reign of
Iran
a foreign race subsequent
Khusrd Xoshirvan.
It professes
Ahura-Mazda's revelation
to be
)
in the world."
Zoroaster
to
about the future of the Iranian nation. TIte
the
Besaflr professes to be a collection
from the time fifth
of
Mahabad
Sasan, being fifteen in or Zoroaster
Zerdusht, the
who
different Persian Prophets,
fifth
to the
time of the
number
;
of
whom
was the thirteenth and
Sasan the
last.
It
different
from
the
language
of
flourished
is
written in a
Avestan
and
Pahlavi.
The Sitd-dir ('a treatise on one hundred subjects
'
)
is
in the early part of the
this
is
very
old,
but
16th century was that
we
have no
evidence concerning the date of
The book
its
reliable
authorship.
deals with various religious duties
and customs. The tone to priestly
The opinion
written in Persian.
control
of
complete submission
characterises the book as
written in a period of subjection.
CHAPTER TiiK
An
II
nrsTORirAL and social conditions* account of the ethical ideas evolved by
the Iranian people in successive ages of their
demands
history,
as
preliminary
a
a
brief
description of the actual social conditions of
Only when
the people in the different epochs.
these ideas are placed in their right historic setting
and viewed
in the light of the
general
conditions of civilization in which they rose to
prominence, can their merely temporary aspects bo distinguished from what ent worth.
The prominence
in certain ages,
ance of
may
others
of certain beliefs
and the comparative
former and neoflected the This
insignific-
depend necessarily upon the
general social conditions which
•
be of perman-
cliapter is based
the
fostered
latter.
chiefly
upon Geiger
;
and
the article " Ancient Persia,^' Encyclopa'dia Britannica. Iltli
.«(!.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS For
consideration
first
is
31
the civilization of
the Gathic and the later Avestan periods.
The 1000 B.C., and the Avestan period from about 800 B.C. to 200 A.D. The Pahlavi period then commences and ends with the ninth centurv. Gathic Age
An
may
well be located around
examination of the existing evidence
leads one to the generally accepted belief in
the x\ryan origin of the Iranian people. in the
frequent called
Indeed,
Avestan writings themselves there are references
to
AiryaMrt-vaega
Aryans).
(
Their country
Iran,
is
the land of the
Possibly the Avestan people arose
as a distinct people
spread
it.
themselves
in Eastern Iran
over
the
other
and then parts
of
Persia.
Even, so early as the time of the Gafhas, the Iranians Avere in a transitional stage with regard to their
mode
nomadic.
of
the Gathic be noted.
to the agricultural stage
of
Here, however, a difference between
Age and the later Avestan Age may The chief object of attention in the
former was the cow. to
They were no longer
In fact, they were already passings
from the pastoral civilization.
life.
'
Cattle-breeding' appears
have been the main occupation of the people.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
32
compared with which
agricultural interests
all
This suggests
occupied a su])ordinate place.
that the people were at that time passing from
nomadic
the
.
The
oxistence.
more
to a
life
its
leads eventually
to
The cow
success partly
And
a settled state of living.
soil.
upon
a stable existence
methodical cultivation of is
said
despise
to
masters and to favour peasants only.
other
In the
later writings of the Aresfa^ agriculture -a
of
careful rearing of cattle on a
large scale depends for
the
form
settled
assumes
position of importance equal at least to that
For example, the Vendidad
of cattle-rearing. gives a
of the following meritorious w^orks
list
indicating forcibly the character of the existing •social
conditions
course of
life
liousehold
fodder
an
and
and
of sheep
canals
arc
permanent
of grain, of
the planting
of cultivating the land
wells
of a
The cultivation
cattle,
The breeding
1\'.
Piety and a law-abiding
The founding
II.
III.
;
for
;
I.
:
of trees
and cows.^
;
The
becomes specialised;
made
to further
agri-
cultural operations.
A
second
noticed.
In
important
Gathic
the 1
Vd. Ill
difference ao-e.
1-5.
must be
Zoroastrianism
SOCIAL CONDITIONS was not established;
was only introduced.
it
This introduction was no
less
than a religious
revolution, accompanied with all of conflict of
new and
83
But the
old.
tolerably well established
symptoms
its
was
faith
when we come
to the
later Avesta.
The
early
agricultural forests,
civilization
was
the tilling of the
supreme importance.
above
The
civilization.
soil,
all
an
clearing
of
were objects of
The cow, the dog, the
€ock, the she- camel were especially cared for
on account
of
their
farming population and
great
usefulness
human conduct
to
a
towards
them was brought under moral precepts. The dog was regarded as a friend of man, because it
to
protected cattle and flocks
:
hence
dogs were severely punished.
must be extended them. his
to
female
Hot food was not
pregnant.
The horse derived
employment
all injuries
Tender care
dogs to be
who were given to
his chief value
in warfare.
from
The camel was
indispensable for traversing surrounding deserts,
and covering great distances
The cock
is
referred
to
in
in
short
connection
time.
with
an agricultural
early rising,
an essential
-civilization.
Sheep, goats and the ass are also
for
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
34
mentioned
in the
During
earliest literature.
the Avestan period agriculture attained a con-
The
siderable degree of development.
Mazdayasnian
of the
against
may
all
faith
were asked to fight Further, we
and waste.
sterility
note the development of horticulture and
of artificial irrigation, wells
and the construction of
and canals.
Manufacture received gradually
A
attention.
increasing
considerable development of
the existence
implied
handicraftsmen.
a
of
Metals
special
were
class
it
of
worked with
Gold was esteemed the most precious
skill.
metal and jewels were made of
was
followers
silver.
Much
Next
it.
made
use was
to
it
of brass or
bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Copper Tiles were
was used. was
known.
not
prepared.
Chariots
are
But
ghxss
frequently
mentioned.
The art of medicine received attention. In the VendUlad we lind that care is demanded in
the
treatment
of
the
diseased.
Medical
treatment was extended to beasts also.
Though coined money does
not seem to have
been used, considerable progress was made in
commerce.
Exchange was
effected
through
i
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
medium mainly
the
35
For
of domestic animals.
example, the fee for the cure of a son of a family of a certain social standing was a horse. All this presupposes an evolution to a certain
degree
In
of
the
fact
a
into
regular
a
had
state
very
existence.
distinct
of five divisions
the
:
town or
clan, the
constitution
early
emerged
was composed
It
family,
tribe,
of society..
the village
or
the district and the
The family was the unit of society, The village was a group of families. The township did not possess much The idea of a district occurs real influence. province.
not the individual.
in the Gcdhas.
It
many
contained
settlements
occupied by one or more races.
Lastly there
" country,"
geographical
was the
expression.
chiefly
a
At the head of every family was
the master of the house.
Similarly, there was
the master of the village and the master of the tribe.
Over the whole province or country was
the king.
Each head enjoyed
measure of authority king was called also
an *armed
conflict class.
in his
Yima ruler.'
own
a substantial
sphere.
The
(the rich in flocks) and
Traces are found of a
between the priestly and the political
The power
of
these
heads
was not
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
We
unlimited.
hear of popular
assemblies^
which were opened with prayer. To shine these assemblies was a great distinction.
The
rise
and growth
not entirely peaceful.
was
of Zoroastrianism
From
in
the beginning a
constant warfare was waged between the Zoroastrians
The Gathas The
and the non-Zoroastrians.
give sufficent evidence of perpetual feuds.
atmosphere in which the were
faith
xjuietistic
preached
sermons of the
first
was
anything
atmosphere of religious peace
but ;
a
was
it
turmoil between antagonistic ideas. The
full of
conflict
was a double one
;
the one between the
Aryans and the non-Aryans
in
general and
between the ''believers" and the "unbelievers "
among the
Iranians
struggle between the latter was well as religious.
the
pious,
It
economic as
was a struggle between
husbandmen,
stable,
The
themselves.
Ahura Mazda, and attached
devoted
to the
to
rearing of
cows, and the restless, nomadic elements which persisted in injuring
regarding the
new
agriculture
faith.
and
in
dis-
This struggle lasts
through the Avestan period.
The adversaries daivas or demons.
of
the
faith
They were
were
called
also stigmatized
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
They
as drihjas.
37
made sudden
often
inroads
into the cultivated districts of the Zoroastrians
and carried away and
called daevas
That they were
captives.^
shows the contempt
driijas
with which they were regarded.
This actual
historical conflict led to the expression of the
nature of morality as a struggle against evil
Under the circumstances, the people bound to be warlike. Wars being
powers.
were
common virtues. fields,
led to a special recognition of martial
Men
prayed not. only for cattle and
but also for
*
troops of warriors.' x\rmies
were organized by the kings.
A
high
priesthood.
themselves
called
They fices
;
position
ofi'ered
assigned
Athravans
or
the
to
their creation.
They
fire-priests.
prayers and performed the sacri-
tended the sacred
lire
and prepared the
They encroached
Haoma-drink. on
was
The Avesta was
little if at all
the functions of the secular government,
maintaining medical
themselves
and
practice
purificatory clear lines
ceremonies. are
by the
In
earnings
the
drawn between
Vd.
III. 11.
.
Gathas,
of
no
social classes,
but in the later Avesta, mention 3
from
performance
is
made
of
ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS
38
three classes: priests, warriors, and peasants.
Possibly
"manufacturers"
captives
either
pawned away
was a
there
Lastly,
class.
formed class
a
fourth
of
slaves,
war or persons who had
of
their freedom.
Gradually
Zoroastrian
the
faith
became
firmly established and society attained a
compact
organization
The
civilization.
Medians
and
and a high degree overthrew
Persians
established
and to reduce were
generously
that they
to rule the civilized
world
The subject
races
to unity.
it
felt
of
the
empire.
great
a
Eduard Meyer says that they had a great mission
more
dealt
with.
swore allegiance to the king,
The Persians
and he protected
them. All judicial and administrative decisions were based on the advice of the leaders of the people.
There were twenty provinces in the
time of Darius
I.,
each under a governor. Each
was divided into minor governorships. were
imperial
with
postal
highways,
stations,
There
regularly provided
which
facilitated
com-
Money currency was introduced munication. about the 4th century H. c. Still payment in The kind was often the rule in the court. society progressed in many other ways. Darius
SOCIAL CONDITIONS founded harbours,
from the Nile
completed
great
a
What
to Suez.
39
the Persian kings of the empire was
tinued in the empire, carried beyond
place in
Whether
luxurious
The Persians
under the influences of
Later
life.
Greeks
the
They
Alexander conquered Persia.
have
to
destroyed
Zoroastrian
again
was
be noticed from the evidence
deteriorate
to
it
important modifications took
may
of the inscriptions of the kings.
began
a matter
and may have been
boundaries.
its
not,
as
it,
is
Zoroastrianism undoubtedly con-
of question.
supreme or
canal
the religion of
greater
the
The
literature.
revived under
the
under
are said
part
of
decaying
Parthians,
the faith
but the
Avestan language was replaced by the Pahlavi or Parthian.
The Ardashir
Sassanian I.
Empire,
marks
a
inaugurated
turning-point
in
by the
history of Persia. Image-worship was abolished;
and
a belief in one
god restored. The remaining
Avestan literature was collected and arrangred.
The priesthood was
reinstated in a
position of
importance. Ardashir believed that " the altar
and the throne were always inseparable and jnust always sustain each other,"
The Sassanian
ZOllOASTllIAN ETHICS
40
period forms a brilliant page in the history of Zoroastrianism. But during
were made
to set
up
various attempts
it
The most
hostile sects.
important of these was Manicha^ism, founded
by Mani, Whether a heresy ism or not
was opposed
it
view
the
which
Darkness
universe was
to
the spirit of the
" According to
Zoroastrian faith. cht\3an
Avithin Zoroastrian-
admixture gave
rise
the
and Darkness,
Manichaiism
quietistic, ascetic
was
suppressed
heretical
sect
Mazdak who But a
consequently regarded
people
in
the
evil
was
and repre-
cosmopolitan,
and unworldly."'^
This sect
Shapur
Another
by
appeared
H.
under
tauorht a form of o
spirit
admixture
of
such as marriage and
is
by Mani and his followers as hensible.
material
All that tends
essentially evil
begetting of children,
and
Light
of to
to the prolongation of this state
of Light
the Mani-
the
of indifference
of
came over the Sassanians.
time of the later
With the success of the Arabs,
this
about the
downfall of the faith
thousands
remained
followers
lead
communism.
:
and
brought
only
some
many
of
these migrated to India. 4
E.G. BroM-ne,"^ lAteranj History of Persia:' pp.160-162.
CHAPTER Advance
in ethical ideas
knowledge
human mind. considered
Though
in
can take place in
attains a certain
amount
concerning the nature
of the
a society only after of
III
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS*
C.
it
Ethical relation
should
principles to
human
mind was fond
the Persian
be
capacities. of
making
psychological distinctions, the extant literature gives no evidence of an analj^sis of the
mind anything in Jain
so detailed as
like
and Buddhist
the Avesfa
is
Avorks.
human
that found
The psychology
of
neither simple nor primitive, but
presupposes some philosophical speculation.^
According
human
to the Avesta^ the
ality consists of five
elements —
'
person-
vitality' (ahu),
"This section is preliminary only and does not represent a complete independent examination of the material. Much use has been made of W. Geiger. Civilization of
Ancient Iran. Vol. I. Ch. Ill and Casartelli Philosophy of the Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. Ch. V. 2 Ys. 1 Geiser I. 124. 4 and 6— ;Yt. XIII. 149. :
XXVL
<
42
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
'
'perception' or 'sense' (baodha)^
'ego' ((?ae/ia),
and Fravashi.^
(^wrcan),
'soul'
Man
Pahlavi writers.
The
soul.
Dlnhard and other
ally accepted division
ness).
the
divided into body and
is
man was
spiritual part of
farohar (guardian
Ichart
by
variously
Lists of psychological powers are given
divided. in the
Psychological
developed
further
are
distinctions
is
:
jan
spirit),
(life),
(
(memory), dino
Among
vir
),
ravan
(soul),
and hod (conscious-
Other powers are akho intelligence
The gener-
writings.
(
(judgment), reason
),
hosh
(religion), vakt^h (conscience).
elements
were
mysterious
powers, parts of the
human
being,
though not
belonging
individual
these
for
elements
of
Frarashis
is
Dr.
the
to
responsible
acts.
its
this
type.
and
not
The Frarashis
are
soul
The conception
of
peculiar and difficult to interpret.
Moulton
thinks
of
them primarily
as
Roman manes. Dr. Dhalla much in common with the Platonic ideas. Now they are referred to as parts of the human personality now as corresponding to the finds
that
have
they
;
celestial spirits.
well-defined luive not a
Nevertheless, they have certain
characteristics.
mere
ideal
The Frarashis
existence,
but are real,
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS spiritual
positive,
highest
the
part
essence of things, as
Every good
distinguished from the accidental. creature
constitute
man, without beginning
of
They form the
and end.
They
entities.
under the heavens has
who
Fravashi
acts as
life
its
corresponds
and
partly
its
guardian
after
with
it.
Fravashi.
its
Every new-born babe brings with
during
it its
own
spirit
both
The conception idea
the
all
physical and mental planes
feelings or volitions
while everything good and the Fravashi only.
is
of
bad--'
But
man.
has
its
atman,
Like the Fravashi, the atiiutn does not
short,
the
Ahura Mazda its
is
not
it is
connected with good creations
actively interfere in the course of a
In
;
nor in any way affected by the
responsible,
thoughts,
soul
of
Atman
(atman) in the Hindu psychology. above
43
Fravashis are to help the
human
life.
the agencies
of
creation forward in
righteous endeavours and tendencies,-a task
which they
fulfil
by each one connecting
itself
with one particular person or object and doing its
utmost
all
necessary assistance.
supply that person or object with
may, of course, be maintained that from the point view of atman the distinction of good and bad is invalid. *It
of
to
:
ZOUoASTinAN ETHICS
44
The Farukars
or Fravahars of the Pahlavi
correspond
period
the
to
Fmvashit;
the
of
Avestan age. These possess distinct personalities
and enter into the bodies by their own But while all creatures heavenly will.
sweet
or earthly were thought to have their Fravashis^
the Farohar.^ belong only to the earthly objects.
much
In fact, the original conception loses its
arc
with the
identified
stars
of
The Farohars
dignity in the later times.
one of the
in
The Farohar purifies the air body by means of fire and thus helps to
P.ihlavi works.' in the
maintain it
In the post-Sassanian writings,
life.^
becomes a mere principle of digestion. In the
Revayet of Barzii Kavam-iid-Dln, '<
The function
someness
remove every
The
of the
Fawhar
the food
to
is
find
to give whole-
which men eat and
indig'cstible matter.
to
""^
(Ircaih represents 'soul' or as Dr.
maintains 'the ego proper, the real is
we
Dhalla
I-ness.'^
It
the Urvan or ravan (so called in the Pahlavi
period) which constitutes the responsible
capable
of
making choice between good and
3
MUh.
4
l)k. III. 165, VI.
6
92.
(^)iiotc
in
self,
Dr. Dlialla.
.S-kS.
Cania Memorial
V(»liniie, lo4-15S.
p. 144.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 6vil
and hence
valso
Not
rewards and
men, but animals
Ahura Mazda has
a soul
have other divine beings.^
so also
much
liable to
only
possess the soul."
and is
becomes
it
punishments.
45
There
evidence in favour of the view
that
the Zoroastrians believe in the pre-existence of
The
the soul. 9 the body
but
;
spiritual world.
above, and world. ^^
soul
^^
not created alonof with
It
body
the
from
comes from
does not owe
Similarly
existence
is
enters
it
has
the soul
The
predominate.
an
clearly
sent to heaven or hell according as evil deeds
world
the
existence to this
its
the death of the body.
after
the
its
soul
It
is
good or
requires to
be protected against spiritual decay and death.
The
soul
of
man who commits
a
crimes, becomes extinct.^-
a
It
said in the
is
the soul of a man,
•dog
is
merely
who
Vendidad that Yanghapara
kills the
destroyed only for a temporary period.^^
As regards
a mortal sinner
in his future
XXXIX.
body they
7
Ys.
8
Yt. XIII. 81, 84. Spiegel Memorial
9
this is
sort of stupefaction, a suspension of spiritual
activities.
**
But
unnatural
pp. 100-105.
I. 2.
Volume
(
it
is
stated
that
the high priests
10 Bd. 64. 11 Gs. 20. 12 Sd. 268. 13 Vd. XIII.
3.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
46
head once, and the
will cut off his
make him
last
time
and
will
they
will
inflict
three night's severe punishment."^'^ Lastly
we may
alive again,
refer to the account
from doing
(
to
evil,
soul
is
)
evil ones.
him an idea of heaven and directs him to make choice of reject
There
is is
It protects
body of man through superior wisdom^
the gives
"
The man_
restrain
to
induce him to speak good
words, and abstain from
soul
"
Revayaf of Barzu Karara-iid-Din.
the
function of ravan
and
ravan in
of the
what
is
Avhat
good,
is
is evil."^^
a reciprocal
and soul on body.
It is
dream,
hell in
influence of
Thus
body on
stated that
it is
owing to (his) soul that (a man's) body
And each
well- warned
rendered
by
dull
strength of the other
the ;
(soul
and body)
weakening
for,
of
when any
the
of the
powers of the soul become enfeebled, every one of the
powers of (the) body
And when harm
stand-still.
part
of
the
body,
co-related soul.
injury
Therefore,
is it
is
is
brought
to a
done
any
to
caused is
to
owing
its
to the
purity of the soul that the body pertaining to this world
n
becomes valuable.
SIS. 'M)X
1
.">
And
the acquis-
Cama Memorial Volume
154-158.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS by the soul
purity
of
ition
powers of the body pertaining Bodily
are
illnesses
through the
to this world. "^^
removed by the Thus the cure of
best
recitations of the Avesta.
body
is
47
through the soul and that of the soul
is
through the body.^^
must
It
be understood
however that the body and the soul are
The body
is
roban
the soul,
is
distinct.
the instrument of the soul.
which
is
the
'<
ruler
The over
the body. Just as the head of a family conducts the household, and the rider the horse, so does
the soul conduct the body."^^
Another
spiritual
Avesta was daena.
power referred
Some
to in
the
scholars translate
it
by the English word 'Conscience'; others (Moulton
v/as
one of them) by
Fravashij daena
human
soul
is
and continues
the Fravashi^ a daena
man
its
Like the
after death.
Unlike
associated with a bad Different views
exact functions.
the 'daena
Dr. Geiger
to
is
as well as a good.
held as regards
'self.'
largely independent of the
or
are
According
conscieuce
is
a
divine power existing eternally, which unaftectted by the sins of evil courses. I
6
Dk. IV.
192.
man warns him
According 1
.against all
to other scholars, the
7~I)k. IV. 224. 240.
i 8
Dk. VI.
353.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
48
It
that each
emphasise
to
the fact
own 'individual
his
responsi-
and an immortal ego within him, which
bility
would Frt,sY.s,
meant
is
man had on
pass
weal
to
daena of a
the
bodily form
"
:
I
am
In
woe.^^
man
good
the
takes
a
and encounters
his death
after
him, saying
or
own good thoughts, The daena of
thine
words and deeds, thy daena.^^^^ 11
bad
man
similarly appears as an ugly hag.
The word
dlno corresponds
literature to the
the
in
Avestan form daena.
Pahlavi It
means
the religious spirit.
The Baudhu means
It participates in
sciousness.'
of the Urvan. literature,
'intelligence' or 'con-
The
the responsibility
hoi or hod, of the Pahlavi
corresponding to the Baodha of the
Avestan period means also consciousness, the faculty by which a
the sun is (
" As
himself.
the light of the world, and a
the liglit) of a house,
{Jiod^j
the
is
man knows
lamp
so does the intellect
animate with watchful light the lord of
house
(
viz.
the
body
),
and
does
so
animate the rider on the horse, as also
it
it
directs
the master of the house to take care of the i» Moulton p. 264.
»• Yt. XXII.
11.
Mkh.
19.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS house,
and the
49
rider of the horse. "^^
If the
departs from the body, the soul be-
intellect
comes much
and the body
distressed,
insensible. ^-^
In the Revayat of Barzu Kavam-ud-Dinj the " The function of following account is given :
Boe
(spirit) is to rule over
perform
intelligence, under-
and judgment,
standing
its
that
so
may
each
duty, and co-operate for the entire
welfare of the body.""
Ahw means •co-terminous
*
life-force.'
with that
opinion of Dr. Geiger
of
existence
Its
body.
the
is
This
however, controverted
is,
by some Parsi scholars, who maintain that means both bodily and spiritual life. Ahu
it
is
appointed to find and watch over the corporeal functions of man.^^ the Avesta
•of
),
apprehension serves to keep
of
is
The Pahlavi Akho, and
man from
then to the
at last to of
33 3 3
stars,
the sun.^^ It
evil.
Dk. VI. 354. Dk. VI. 354. Cama Memorial Volume
sin.^^
According to
first
to the nearest
then to the moon and is
stated in the Revayat
9
4 Dr. Geiger.
9*
Dk. V.
::;
faculties
V.
I.
125.^
337, 338.
«« SIS. 341-2. V
154-158.
4
always
It
Barzu Kavam-ud-Din that when the
i 1
Ahu
the power of the spiritual
good
one account, Akho passes fire,
(
...
::,
^
^:
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
50
depart from the body,
the vital
mixes-
force
with the wind, whereas akJio returns to
itself
heaven in company with the soul of the because
not affected by the sins of man.
is
it
pious,.
But the ravan^ hoCy 3i.ndfroharj according to the Revayat have to account for the good and
man."
evil of
According of
types (
intellects
(
Gathas^^
there
khratit
and two
)
twolives
).
Avesta
one
the
nhroto hhratii
'
source
is
The two mental
is
hhratu called
superior
in
the
Jaoshi
obtained by the
obtained through the validity
to
former
the latter.
lives are distinguished as bodily
faculties
intellectual
and
mentioned in the
Pahlavi writings are khaH^ vir and intelligence.
intelligence
account passage. • 7
^
*
they correspond to our body and soul.
;
The
the other
'
the wisdom
*
Wisdom
ear.'
asno
called
is
original intellect,
is
are
The two intellects are distinguished the first and the last,^^ and in the later
ahii
as
the
to
is *'
It
and
is
of
two
acquired
given
of
Be
known
it
Khart
Jiosh,
kinds,
innate
intelligence.
both
in
that the happiness
Cania Memorial Volume 154-158.
9» Haug. p. 310.
3» Ys.
An
the following
XLIV.
1».
Haug
p. 310.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS
51
is desired in two ways One, bymeans of the power of innate reason pertaining to the soul, which is ( a principle ) for sending
of the soul
out
movements (thoughts)
inner
the
raise the
to
effect
:
soul
to
higher
a
to
the
rank.
(Another) by means of educated reason, which (a principle) for sending
is
ments
In
within."^°
the
intelligence
and
;
for
move-
the
highest
places
all
man
rank and the best thing for
in
outer
him who
is
innate
inferior in
is
innate intelligence the best thing in the second
grade
is
learning.^^
Innate intelligence express-
es outwardly the intuitions of
intelligence
impressions
communicates from the
man
to the
outside
;
acquired
interior
the
Hosh
world. ^^
means practical good sense and vir is reason^ Nobody can buy these at any price. It may be here remarked that knowledge as an essential
factor
emphasis
in :
virtuous
a
thus
it
is
life
said that the
the strength of wisdom. ^^
is
known
received first
Again,
due
strength *^
Be
it
that all good qualities exist because of
the heavenly principle of wisdom."^*
Virtue,
however, requires not merely knowledge, but 3
3
1
Dk. L 60. Dk. III. 134.
3» Dk. 3 3
I.
3 4
60.
Dk. VIL
475.
Dk. IL
83.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
sb
<*
also practice.
man
Education makes
noble
;
good habits endow him with a virtuous disposition education is a corrector of man, good ;
"habits the
A
guardian of his
soul."''^
faculty corresponding to the
modern word
conscience was recognised. It was called Vaksli i.
e.
man
the power that guides
And
path.
the invisible power
soul, to help
in this
warnings
it
to
make
and
to
is
the
world
it
in the right
that
in the
behave properly
conscience
walk in the good
is
that
path.-^'*'
•'
gives
The
soul
and the farohar are because of conscience and it is also owing to conscience that the soul and ;
farohar perceive
;
and conscience
is
the eye (of
souls and farohars.y** And the soul performs the
work relating prevails
in
conscience."-^'
wishes and the farohar
to (its)
the
vigour of
The presence
its
own, through
of conscience
means
power of perceiving the right thing. The power of doing the right thing implies freedom of will. *'
God has given
save
themselves
from
Ahriman the source in the Avestaf
man
3» Gs. 11. 3« Dk. HI. I«4.
men
to all
sufficient ability to
as
sin
well
of their sins
is
called 3 7
*
as
from
and woes.""
lord of the corpbr-
Dk.
III. 165.,
38 Dk. VII. 441.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS
Man
world.'
eal
53
has the power of governing
himself, the power denied to other creatures.
This capacity, vouchsafed as a distinctive
human
all
gift to
beings, of initiating either good or
evil actions,
own
at one's
will,
creates in
man
In our view
a sense of moral responsibility.
thus alone ethics becomes possible. This brief sketch of the psychological ideas
known is
not
to the Zoroastrian writers
possible
to
find
in
human
faculties.
many
lists of
human
is
a
considerable
diversity
principles of division. also
have
meaning.
always
not
Further,
demarcation
is
mind is
there
The
these.
on fixed logical
The terms employed the same definite
no very
exact
line
of
drawn between the bodily and
the mental faculties.
recognition
faculties,
in
based
not
classifications are
it
them very exact Though we
classifications of
encounter
shows that
of the
We
look in vain for the
tripartite
division
of the
and
volition.
There
into reason, feeling
no marked metaphysical or psychological
dualism in a man's soul, corresponding to the modified metaphysical and ethical dualism of the later Zoroastrian philosophy. substantial
steps
were
Nevertheless,
taken in psychology,,
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
-54
when
the broad division between the material
and the non-material parts of the human whole when attempts were made to was made ;
•differentiate different
when
it
faculties
;
and above
was recognised that man's
will
is
all,
free.
And
with such a psychological conception of
man
the moral ideal was possible.
PART
II
CHAPTER
IV
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE First
an attempt
will
be made' to
give
a
general idea of the moral attitude of the Parsi faith
and of
its
characteristic principles.
A
clear grasp of the fundamental standpoint of
Zoroastrianism will enable
us to survey the
details with greater facility.
The view here taken iible
of life shows a remark-
absence of the recognition of the deeper
metaphysical
problems
related
with
ethical
The Hindu mind misses anything
problems.
really corresponding to the mysterious concepts
like
May ay
Ka.rma, Sainsara,
play so important a part in
Moksha^ which
Hindu
speculation.
Concerned predominantly with practical morality
this
religion
€thical religion.
centres
round
is
known above
The main the
ethical
all
as
an
interest generally
implication
of
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
56
rather than their deep philosophy.
questions
This
indicates
weakness
The from
predominantly unmetaphysical char-
acter of the system of
The
life.
is
the positive view taken
utilitarian genius of the Iranians
instinctively avoided all attempts to
pure
abstractions
which
is
There
practical.
no attempt
and darker shadows the
adumbrate
and thus evolved a view
essentially
mysticism,
at
and
strength
the
whole system.
consequence which directly flows
first
this
once
at
of the
of
no
fathom the deeper
to life,
transcendental.
is
no
flight to clutch
Dhalla
Dr.
" Religion should be such that
its ideals
says':
can be
applied to our work-a-day world.
Its
ings should be
exigencies
This
of daily life
The
reality of
questioned for a ]y real.
The
stuff is
The
:
very simplicity. '^^
it is
not
is
always supremei-
not sacrificed on the
altaa-
made
same
finite is
that constitutes the infinite
:
of the
the infinite
the deepening, the expansion of the
not quite different from or opposed to 1
teach-
the characteristic of
its
immediate experience
moment
finite is
of the infinite.
is
through
Zoroastrianism
the
applicable to
Dr. Dhalla.
p. 358-9.
finite^ it.
»
'
"^
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
57
Two features which follow from this attitude may be observed at once. The one is the firm and
belief in the reality of the individual soul,
in its capacity for activity.
contribution to the
sum
The
individual's
good of the
total of the
world receives special recognition in Zoroastrian
Man
ethics.
is
held to be largely a free-willed
being, capable of initiating both good and evil activities
and according as he leans more on the
one side or the other, the fate of the universe is
decided for good or
from
being
a
mere
evil.
wheel
Man
machinery, a helpless tool in
is
thus far
a
universal
the
hands of
in
powers vaster and superior to himself. a choice
to
make,
a
choice
both
to
He
pregnant
has
with
himself and to
infinite
possibilities
others
he has a part to play, a part which
;
helps to turn this way or that
way the
tide of
success of the moral forces of the universe.
Constant faith in the power of man, genuine respect for his individual efforts,
and persistent
insistence on his activity in the right directions
give to the whole view a tone of vigour and
make
it
a very powerful lever to
masses from passivity and indolence.
uplift
the
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
-^
Another feature which this positive view
is
A
vailing about man's destiny.
This
in its possibilities.
with the
contrasted
operations of destiny and so often
irresistible
breeds
may be
outlook.
pessimistic
taken of the worth and individual
room
little
In
much
view
the
importance of left
is
or
Man He
the master of his fate.
the
dark
for
mysterious views about man's future.
very
confi-
view which resigns us to the
fatalistic
a
of
belief in the
immediate experience inspires
reality of
dence
outcome
the
the optimistic tone pre-
is
is
is
not
a negligible factor in the constitution of the
This inspires him with a sense of
universe.
make
power, a consciousness of dignity, which light the difficulties of the situation
mind with
bright
Darmesteter says
was
a
it
—
religion of
the word old
:
;
Aryan
it
hopes '*
tion
;
;
gives
not
his
The Zoroastrian
religion
in the noblest sense of
life
two
the
midst of
which
dim percepthings were vioraliti/ and or only a
so that the Zoroastrian faith its
fill
future.
religions in
those
and
the
brought two things of which the
arose had no idea
hope
about
not only
follower a moral rule through
only directs his
heart,
his
tongue,
life
hi»
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
59^
hand, teaching him good thought^ good word^
good deed
;
but
prevail at last
it tells
him
that the good will
he does his duty
if
;
that a son
come and open Ormazd and exterminate The poorest, the the evil from the world. meanest Zoroastrian in the world knows that of the prophet, Saoshyant, will
the eternal reign of
he
born a soldier
is
-Ormazd
will
of
Saoshyant and that
conquer through him."
^
Every
Zoroastrian necessarily believes in the ultimate
triumph of the good, although his optimism type, but largely based
not of a facile
man's
is
upon
eftbrts or sufferings as direct contributions
towards the realization of the future millennium.
Like Tennyson he believes that 'good will be the
goal of
final
*'Good shall
At
last
And
—
fall
far off
—
at last, to
all,
every winter change to spring."
The system irrepressible It
and that
ill'
the
is
outcome of the robust,
optimism of the Iranian mind.
can be broadly distinguished from the views
of certain thinkers,
chiefly Eastern,
<;onsidered life as radically
and then
desire 2
its
extinction.
ERE
IX.
who have
and unalterably
647.
evil
The Iranian
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
60
with bright hopes both for
life is filled
and
and
hereafter,
salvation
life
here
Mohsha
or
is
considered as consisting not in the negation of life,
but in
its fullest
realization.
As Zoroastrian metaphysics posits two spirits,. Spenta Mainyu the Good spirit, and Angra
Mainyu the Evil
spirit, so also
Zoroastrian ethics
evolves the fundamental opposition between the
Good and the
the forces of Life and the
Evil,
forces of Death.
The whole universe
two opposite camps ready out.
The duty
man
of
arrayed in
is
to thrust
consists
each other enlisting
in
himself on the side of the good, by furthering to
the best of his
and retarding
Ahura
ability all the vital forces
the forces of death.
all
says to the wicked one
minds are
nor our beliefs, nor our
words, nor our actions,
nor our souls." ^
In the
writings,
The
thought,
the
second
third
good
thoughts, 3
Ys.
first is
deed.^
evil
XIX.
nor our consciences,
Arda Viraf and other
the distinction
maintained.
is
^'Neither our
harmony, nor our precepts, nor
in
our comprehensions,
Pahlavi
;
words, 15.
footstep
sharply
is
is
the good
good word, and the
The
practice
and 4
AV.
evil
of
deeds
154. 189.
evil is
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
A man
punished.5
harm, good deeds
A man
no
let
man's
for
;
life
good
not eternal."
^
by good
himself
good
words,
He who
good deeds." ^
evil idea possess is
^^should maintain
thoughts,
my
your thoughts,
all
good and
son, be about
your mind
should prefer " good to
to sins, virtue to vice, light
"Let
darkness."^
to
61
and
tongue,
thinks good thoughts,
^'
speaks good words, and does good deeds, does
by
his
good thoughts and words and deeds
cause his soul to reach the best place. "^ said in the Menuk-i-khrat that
a righteous
own deeds in the **I
am
man
when the
passes over the
is
bridge, his
kind come to meet him
of a virtuous
form of a handsome maiden. no maiden, but
It
soul of
I
am
She says
:
thy virtuous deeds,
thou youth, who art well-thinking, well-speaking,
well-doing,
way
the same
and a
to
death, his evil deeds
maiden, and
the
deeds, thou
good
of
wicked
come
»
AV.
«
Gs. 21.
is
190.
man, in the
maiden says
who
monster,
and
evil-speaking, evil-doing
Holiness
religion. "^°
after
his
form
of a
am
thy
*'I
:
In
evil-thinking,
art
of evil religion.
"^^
acquired through good thoughts, 7
An At
s
Gs. 22.
M
»
1. 1
Gs. 32.
Mkh.
19.
1 1
Mkh.
23.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
62
good words and good deeds. ^- But
''the soul
of
him who
follows evil professions becomes guilty
through
evil
deeds."
thoughts
"And
^^
of danger
and the increasers of
**Evil passions
owing
are
extremely hurtful."
The
words and
evil
evil
the evil thoughts are the cause evil passions."
to evil,
^*
mean and
^"^
oft-repeated reference to thoughts, words
and deeds, siveness
suggests
and depth
at once
of the
the comprehen-
ethical position
of
these writings. For the root of good or bad words or deeds
The to be
is
to be
found in good or bad thoughts.
basis of the ethics
may
therefore
inner motive
is
of
be
said
But though the
fundamentally spiritual.
primary importance, the outer
act or consequence
is
also recognised as possess-
may
ing a value which ethics must consider.
It
be remarked here that the importance
of the
word and deed
triad of thought,
strian scheme in
of life
is
some other Eastern
in the Zoroa-
not without
its
parallels
In the classical
faiths.
Sanscrit writings, the reference to manaSy vach
and kannan exactly corresponds to Humata or Manashni, Hukhata or Gavashni and Hvarit Dk. 13 Dk.
I.
1.
20.
20.
1* Dk. ifi
Dk.
I.
60.
II. 86.
;
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
65
The eightfold path which Gautama Buddha preached as a way to the extinction of suffering is more or less an expan-
shta or Kunashni.
sion of the Zoroastrian formula
Right Faith,
:
Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right
Effort,
Equally noteworthy
Right Self-concentration. is
which the Zoroastrian
correspondence
the
triad
exhibits with
Jainas.
They
conviction,
the
three
jewels
of the
Sainyag-darsana^
are
and
faith
Right Thought,
perception
samyag-jnana^ right knowledge
;
right
combined
sainyak-chari-
tra, right conduct.^^
The sum total of duty one word Asha^ which may be
translated
whole world-order
their
expressed by the
in particular
Righteousness
as
Under the dominating all its better
state,
is
is
or
terms
Purity,.
influence of the idea, the
kept in
to be
purest
its
elements advanced towards
promised realisation and
ments gradually made
to
its
worse
ele-
This
disappear.
is
then the broad meaning of Asha^ the funda-
mental concept of Parsi ethics. '
The main
fullest 1 «
idea of the
realisation J. L. Jaini.
of
the
Parsi
ethics
vital forces
Outlines of Jainism 1916
is
the
and the
—
p. 52.
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
'€4
consequent
disappearance
tendencies.
In the words of the poet:
<<
T'is life
Oh
ethics
whereof our nerves are scant,
and
life
fuller that I want."
course
In the
opposite
not death for which we pant,
life,
More
the
of
the
of
development of the
and
fuller
earliest stages of civilization,
when
received
idea
this
a richer
content.
In the animistic
tendencies largely
stract ideas are
prevail,
and ab-
understood only under the guise
of something concrete, morality consisted very
largely in a struggle against evil spirits. Every-
which
thing
supposed spirit.
has
All such evil spirits
Hence the very great elaborate
tendency
pernicious
a
is
be due to the action of some evil
to
rituals
must be
insistence
calculated
impurity, under the
out
all
which an
evil
root
to
shelter
of
exorcised.
shown on the
spirit generally lurks.
The
idea
gradually
interpretation.
religious
work in
duties
As
Lchmann
more
liberal
remarks,
the
go hand in hand with the
of civilisation.
the
receives a
time of the
We
must remember that
Gathas, the people were
mainly pastoral and agricultural.
The work
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE of promoting
life
to the age.
The work
and the
took the special forms suited of breeding cattle well
art of cultivation receive special atten-
Many an important work
tion.
65
of bridges, houses, canals,
such as building
the
destruction
of
noxious creatures become highly moral when looked at from this point of view.
The
idea
of
underlying the above
utility
agricultural ethics received a further extension
when man's of
health and vigour become objects
Thus marriage as a the sexual relations and a guaran-
particular
regulator of
pure and healthy progeny was highly
tee of
lauded.
All
of
relations,
Positive
to
all
progeny. structive
to
inas-
utmost impoverishment
obligations
were laid upon
maintain and promote his
and then
unnatural
condemned
strongly
as they led to the
life.
man
illicit
were
intercourse,
much
attention.
energy
first
produce and bring up healthy
The same emphasis upon the conis shown by the
elements in ethics
great contempt expressed for asceticism in each
and every form.
had no fascination
mind
The
for the intensely practical
of the Zoroastrians.
such as was
at
ideal of renunciation
A
state of celibacy
one time popular among ancient
f
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
GO
Brahmans and mediaeval Christians did not find favour amongst the followers of Zoroaster. In It was the same with reference to fasting. virtues,
negrative
fact, all
which
from more positive and
fruitful
to the diminution
life- forces,
releofated to the
From
of
lead
activities
were either
backcjround or ig^nored.
general
this
divorced
if
standpoint,
not
is
it
strange to find that all practical virtues which lead to success in life receive
The
tion.
qualities
of
industry, moderation are
a true Zoroastrian. So
marked
recogni-
temperance,
thrift,
deemed
essential
far Parsi ethics
for
appear
as ethics of utility.
The
best
attitude
of
spirit
will
be
the
missed
Zoroastrian
if it is
the calculations of worldly profit
what
\yas
mind.
A
chiefly
and
dreamt of by
the
human
soul
conspicuous place was assigned
virtues.
anthropy
loss
were
the Iranian
vivid appreciation of the higher and
.finer possibilities of
A
moral
supposed that
Charity in
all
large-mindedness
or good- will, its
are
virtuous organization.
shapes part
The
to
grew up. altruistic
active
and
philforms,,
and parcel of a followers of Zoro-
aster learnt well to identify self with the larger
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE community and
self of the
work
to
67
in a spirit
of disinterestedness for the larger brotherhood.
A
manifestation
further
tendency of the ethics
the
of
idealistic
seen in the very great
is
regard attached to tjiithfulness in mind, word
and deed.
This
well-known
trait
comes out
definition
of
the
Persian
given by Herodotus, when he said the truth
in the
finely
ideal
that to tell
and bend the bow were the main
part of Persian education.
Such, briefly expressed, of
system
the
is
the
main attitude
developed
ethics
We may
Zoroastrians. of
of
conclude
by
in the
Lehmann--'* Keviewing the whole
the
words
field
we
note the extremely formal and rather juristic character of the Zoroastrian ethic,
Persian genius practical
for
always
utilitarianism
enters
into
righteousness and justice. life,
this
control
and veracity;
ness, regularity
of this ethic
not
and
scheme
of
industry,
self-
in social life, righteous-
social accord.
an abstract
accommodate
irrational life.
is
and things
In the individual
appreciated
ethic
the
while the
itself
to
The
reverse
stiffness that life
and
will
whose
consequences are often inimical to
The monotonous opposition
of
good to
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
€8
evil
and
evil
good leaves no room
to
intermediate stages of real
for
life,
in the soul of
vidual and spontaneous states
mankind. emotions
The Persians cared
little
for
the
disinterestedness
even
in
the
of
we
religious feelings
a lyric element
accordance with called
<
law
;
too often the want of
feel
on the contrary we always
;
the heavy burden
is
for the
the indi-
of the juristic spirit.
this, '
(
^
religion
daena
)
'
feel
In
in the Avesta
and the Persians
could not distinguish between the two ideas." 1
7
ERE
V. 516.
^^
CHAPTER V THE VALUE OF LIFE INDUSTRY AND INDOLENCE :
The
Zoroastrian ethics
character
positive
essentially
best brought out
is
the
of
by
its
constant and reiterated emphasis on the value of
Life itself
life.
the longer
is
very good thing and
a
In the Gathas,
the better.
is
it
Zarathustra prays " In order that
known
to
men
the
true
I
may make
and sacred aims of
Ye me a long life for this."^ And do Thou, O Lord
their desires, grant
Again he says bestow
:
'^
long-lasting
a like
Zarathustra spoke to Vistaspa
O
man,
of a
O
good
life :
"I
on
us."^
bless thee,
lord of the country, with the living life,
an exalted
of
life,
of a long
life.
May thy men live long May thy women live long May sons be born unto thee of thy own !
I
body 1
!"^
Life as such
Ys. XLIII.
13.
2
Ys.
is
a divine thing
XXVIII.
7.
3
;
it
Yt. XXIII.
is 1.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
70
created by
Ahura Mazda; death
abomination
owes
it
;
Ahura Mazda life,^
the
is
and the source
always an
is
existence to Ahriman.''
its
lord
deeds of
the
of
the joys of life/
of all
Haiirvatat or health and Ariieretat or immortality are
very frequently
Ahura Mazda gives words and deeds.^
Amesha
the
Ameretat, state
''
life.
That
restore
We
ing,
and master
of
life
and the world
when
when he
will die,
rotting, ever living
when
The
final
unto the victorious
will cleave
never grow old and never
will rise,
unto
sacrifice
pictured as eternal, deathless
is
the world, which
and never
unto the pros-
Spenta."^
and his helpers,
Saoshyant
unto Haurvatat,
sacrifice
Amesha
man
of
we
seasons
the
objects of prayer.
'*\Ve sacrifice
Spenta,
of the
perity
made
these as a reward for holy
its
wish.
(
shall
thenceforth
never decaying
and ever
When
increas-
the dead
and immortality will come,
will be restored at
wish,
its
the creation shall grow deathless
prosperous creation of the good
spirit,
— the
— and
the Druj shall perish."'^
»
Ys.
XXX.
Ys.
XXXI.
« Ys.
4. 8.
XXXIII.
10.
7
Ys.
XXXIV.
«
Yt.
II. 6.
»
Yt.
XIX.
1.
19-20
;
89-90.
THE VALUE OF LIFE Death, disease, decrepitude are
Death
the
is
Holy word, aw^ay.
ing
worst
both hunger and
by Mazda
;
away."
fled
may
The
^^
may
I
fled
follow-
take away
from the world created
thirst,
that I
Before the
away, Death
fled
asked: ^'That
is
abhorred/
all
of all evils.
''Sickness
the Daeva
boon
71
take away both old age
and death, from the world created by Mazda." ^^
"To
Sickness, I say a vaunt
thee,
Death,
avaunt
I
say avaunt
To
!
physical
thee,
O
To
'
say avaunt
and
imperfection
considered hateful.
I
"There
thee,
O
Pain, I say
thee,
Fever,
To
!
!"^-
All
malformations are
no hump-
shall be
backed, none bulged forward there; no impotent,
no
no
lunatic,
one
with decayed
tooth, no leprous to be pent up."^^ If life itself is
so
supremely
things which subserve esteem. son,
"Give me,
it
desirable,
Ahura Mazda's
Fire,
a speedy glory, speedy nourishment,
speedy booty, and abundant nourishment,
all
are also held in high
abundant
glory,
abundant booty,
expanded
an
mind, and nimbleness of tongue
and
for
soul
and
understanding, even an understanding contini« Yt. IIL
7.
11 Yt. IX. 10.
18 Vd.
XX.
7.
13 Vd. n. 29.
J
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
72
ually growing in
and that never
largeness,
its
wanders, and long enduring virile power." order that our minds
our souls the best,
An
as well."^^
health,
male
strength,
children,
in assembly,
who
and ready
(of
who smite and
to
help.''^^
number
great
a
praisers
God) and
are
their
one stroke their
strike at
is felt
not
smitten,
be
rich
Mayst thou
*'Mayst thou
king Husravah
warriors,
!
May
!
strength to
ten sons be born
three as Athravans,
three as tillers of the
with
Mayst
Pourusaspa
like
three as
ground
one of them be like Gamaspa that he thee
thyself !
a good share of bliss, like
Mayst thou have
!
Kangha thy own body,
reach the of
horses,
in
have
who
in joy
ever
foes,
of
chiefs
enemies,
be rich in cattle, like an Athwyanide
thou
for
<"Give us strength
life.
smite at one stroke
glol-ified
things which
prosperity, all
Give us
victory.
delighted, and
be
our bodies be
intense appreciation
advance the forces of
and
may
let
"In
^^
!
may
May bless
great and ever greater happiness
I
Mayst thou be freed from sickness and death like
Peshotanu
14 Ys. LXII. 4. 15 Ys. LX. 11.
!
Mayst thou have piercing »c Ny. III. 10. Yt.
XXIV.
6.
THE VALUE OF LIFE Mithra
rays, like
the fire
as
moon
!
Mayst thou be warm like
!
Mayst thou
Mayst thou
!
man
an old
be resplendent,
can be
And when thou
!
"
abode of the holy Ones
happy,
all
The same
^^
!
blissful spirit of
optimism breathes through
invincible
the following passages: " Give me,
lively
hast
thousand years, (mayst
thou obtain) the bright,
Ahura Mazda!
like
be long-lived, as long-lived
fulfilled a duration of a
robust
75
Atar, son of
lively welfare, lively maintenance,
of welfare,
fulness
living;
maintenance, fulness of
fulness
"We
life."^^
of
worship
Strength and Prosperity and Might and Victory
and Glory and Vigour." "(Give) unto that man
him health of body, him victorious
brightness and glory, give give
him
sturdiness of body, give
strength of body, give
give
long
him life,
him
full welfare of wealth,
a virtuous offspring, give
give
him
the bright,
all
him
long^
happy, blissful
abode of the holy Ones."^^ Prayers are directed to the Fravashis of the holy persons "for the
vigour of health, for the glory,
made by Mazda,
for the health of the body, for a
offspring
for a
for a long 17 Yt.
lonsf
XXIV.
dominion
life,
2-5.
and
good virtuous
full of
for
18 Ny. V. 10.
all
splendour,
boons and
i9 Yt.
I.
33.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
74
Ahura Mazda says:
remedies."'^
Aryan
in wealth,
rich
in
glory
;
store of intelligence, with
''I
made
the
rich in Hocks, rich
Glory, rich in food,
provided with store
full
full
of money,
to
withstand need and to withstand enemies
It
destroys Angra Mainyu, who
death."
is all
:
-^^
Hero we find an apotheosis of strength, energy, might, victory, glory, worldly power and prosperity is
and
spiritual
sense
of
in Zoroastrianism
conflict
which might have induced Nietzsche
famous book the
to his
It
with the
such as these coupled
passages
optimistic
power and prosperity.
title of
'
to
give
Thus spake
Zarathustra.'
Man own
therefore
physical
must not only enhance
and
equip himself with
and
mental all
vigour,
necessary
the
his also
means
qualities instrumental in this struggle for
more
fulness of existence, both
individual and
communal.
For
mended and
children and wealth
mended. has a wife,
end marriage
this
is
recom-
are recom-
Spitama Zarathustra, he
'<
is
far
superior
to
no wife; he who has a family, to
but
him who has none
;
wh-o
him who has is
far superior
he who possesses riches
»« Yt. XIII. 134, 135.
2
1
Yt. XVIII.
1.
THE VALUE OF LIFE is
far
above him who has no riches." poverty and
life of is
75
Thus a
and renunciation
celibacy
very remote from the Zoroastrian ideal.
It is
very necessary to take very strong and ample
upon
for
food,
vigour
depends
that
of the body,
but also
and
spiritual energy.
"
eat
has
do
strength
to
beget
w^orks
in
fills
''And
former
is
;
does not holiness,
of
two
the
of
receives
better than he w^ho
the latter
above
intellectual
himself with meat
him Vohu Mano much
does not do so
the
husbandry, strength
children.""^
men, he who
all
No one who
strength to do works of to
only
not
is all
him by
the
Asperena, by the worth of a
but dead
worth
;
the
of
an
sheep, by the
worth of an ox, by the worth of a man.
man
can strive
iT^idhotu
arrow
;
;
the
against
he can strive against the winter
strive
Ashemaogha."^"* j)ains 22
23
against
him on
47.
24
33.
2 5
the head,
ungodly
the
Hunger and
and they should not be Vd. IV. Vd. III.
fiend,
he can strive against
;
the wicked tyrant and smite
can
of Asto-
onsets
he can strive against the well-darted
with thinnest garment on
he
This
fasting
thirst are severe
inflicted
on men.-^
Vd. IV. 48, 49. Vd. Vn. 70, 71.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
7«
This brings us to
importance of work
the
and particularly agricultural labour, because
work
is
with
is
intimately
and
Carlyle,
might
worship.'
The habit '
:
Rise
Zarathustra,
said
that
me
up.'
Whichever
up
shall
enter
two
the
of
paradise."
applaud-
one
gets-
first
Upon
^^
is
cock calling
the
is
is
address
bed-fellows
up, here
like
Work
'
of early rising
then
''And
ed.
another
have
prosperity
that
activity
connected.
it
this fact
depends the importance attached to the cock in
Parsi
who
man
cocks
(
gives a house with a
Agricultural part
prosperity
of the
asked:
Which the
is
erects
a
just
is
)
who
gives
like
forms
an
happy
?
''^
essential
When
the second place where
is
one
hundred columns.
general prosperity.
earth feels most
"It
A
literature.
two Parodar birds
it
is
the
Ahura Mazda answers:
place whereon one of the faithful
house
with
cattle,
with a wife,
herds
within; and
cattle
continue to
a
priest
within
;
with
with children, and good
wherein
afterwards
virtue
thrive,
fodder to thrive, the doc: to
to
thrive,
the-
thrive,,
the wife
to thrive, the child to thrive, the fire to thrive^ 2 6
Yd. XVIII.
26.
2 7
Yd. XVIII.
28.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
77
and every blessing
of life to tlirive."^^
when
Which
it
asked,
is
where the Earth given ful
"It
:
feels
happy
And
the third
is
place,
The answer
?
is
the place where one of the faith-
is
sows most corn, grass, and
Zarathustra, where
ground that
he waters
ground that
dry, or drains
is
Spitama
fruit,
too wet."
^^
is
Zara-
thustra placed the tilling of the soil on a level of equal dignity with such
as
and righteousness.
veracity
and
labour, welfare,
is
high ethical qualities
activity
all
Agricultural
furthering
"Not
essentially virtuous.
righteous liver, not for the thrifty -earth,
To the question: What
^°
Mazda answers
"It
:
is
sows corn sows righteousness
:
Mazda. "^2
agriculture
The man who
"He who
dost not
me
till
with the
religion
abstains
from
"0 thou man,
a great sinner.
is
the
he makes the
Mazda walk, he suckles the
religion of
is
sowing corn again and
Spitama Zarathustra.""'^
again,
left
arm and the
ever shall thou stand at the door of
right «8 Vd. ^» Vd.
the
Mazda? Ahura
food that feeds the religion of
who
for the
tiller of
shall there be destruction together with
the wicked."
of
human
III.
2—3.
III. 4.
Ys. XXIX. 5. SI Vd. III. 30.
3
3 2
Vd.
III. 31.
X
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
78
who beg
those
fainted
came,
Daevas
;
groaned, w4aen
Daevas
the
when it grew, when the
Daevas' hearts
the
knots came, the ears
''When barley was-
the Daevas started up,
created,
then
for bread. "^^
flew away.
the
In that
house the Daevas stay wherein wheat perishes.
though red hot iron were turned about
It is as
their
in
is
when
throats,
The earth
corn."^^''
feels
there
plenty
is
of
very joyous when there
an abundance of flocks and herds/^ Industry
and
manufacture
there
not
are
passage in the
is
unto metals."
sacrifice
The same
respect
accompaniments writings.
world sheep,
and
Ahura
life
and
its
expressed in
earth
and
necessary
the
in the
and
cattle
trees,
good
Pahlavi
who
rewarded,
other
The
Mazda."-'"
we
;
^^
are
the
all
many noxious
(excellent power)
for
is
Women
" honored
*'we sacrifice
Yctshts
unto Khshathra-vairya
Thus
neglected.
creations of
souls of those
who
killed
creatures in the world; and the
prosperity of the waters and sacred
fires
and
fires
in general and trees and the prosperity of the earth was also 33 •**
Vd. Vd.
III. III.
increased
28—29. .S2.
thereby
3 5
Vd.
III. 5.
'6
Yt.
II. 2, 7.
;
3 7
and they aV.
162.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
is
given to the souls of
also
and
tillage
to
Good treatment men who looked
exalted and adorned.^^
were
l^
In the
cultivation.^^
^
Ganji-
Shayigan' the same tendencies find expression.
A man who
gets wealth in this world through
God's favour, " does works that lengthen the
men, increase their progeny and pros-
lives of
Every man should marry and "conti-
perity."'^'^
nue his progeny
world and give them
in the
the required strength and is
drawn
A man
comforts.
(of a day) sports
Attention
food."'^^
to the necessity of
looking to bodily
should "spend a third portion
in eating
and enjoying
his
indulging in
food,
rest."
'^-
A man
with his
surplus wealth should do such works as render the body is
duty
make
land and
purchase with if it
anv
will not
rate
Cultivation
comfortable.'^-^
a necessary
make
of alien
;
a
man
it fertile.'''* it
water
"Jf
you have wealth
and arable
immediately give
is
forbidden. "^^
soil
fruits,
a fair begfinning:."'*^
wealth
of land
should cultivate
which, will at
Destruction
The land
be-
comes happy when oxen and sheep repose upon it
brought from an uncultivated
or
it is
3 8
AY. AV.
163.
4
3 9
164.
4 2 Gs. 21.
45
4
Gs.
2.
4 3
4 6
1
Gs. 21. Gs.
6.
state
4 4 Gs. 21.
An. Atm. An. Atm.
4. 8.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
80
cultivation
to a state of
when
burrows
the
Dinkard
man's
with
'* :
life
(
First,
be
known
good
in
by
condition." its
comes resourceless and languid."
much
sary to maintain it is
far
also necessary to
Be
The body ^^
it
is
be-
It is neces-
keep trouble and
strife
life is
expressed
throughout the range of Parsi literature.
animals
also.
A
the kine that they fodder
*'
human
prayer
is
beings,
made
may have
look
in
pregnant female,
Mkh.
God
to
for
from the famed, and from the humble,
the faithful to
every
to
It
but
comfort and have
from the potent and the weak."^^ "
7
it
immortality
respect for agriculturists-,
reverential tenderness for
extends not only to
4
;
from them.^°
A
\
'*
"^^
without food
food
)
thirdly
soldiers that they
by improving the mortal body. kept strong
lives
cattle,
soul works for
that the
men's
to
giving proper food to the
might
are
the virtue connected
or protecting
pasture
giving
secondly,
creatures
Three things are recommended
extirpated/' in the
and habitableness or
of noxious
28.
»8 Dk. VII. 452.
the
»o sd. 281.
same way
either
4» Dk. VII. 460.
It lies
with after
two-footed *i Ys.
XXXV.
or 4.
THE VALUE OF LIFE four-footed,
bitch."
woman
two-footed
Arda
the
In
^-
many punishments are molest or
kill
or four-footed
we
Viraf,
of
find
Arda Viraf
life.
whose breasts were
saw the souls of Avomen,
placed upon a hot frying-pan. They w^ere souls
women who gave
those
of
infants no milk, but emaciated them."^^-^
woman
^'
their
**
the
own
and destroyed
of the wicked
The souls who killed the
that
on those who
inflicted
any forms
81
man and
water-otter in the water
and smote and slew other creatures of Ahura
Mazda"
'^
had
man who
the
slew a pious
much
unlawfully
man
soul of
meets with a
The wicked man
death. ^^
cruel
The
eat excrement.
to
'*
who made
slaughter of cattle and sheep
and other quadrupeds" has
his limbs
broken
The souls of wicked persons who gave hard work and insufficient food to beasts suffered severe punishment.^^ The body
and separated.
^°
woman was
of a
poison and
torn, because she
oil of
opium
to
gave people
eat.^^
Animosity
should not be entertained towards nor injury
done
to
anything
-2 Yd. 5 3 5
4
5 5
6-
AV. AV. AV.
XV.
belonging
19.
^>c
186, 188, 197, 200.
5 7
201.
5 8
170, 184.
to
AV. AV. AV.
the
good
174, 192. 194. 19t).
H2
ZOKOASTKIAX ETHICS
creation. 5^^
Domestic animals should be kept
out
harm's
of
diminution or undesirable.
is
should
children.^'
of
sacrifice
''It
man
confine a
Men
way.^^
women and
defenceless
life
a sin
without
considered
is
strike or to
to
to do
cause,
protect
All useless
harm
to
Zohak has advised people to be cruel and revengeful and to slaughter men; any female/'"-
men to lay corn in summer men and cattle.'-^' "Abstain
but Jamshid advises
and
winter for
from
unlawfully
cows,
sheep or goats,
(
needlessly that
happen unto you thereby ing
A
)."'^'
slaughtering
)
no distrust
at the
(
part of the Dliikard
final is
may
reckon-
concerned
with the excellence of physicians, their merit
from doing good, and sin from not doing good; the
quality
that
exists as regards medicines,
seeking a physician for animals also, and else to the
no food death.
is
r>9
r.
1
C'--
The
one of those which
sin, affecting
striking
<-o
purpose/^"^
In one section
^'^
about the ful
same
there
much
sin of giving is
worthy of
are particulars
the soul, due to unlaw-
and wounding beasts of burden
Dk. IX. 643. Dk. IX. ()4:{. Dk. I. 41. Dk. IX. 1)31.
RS Dk. YII. 438. Dk. V. 31,-). Dk. Bk. VIII. 48. Dk. IJk. VIII. 07.
<•-
<'••'••
•'•'*•
THE VALUE OF LIFE and
''One section concerns the mode
cattle."^'
and object of confinement of sheep, and dog that are for the atttiction
toration
;
;
the operation
what extent
also to
slaughter, the care of is
their res-
is
them even
sin to give animals
for
in confinement^
on the same subject."
eugenics w^ere applied to
was a
a beast of burden,
mad and
and when not restored, but come
and whatever
It
83
Laws of the animal kingdom. bad
^^
males, to admit
males to animals at an improper time.^^ The
same general attitude
When is
he commits a
keep close
much
swallow
that
ox,
catches
cock should not be
animals
those which affect
the w^ar
the
The
An
noxious creatures
endeavour
and
these especially
Dk. Bk. VIII. 84. C8 Dk. Bk. VIII. 105. 6 9 Dk. Bk. VIII. 139.
6 7
the
is
should be spared,
w^ith.
Among
and
idea
that
while
us injuriously should be
made
the earth.
the
horse,
locust
killed."-
done away to kill
and
and
Particularly the lamb, the
ploughing-
useful
One must
slaughter of animals
the cattle species. the
any one who
sin."^
watch over one's animals,^^
refrain from
all
kept up in the 8ad-da>\
a person molests or smites
innocent,
kid,
is
should
be
reptiles of
the
^e Sd. 36L 7 1
Sd. 286.
7 2
sd. 295.
frog
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
84
in the water, the
snake and scorpion, the ant and
A
the mouse should be destroyed."^
hedgehog
should not be destroyed, but put into a hole in the
wilderness, where
it
may
many
destroy
ants and snakes."" Similarly a beaver should not
be killed, but put into running water. '^ But the
animal which required particularly good
ment was the dog,
treat-
because he afforded a very
valuable
protection to one's property against
thieves, ^^
and because he
mischievous
He who
dog."''
dog
'^
who
of
killed or injured a
gives bad food to a shepherd's
guilty of the
is
thousands
Very heavy punishments
insects."'
are inflicted on those
kills
same
guilt as
though he
should serve bad food to a master of a house of the
first
rank."
"^
Thus the shepherd's dog
very great importance.
It is
is
of
allowable to kill a
sheep for the nourishment of a shepherd's dog,
which
is
deprived of food.^^ ''Every time they
eat bread,
it
is
necessary to withhold
morsels from their to a dog, 3
and
it is
own
not desirable to beat a dog." Vd. xni. 4, 7 Vd. XIII. 20. fo Dk. Bk. VIII.
sd. 306.
7
4 sa. 318. 7. Sd. 350.
7
7
three
bodies and to give them
7
-5
7C Vd. XIII. 39, 40. 7 7 Vd. XIII. 2.
8
**!
Sd. 292.
etc.
83.
"^^
— THE VALUE OF LIFE The most remarkable Zarathustra
is its
feature of the ethics of
attitude towards
which flows directly from
and the world.
life
85
its
asceticism,
towards
attitude
This characteristic
ferentiates this faith broadly
dif-
from many other
great religions of the world, particularly from
Hinduism.
Its
character in this
has
matter
already been seen in the emphasis placed upon
and
life
activity,
agricultural
upon worldly
It is also
of wife
seen in the penances
and
body are never
in
works,
public
securing
for
Mortifica-\
any favour with the
Avestan or Pahlavi writers. of noxious creatures,
children.
prescribed
the violation of religious precepts. tions of
upon
and economic goods, upon marri-
and the possession
age
goods,
The
destruction
the construction of useful
the
rendered in
assistance
good marriages, these are the forms
which atonement takes. All forms
of abstinence
which lead
of
to
the diminution
are rigorously excluded.
tinued for a long time similarly 'Sad is
is
Dar we
requisite
fasts.
is
life- forces
Thus celibacy conprohibited.
Fasting,
unequivocally condemned. In the find the following passages to
abstain
:
'^
It
from the keeping of
For, in our religion,
it
is
not proper
\
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
«6
that they should not eat every day or anything
because
it
would be
us the keeping of
With we keep
a sin not to do so. fast
is
this
that
from committing sin with our eyes and
fast
tongue and ears and hands and
The importance
of
work
feet.'"*-
and activity
continually emphasized in this literature.
the Avesta, the habit of early rising
commended. In the subsequent matter
receives
a
more
Diligence in good works
highly
is
literature, the
definite is
is
In
treatment.
Ankc
necessary.^-^
Viraf saw the soul of a lazy man, whose whole
body was gnawed by a noxious creature was
his right foot
any good work
did
not
gnawed.
He
(when he was
but
;
never this
in
world) except that with his right foot he cast a
bundle of grass before a ploughing
The
industrious
man who
cares.^^
to obtain
'^
of
Industry
industry.''*'
is
a
freedom from anxieties and
Be industrious that you may be able
your
8 2
Sd. 348.
8 3
AV. AV.
8 4
by
glory
great
mankmd A man earns
assisted
aspires to a place in heaven. ^"^
concomitant
ox.'^'^
162. 175.
wishes."'^'^ »'> Gs. 13. 8c Gs. 11. 8 7 Gs. 18.
"Rise early that you 8 8
An. Atm.
7.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
may
be able to continue your work."
up your
wealth by his good industry able to store so that the
up
virtue."
Keep be
will
who has acquired
'"'He
is
by that wealth
Practise no sloth
''
-^
''
'^^
fame
your
and
industry
increased thereby."-'^'
is
87
duty and the good w^ork, which
;
it
may not remain lazy man is said to
necessary for thee to do,
He who
undone.""-
a
is
Because
be the most unworthy of men.
it is
declared in revelation, that the creator Ahura-
mazda produced no corn
man
;
for a lazy
man
of anything in gifts
him who
for
is
a lazy
must be no giving
there
and charity
and entertainment are not
;
and lodging
be provided for
to
him. For this reason; because that food which a lazy
man eats, he eats through
injustice
;
impropriety and
and. on account of his laziness and
unjust eating, his body then becomes infamous
and the soul
wicked.-'^
In the catalogue
heinous
the sin of
doing no work, but
sins,
eating unthankfully and unlawfully twelfth.'"*
In the Dinkard
the virtue of honest work. trious
with
personal
s» An.
7.
^i An.
'JO
8.
9 2
Atm. An. Atm.
much ''
Atm. 10.
and 9.
placed
said about
Whoever
zeal
Mkh.
is
is
of
is
indus-
labour, 9 3
s*
Mkh. Mkh.
he 53. 72.
ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS
88
remains fresh
in wealth."
God has
created
dilii^ence
the
the
**Be
'^'^
work of the Creator
ned.""^ **One should pass his
bidden
as
should, as
known that
it
(by
directed by him,
is
contin-
in industry
life
Dasturan
the
By
world for work
Dastur)
one
;
irrigate the land,
promote the growth of vegetation, and endeavour
under
his
conferring other
direction,
do the deeds
to
blessings on
the world
;
one
should follow a noble occupation and not
a
mean one; and one should not be idle."^" From diligence arises skilfulness and ultim'* We, men,, ately prosperity and power. ^'^
ought
to toil
hard for the personal gratification
of the pious people and for
and
joy
thanks-
^'Idleness should be swept
giving to God."^'^ out of the world."
^^^
In the Sad Dar, persist-
ence in one's own work and punctuality in
its
Man must
be
performance are insisted
on.
continuously employed on
then
the work becomes
his
own work, and
his own.^^'^
duty and good work, which
''Every
'requisite
it is
to-
perform, they should accomplish while within that day, and not postpone for the morrow." 9 5 !>fl
9
7
Dk. 1.53. Dk. VII. 495. Dk. IX. 034.
^» Dk. XII. 0(5. i>i> Dk. XI. 1-2. 1'^" Dk. XII. 47.
i«i Sd. 259. i
<>
2
Sd. 344.
^^-
CHAPTER
VI
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT PURITY AND IMPURITY The
virtue
reverence
great
According
to
truthfulness
of
by
the
was
:
held
ancient
in
Iranians.
Herodotus to speak the
truth
and bend the bow constituted the most
essential
Love
of truth
parts of the Iranian education. is
closely
light
;
connected
with
purity and
love of
while falsehood belongs to darkness, to
Ahriman.^
Amongst them
Herodotus,
falsehood
(the Persians) says
passes
for
graceful act, next to that comes of debt, and, in truth,
most
dis-
notably for the reason
that the debtor necessarily lies in addition. ^
a
the incurring
is
obliged to speak
Herodotus says the ancient
Persians had no markets, because these would lead to the practice of deceit.^ 1
2
3 Herodotus I. 153. Rapp. pp. 313-4. Herodotus I. 138. Cf. J. H. Moulton Early Zoroastrianism p. 397.
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
90
In the Acestay this virtue
condemnation of
the constant '
lie
•of
or (leceitfulness,
'
the
Anita
The
;
Druj
lie.'' it
is
for truth,
and
who
'
the
'
demon
opposite
of
in all its forms.
a wicked one
is
'
thus opposed to draj.
is
derived
''
The
unto Mithra brings death unto
lies
much
the faith-
hundred evil-doers could
as a
v/orld,
'
the very
the whole country, injuring as ful
opposite the
its
Draj
denote a wicked man. Mithra stands
to
ruffian
the
embodies wickedness
epithet (Iregvant
from
'
taught most by
is
Break not the contract,
do.
Spitama, neither the
one that thou hadst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the faithful
who is one of thy own
faith.
For Mithra stands for both the faithful
and the
unfaithful."-^
tic
because
it
This passage
is
characteris-
exemplifies the respect for truth
which the Zoroastrians were expected at all times
and
in all relations.
local, provincial,
It
tribal or sectarian
held good for
man as such.
nobody must
lie,
to cherish
was not a matter
;
it
''Unto whom(Mithra)
neither the master of a house,
nor the lord of a borough, nor the lord of a town nor the lord of a province." Otherwise Mithra 4
Y.S.
XXX.
8.
-
Yt. X.
2.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT
principle of falsehood takes in
having
deny
to
neighbour sion."'
Down
man who
robs the man.
lent
lying " is
etc."^
absolutely
the the
the
the thing and
steals
house
keeps in his
property,
There are
and
breaks
to wit,
:
This he doeth everyday, every
word-contract, contract,
his deed
in the world
it,
long as he
neighbour's ^
his
''He that does not restore a loan
necessary.
ov\rn."
any
in all business transactions
night, as
from
for
who knowingly
the deed of men,
to the
(
there the pain
shall be as hard as
Honesty
no one make
received
the ox or garment in his posses-
)
''
are strongly
life
It is said ''Let
discountenanced.
the
Minor forms which the
town, the province.^
bold
borough,
the
asunder the house,
l)reaks
91
as
though
it
six types of contracts
hand-contract, field- cojitract.
word-contract,
he
his
were his
the If
shall
a
;
the
man-
man
give as
the amount of the hand-contract. The hand-contract is cancelled by the sheep-
damages
^contract
and
so
on.^*^
And
not
only
the
breakers of the contracts, but even his relatives
to a certain extent are involved in his crime.^^ 6 7
Yt X. 17. Yd. lY. 46.
^
9
Yd. IV. Yd. lY.
54. 1.
i
"
n
Yd. lY. Yd. lY.
2-4.
5-10.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
92
Arda Viraf rewards were attached
In the the
to
practice
penalties
shown
are
follow
to
from truth and honesty.
walked
The
all
departure
truthful speaker
splendour with
in lofty
and severe
truthfulness
of
great glory. ^-
" Every one -who speaks correct and true,
honour and know." *'
who,
in the
falsehoods"
had
and ashes with it
tongue
his
was forced
a bushel
when
because
many
spoke
world,
A man
worm.i''
I
But the soul of a man
^^'
to
lies
and
gnawed by a measure dust
and gallon and
to eat
in the world he " kept no true
bushel, nor gallon, nor weight, nor measure of
length
he mixed water with
;
dust into at a
grain and sold
them
wine and put to
the
people
high price and stole and extorted some-
thing from the good."
wicked
man who
in
^5
'^This
is
the soul of that
the world kept back the
wages of labourers, and the shares of partners; and
now the soul must suffer severe punishment." The soul of a man was gnawed with worms for ^"^
having
committed perjury and extorted wealth
A man
from the good.^because he 12 1
^
AV. AV.
''
was torn by demons-
kept back the food of the dogs of
162.
14
203.
1
••
AV. AV.
176, 199.
ic
173, 19").
i "
aV. AV.
178. 180.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT shepherds and householders."
The same was
^^
man who had
the case with a
93
removed the
'*
boundary-stones of others, and took them as
own."
his
The giving
^^
condemns a man
severe
to
evidence
of false
A
punishment.-^
man was suspended by one leg in the darkness of hell, for a city " was confided to him for administration, and that which was
proper
to
do and order, was not done and not ordered."-^
A
man's eyes were scooped out and his tongue
cut away, because his
was
justice, in
*'
the
world,
and he took bribes and made
false
false
decisions." -
Similar emphasis
is
placed upon truthfulness
A man
in the other Pahlavi literature. live
according
*'One
is
ciples
supposed
of
truth
the
to
principles
of
should truth. -^^
according to the prin-
to act
when he behaves truly and own souL" -^ The assert-
sincerely towards his ions
of a truthful
upon.-^
That man
man is
can
be
venerable
the promises that he has made."
ent
in
-^
most relied
who
"fulfils
''Be consist-
your thoughts so that you command
the confidence (of people). Be truthful so as to 18
AV.
181.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
94
be trustworthy."
-"
Falsehood
by truth/^ "Tell not fulness
Do
double-dealing.
''
other words
not
man and
on
and
worthy
true
condemned.
man
according to the him.''^''-
'^
him round." stealing."
soever
^^
so
to
one
Men
are
and
insisted
terms of your
Take not anything from
him
"Prevent your **
is
in
Requite a trust-
a thief or give not anything to '-
^''-
(
hypocritical
theft
contract with
)/'
Honesty
facts.
<'
doubly
one thing
say
another to another
conceal
Truth-
^^^
hypocrisy or
with
not speak
by the devil to be
taught to
do
subdued^
to be
is
anybody."
compatible
not
is
lies to
but bring
hands
from
Break no kind of promise whattarnish your good name.'"
as to
^^
"That land is the happier, in which a righteous man, who is true speaking makes his abode "^^-^ Truthfulness
which
is
enables
reckoned the second good work
man
a
to
heaven.
attain
-^^^
Abstinence from falsehood and promise-breaking
respectively
are
thirty-tirst is
dubious regarding 2 7
An
Atni. 5.
2H
Gs. 20.
2 9
An Atm. An Atm.
^"^
the
good works.""
••
i
'^2 'A.
7.
•«•»
•^
all
and
the
false-hearted
man
thirtieth
A
things, good or bad/^'^
An Atm. An Atni. An Atni. An Atni.
5. o.
•'• •'>
•-•
8.
^7
S.
-^
Mkh. Mkh. Mkh. Mkh.
27. 7.S.
75. 53.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT Truthfulness
95-
on the whole a safe habit.
is
'*In
keeping oneself untroubled, the discreet speaking which
Fairness in *'
Do
path of truth,
is
good,"^-^'^
business transactions
is
essential.
in the
is
all
from the wealth of others;
not extort
own
so that thine
For
said that
is
it
own
w4io eats anything, not from his
but
industry,
human head
holds a
human
another,
froixi
brains.'"
^^
pleasanter which
regular
and
eats
better
and
hand,
''That wealth
is
collected by honesty,
is
not
*He
:
one who
like
is
his
in
may
industry
regular
become unheeded.
and
one consumes and maintains with duties and
good
works."
honesty
better than
is
which
'-'Poverty
''^
opulence which
As
the treasures of others
opulent,
who
the w^ealth
is
a
man
through
is
to
much
of
from
him who is when
wealth,
not produced by honesty,
is
is
though
he takes trouble in duties and good works and righteous
gifts, his
good work
own, because the good work the wealth
is
abstracted."^-
is
80
" has acquired wealth by crime, glad
of
it
39 4
thereby,
Mkh. Mkh.
that
then not his
his
is
for
whom
him who
and becomes
pleasure
13.
4
Mkh.
41.
12.
4^ Mkh.
42.
1
from
is
worse
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
^6
him
for
imhappiness."
than
misappropriation
is
sin
of
the twentieth in point of
and that
heinousness,
The
"^^
of
theft
is
the seven-
teenth.^^
We
meet with
shall
and detailed
a broad
treatment of the virtue of truthfulness in the
A
Dinkard. or
contradiction between expediency
The ''
to one for the particular
what appeals
something eternal
and truth as
attitude praised
and hurtful truth
)
(
to
iind
And,
any time, be spoken."
"^^^
is
very injurious still it
),
at
if
untruth
Iind
still,
man who
it
speak the truth
venient and beneticial,
the
moment
perceived.
the reverse of casuistry.
must be spoken.
men should
holy
is
any place holy men
If at
is
it
(
the
any
place,
very
con-
must never,
''Be
it
known
hopes
far-sighted
at
that
to be
saved from damnation by being in the good graces perfect
of the
Almighty on account
veracity, his proper sense
his fidelity
to plighted word.""^*^
or plighted word should
of
his
of justice,
''A promise
not be spoken,
nor
A detinition "And truth is
should obligation be forgotten.""'" of truthfulness
is
oriven here. o
4.»
Mkii.
4!j.
^> I)k.
4 4
Mkli.
7-2.
-10
I.
L'7.
Dk. VII. 427.
^7 Dk. IX. 643.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT this
9^
whoso speaks anything speaks what he
:
ought
speak and speaks so with caution as
to
though God and the Ameshaspends stood near behind him
listening
observing him."
"^^
'^
The
best thing
is
falsehood."^^
and the worst thing of the
unity
essentials
whoso having ( his )
;
and pious
"The
Nor are we
life is this
tamper
justified to
with truth for courtesy's sake.
One's
^'
own
tongue should not be trained to be polite (serve) falsehood."
From
to
^^
the above quotations
it
can be clearly
inferred that deception or druj in all
and shapes should be given up. falsehood
:
from
return into
to
it
this
is
and word
cast out the druj entirely
body would not allow
the body."^^
truth
is
(of morality)
that ycu should keep (your) thought
and deed entirely true
and
utterance
his
to
its
forms
Evil
or
man by Ahriman or Harm is done to all people
implanted in
is
"
the evil principle.
through the deceitfulness of the Deceiver." ^2 ^<
you
If
force out falsehood
jour body
will
delivered (from hell)." 48 Dk. 4
9
7
Dk.
XL XIL
0.
40.
5
5
from
your) body,
(
improved and your soul
be
1
^3
'^
And
Dk. XII. 3L Dk. Xn. 59.
all
the physical
52 Dk. 5 3
I.
22.
Dk. L 53
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
98
danger that originates in the body, because of the residence within
Giving
of falsehood."-^''
who promulgate as
among people
uttering
power
evidence
and
-^"^
" Those
the bad religion cause such
caused by
is
does so
of the
coining are condemned.
counterfeit
evil
false
it
coiners
money
of
by
lead in place of gold, or
by alloying gold with lead."
^^
All attempts at
misappropriation of others'property are distinctly
"Wealth should not be
immoral.
is
obtained
(so)
will
passage
which
suggests
committed even this
is
:
mine.*"^^'^ is
grossly
for
by
that
the
following^
theft
"
in intention.
One
^^'
And
may
be
robber}^
whoever speaks about the wealth which
not his
is
be ravaged."
robbery in
asked to avoid
is
realized
because that (wealth) which
acts
sinful
own,
thus,
Theft
is
<
a
*
Would
that
it
capital offence.''*^
dishonest in a priest to take
were It
money
performing some ceremonial and then to
omit
it.
and not
**
And he who
perform
shall take his
his ceremonial,
is
money, just as
though he had abstracted from the angels and the righteous guardian spirits, S4 Dk. IV. 239. -.5 Dk. IX. 029.
66 '^-
Dk.
I.
5 8
51.
Dk. XII.
and destroyed^
52.
"'»
Dk. XII. 3. Dk. IX. 629.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT as
much
propitiation
would
as
possible from that ceremonial."
9»
have
been
^o
in
The same emphasis on truthfulness continues ^' The possession later literature. of truth
is
the one power of the
through the
faithful,
The many kinds
singleness of truth.
of false-
hood, which must become confused and mutually
many, are
affecting to
in the
one source of deceitfulness." to
the
take early to
from
aggregate,
^^
*'
It is
necessary
speaking of truth and
doing of justice and to maintain oneself therein, for
nothing whatever
better
is
Owing
kind than truth created this world,
among manHormazd
to truth
and that other world and
truth has remained on the spot and on account of truth is
One
becomes pure
it
hood."
^-
*'
man
That any agreement and promise
they make with any one to
truthful
better than the whole world speaking false-
and
perform
many it is
things
it is
bring
may go
to
to
necessary so far
pass.
Although
harm by means
of
it,
not desirable to perform that agreement
with duplicity." of promise'
)
^^
It is a
Mihir-druj (a 'breach
and any one who commits
6
Dd.
6 1
Sg. 120.
243.
6 2
Sd. 323.
^3 Sd.
287.
it
ha&
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
100
the heaven closed for
even
to
man's
a
The
him.^'^
A
children.
taint extends
breach of
a
covenant between two persons with no witness to
God
except
it
the worst sin.^^
abstain
to
requisite
is
is
•
^'
A
**
There
liar
from
strictly
falsehood- and falsehood
no hereafter
It
abstinence from
great
speaking
has to
thief
lose
men
they are
necessary to practise
is
committing theft and
A
taken.
may
thief
be beaten
;
^'
double the amount of
property he has stolen and a robber has forfeit a fourfold
^
speakers of
anything from mankind by force."
seizing
A
*'
is
Aharman."^^
the
for
falsehood and in the midst of
contemptible." 6^
It
the chief of sins."
a co-operator with
is
is
*'
amount
may have
to
of property he has his ear cut
while a robber
may
oft'
and
be killed."^
PURITY AND IMPURITY It
might be said without much
tradiction that the virtue most
A
of purity.
tutes
:
**
praised
is
that
rough definition of what consti-
moral impurity
sentence
fear of con-
To render
is
given in the following
the soul full of blemishes
fi4
Sd. 287.
C7 sd. 322.
<•'«
Sd. 288.
<••«
Sd. 822.
cc Sd. 322.
C!.
Sd. 320.
7o sd.
.S2G-7-8.
PURI'rV M^T> IMPURIO^Y
101
there are evil understanding, deceit, injury to purity, apathy, pride, scorn, evil passion, slander,
adultery
this
has
physical
down
and
idleness."
reference simply
Very often
^^'^
freedom from
to
Elaborate rules are laid
pollution.
Vendidad, regarding the purifica-
in the
tion necessary in case of the places where deaths
have occurred, and where a
given
has
All the passages relating to
birth to a child.
physical
woman
show the great attention
cleanliness
paid to sanitation and hygiene in those days. It
was clearly recognised that cleanliness
A woman
part of godliness. as a
woman
and work
intercourse
is
;
ordinary social
forbidden to her
then after some time she
may wash
with dead bodies
position
)
rushes
go a process
7
very
a
man
of purification
other things
Vd. V. 50-59
;
Contact
decom-
upon a man who touches a
Such
should then under-
known
as
Bareshnum^
become unclean through 7ia Yd. VII.
0a Dk. IV. 233.
7 1
and
dangerous for man.
nasii (or the infection due to
dead body.-^^
Many
is
and
;
herself
be restored to her normal position. ^^
The druj
a
with child has to remain quite
from other persons
isolated
is
in her menses,
XYI.
8-12.
6-7.
.
102
.*.
:
:;:Z:01^'0vl^*I^KIAN.
this infection
;
hence these two must be cleansed.
Certain things
can be well cleansed such as
vessels of gold or copper
or
ETHICS
while vessels of clay
;
wood cannot be cleansed
such sacred elements as
at
fire
Further,
all.'^
and water should with impure
not be polluted through contact things such as a dead body.'^^
The
earth
must
not be rendered unclean and for this reason
dead bodies should not be buried nor
The Earth
feels
sorest
the
grief at
burnt.''' '*
place
whereon stand most of those Dakhincis on which men are deposited."''' Such things
corpses of
as a bone or
hair should
pollute the earth.
not
be
allowed to
The ground whereon dogs
men have died shall lie fallow for a year.'^ ^' He who should pull down Dakkmas (graves)..
or
and deed are remitThe ted as they would be by a Patet."'^'^ *' on a down bodies of the dead should be set
his sins in thought, word,
place,
where they know there are always corpse-
"^^ eating dogs, and corpse- eating birds.
In the Arda Vimf, we find that the breach of the above rules brings with 7 9
7 3 7
4
Vd. VII. 73-75. Vd. VI. 26-41. Vd. III. 8-9.
it
severe penal«
7* Vd. VI. 1. 7 6a Vd. VII. 51. 7 6 Vd. VIII. 10.
PURITY ANi) Impurity after
ties
Water and
death.
103
are
fire
to be
looked to with care and reverence, because they
The woman who threw hairs from her head upon the fire had her body gnawed by noxious creatures.'^
are instruments of purification."
A man
was forced
mankind,
of
own body and
and refuse
flesh
" brought
he
and dead matter
refuse his
the
to eat
because
to water
and
bodily fire
and
men and
those also of other
;
he was always carrying the dead alone, and
was polluted
he also did not
;
wash himself
in
this occupation.""'^
The same <*
fire,
ideas
recur in the later Pahlavi
In the Dinhardy
writings.
is
it
water and the earth
written that
should be kept pure from
fragrant and air should be kept
all
noxious substances and things liable to decay,
owing
that
to
men
them
from disease and pestilence."
may ^°
*'
not
sufier
People should
be admonished to remove to a distance from the
house, dirt arising from keeping birds, sheep
and goats *'
lest
men
should be injured thereby." ^^
One should keep away from the
"there 77 7 8 7 9
is
a dead
AV. AV. AV.
man
or
a dead
155; 162, 163.
so Dk.
176.
8
177, 178.
8 2
1
place where
dog."^1.
42.
Dk. VII. 437. Dk. IX. 648.
The
ZO^IOASTKIAN ETHICS
104
intimate dependence of the purification of the soul
upon the cleanliness
nised
the
in
is
ranked as
operation
an
recog-
is
"A
Manushchihr.
Epistles of
washing which
body
of the
not religiously ritualistic
among
the
is
useless
The extent to which physical purity insisted upon may be seen from a passage
ones."^-^ is
such as the following declared
that
purified, is
when he
not able
it is
is
body
LOt
is
wash
him,
good works by thought,
to seek
word or deed, and
thereby
is
it
whose
thoroughly
they
until
As
'' :
not able to purify his soul,
then a matter for the truly wise to seek
even for purification of the soul by the purifi-
The
cation of the body."^''
considered in the
the Sad DaVj esteemed. tained
women, honour for the
*'
life
of
first
man
the sanctity of
If the
fire
is
not
pregnancy becomes
in the vicinity of the
men, and there
their words. "'^
«3 84
purity. fire
"^^^
scarcer
is
main-
for
king becomes
EpM. EpM.
is
the
and less
no approbation of
All dead matter It
In
highly
is
properly
male children are born,
fewer
abomination.
is
thing to be
requisite
EpM.
is
a veritable
"to
284.
8 5
285.
»« Sd. 271.
303.
demolish
PURITY AND IMPURITY
10^
the habitation, house. ••and abode, of au}' one
who has eaten dead heart
body and
out of his
scoop out his eyes."^'
beneath the ground.
and
matter,
No
necessary
it is
corpse
to fetch his
Such matters
^"^
water on the
and paring
feet,
of nails are insisted
Menstruous women should be avoided.
remnant remain
of her
food
of
is
her loses
any
its lustre. ^°
No
She must
use.
of three
at a distance
steps
least
at
A
thing looked at by
It is
not proper for her
from a righteous man.
to
of personal
not making
cleanliness as washing one's face,
on.^^
to
hidden
to be
is
put a bare foot on the ground.-^
Thus purity
is
and the
understood in the most
to be
comprehensive sense,
including
internal, physical
and
spiritual
words and deeds. In
of thoughts,
or purity in the spiritual sense
man
to cultivate
is
" Holiness ness
is
is
for
is
purity
a basic conof a
the highest good.
to life, the greatest good,
that
is
;
holiness
good
the spirit of righteousness.
man
happiness."'- " Purity
thustra,
fact,
The main aim
cept in Parsi ethics.
external
the
in the
is
for
man, next
that purity,
religion of
Holi-
Zara-
Mazda
8 7
Sd. 336.
8 9
Sd. 312,317,275.
9i Sd. 333.
8 8
Sd. 294.
9
Sd. 302-3.
»2 Yt. XXIII.
for
8.
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
106
him who
cleanses
thoughts, words,
his
and
own
with
self
deeds.""''
*^
May
good
all
my
actions be performed in the Divine Righteous-
Holiness
ness."^"^
is
acquired through good
thoughts good words and good
''Purity
deeds.""^
has been called the best quality of the soul and
by
man
a
it
With is
saved from hell."
is
-^
this exaltation of the idea of holiness,
connected the idea of the intrinsic superiority
of the spiritual
goods over the goods of the
One must not suppose that as the mundane things are highly appreciated by the world.
Avestan and Pahlavi writers, this ethics was merely utilitarian in the narrow sense of the
Far from running
term.
spiritual qualities of
down the higher
men, Zarathustra evidently
places the utmost possible emphasis
And
upon
these.
the proper sense of proportion was observed
in estimating the relative value of the material
Thus
higher virtues of man.
things and the in a passage in
the
Haptan
Yast
we
find
:
-^*We sacrifice unto Khshathra-Vairya (excellent
power) fice
;
wc
sacrifice
unto the metals
unto Mercy and Charity."-'
9 3
Vd. V.
9 4
Ys.
»5 Dk.
21.
XXVIII.
2.
9 6
I.
It is
20.
Dk. VIL454.
'•>-
;
we
sacri-
here clearly Yt.
II. 2«.^-7.
PURITY AND IMPURITY
the
worship of brutal force
that
indicated
by us
thing to be desired
sole
lO"
;
not
is
not
is
it
from such spiritual virtues as
to be divorced
charity.
This conclusion can be
amply confirmed by
a survey of other writings.
mercy and
Thus
we
one of the fragments,
in
following passage
"To
:
treasures
obtain the
forego not the world
of the material world
For he Avho
of the spirit.
the
find
the
to obtain
treasures of the material world destroyeth the
world of the the
spirit •
• •
•
• •
Li^ht nor
Celestial
Ahura Mazda."
'^
"^^
man
is
dust
who,
-dust
performs passage
and the horse
the
world
praises
and good
duties
..this
and
spiritual
Passages
world.
in other Pahlavi
the
kingship
and the wealth 9 8
dust,
of
as
ideals
of
it
the
that
superiority
TdFr. 90-93.
*'
AV.
out of of
abound
Nay even
this
of
accompanies 9 9
those
type
the
kings
This
^^
brings
above
writings also.
of
and
piety,
works."
very significant
very forcibly the measureless
moral
is
and the body
he alone mingles not with the
in
is
be ye aware also of
silver are dust, ;
me
Paradise of
the
And
this, that cattle are dust,
and gold and
neither
shall possess
it
203.
world
will not
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
108
last
but the deeds of frasokereti
;
done by one
in his
and
lasting
or charity
)
be ever-
The
wealth
same kind as those
''of the
is
(
will
^^0
indestructible."
of the world things,
good times
good or bad which one finds
in sleep,
but which disappear as soon as he awakes from
Body perishes; hence
it."^^^
souls
A man and
men
that '^
must consider
body
his
to be the
not proud of your
that
for
tiies
from tree seat
their
virtue.^*^^
an inn
receptacle of his
wealth
to tree
on any."
soul
''Be
his own/'^*^^
wealth and
world's
this
permanent
for
this world to be
and must make good deeds
world,
is
it
should do deeds of
goods in this is
like a bird
and never has
From
^^^
The
the ultimate triumph of virtue over vice. *'
ultimate
value of virtue
is
its
this follows
so great
and so
Ghanamino into obscurhim miserable." ^^^ In the Menuk-i-khratj we encounter many passages infinite that
ity
and
it
will sink
make
which breathe the same
spirit.
" Thou shouldst
not become presumptuous through any happiness of the world is
;
for the
happiness of the world
such like as a cloud that comes on a rainy day^ 100 Gs.
3.
10
12.
1
Gs.
102 Gs. io» Gs
30. 34.
io4 An. Atm. io« Gs. 29.
6.
;
PURITY AND IMPURITY which one does not ward
off
109
by any
Thou
hill.
much arranging the world-arranging man becomes
world;
shouldsfc not be too for the
spirit-
Thou shouldst not become presumptuous through much treasure and wealth
destroying.
end
for in the
it is
necessary for thee to leave
Thou shouldst not become presumptuous
all.
through predominance
;
end
the
in
for
it
is
necessary for thee to become non-predominant.
Thou
shouldst
presumptuous
become
not
through respect and reverence
;
for respectfulness
does not assist in the spiritual existence. shouldst,
not
Thou
through
become presumptuous
great connections and race; for in the end thy trust
is
become presumptuous through
not
death comes upon thee at
he
Thou shouldst
on thine own deeds.
is
the
more
*'
last."^°^
unforeseeing
who
life
In
;
for
wisdom
does not
provide for the spiritual existence, and attends to the worldly one."^^^
'^
In heart he
is
the
more seemly who abandons the worldly existence and seizes the spiritual one and by his ;
own
will accepts righteousness as a yoke."^^''
The
spiritual aspect
of existence
is
distinctly
recognised and assigned the place of superiority loe Mkh. 16,51,80.
io7 Mkh.
67.
los Mkh.
77.
Z0K0A8TKIAN ETHICS
110
the
over
material
Sad
the
in
principle of the religion
is
''that
Dar.
One
thou prefer
the friendship of the spiritual existence to that of the worldly one,
the
spirit
precious; on
the world
thou
and consider the things of
world as contemptible and those of the
let
is
tliis
account the glory of
sought with
the spirit escape." i^'»
S.l.
329.
scorn, ^^'^
and do not
CHAPTER
VII
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
A
state of
marriage was regarded as highly
important by the Iranians, considered even as a sacred
Thus Ahura Mazda
duty.
sented as saying " The far
man who
above him who lives in continence
keeps a house
is
far
is
repre-
has a wife ;
he
is-
wha
above him who has none
;.
who has children is far above the childless man he who has riches is far above him who he
;
has none."
^
Hence
it
was considered a great sin
either to allow maidens
to
grow up unmarried
The worst deed is when they keep which hostile a maiden from marriage and immure her as "Every man that has a an unmarried one.-
or to prevent their marriage.
men commit
material body should regard his as a good
And
work incumbent on him should
he 1
Yd. lY.
promote 47.
»
A't.
the
own marriage to
perform
marriages
XYI[.
59.
of
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS Through the marriage
Others."'
come
A
related to each other
father
is
to incur
said
enable a daughter
excitement.^
to satisfy
the cap-
her menstrual
Prayers for marriage are common.
To give
powers.^
for
husbands
assistance
to
to
the
them good unions
co-religionists in securing for is
be-
who does not
attained
Maidens offered their prayers higher
men
tie
contentedly/
live
sin
who has
having a son
ability of
and
In the Vendidad, we
a very meritorious act.
find that such acts are considered as atoning for
Hence we
sins.'
find that such
philanthropic
Parsi organizations as the Parsi Panchayat help
the poor Paisis with
From
poses.
money
for
marriage pur-
the above quotations
it
may
be
concluded that marriage was mainly recommend-
ed because in the
place,
first
increase of population
and
it
tended to the
also because both the
found the fulfilment of some of their
sexes
highest capacities in a married of having
many
children
is
state.
The duty
always laid down.
and complete (my Yasna) to women who have many sons and to prosperous home life, which continues with-
*'And
I
celebrate
those of the
a 3
G09.
5
Dk. Bk. VIII. US.
IX. G40.
c
Vt. V. 87
Dk. IX.
4 J)k.
;
XV.
39-41.
7
yd. XIV.
15.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS reverse
out ness *'
Vanguhi
the great Ashi
those
libations
is
be
will
to
me
dried out,
or
which are sent seed
Barren-
deprecated very clearly in the Yasts.
is
And
of
throughout the year."^
113
said
' :
accepted
either
None
by me,
by a man whose
by the courtesan who
produces untimely issues
by young boys
or
;
who have known no man.' " ^ This is the worst deed that men and tyrants do, namely, when they deprive maids, that have or by girls
'^
been barren bringing
for a
long time, of marrying and
children."
forth
A man
^^
marry and niultiply his progeny. strive for the increase of
"Frequent
her.''^-
A man
women, to
in like
repetition is
s
9 1
act of
and beget a
to
espouse
child.
And
manner, should have a longing Children are deemed
espouse a husband.^'*
other
the
of
in to
an act of great
necessary for various reasons but for the
One should
should endeavour
a wife in his youth
should
progeny by going
propagating the offspring worth." ^^
"
^^
particularly
delegation of one's functions to some
individual and
Ys. 1.6. Yt. XVII. 54. Yt. XVII. 59.
for
securing access to
11 Gs. 28. 1
2
1
3
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
1
637. 639.
4
Sd. 278.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
114
heaven.
adoption
one
to
is
legitimate
a
If
child
recommended,
whom
*'
wanting,
is
If there
and there be no provision of a child the creator has
commanded him
make some one of his soul
priests
and
relations
adopted son for him.^^ serving wife and child
results
for
him,
son of his own, as a friend
a
child, ^^^
without any son, real or adopted, the
occur
that he should
and should receive a
every duty can be delegated."
of
be any-
may
sickness from heaven
if
from
*'
to
it
because
If
he dies,
is
the duty
appoint
an
any one has a
If
the acquisition of a male her,
is
it
suitable
for
adoption by that person."^-
The marriage-age the age of fifteen.
^^
Further evidence of the
absence of early marriage fact that
was attained at
of girls
may
be found in the
maidens are often mentioned as pray-
ing for suitable husbands.^"*
It
is
confirmed
by the words of the ritual, in which the pair show their consent after " truthful
are asked to
consideration." It is interesting to
how
the match was
Very often
the
17
Sd. 316.
i» Yt. V. S:
i«
Vd. XIV.
brought about. I* Sd. 279. 18 Sd. 280.
note
15.
parents
or
— THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS arranged
the guardians
Women
the marriage
sometimes took the
At
matter.-*^
initiative
marry with mutual consent. of both parties.^^
woman,
avail
^'
you wish
If
the
the friends
to
marry any
yourself of some choice as your
go-between and propose
him."
in
Often negotia-
made by
tions for marriage were
affair.
two parties often
the
present,
115
to the
woman through
22
Let
us
what
inquire
allowed general
influence
Sometimes
deciding
in
the
Business motives often
choice of the parties. prevailed.
considerations wer6
it is
not love or sentiment,
but practical necessity which dictates mxarriage
way
b}*
of atoning for certain
But as Dr. Geiger points
transgressions.^^
out, a higher idea of
marriage as a union based upon mutual love
was not altogether
singer addresses the of marriage in these shall both seek to
only thus will
it
The
lost sight of.
young
priestly
parties at the time
words:
" In piety you
win the love of each other,
lead
you
selection of the wife or
to joy/'
-^
In making
husband some
special
2 1
Vd. XV. 9. Pand-namak-i-Aturpat-i-Maraspandau XLII.
2 2
An. Atm.
2
3.
^3 Vd.
XIV.
15.
2 4
Ys. LIII.
5.
:
ZOKOASTKIAN
116
1<:THICS
considerations are to be looked
O
may
find
offspring
a
;
^-^
Mazda."
Mind,
-"
''
and
intelligent
him they
much ways, arts,
and
also
a giver ii
of
an a
is
in
various
known comforts
other well
himself,
;uid
brilliant,
of (other)
and moral
hurtful
and
a
people."-'' (lualifica-
should possess beaury, strength,
energy, swiftness, tallness, bright clear
eyes, long
arms and small
«- Yt. XV. 40. Ys. Lin. :i
s"
^«2!'
to
to
highly skilled in the
intellectual
tioMs, a husl);ind
to
and
"He
gain- causing
the customs
liesides these
•'"
ot*
give
sweet-tongued, gives
remover of injurious
fearless
rejecter of
virility,
is
full of resources,
is
things,
is
will
daughter
man."-"
learned
happiness,
ready-
most devoted
is
your
husband who
delightful
learned,
Righteousness
to
Marry
and
long,
thou Pouruchista,
husband who
Good
the
all life
wise, '*
thou young daughter,
thee as thy
as
us well
will treat
husband."
tongiied
O
husband, young and beautiful of
a
us
give
:
virgins
Grant us
'*
Vayu, who dost work highly, that we
who
body,
Vayu, saying
prayer to
otter a this,
The
to.
^"^
heels.-'-
^''^
Qualities
An. At 111. 7. i)k. n. mi.
Yt. XVII. ±J ^t. \'1II. l:5;in.l 14: Vl. XIV. 17. Zavatliustra aiul Zaiatlin:^iriai.nsni in llie A vesta. :
p.
21
:i.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
11'
The quality
desired in a wife are mentioned.
most essential in a bride was that she must be quite chaste before marriage. ^^
and homage
to
offer praise
the house-mistress, holy and
We
guiding aright. to
"We
and homage
offer praise
woman promoting good
the holy
thoughts,
words and deeds, receiving her instruction well
good
Purity,
^-
a strong body, a beautiful form, a
birth,
well-shaped
a
stature,
tall
"
husband
to her
and obedient
a
breast,
slender
and such other physical qualities are •' Let your love ever specially appreciated.^^^ waist
woman and
be for a fore-sighted and modest
marry such a one alone."
whom
worse with
"
with pleasure, ^^^ disposed,
" Choose a wife that one
is
good
;
3
1
virtuous wife
who
good who
"Women
spected."^^ four kinds
A
:
who
of character
is
in the
end
is
live
well
not good, and bad Vend. XIV.
3 2
G. IV. 8,9.
3 3
Visp. II. 7
3 4
An Atm.
3c
Mkh.
;
4.
is
;
because
more
;
;
and neither good
Yt. V. 127. Yt. XVII. 3 7
re-
not bad, and
15.
3 5
^^^
are necessarily of these
good as well as bad
41.
the
is
possible to
good helper of enjoyment."
a
is
That wife
not
is
it
-'"^
Mkh. Mkh.
69. 10.
11, etc.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
118
From among
nor bad. is
not bad and
is
manage household and comfort
these any
good should be selected
and
aflfjiirs
to the
to give
to
happiness
master of the house."
should not be taken
prostitute
woman who
a
as
A
^^^
wife.^^
Other factors such as those of race and faith also entered into the matter.
'^
It is
apparent
that difference of race cannot secure an advant-
ageous condition to pass
life in,
connivance at
defects, similarity of thoughts, participation in
benefits or
other, for
injuries
and contentedness over what
some women
(owing force
occasioned to one or the
to)
them
earned
is
in spite of the ability of,
;
and
lack of courage in their husbands, to
purchase more articles for their use
than are necessary and, failing to obtain these
from their husbands, domineer over them,
show
off their superiority."'^^
Men
should
tie
to
the
knot of marriage with believers in the religion, so that strength
might accrue to them and
to
the people of their race for deliverance from hell
by means of prayers and devotions to
From
the
Avesta
it
God.''^
evident that
is
woman
occupied a position of honour in the system of 38 Dk. 11.77. 3« Dk. Hk. IX. 211.
*« Dk. 11.98. 4
1
Dk.
II. 91.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Iranian *
She was styled N'mano-pathni
life.
the mistress of the house
;'
was called Nmano-paitij house
'
as the
A
and perform
estate
Women
wife might priestly
it
declare
it
As man
and put
unto others who
The
it."''^
''
it.
souls
'cuid
it
woman
may
together in the next world/"
company
Husband and
into
let
practice
act according
fravashis of pious
and women are praised together. often in the
or
and perfectly anything good,
really
or her
and teach
men
They live Ahura Mazda is "^^
of female Yazatas/^
wife are to behave respectfully
towards each other. 4 2 43 44
manage
functions/'*
are entitled both to receive the highest
education and impart
to
the
of
be equal or superior to
tries to
her husband in love/^
him
master
She sometimes chooses her
ing to his sphere.
knows
while her husband
*the
She has to perform household work, husband performs other duties pertain-
husband/' she an
119
The
first
essential in con-
Yt. XV. 40. Ys. LIII. 4. The Airpatistan Avestan fragments.
Quoted
in
Zarathustra and Zarathustrianism in the Avesta. P. 214. 4 5 Ys.
XXXV.
4c Ys.
XXVI.
4
7
6.
7-9;
Vd. IX. 42; Ys.
4? Ys.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX. XXXIX.
1.
2; Yt. XIII. 155. 2.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
120
jugal
life is
mutual
Zarathustra's advice
love.
and bridegrooms
to brides
is
" Let each one
:
cherish the other in righteousness
unto each shall the home
life
tender treatment of wives
is
husbands.
cause
tution
misery. ^°
great
A
'^^
enjoined upon the
husbands of
Terrible
thus alone
:
be happy."
evil
consti-
Much
regard
should be had for one's wife and protection " One's
should be given her.^^
aged
should
relations
must not be allowed "
^-
fort."
to
own
wife and
and
kept happy,
be
remain without com-
One should be loving
to one's wife
and
guide, but one should not be excessively fond of
them."
whom
'<
5^^
one
The
is
wife of one's
choice
Wives
the
tinore
of
much
forward
"And in
to )
nijSforardliness."^'*
husbands and co-operate with them in designs.
e.
affection
should be obedient
return
in
i.
by the marriage ceremony
tied
should always be treated with
and without
(
to their all
good
we sacrifice to the holy woman,
good thoughts and words and deeds,
receiving her instructions well, having her hus-
band
as her lord."
*» Ys. LIII. »« Gs. 15. 4
1
Mkh.
67.
5.
^^''
-^s
**And
I
summon
Dk. Bk. XII.51.
*3 Dk. Bk. XII. 61. 'i*
Dk. IX.
637.
the
woman
-s G. IV.
9.
THE ETHICS OF 8EX RELATIONS
121
advanced in her holy thoughts, words, and deeds>
and well lord."
subordinated,
obedient
A woman
wives.
atmosphere
the
in
whose
ruler
her
is
Cruel punishments are reserved for dis-
-^°
was
because
suspended " scorned
she
her husband and master, and cursed, abused
and defied him."'" refuse
eat
eaten
much meat
Women
A woman
was forced to
the
she
in
world,
the}^
concealed from her husband.
^"^
broken promises
husbands
their
to
had stayed away from their husband,
and been
never
contented " These
cohabitation. -^°
and granted
are such as
personally obedient and do service
unto
had
were thrown head downwards because
they had
and
because
the
husband and
father and mother."
^°
the
Here
child is
:
no
must be the wife
unto
the
a picture of an
woman from the Zoroastrian point of view: The woman who is young, who is properly disposed, who is faithful, who is respected, who ideal ^'
is
good-naiured,
who
enlivens the house, whose
modesty and awe are virtuous, a friend
of her
own father and elders, husband and guardians, handsome and replete with animation, is 1
5 «
Visp. III.
5 7
AV.
4.
172, 187.
«8AV.
196.
AV.
191.
«»
soMkh.
78.
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
122
over
chief
associates." to
women who
the
A
^^
She should
her husband.
say to her husband, so that
I
for thee,
may
What
"
think them
so that
I
may
;
fold her
arms and
are thy
thoughts,
what
necessary
speak
necessary for thee so that
may
I
As the great sanctity
it
of
it
is
and what
;
first,
was
life
all violation of
was looked upon with great horror. wails thrice:
is
"^^
do it?
married
held in such high importance,
Vanguhi
own
her
are
wife should be all obedience
Ashi
about the courtesan
who who
destroys her fruit ; next, about the courtesan
and
for the
brings forth a child conceived of a stranger third time she says
men and
worst sin that
tyrants
when they deprive maids, barren
for
long
a
*' :
time,
that of
This
do,
have
entreated
to
hurl
her
that what gives
''who
Jo/ti,
faithful
Him
mixes
her
and the unfaithful,
6
1
Mkh.
fi
5
Sd. 320.
108.
6 3 « *
Haoma
Jahi
is
Ahura Mazda
the greatest pain
in
and
mace against the
harlot of lustful wavering mind.^"^ personification of adultery.
the
been
marrying
bringing forth children."" The Yazata is
is
namely
the
seed
the says
is
the
of
the
of the worshippers
Yt. XVII. 57-60. Ys. IX. 32.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Mazda and the worshippers
of
made to
is '*
fly
of the Baevas^
and the righteous."
of the wicked
123
away when the world
^^
The Jahi
progresses. ^^
Lead not astray the thought of other wives,
for
by so doing your own soul
very sinful."
ments
will follow infidelity in
woman who
become
will
In the next world severe punish-
^^
had
married
committed
life.
adultery
A was
to hell.^^ The man who had seduced the wives of others was stung by serpents.^^ Wicked women who captivated the eyes of the men of God had to eat the blood of their own fingers.''^ " Thou shouldst
suspended by her breast
an abstainer
be
because
all
from
the
wives of others;
these three would
become disregard-
ed by thee, alike wealth, alike body and alike soul."^i
In the
spoken of as a harlot
is
Dinkard adultery
sin.^^
Any
is
woman
is
woman.
Vd. XVIII.
woman
''That
will.
6
62.
e« Vd. 6 7 e 8
But
regarded innocent when the act
committed against her
should be considered free and innocent 6 *
often
considered equal in point of heinous-
ness to that with a menstruous
the
is
connection with a
XXI. 17. An Atm. 6. AV. 171, 188, 194,
9AV.
195, 197, 200.
191.
^ i
AV. 192. Mkh. 12.
7 2
Dk. IV.
7
who
233, 237.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
124
has committed
who
is
man."
The Dadistan-i-Dinik,
''^
Dahak was
adultery; ''and by control
it
all
put an end
is
with son occurs."""^ sin,
A
is
case
refers
other
or '
is
sort
and without the
of
living
Adultery
thing,
will
the intercourse,
a
paramour
excitement of
a
to various types of
its
death in the
7
3
Dk. VII.
7
4
Dd. 217. Dd. 228.
7 «
birth. 441.
^'^
:
daughter,
or
sister
'^
A
to
father satisfy
daugrhter/"
murder such
woman through woman through
the woman's swallowing a drug and its
It
or of speaking thus
go in unto thine.' "
who harbours
Adultery leads
my
as the death of a child in the
just after
a very
is
bargain in adultery.
unto
in
menstrual
the
intermingling of
sin of giving a girl for a girl,
the
I too,
sinful
disturbed,
is
reprobated in the Dinkard which
Do thou go
while
commit
worse than theft or spoliation. "^
to a
about
''
is
to
first
lineage
authority of the husband an
heinous
faithless
says that Vadak,
the
to,
but
aid from
from the
save her
to
the mother of
son
stranger
proved to have received no
people
other
adultery with a
its
murder
Sexual intercourse with
7 7
Dk. Bk. VIII. Dk. Bk. VIII.
7 8
Dd. 229.
7 6
66. 66.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS an
woman
infidel
grounds. course he
'*
as
is
who
125
is condemned on special The committer of the illicit inter-
unobservant and grievously sinlul as
own
shall lead his
child from his native
habits and the good religion into foreign habits
and
infidelity
may commit
as to the sin
;
childhood he
in
and as that which he
is
equally
with
rape on
from causing a
the
is
may commit
it
sinful
from
abstain
which that child
it."
-^^
another's
woman
sinner,
manhood One should
in
occupy a separate
to
One should
bed from her husband. ^^
and
wife
avoid adultery on this ground
''
strictly
through
that
everyone who beguiles the wife of another,
and commits iniquity
with her, that
woman
moment, unlawful as regards -^ her husband." The wife should crave pardon
becomes, in
a
or death at the death of her husband, If
strange
men
water,
it
woman who
a
case.^^
"'
will
takes
make
into a
diminish,
it
look at a tree or shrub, the fruit
become scanty, and a righteous
man 7
9
man
diminish Dd.
229.
8 6
it
if
sd. 305.
if
river
of
she take a
of the
trees
she speaks a word with
will It
with two
consorts
look
a
in that
make is
the
glory of the
necessary to kill si
Sd. 324.
8 2
her
Sd. 325.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
126
sooner than a biting serpent and similar crea-
and wild
tures
harmful to
my
beasts,
because she
(God's) creatures."
more
is
^^
has
a woman in her much condemned. When a man intercourse with a woman who has
the
whites or sees the blood, he becomes a
Sexual mtercourse with
menses
is
"
Peshotanu.^^
or sees
Whosoever
with
intercourse
blood,
shall lie in sexual
woman who
a
no
does
has
whites
better deed than
he should burn the corpse of his own
man who had an
The
if
son."^-^
with a
intercourse
menstruous woman had the impurity of the
woman
discharged into his
natural intercourse
man who
a
there
sin,'
it
;
it
ment
unnatural
nothing that can cleanse from
and
for ever
which there
ever.'^"
is
The ninth Fargard,
about " the devilry,
no atone-
" Of the sins which
people commit, the unnatural sin heinous."
'
is
the most
Yathais,
8 4
8»Vd. XVI.
Sd. 331.
Vd. XV.
7.
•«
is
the blighted destiny, the
complete pollution, the grievous stench, 8 3
For
nothing that can pay, nothing
a trespass for
'^"^
un-
All
jaws."^^
severely prohibited.
voluntarily commits
is
that can atone, is
is
AV.
170.
17.
the
^t vd. VIII. 27. s's
Mkh.
71.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
127
heinous sinfulness, and the annoyance to
all
spiritual and worldly virtue of the sodomite."
Another part of the Dinkard
is
^^
concerned about
" the vicious desire of the performer and permitter of unnatural intercourse; also their violent lustfulness,
heinous practice and corrupt, pol-
luted bodies, blighted in destiny destruction
their
they
see,
of
life in
;
great through
the things which
and every greatness inevitably provides
them a merited death
;
as great in sinfulness,
Azi-Dahak, in oppression, as the serpent
as
in witchcraft as Tur-i-Bradro-resh, the
Srobar,
Karap,
destroying the righteous and as a
in
deceiving apostate in falsehood. "^°
The grievous
sinfulness of wealth acquired through unnatural
intercourse
is
mentioned.^^
the Dadistan-i-Dinik that
who
first
of males ''
It
is
showed
to the
It
is
related
in
was the Viptak
it
males the intercourse
and the way of destroying the
seed.^-
necessary to practise abstinence
from
committing or permitting unnatural intercourse.
For
this is
there
is
religion,
the chief of
sins
in religfion
;
no worse sin than this in the good
and
it
is
«9 Dk. Bk. IX. 185. » «
all
Dk. Bk. VIII.
111.
proper to
call
those
9 1
Dk. Bk. VIII.
9 5
Dd. 218.
71.
who
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
128
commit
of death in reality."
worthy
it
should cut
the heads or rip
off
of both parties in the
commit the same
four-footed females
One
Dinkard.^^
with
cerned
''
the
is
'"^^
who wants washing, with her who any
or
Penalty
sexual intercourse with a
to
other
of
not
those
con-
pregnant or the
wife with a child at the breast.
attached
in the is
who have
those
of
sin
debauched a woman who
they
just the
Dinkard
part of the
bellies
sin of defiling
mentioned
also
is
is
it
The
as that with man."'^"^
up the
And when
women,
with
sin
*'
act.'"'
One
^^
is
is
woman
a foreigner
authorised
for
intercourse.'^^ It
been
has
writers that
*'
by
some* European
polygamy was once prevalent
The testimony
Persia. to
asserted
of the Greeks
is
in
quoted
Thus Herodotus says
support this view.
:
Each one of them marries several legitimate
wives and acquires for himself yet several more
cannot
be drawn
themselves.
from the religious records
Thus Dr. Geiger thinks
that a
S7 Dk. Bk.VIII.162. Sd. 26S. Dk. Bk. VIII. 72. » » Dk. Bk. VIII. 100. See Kapp. Religion and Customs of the Persians,
»3 Sd. 267.
«f'
9 4
«<•
sd. 261. «•!
definite conclusions
Rut very
concubines."""
pp. 208-300
:
Heroa.
I.
135
;
Strabo,
p.
733
etc.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS passage in the Vendidad the
of
III. 3. ('* in
women and
righteous,
129
the house
children
are
present in rich abundance ") implies the exist-
ence of the state of polygamy then. wives
may
be meant sons' wives
But by
also.
It
may
be that some rich people contracted marriages
with
such
many
At any
wives.
custom
now,
nor
rate there
in the religious records that
indication
no
is
any
there
is
clear
was
it
once prevalent,
A
problem of special
nection with
the
importance
Iranian
marriagfe
question of the Xvaetvadatha or marriage.'
meaning maintain
between
in
'
con-
is
the
next of kin
The quarrel here rages round the
Some western
of the term.
that
it
nearest
once
scholars
meant the marriage betw^een
relations,
and children and brothers and
modern Parsis maintain that
it
parents
sisters. The means and it
always meant marriage between
first
cousins.
The evidence adduced by the former deserves some examination. In the first place, the foreign
the
on
writers
existence
of
such
Secondly, there are to
the
custom
in
have
Persia a
testified
custom
unmistakable the
Pahlavi
in
to
Persia.
references writings.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
130
Thus
in
Nash
"
:
o-iven
woman
And
in
Fargard
21st
the
this,
that
too,
marriage to a
to another
man who had was seen
woman the
some
tion.
And
snake.
reverence
In the Arda-
The
references.
soul of a
contracted a next-of-kin marriage
in the
enjoyment of a splendid
woman, who
the soul of a
was
marriage
next-of-kin
is
even so as a
man, by him who teaches
unto father and husband."
Viraf, there are
daughter
a
father,
the daughter and the other dtie
Baku
the
of
posi-
violated
attacked
by
a
^^^
Arda Viraf had married his seven sisters. The next-of-kin marriage was the second of the seven good works
fourth
point
in
classes of sins.
^^-
of
^^^ ;
its
dissolution
among
heinousness
The
was recommended because
it
The custom
it.
tends to preserve
the purity of race, to increase the lity of
husband and
to
prevent
wife,
Mkh. 10* Mkh. 10
1
^^^
and
26. 71.
compatibi-
increase
to
the
Another motive was
perversions of faith.
loo AV. 197.
the
third book of the Din-
kard contains a long defence of
affection for children.
is
thirty
^^''
From
the
i»3 Dk. II. 91. 10* Kevayat. Tr. West. Vol. XVIII. S. B. E. p. 416-7.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
complete progress
next-of-kin marriage arises
world luito the time of the renovation
the
in
131
of the universe.
Then
^^^
marriages were not
said
is
it
that such
uncommon among
certain
other peoples of the world.
But
it
is
maintained that
there are no passages which
^^^
the nature of the relationship.
didad,
it is
said that those
in the
clearly
who
Avesta^ indicate
In the Ven-
carry the dead
must afterwards wash the hair and bodies with the
urine
men
or
of
cattle
or
draught oxen, not of
women, except the two who have
formed Xvaetvadatha,
But from
^°'
passages the nature of the marriage gathered.
As
regards
foreign authors, is
it
it
evidence of the
the
not in perfect agreement
with
the
it
Persian
The Persian Revayats are
meaning of next-of-kin marriage;
means marriage
thus summarises
of
first
cousins. Louis H.
the situation
astrianism never advocated
it
by non-Zoroastrian Persians; at least
these
cannot be
cannot be accepted when
writings themselves. clear about the
all
per-
;
:-
it it
->'
Gray
Pure Zoro-
was practised was advocated
during the Sassanian and early Arab
105 Dd. 225. 107 Vd. VIII. 13. loe Ys. XII. 9 Visp. III. 3. G. IV.
8.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
1.32
periods by a Magianized priesthood to
have been a theoretical
the
religious
period ideal)
;
it
and
ideal,
political
;
it
situation
of the
was constantly resisted (even as an
by a large-and doubtless, ever
ing-body
appears
prompted by
of the faithful
i«8
ERE.
;
it
increas-
has disappeared."
VIII. 458.
^^^
CHAPTER BENEVOLENCE
OTHER VIRTUES
:
Zoroastrianism
weH
of
Charity
moral
Kindly and piously the faithful, be is
well
I
it
life
is
as
to give
ever so
for the
poor as
one of the naain conceived
unasked
little of
to
here.
one of
one's riches,
"
of.
Mazda
?
with the Righteous Order, and
Mind
AN^D VICES
What then is your What are your riches, may become your own in jny actions spoken
kingdom, that
a gospel
is
as the rich.
essentials
VII
to care for
(
thy
)
Good
your poor (in their suffering.)"
He who admonishes one
for his
good
is
a gift to his religious faith in the love of
^
offering
Ahura
Ahura Mazda will give the most prosA perous life to him who gives gifts to men.^
Mazda. ^
man or a woman, who knows ly should declare 1
Ys.
XXXIV.
5.
it
a
the duty thorough-
and inculcate
Ys.
XXXIII.
2.
it
3
upon those
Ys.
XLVI.
13.
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
134
who may perform
it
as
it
^
is
^'
Never may
I
stand as a source of wasting, never as a source of withering to the
Mazdayasnian
body or of
for the love of
good-will extends to
We
"
universe.
all
villages, not
The
life."^
spirit of
good beings of the
worship the souls
;
those of the
tame animals; those of the wild animals; those of the
animals that live in the water
of the
animals that live
those
the
of
running ones
Thus
it
flying
entirely
is
ones
those
;
the
of
grazing ones."^
those of the
;
those
;
under the ground
within the
comprehensive
range of the Zoroastrian sympathy to love and reverence the beings of the animal kingdom.
But the range all
the waters
;
is
wider
we worship
pray for th^ joy
still.
all
"
We
worship
the plants."
'
"I
and comforts of this country.
I
pray for the health and happiness of you, holy
men
;
I
pray for a thousand blessings on him is
heaven."^
''
good and lives between earth and
whosoever
I
pray for the freedom and glory of
the entire existence of the holy (man) while I bless
it,
and
I
pray for the repression and shame
of the entire existence of the wicked."*^ 4 Ys. *
XXXV.
Ys. XII.
3.
6.
Thus
6
Yt. XIII. 74.
«
Ys. LXVIII. 15.
7
Yt. XIII. 79.
«
Ys. VIII.
8.
;
BENEVOLENCE
135
the whole existence becomes the
sphere for the working of
But
charity
is
mere passive sympathy
not
active helpfulness as well.
it is
same
appropriate
human sympathy. '^
If
men
either friends or brothers
faith,
of the
come
to
an agreement together that one may obtain from the other either goods or a wife or knowledge,
him who desires goods have them delivered to him let him who desires a wife receive and wed her; let him who desires knowledge be taught the holy word." ^° The spirit with which let
;
all gifts
should be doled out must not be cynical,
but joyous. Zarathustra,
Thus " Woe to him, Spitama who gives alms when his soul is
not joyful over almsgiving
;
for in
alms
lies for
the corporeal world the decision for good
all
thoughts, and good words and good deeds."
Charity
is
inculcated in
Morality
Pahlavi literature.
private individual concern,
others
to
between
as
well
as
man and man
mutual good- will.
1
2
Gs.
5.
1 1
it
is
forms in the not a
mere
refers essentially
oneself.
All
relations
are to be regulated
by
Virtue requires charity as
an essential ingredient. ^^ le Vd. IV. 44.
all its
^^
That man
is
most
LXXXIV. (tr. C. Bartholomae Altiran, Worterbuch.)
Nr.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
136
venerable
who
you enjoy use
it
to
up
stores
acts of charity. ^^
in charity. "^"^
"Be always charitable
you may secure your place
its
and meets
it
on the way
alms-giving.
''
to
of a
heaven, describes
among which
special virtues,
that
in Garothman."^^^
The maiden who represents the good deeds soul
" If
any extent the power of wealth,
And alms were
she mentions
given by thee
him who came forth from near and him, too, who was from afar." ^^ The man who to
provides lodging accommodation for the
and secluded and traders heaven, ^^ "
He who
is
is
said
to
sick
arrive in
very rich should use his
superfluous riches in supporting (ochers) and in other
tions."
good deeds pertaining
to
higher rela-
*^He who at his doors gives to the
^^
pious dervishes food and water enough to supply their
obtains
wants,
return."
^*^
**A
man
among men through
an
excellent
gets
respect
is
-^
"
An
exalted final is
for
21
13 Gs. 31. 14 An Atm.
4.
16 i7
Mkh. Mkh.
An Atm.
6.
is
Dk.
ifi
and glory
through charity and charity
exalted final life."
in
charity by which the world
becomes easy and happy." life
thing
19.
73. 75.
II. 73.
i* Dk. VIII. 454. »o Dk. VII. 468. «i Dk. VIII. 458.
an
BENEVOLENCE But
discriminate
is
it
137
which
charity
preached here. The right arm of help
is
not to
is
be extended to the lazy or the improvident or the undeserving.
It is
the
'
faithful
who
'
are
constantly referred to as the worthy object of
''He who relieves
charity.
"And
Ahura king."--
poor makes
the
that gift
the more
is
unprofitable which they give to the unworthy."
"Those who deserve patronage
the poor)
e.
( i.
^^
should be patronised as one's own; and
they
if
are not satisfied with such patronage, then they
should be admonished."-'^
opened
for the
way should be
''A
happiness of worthy and excel-
lent people, for the
good of the
devout people and
(
for the
follower of the good religion, to preserve himself against
(rigours) of possible
summer and
souls of the
every
relief of)
who may be unable hunger,
winter."
-^
thirst,
"As
one should not partake of food
after feeding the
The following
needy."
and
far as till
-^
four quotations are significant
because they illustrate the nature of the attitude to
be adopted towards people of other religions
in
matters of charity. 2 3
Vd. XIX.
2 3
Mkh.
82.
2.
''
If
he who
Dk. VII. 437. 35 Dk. IX. 638.
3 4
2 6
is
a dervish
Dk. IX.
638.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
138
(
man
a poor
or of
)
be also a
man
no honest motive, then,
be given religions,
too,
of evil religion
anything might
him as a gift." -^ <' People of evil who may be in danger of suffering
from hunger, thirst and cold, should be saved from these (hardships)."-^ give
an
who
infidel
is
and medicine
clothing
;
It is
the custom to
not a foreigner food,
but
wealth,
horses,
accoutrements, wine, and land should not be
Men
"
given to foreigners and idolaters.-^
of
the good religion should give something to a
man
of different religion only in case of
necessity,
lest it
should be given
become as
a sin."
'"^'
extreme
No
to vicious people; Avhich
further their evil desio-ns.
help
might
"Different thinors are
not to be given as means to the vicious. "^^^
The higher manifestation and
the
from
it.
and wife ness."^2
of charity
love
is
co-operation or mutual service born,
Zarathustra advises the young husband to
'^
love each other throuo^h ricjhteous-
"When men
love
and
one
help
another to the best of their power they derive the greatest pleasure from loving their fellow-
men."^^
This love or good-will shows
2 8
Dk. XII. 11. Dk. IX. t)38.
«9
I)(l.
9 7
197.
so sd. 282. 1 Dk. XII. 62.
3
3 2
Ys. LTII.
o.
3 3
itself
Dk. VIII.
454.
BENEVOLENCE in
such
virtues
different
139
or
liberality
as
generosity, sympathy, hospitality, peacefulness, patience, good temper, courtesy and disinter-
The power
estedness.
us
affords
the
comfort.
greatest
millennium every one
generous
of
persons
will please (his soul)
(following) the path of generosity. ^^
formance
most
two
generosity
generosity
Charity
holy
The
are
to
liberality
itself
as
also
"The miserliness."-''^ of the generous man are
^'without
a heart has the light of the
The generous man
fire
*'
pertaining
exhibits
heart and conscience
warm and such
good,"^^
higher order
of a
and love."
are
qualities
excellent
intelligence
by
Among
'^
speaking of thanks and per-
doers of deeds of
the
In
^'^
exalted
is
Liberality however should be
among men."^^
shown towards the deserving
only.
When
*'
they provide any munificence or liberality, is
necessary
worthy
that
they
provide
As
regards
that
provides any munificence for it
is
called a vain
advantage. "39 3 4
Gs. 18. 35 Gs. 29.
work and
Liberality
it
person
the a
shown 3 8
Dk. IX.
39
Sd. 291.
Dk.
who
without
to the
14.
Mkh.
37
it
the
unworthy,
gift
II. 71.
3 6
for
worthy
555.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
140
is
spoken of as one of the four principles of the
religion of Zarathust/^ liberality
For the exercise
''
grand, in such manner as
is
and pleasanter, on which a
manner,
in like
man
liberal
wind that blows upon a
manner
man and
man
for the
moon
sun,
shine upon a liberal man."^^
He
says that
has not been able to
any recompense and happiness that are
suitable for a liberal
Again He says
"
:
persons
unworthy/'
;
except a blessing/^
for the sake
who provide
them something
man
have created the supreme
[
heaven of heavens liberal
those
for
better in
sits,
cow and goat that a liberal
for the
stars that
Hormazd find
ground
for the
man, better
liberal
and pleasanter
eats,
of
better
walks, better for the
the horse on which a liberal like
it is
and gloomy
who
of
any
worthy
for the
hell
for all
is
anything
give
of the
and give
to
the
''•^
Other qualities which How naturally from the attitude of good- will
who has sympathy concerns.
^'^
4 1
not averse
Hospitality should
panied by self-praise.
4
is
"^^
*'He
to
be
unaccom-
is
hospitable
who
Sd. 329.
4 2 Sd. 342.
4 4 Qs. 12.
Sd. 342.
4 3
4 5
Sd. 343.
He human
are also extolled.
Dk.
[I.
72.
BENEVOLENCE
141
and entertains
towards the good
with what has been given him
endowed with higher good men of his ing It is
the
at the
for the host to
approach
Arda-Viraf
it is
and thirsty
food,
wards
to
task."
^^
Some
details regard-
forms of hospitality are also given.
customary
seat
regarded as
is
than the (other)
gifts
city.""^^
(his guests)
of a
rise
guest.
from
his
In
the
"^^
stated that to ''give the
the
is
make enquiry
of
hungry
and
thing,
first
after-
him and appoint
Menuk-i-Khrat gives a
his
description
setting forth the details of hospitality extended
As soon
as
it
enters
angels of every
man
righteous
to the soul of the
angels and arch-
the
it,
description
and ask him questions.
paradise.
iii
come
meet him
to
Ahura Mazda
says
that no questions should be asked but that he
should be seated upon an all-embellished throne.
The Shah-Kamah inferior in rank, if
the two were
to
meet his guest. ^^
mony
is
says
that
host
the
the guest
if
saluted
was
him,^''^
but
the host went
equal in rank,
A
'^^
state of peace
and har-
preferred to one of enmity and discord.
''With your elders and friends do you 4« Dk. VIII. 455. -17 Vd. XIX. 31.
4
8
4»
AV. 153. Mkh. 21.
I.
-5
••*
i
live
on
234 and 257.
11.
12
and
58.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
142
Do
terms of peace. possible,
is
keep
not submit to and
at a distance
from
all
nurse feelings of anger and enmity against
He who
has the wealth of patience
He who
finder.5^
A
no miser. speaking
who
speech,
A
and
behaviour towards
be excellent.
"
millennium. ^^
do or speak
prominent
desire in the
gains a bad injurious to
than
He his
at
anj^^body let
in
acquire
will
time of the
to
our fellow-brethren and
do
reputation,
).''
your deed or
-^^
good
to
Pahlavi writings.
human
others
the
men
Whenever you have anything to
broad interest
an active
(
?
in
good
all
A man
^^^
speech be sweet and civil."
A
Who
'*
sweet
courteous,
is
the habit of
is
suavely.^'^
our greatest affection
friends by his courtesy,
to
fault-
and a great respecter of persons. "^^
man's
should
good disposition
courteously
extremely
is
you."^^'
possesses a good disposition
command
should
it
such as
no
is
if
them
A
who deems
interests to be
A man
should
are
person actions
more just be
most
anxious to do disinterested good to his fellow»2
An Atm.
1
;
BENEVOLENCE The wishing
brethren.
one
of happiness for every-
which are great and good good
for the
these
"
desires or
others
;
He
kind regard
soul
among virtue
towards others
pleased with
is
a
whose
in
well disposed
is
and
;
the works
classed as the seventh
is
works.*^^
dwells
among
the sixth
classed as
is
143
and
happiness of
the
thereby he becomes capable of prevent-
among men and of promotvirtue among them."^^ One
ing mutual injuries ing the union of
should
give
" to
prominence
the
virtue
of
benevolence and of taking care of others, so that
by this the vice
revengefulness
of
is
weakened and the power of the vindictive druj rendered harmless."
is
of three types
:
first,
6-
Philanthropists are
who
those
are
philan-
thropists through the love of religious reward
secondly, those lastly,
who
are so through pure love
there are those
are
known
protected ^'
who
who do good
to them.^^
in this
world
"
A
man's body
by philanthropy.
One should have regard and
affection
(people of) one's community, and should
them, and Mkh.
6 6
1
live
27.
Dk. V.
276.
6 3
Dk. VII. Dk. VII.
4
446.
6
453.
6 5
is
"^"^
for visit
with them, in one abode. 6 2
;
to others
"^"^
Dk. VII. 453. Dk. IX. 642.
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
144
make a wicked man holy to make an ill-formed man wise"^^ are amongst the greatest functions of men. One
" To make an enemy a friend
;
to
;
should be reverent patronize
and
of
man
towards the world
should
One
benefit to one's co-adjutors.^^
give
obligation
helpfulness,
is
and
keep his door open so that he and his
to
one
might associate with have the negative form
fellows
We
Rule
:
" That
nature only
for its
own
of these
mischief as
and
o-ood,
Golden
good when
it
not good
is
self."^^
The absence
much
another.^^
the
of
is
shall not do unto another whatever
as
and
ones
one's great
to
inferiors
one's
good qualities implies
their
expresses
this
presence
implies
in
various
itself
forms, such as avarice, anger, jealousy, slander,
enmity, selfishness, hatred, revenge, stubbornpride.
ness,
have a value
Although things
become a ground *'
The
attributes
discontented "
for the sin
of covetousness.
Dk. Vol. XI.
make men cause them to
of avarice
"^
and
7.
world
they can easily
«« Dk. XII. 31. fi7 Dk. Bk. VI. Vol. X. f.H
of this
own,
of their
14.
6» D(l. 271 7o Us. 7.
;
quite
seek
AnAtm.
1.
BENEVOLENCE shadowy good.
145
Avaricious people are repre-
The
sented as severely punished.
man was had it
'*
stretched
much
collected
wealth and he consumed
not himself, and neither gave
a share to the good
The
headlong into world, gave
<^
oven.'*'^
demon
nor
place,
nor allowed
it
in store."
^^
thrown
were
persons
" in
the
caravanserai
for
because
hell,
no
Form no
these
covetous desire; so that
may
of greediness
and the treasure tasteless
but kept
it,
nor lodging, nor space, nor baking
travellers,
the
;
some
of
souls
soul of a
upon a rock, because he
to
world
the
of
thee,
and
may
that
of
are
two
"There
unperceived."^^''
not deceive thee, not
the
be
spirit
most
evil
vices pertaining to a perverse intelligence of a
miserliness and animosity. "^^
lower order
" Whosoever
whosoever
is
is
liberal
niggardly
is
is
and
praiseworthy
despicable."
^^
"
One
should not be immoderately covetous as regards
power and wealth." science as ice,
^^The heart and con-
which are the abodes
and 7 1 7 2 7 3
10
^^
it is
of avarice, are cold
the meanness and the coldness (of
AV. 174; AV. 200. Mkh. 10.
198.
7 4 Dk. IV. 198. '^ Dk. V. 351. 7 6 Dk. XII. 56.
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS
146
the man) which show him to be avaricious."-'^ One ought not to be excessively desirous of
good
''From greediness
things.''^
arises
cor-
ruption and from corruption perplexity and evil "'^
heart."
''
thinks
it
world."
'^'^
That man has the worst
right If
one
man of
to
power he
is
the
in
of
spirit
of wrath
heaven.
is
'^'^
one ''
In
more seemly who, when he
indulges his wrath,
and not
A
do evil deeds. ^-
The suppression
ways of arriving
the
heart on obtaining
anger by the
subdue
should
this
cannot obtain reverence
him strength
endurance.'-^
who
Anger makes man ungrateful
and honour.^^ and gives
sets his
he
material wealth,
desires,
amass the riches of
to
commit
Jealousy creates in
is
sin
able to allay the wrath,
and gratify himself."
man
'^^
the desire of destroy-
happy condition and
teaches
ing
another's
him
to
entertain vicious hopes about others. "^°
A man
should subdue jealousy by good inten-
tions.'^'
man
is
Slander makes
most odious who
fault-finder 7 7
7 8 T->
men unworthy.
and a
Dk. IX. 555. Dk. XII. 62. Dk. XII. 69.
HO Dk. III. 129. 8 1 Dk. VII. 492.
bitter 8 2 8 3
^4 8.>
is
^"^
That
a proud tormentor,
slanderer of men.^^
Gs. 8. Gs. 26.
Mkh. Mkh.
75.
77.
8 6
Qs. 8. Qs. 26. «« Gs. 8. »» Gs. 17. 8 7
BENEVOLENCE
147
Arda-Viraf found that those, who, Jaad committed
and embroiled people
slander
had their tongues put
to'gether,
mitting slander
a
is
world
in the
very heinous
Com-
out.^°
"Com-
sin.^
mit no slander, so that infamy and wickedness
may
not happen unto thee.
slander
is
For
said that
it is
more grievous than witchcraft rush of every fiend
in hell the
is
;
and
to the front,
but the rush of the fiend of slander, on account of the
grievous sinfulness
Slander
is
one
the
of
to
is
the soul full of blemishes.^^ abstain from
slander,
not depart through .and
good works,
his antagonist
be
the
who has
A man
should
the performance of duties
so long as
of
sins.
he does not make Slander
eaten
dead matter. "^^
said to
like
is
The
Angra Mainyu.^°
" the evil
abjures
is
"Every one who
slander about any one
pride was created by thustra
render
the sin of which ''doe&
satisfied."^''"
greatest
indulges in
the rear."^-
which
vices
mind, and
obedience, arrogance and falsehood."
^^
him
sin
of
Zaraall dis-
'^'Goin-
mio no sin from stubbornness or shame. "^^^ "JSe f'« AV. 189, 174, 9iMkh;73. 9 2 Mkh. 9.
ITS.
9 3
9 ,
Dk. IV^
4 Sd. 306.
-9 5
sd. 356.
233. '
96 yd. 97 Ys.
XXXIII.
>> An
Atni.
I.
11.
7.
6.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
148
proud of and
not
indifferent to every
and every thing." °^
Hatred, discord, revenge-
A man
fulness are depreciated.
enmity by
days
hate
A man
cruel. ^^^
do
no
terrible
should not in his palmy
Harbour
anybody. ^°-
and
against
should subdue
Enmity makes men
peace.^°°
and
person
wrong
to
no revenge
any
man.^^^
Revenge, oppression and tyranny denote want of charity.
^^"^
necessary.
^^^
unhappy
To oppose revenge patience
The thought
of rendering
is
man
increases through revenge^^
MINOR VIRTUES
We
will
now
deal with other virtues and
which receive
Tices
less
elaborate
in the Zoroastrian writings than
mentis ned.
The reverence
for
treatment
those already authority, es-
pecially of the sacred beings, of priests elders, is
is
inculcated.
Much
stress,
on the virtue of obedience.
laid
that all rightly constituted persons to
be in harmony
•divine
mind, and
wishes of 99
all
in
with
the
and
of
therefore,
means
It
must
strive
dictates
of
the
due subordination
to
the
having claims upon
their reverence
MINOK VIRTUES and regard.
Obedience
terms
highest
the
constitute
way
referred to
most
the
to
beneficent
Along with the Good Mind
Ahura Mazda.^
enables us to draw near to God.- Sraosha
the will
of
God
is
who
In
practise
will
Several persons had
their
stench,
their father
souls
of
strongly
women,
reverence and obedience to their
husbands and lords
mud and
is
the
world,
other
the
an
condemned.^
strongly
In the Pahlavi writings this virtue upheld.
is
it
Disobedience or opposition
angel of obedience. to
the
in
being said to
Gathas,
the
in
is
14i^
be quite
because
well
chests plunged in
they
" distressed
and mother, in the world."
those
who had
off."
been
^
The
disobedient
unto their rulers in ihe world were likewise punished.^
Obedience
is
necessary part of a virtuous
emphasized
man
as
a
in the Ganj-i
Shayigan and Andarz-i Atarpat-i Maraspand.
A man
should not do any wrong either to his
parents or to his masters.^
Children of good
behaviour and wives who abide by the wishes of their husbands, afford the greatest delight 1
2 3
XXVIII. 6. XLIV. 16. Ys. XXXIII. 6. Ys. Ys.
* 5 6
AV. 162. AV. 188. AV, 202.
7
Gs. 27.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
150
Obedience
world. ^
this
in
parents and preceptors
respect,
listen
and
him)."^^
and act up
their words,
to
orders."
superior
(
''Love
^"^
do
not
your
be
him
''Have respect
your
Obedience in the
must
and
head
live
in
towards
(
accept
Consider
).
his
words." ^-
wishes of
accordance with the " The final
(obtained)
life is
through ready and willing obedience
and ready and willing obedience life."
'^^
the
master,
are
is
in
for
one
" obtaining the favour
:
that
God
to
God
to
deeds
Meritorious
passage described as of
man
the chief
for
to
who merit it is highly praised To obtain deliverance a man
to all
Dinkavd,
Ahura Mazda.^^
final
of
and
master
careless
your religion and community
of
orders
" Treat your father and mother with
thing.^
their
the
to
the most honourable
is
is
the
employer
whose orders one works, obedience
under
to the master,
submissiveness to the ruler, behaving respect"
fully towards everyone
duty of the child towards
its
Gs.
9
Gs. 19.
i«
An
11
14.
Atni.
1
7.
i
and ^^
to secure his
" Be
it
An Atin. 1. An Atm. 4.
i^ Dk.
And
I.
61.
known i •* i
it
is
the
and respectful
to be obedient
father
keep him pleased." «
"
^^
'
ic
love
that
among
Dk. V. 4oS. Dk. IX. 629. Dk. IV.
and
l>63.
MINOR VIRTUES deeds
the
submission kings."
men, the deed that
of
world
the
beneficial to
the habits
(
worthy teacher."
b}^ *'
is
death
not
is
or
father,
them,
mother
a sin or crime
by disobeying is
saved
forgiveness for sin.^^
;
and
if
people receive
much
and harm arising from
certainly not desirable that they
is
it
of his
desirable to distress one's priest,
disquietude,
trouble,
)
(
of his masters or lords,
obtaining his master's
It
)
The man who has become
^'^
the wages of which
commands
acknowledge
in the footsteps
Margarjan punishment
liable to
the
masters and just
disciple should
or follow
highly
is
remaining in
the
is
to one's meritorious
"The
^"
151
should give them back a reply with an aggravation.
Because their satisfaction
with the satisfaction
One should that
I
may
:
"
What
the
sacred
beinor."-o
is
your
will
think and speak and do
Obedience should be shown of
connected
therefore say always in the presence
persons
of these
of the
is
high
priests
to
the
and every
;
So
?
it."^^
commands duty
that
people perform they should perform by their authority. 17
18
*
Dk. I. 9. Dk. V. 283.
it
is
declared in the good
19 Dk. V. 271.
20 Sd. 301.
21 Sd. 302.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
152
religion that
grains
many good
they accomplish as
if
works as the leaves of the of the
or
desert,
trees,
the
or the sand-
drops
of
rain,
which they do not perform by command of the high
or to their satisfaction, no merit
priests,
whatever attains to their souls, and.
the
for
good works they have done they obtain sin as a recompense."
than one,
it
"As two wisdoms
^^
becomes
makes
therefore
enquire of the high
priests."
of age
years
fifteen
it ^^
more
expedient to *'
it
are
When man
is
necessary
that he should take one of the angels as his
own
one of the wise as his own
protection,
and one
sage,
own high
of the high
priest.
"^'^
as his
priests
In every
matter
that
comes forward, one should enquire of the wise
and
relations, so
have their advice, and
as to
not transact any business according to
own
idea
and opinion.
Frequent references the
to
humility are found in
To oppose anger man needs
Dinkard.
meekness. ^^
one's
^^
'*
A man
improves
himself
by
humility when he rises in rank by his wealth
and
good
deeds.""
''One
8 2 Sd. 266.
2 4
2 3
2« Sd. 349.
JSd.
290.
sa. 289.
should 2G Dk. 2 7
not
II. 81.
Dk. VII.
447.
be
MINOR VIRTUES sovereignty and
elated with
153
power
verily his good altogether recedes."
may
creatures,
regard
mankind
and not
in
such a way that he
of
may
because verily
towns he will be regarded as an arrogant
man and
people will be exceedingly vexed with
"
From humility God and from the
him.'^ of
;
that
best
the
as
think himself to be the best in the
A man way
should conduct himself in such a
he
because
;
^^^
spiritual belief." arises violent
arises the recognition
recognition
God
of
But from overbearingness
^^
speaking and ultimately a
loses his reputation.
man
The man who always own wisdom and
''
has such an opinion of his
good
that
qualities
intelligent
and
him,
— such
a
man
not
he
)
that he
;
is
is
is
inferior
deforms and weakens his
soul with these two vices of others). "^^
believes
is
and the other
superior to another, to
he
(
another
He who
is
(
pride and contempt
arrogant
is fit
to
be
contemptible.^^
A
feeling of healthy contentment
necessary for a good is
good which 2 8 Dk. XII. 53. '9 Dk. XII. 62.
life.
is
deemed
That act of charity
is
done with the wealth of
3
Dk. XII. 65. Bk. III. 130.
3
1
3 2
Dk. V.
331.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
154
He who
contentment.^^ is
and
wealth
and In
''^
spent in innocence
by thee ) show no sorrow Dlnkard, this virtue is
(
the
Those who are possessed of
often referred to.
the three attributes of contentment,
rank and industry, tions
with
the
quality,
when
doubt hold
without
Contentment
it
is
from
free
wanting contentment the
sown
(
mind and of
in
man )
he
is
nature,
is
If
coming world
becomes perverted of
The thought
"^^
rendered
of self-content the vice of greed
The honest
"
harmless
by
Again by increasing the virtue
self-content.
**
a good
evil seed of riches of
bereft of intellect."
injuring others
is
idleness.^^
the world and the poverty of the is
rela-
and know the
Self-existent,
necessary. ^^
is
superior
To oppose ambition content-
Self-existent.'^
ment
the
us
gives
" For things that
rest/''
cannot be obtained or grief."
the most contented
contentment
of
ease
greatest
is
life
A
the least needy.^"*
effort
is
removed.''^
accruincr from a ricrhteous
the result of appropriate habits of
contentment which are devoid of any propensity to ambition,
devoid of avarice, anxiety,
An Atm.
3 3
Gs.
11.
3c
3 4
Gs.
13.
36 Gs.
18.
Dk. 38 Dk. 3
7
1.
3 9
Dk.
II.
so.
-io
II.
81.
4
Dk. III. Dk. VII.
1
II.
lust,
84.
158.
440.
:
MINOR VIRTUES harmonious
and improved by
A
story
is
155
tendencies."
who were
told of two talented priests
drawing water from a well and supplying
work
the
of
"mobed
them accepted two
of
some one who
we
;
ness,"
a
is
them
given of
is
under
contentment
less
provided than
much
for
)
rest
Give them
•' :
better
" sinful, idle, discontented-
law-breaking
good illustration
*
(
Similarly,
use."'^^
much
is
he might need
mobeds."
of
and the
jujus,
were sent back with the words to
to
it
They were each given
tillage.
two-thousand jujus by the
Each
'^-^
courage and
ixioral
" Atropat,
misfortune.
son of Mahraspend, said thus
calamity come upon me
:
A
quality.^'*
evil
" Never has any
which
have
I
not
received with six objects of delight therefrom first ( is
that
only
)
passed
calamity
might
since worse than that
Secondly, that out of the calamities
happen.
which
my
myself that
bless
I
this,
been
have away.
in
Thirdly,
liappened not to
my
store
for
that a
soul
but
me
*2 Dk.
is
so
virtuous
has caused this
VL
424.
+3 Dk. XII.
that
to
my
the
body. I
am
4* Dk.
a
accursed
calamity unto 81.
has
calamity has
Fourthly, that I bless myself that
man who Aharman
one
11.
me 84.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
156
owing
my
to
individual
goodness.
evil
comes
me and
to
(
my )
children
me
to
(
therefore
rendered so
much
by
(
the treasures of Aharman, and he (
it
are kept
and whatever
lessens
)
but
;
children.
Aharman
of calamities for the good,
comes
my
does not reach
Sixthly, that the treasures of full
they cause
calamity that
or
reaches either myself or
every
that
Fifthly,
much
so
( is )
)
therefore
incapable of doing (wrong)
)
unto another good (man)."'^^
An
appreciation of intellectual excellence as a
factor in moral life
is
met with.
''
We
worship
the perception; we worship the intellect; we
worship the conscience." son of
'^^
Ahura Mazda,
"Give me,
knowledge
sagacity
;
quickness of tongue; (holiness of ) soul
memory
;
has
immense experience and learning
;
good
most advantageous
learned arc most
shining.'*''
most competent who Dk. XII. 35. 46 Yt. XIII. 74.
attained
is
ihe most
The companionship
eligible of men/''
46
a
not acquired
is
He who
through learn in or."'*''
is
;
and then the understanding that goes
on growing and the one that
learned
Atar,
4
is 7
;
That
the wisest. ^^'
Ny. Y.
48 Gs.
14.
10.
of the
the acts of the
*'->
-'f
man
is
From Gs.
18.
Gs.
7.
the this
MINOR VIRTUES
157
much
importance of learning, education derives of
its
Do
"
value.
not refrain from educating
your wife and children, your countrymen and
you have a son send him
to
school from his early years, for education
is
yourself."
''
^^
[f
the life-giving eye of man."
^^
^i\ j^gj^ should
try to educate themselves in a religious institution, so ihat to
know
and
(
them is
Wisdom
^^^
)
good
it
which
happens it
to
He who
than
wealth
world. ^^
of
perfect
is
rich.^^
every
the
manage and
spiritual
wisdom
in
better
is
kind
the
in
In the Dinkard, the foundations of
**
in
knowledge and
From good knowledge
wisdom, and from good wisdom disposition,
2.
An At m.
5.
^^Gs. 25. «4 Mkh. 7.
good
arises arises
and from good disposition
»iAnAtm. »•
Of
power of
Wisdom
other
(
wisdom
)
the
also
virtue are found to be laid
wisdom.
*'
through wisdom,
provide
should be considered
men
to
oneself through
foT
wisdom. "^"^
keep aloof from
possible to
is
existence
possible
existence
to
highly extolled.
is
because
;
worldly is
be able to pray (to God),
knowing
thus
the benefit
the
may
they have committed any sins
if
by
they
good arises
«»Mkh.
70.
Mkh.
89.
««
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
158
good
and from
good nature,
nature
arises
righteous action and by righteous action the
draj ^*
be
will
The source
and
of all morality
knowledge
of wise
God
originator
the
is
Creation."
from
dispelled
^^^
wise knowledge
is
wisdom and wisdom in divine
divine of
''Education
5^
world."
the
;
the
is
life
of
man-
^ind."59
Many
other virtues are referred
ation has full recognition and one of the ijolden
mean
Moderation
of Confucius. tivoid excess sin
is
and
this is
it
and of maxims
*'
The essence whereas
;
in
(
Mean
is
the mean.
x\nd from
thus manifest that virtue
is
supreme
of
the
" Everything
the Mean."^^
is
faultless
Religion,
the
^"^
and Deficiency
Excess
is
Moder-
reminded
that which would
is
deficiency.
essence of virtue
should be
of Aristotle
to.
Golden
)
Mean,
and the
this;
good thought, good
word, and good deed."^^
Every virtue has a
tendency
corresponding vice.
(Golden)
to give place to a
This follows from the psychological fact that every
man
tendencies.
fis
Dk. VII.
f'».:Dk.
constituted
is '*
These
442.
XII. 28.
,6
several
1
6 2
by
a
variety
goodnesses
Dk. Bk. VI. Vol K. 11/ Dk. Bk. VJ. Vol X. 12.
of
and
MINOR VIRTUES
159
blemishes do not subsist in a particular person
and
at
and
in every age."^^^
but in every person
particular time,
Temperance
in drinking
and eating
upheld
is
as a conspicuous form of moderation.
and bad temper
possible for good
It is
^'
to
come
to
He who is a when he drinks wine, is
manifestation through wine."^''
good-tempered man,
such like as a gold or silver cup which, how-
much more they burn
ever
and
brighter.
It
words, and deeds more virtuous
thoughts,
his
and he becomes
;
and pleasanter unto wife and
gentler
companions and
friends,
in every duty and good is
becomes purer
it,
keeps
also
and
is
work.
more
And
child,
diligent
he who
when he drinks wine,
a bad-tempered man,
thinks and considers himself more than nary.
He
carries
displays insolence,
and
makes
acts arrogantly to a
his
tresses
servant
;
own
wife
ridicule
peace,
child,
and brings
But the moderate drinking
is
72.
«*
He slave
and
the good,
of in
dis-
discord."^^
good since -fit
digests the food, kindles the vital
^^3" Dk. XII.
and mockery,
good person.
and
and dissipates the joy
''carries off
ordi-
on a quarrel with companions,
fire,
increases
Mkh. 467^ «* -Mkh.
47.*
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
160
understanding and
the
removes
blood,
and
inflames
the
In the Dinkard also this
complexion." ^^
From immoderation
**
recosfnised.
semen and
intellect,
vexation
is
arises full
heaviness, and from full heaviness unhealthiness -and
from unhealthiness death."
Gratitude
a good
is
not to be ungrateful
^^
One ought
quality.^*^
towards the good
spirits
and towards mankind.^^ One should pronounce thanksgiving
for
the
welfare
(
emanating
)
good people, but one should not curse
from
the evil people for the mischief **
work.^°
When
a
upon any one
or kindness
which
person confers a it
is
they
benefit
necessary that
the latter should understand the value of
it,
and lay the obligation upon himself; and,
if
he be able he should provide a benefit to that
amount great
that person."
for
sin
;
the
himself and
A
sinner
sense
^^
is
Ingratitude
akin to
is
Aharman
punished by him.^^
is
of justice
is
essential.
Justice
man should not take worthy man or that a learned
requires that an unworthy
advantage over a ««
Mkh.
« T
Dk. XII. 67
a
47. ;
also B. VI. V.
XII. 52. B. VI. V. XII. 49. «• Dk. II. 72.
•» Dk. XII. 63. ^ « Dk. XII. 9. ' »
Sd. 357.
'« Sd. 357.
MINOR VIRTUES
161
person should not be governed by an unlearned
man
person or a vicious
should not exercise
man."
authority over a virtuous
embodiment
the
His
Rashnu
of the principle
administration
of justice
^'
of
is
justice.
renders
no
favour on any side, neither for the righteous, nor yet the wicked, neither for the lords, nor
As much
yet the monarchs. will not
it
he who
is
equally,
and has no
turn,
a
partiality
and monarch
lord
it
and
;
considers
with him who
in its decision,
is
the
^^He who keeps his own
least of mankind.""''
and law,
self to justice
as a hair's breadth
will not then practise
own
injury to others for his
benefit
;
and
will
not do for others whatever he does not think
proper for his
own
self.""^
and impartiality
fairness
"
towards other religions.
any
there be
The same is
If in
worth
writings
to
be
spirit of
observed
other countries reading,
new,
ameliorating, good, and divinely inspired, these
should
be
And whatever
procured....
writings of other nations
not be accepted." <*
refers to 7
3
Gs. 16.
7
4
Mkh. 11
the
18. also
^^
A
is
Dk. Bk. VIII.
the
unbelievable should
section of the
advantage
in
Dinkard
from just judges,
73.
7* Dk. XII. 70. ?« Dk. IX. 605.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
162
harm from unjust sentencing and
sxnd the
false
So, also, the advantage from truly
decisions.
demanding, truly answering, and assisting th& just."
The reason why
-^
Mazda, and
of -Ahura
lire
is
moon and sun
created better than the stars and
and
man
a righteous
called
is
in
revelation greater and better than the spiritual
and worldly creation,
lies in
wisdom and
his
justice."'''
An
appreciation of the
security is
found
is
in these writings.
disapproved of:
weapon
"
his hand,
in
brandish
it
it,
is
reign
[f it
man
a is
law and
of
All violence
rise
up
wir.h a
an Agerepta
an Avaorishta
;
if
;
smite a man, with malicious after-thouo-ht
an Aredus
;
upon the
a Peshotanu."
"'^
All
fifth
The
praised.
A man
desirable.
7 7
Thrift
Self-control
is
is
on a
is
very
should not submit to bodily
That man commands our greatest
^^
aft'ection
is
" Let the wrath
thrifty tiller of the soil
level with the righteous. ^^
desires.
it
attempts at employing
rapine be cast down."'^^
of
he
Aredus he. becomes
brute force are condemned.
demon
if
he actually
"
who
well represses his evil passions
Uk. Bk. VIII.
7« Dd. 11. 7» Va. IV.
17.
102.
«o Ys. «i Ys. «8 Gs.
XLVIII.
XXIX. 7.
5.
7.
MINOR VIRTUES by
sense
his
of
fear
evil
of
shame,
of
endurance,
powers
163
his anger
reputation,
avarice
his
contentment, and his quarrels by justice." '*
Cheerfulness
^^
Open-mindedness
virtues,
is
and
b}^
his his
his
his sense of )
(
a recognized virtue^
cheerfulness
whereof the opposite
(
are
)
(is) cynicism,"'^''-
manifest that mournfulness and cynicism
It is
should be done away with/'^ insio'ht
(as
by
by
his jealous}^
'^
it
ation
into
)
There
nature of the
the
makes trouble"
is
a keen
human mind
for itself
by imagin-
''One should not have
in the precept:
worry and sorrow for anything that has not
Prudence
reached him."^'= it
known
that he
is
is
mentioned.
prudent among
''Be
men who
abstains from utterino- and commitiincr the sin that has occurred to his mind.
prudent (man)
is
And
the more
he who abstains from thinking
him in desire. he who adopts ways
of the sin. which has occurred to
And
the most prudent
and means that
Want The
his
of decenc}^
Avill
is
is
may
refrain from sin,"
^^
considered want of sense.
who " walked without ran about uncovered, made water on the
souls of the persons
shoes, 8 3.
Gs, 14.
8 4
Dk. XII.
.
43.
8 6
Dk.XII.
47.
8 6
Dk..XIL.
54.
8 7
Dk. VI.
392.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
164
had
foot "
to suffer
*'
severely.*^**
possible one should not expose (the -cold
as
far
body);-"
and hot winds should be guarded
winds
And
^against.
As
besides
clean
a
this
dress,
protecting the body, should be put on according
work
to the requirements of one's
Good reputation
tion."^^ -of
praise.
It
most fragrant thing
the
is
The man «ecureth good name the world.^^
best recompense."
cultivated *'
He who
and
or occupa-
always an object
is
'*
who is
in
the obtainer of the
Good company should be
*^^
evil society
should be avoided.
walks in good society makes
business of his to injure people."
of the good
men
in
both the worlds
is
'^^
The
the best thing.-^
no-
it
society ''
One
should always be diligent in (one's) conference with the good people."
'K)ne should
^"^
•co-operate nor consort with stupid, selfish lustful
men
;
not
and
since he always comes to disgrace
and helplessness who co-operates and enjoys company with stupid, selfish and lustful men." -"^
A
life
of
public
usefulness
which people have no right 8 8
AV.
172.
«» Dk. IX. 037. »• Gs. 19.
»i
Dk. IX.
»« (Is-. •a Gb.
12.
17.
is
a duty from
to shrink.
627.
<*
To
Dk. XII. 12. «« Dk. XII. 50.
»-»
MINOR VIRTUES
men who
those wise
choose
161V
to
from
retire
the post conferred on
them by the king, or
who, in order that they
may
in content-
live
ment, give up the business or service which was entrusted to them, tain such
no
—
enter-
good notions of securing happiness,
benefit can accrue in life
ment
those that
to
(of their work)."^^
by this relinquish-
For the proper care
the kings should
of public interests,
fulfil
the
upon them.
A
king should possess certain good qualities.
He man
high obligations incumbent
must be of good
religion; he
of good conscience
;
must be a
he must possess forbear-
ance, love of his subjects, cheerfulness of heart,,
He
simplicity.
should look to the prosperity
of his subjects, promote the worthy
and punish
the wicked, do justice to people in open courts
and above
follow the will of God.^^
It is
often emphasised that above all a king
exists
all
that
governments
not peoples for
governments.
for the sake of his subjects,
are for peoples and
'*^A best
worthy sovereignty
is
(means of) protection of
sovereign
is
great
»T
Dk.
its
^^
of the
subjects.
dignified by
or
the care of his people." »« Dk. IX. 608.
the result
A.
reason of
" The learned kings^
III. 180-3.
9 8
Dk. VI. 422.
;
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
Jee
-of
the
with the view
State,
high degree of fulfilment
),
efficiency,
by
Divine
noble aspirations, learned, the
such
illustrious,
of ruling with a
should strive (for the Grace, as
of
new and
encouraging
the
and the churitable
being grateful towards those who are loyal to
and have
aftection for the State;
conferring of
bounty on the supplicants, and on those that -are in
solicitude
owing
to
poverty
;
gratifying
with a good and befitting remuneration annually the learned
men who may
be in constant
anxiety for having, to labour for their food and livelihood."
^9
»o Dk. IX. 009.
CHAPTER
IX
THE ETHICAL IN LEGAL KEEERENXES ZOROASTRIAN LITERATURE
IX
The main document regarding the criminal law of ancient Iran, which has survived
own
times,
the Vendldad,
is
of the Iranians.'
us
V
I
reef
e.
g.
to
our
Leviticus
the
Some Pahlavi
information
legal
writings give
Shayast
the
la
Dadisfan-l-Dinih and the Arda
the
Shaijast,
'
yamah.
Two
types
breakers
of
law —penalties
of
some main kinds. grave
punishments
they
inflicted here.
sin,^
punishment 1
2
earth
and
But some crimes are so not warded ofi' by
Vd. I. 12. Vd. VII. 23.
These are called
Among
these are
the eating
dead matter,^
and
self-pollution.'*
the burying of the dead,^ •Capital
on
for
are
^^anaperetha' 'unatonable.' the unnatural
store
in
Of the former, there are
penalties hereafter.
that
are
penalties
is
reserved 3
4
Vd. I. 13, Vd. VIII.
for
certain
17.
27,
.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
168
Margarjan' is often The term employed to mean worthy of death/ This punishment is meted out expressly in two cases. The man who carries a corpse alone and the man who pretends to cleanse one oftences.
'
'
dead matter or one infected with
defiled with
a
disease,
pestilential
without the necessary
knowledcfe, render themselves
liable
punishment. One instance indeed
where an attempt person
seems
treated
is
be
to
more
man
its
defilement
train general
affects seriously
Another punishment
only.
""
The reason
of
sort in
murder usually
disease, while
mentioned
But generally
lightly.
the
that
mentioned above brings one
this
to take the life of another
said to deserve death.
is
murder
is
to
is
the
cutting off of the hands and similar parts of
punishment
the body.
Darius
on a
But the most common punishment
is (
^
rebel.^
that of inflicting a certain
upazanas
ashfra
(
'
the
),
» «
number
of stripes
with the two implements, aspahe
whip
horse
charana (scourge). of five
this
inflicted
stripes,
)
and the Sraosho-
The lowest penalty
the
highest
is
that
is
that
of ten
Karnamaki^ArtakhshirPapakan, IX. 16-17. Old Persian Inscriptions on Mount liehistan, IL 74,
8fl.
THE ETHIC AL
IN
LEGAL REFERENCES
The crime
thousand.
or
16»
criminal deserving-
two hundred stripes are called Pesho-tanu or Tanii-peretha
(
which means 'One ), own body' and payment
Tanafur
who pays with
his
'
There are varying degrees-
with one's body,'
between the lowest penalty and Pesho-tanu.
Now many
scholars are led to believe that
it
extravagant that minor crimes could actually
is
accompanied
be
with
heavy
such
physical
punishments, and some other interpretation sought.
murder
For instance,
ten
stripes.
derived not
is
to strike, but
Hence
the
the
from Av. ''Az"
drive
offender
many
of those
tit
to be driven
so
many
term
from Av. ''Zan"' to drive.
the translation of the formula runs thus
so
is-
the
that
perpetrator the punishment
its
thousand
*'upazana"
absurd
is
water-dog could have actually
of a
brought upon of
it
Then *'
Let
away (from the country)
noxious animals,
which are
away with the horse-whip and
with the Sraosho-charana.
Thus the
community will derive some substantial benefit and at the same time punishment will be inflicted."^ Or as we see in the later Pahlavi writ-^ 7
This view
is
strongly
supported by
Civilisation of Ancient Iran.
Geiger.
The
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
170
ings,
punishment
the bodily
stripes are
It is
hundred and
is
fifteen
rupees
reasonable to inquire into the principle penalties
Here
various crimes.
Vendidad
the
are
adjusted
useful to
not a civil
to
remember but
code,
administered mostly
law
Hence we observe that while
the priests.
transgressions
is
it
is
includes a criminal l)y
for
hundred
therefore ec^ual to nearly six rupees.
upon which these that
remitted
considered equal to three hundred
stars or thirteen
a stripe
is
In the Revaets, two
a money-tine.
against
precepts are
religious
severely punished, offences against public order,
which are
tried
by
secular
the
tribunal
are
accompanied by milder punishments.
But we
while
homicide
arc is
still
surprized to find that
punished with ninety stripes, ihe murder of
a water-dog carries ton thousand
that affect
all
with
violations
disastrously
it
of the
the
a homicide affects one
the
punishment of
The reason seems
stripes.
to
he
hiws of sanitation
whole population, but
man
only.
The ancient
priests might have based the severity of punish-
ment
in the case of a
value for
the
general
dog upon the enormous well-being
^ittachcd to that creature.
which
they
THE ETHICAL
LEGAL KEFEKENCES
IX
171
by
All punishments are generally dealt out
But
the priests or the legal authorities. certain cases, any
man
can take the law
in
into
own hands and inflict the punishment Thus any man who catches in the
his
himself. ..act,
the sodomite, the courtesan, the highway-
man, the corpse-burner, might however, offences,
these
and non-repetition of the act
are suthcient fur him.
'^
Id ambio'uous cases where identify the ;
If,
without knowing the sinfulness of his
actions, confession
to
him.
commits
non-Zoroastrian
a
kill
offender,
it
was not easv
to
the ordeal was resorted
appealing thus to the invisible powers to
Siyavush passed through
decide the matter.
two burning piles of wood and issued safe
;
and
thus his innocence was established. Sometimes the ordeal was performed Avith boiling water.
Now
us turn to offences.
let
All
breach of
^contracts was accompanied with severe punish-
rments.
a
If
man
broke a word-contract, he
^was punished with
^ach
type,
^
if
three
hundred ^^
liiindred stripes of ea<jh type, ^
Yd. IIL
40.
stripes of
he broke a hand-contract, six
»
Vd. IV.
11.
•
If
he broke a
10 Vd. l¥. 12.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
172
sheep-contract, if
with seven hundred
^^' ;
an ox-contract was broken, the punishment
was of eight hundred man-contract and a
punished
ively
A
^-
stripes.
field- contract
with
but his near
relations in all
held to be a party to the
breach of a
were respect-
hundred and
nine
thousand stripes of both kinds.
to
stripes
a
Not only he
^^
these cases will be
and
sin,
undergo similar punishment.
will
be liable
^"^
Bodily injuries also brought with them penal-
Seven types of outrages are mentioned
ties.
in
the Vendidad.
The crime hand stance
of rising
is
five stripes,
Araorishta
weapon, stripes
and
*'
he is
hundred
repetition. ^^ is
guilty
of
a
this
times
the
wTYvTls.
1
»
V(l.
IV.
14.
1
»
»
;
V(i.
IV.
15, 16.
1
«
2
but
Ten time
seventh
Here the it
rises to-
^^ for the sixth repetition.
»* V(l. IV. 5-10.
»
first
the
for
(
brandishes a
(8) A)'ednt< (wound).
1
^^
offence.
fifteen stripes at first,
two hundred stripes
first in-
reaches two
it
man
the punishment for
two
penalty
blow" when is
till
eighth time.
for the
stripes,
in the
in one's
but with the repetition of
the act, the punishment rises
himdred
''stroke.'*
up with a weapon
The penalty
agerepta.
is
(1) Agerepta
^^
Vd. IV. va. IV.
17.
is-20.
17 I
«
Yd. IV. Va. IV.
22, 25.. 26.
29_
THE ETHICAL -/4)
Xvara
IN
LEGAL REFERENCES
wound,'
^sore
thirty stripes for the
hundred
wound first
'
the
carries
Tepetition
first
is
punished
which
is
The
bone-breaking.'
seventy
haodhah
single
-"^
(6) Asto-hid
first oflPence is
stripes
and
'
tanafur
the
is
(7) Fraza-
unconscious
rendering
punishable
causing
or
The penalty is ninety stripes and repetition makes a tanafur.^^
Thefts
a
and robberies were duly punished.
The punishment
fining or mutila-
either
is
tion or imprisonment.
Theft of a dirham cost
the oftender two dirhams, one ear,
and
two
hundred
raised to two
reached on the third repetition.-^
•death.'
to
(5) For takat-vohiini ^bloody the punishment is fifty stripes for the
ofif'ence,
with
fifth
stripes.^-
stripes, for the fourth repetition. '*
with,
crime and the
punishment
17^
a slight imprisonment.--^
dirham meant a
fine of four
ten blows
Theft of another
dirhams, forfeiture
of both ears, thirty blows and double imprisonment.^''
third
The
hand was cut
right
repetition
and
dirhams was punishable by
was compelled
2 1
Vd. IV.
37, 39.
on the
hundred
hanging.-'-^
A robber
of
restore property four times
to
19 Vd. IV. 30, 33. «o Vd. IV. 34, 36.
of^
five
theft
2 t
Vd. IV.
2 3
Sd. 326.
4
Sd.327.
2
40, 42.
2 ^
Sd. 327.
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS
17J
i\>
much
had taken and was even
as he
if
public safety required
is
held a serious crime.
The defilement hundred
stripes
buried.-^ if
of the earth, a sacred element^
It
A
inflicted
is
on a
man who
he luiows
fails
to
be
the period extends to a year.-^ If the neglect
extends
two
to
the
years,
A
unatonable.-"^
otl:ence
becomes
penance
severe
of
state
culprit
taken
is
where he
will be
way
lonely
place,
given the coarsest food and
Avorn-out clothes. this
dry
a
to
is
The
ordained for carrying the corpse alone.
of
five
a thousand stripes,
to
rai.scd
is
punishment of
which
a corpse
disinter
to
killed^
it.-^
his neck
Mazda docs not
And is
Avhen
he grows old in
ot!'.^^
If a
cut
fasten
'
worshipper
the well, so that the
corpse eating dogs, and birds carry the bones to the water
and the
trees,
his sin
amounts
to
The punishment amounts to four hundred stripes, where a man who has touched a corpse touches water and trees without being
tanafiir.''^
a person
cleansed.-^'-
If
matter
water
to
_______
'
2 7
va.
ii[.
3(3.
2« Vd. III. 37. 2'-»
Vd.
III. :w.
and
wilfully fire,
he
carries is
worthy
so va. III. 15,21. 3 Vd. VI. 47, 48. 3 2 Vd. VIU. 104, 106. 1
dead of
THE ETHICAL Waste
de.itli.^^^
unnecessary cloth on the
of
dead bodies brings with ing from four hundred
worshippers
If the
Avhereon
do^js
Peshotanus.^^^
they shall
thousand
Mazda
of
man
Feshotanus,
are
also
for
may
they are
be there.
a
till
it
and
is
it
on
thirty
if
grease or
ground,
the
to
reaches a thousand
orround.-^-^
The man who
a house in which a nicrhts in
man
winter and a
the
The penalty
stripes."
the body or the dead dog or a
on the
-^^^
dead man, as large as the
gradually for greater and gre.iter
ment,
if
any bones^
throw on the ground a bone of
marrow How from punishment
ground
They
of the little finger
top joiuL
of
^-^
sow or
died,
dead dog, or of
rises
shall
not look on the ground
shall
stripes.
and men have
dung, urine, or blood that
hair,
a
punishment rang-
a
it
to a
withia the year, the piece
water,
if a
REFERENCES
IN LE(iAL
stripes,
man
is
when
thrown
brinc^s fire into
has died, within nine
month
in
summer
be-
comes a Peshotanu.^'^
The
sin of cooking a corpse
34 3 5 3 6
331).
Vd. VIII. 23-25. Vd. VI. 4, 5. Vd. VI. 8, 9.
unatonable and
The man who
punishable with death. '^^ ^^ Sd.
is
3 7 3 8 3i.
4
Yd. VI. 10, 11. Vd. VI. 24, 25. Vd. V. 43, 44. Vd. I. 17. VIII.
has^
73-4.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
176
carcase
the
of
-«atea
is
His barrow shall be dug out,
unclean for ever. his heart
dog or a man
of a
be torn out,
shall
bright eyes
his
shall be put out/^
penalties attached to any maltreatment
The <>f
dog
kills .thous-
of the creatures of the Evil Spirit
and
sheep
protects
-smite a shepherd's for
A
dogs are very rigorous.
ands
man
a
If
cattle.
dog so that
becomes
it
and shall unfit
work, he shall pay for the loss due to the
The
mischief."^-
means
The from
killing
hundred
penalty of eight
a
shepherd-dog
a
of
stripes.'*'
penalty as regards some other dogs varies five
hundred
to
a thousand
But the murder of a water-dog punishment
the heaviest stripes or
thousand
equivalent.
its
He
stripes
piously bring
He
shall
pay ten
godly
shall
into the fire of
it
thousand
ten
of *'
stripes.''^
carries with
and
Ahura Mazda
ten thousand hard, well-dried, well-examined
wood, to redeem his own soul
^odly and piously
Baresma
He
tie
;"
or "
He
shall
ten thousand bundles of
shall offer
up
to
the
good
waters ten thousand Zaothra libations with the 4
1
4 2
Va. VII. 24. va. XIII. 10.
*3 Vd. XIII. 4 4 Vd. XI II.
12. 4, 12-15.
THE ETHICAL
Haoma and
liS
LEGAL REFERENCES
He
milk.
the
shall
177
ten
kill
thousand snakes of those that go upon the
Other noxious creatures such as
belly."
may
waterfrogs,
land-frogs,
toises,
ants,
tor-
worms,
men
be killed, or he shall give to godly
twice the set of seven implements for the
fire,
or war- implements to warriors or agricultural
implements
the husbandman,
to
or procux'e
water for them or stables for their oxen, or he
promote marriage between the
shall
Heavy
penalties
attached
are
with
offences connected
faithful. to
"^-^
various
A
sexual relations,
worshipper of Mazda who suppresses the issue of
woman
a
Peshotanu.''^
with If a
the
man
lasciviously touch the
has the
whites
or
becomes
whites,
shall again
a
and again
body of a woman, who
sees
blood,
the
that
so
whites turn to the blood or the blood turns to the whites,
the
penalty for
the
first
time
is
thirty stripes, for the second time fifty stripes, for
the
third time
seventy
fourth time ninety stripes/^ lie
stripes,
for
Whosoever
in sexual intercourse with a
the shall
woman who
has the whites or sees blood, does no better 4* VdrXIV. *6 Vd. XVL
12
1-18. 13.
*7 V(l.
XVL
14-16.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS deed than
own
If the act
man
the
wilfully,
ment
he should burn the corpse of his
if
son/^
shall
thousand
of a
done by both parties
is
undergo the punish-
and atone
stripes,
by other meritorious deeds such thousands sacred
it
as killing of
creatures,
and building
offerings,
The crime a
noxious
of
for
making
of
of
bridges/'-
woman who has brought forth child and who drinks water to
of a
still-born
quench her
thirst
amounts
to a tanafur.^^^
A
man who has intercourse Avith a pregnant woman and if the pregnant woman comes to grief
becomes a Peshotanu.^^
thereby,
unnatural sin
unatonable
is
But
if it is
submitted
to.^-
penalty
is
eight hundred stripes.
deed
done with a
to
if
punishment.
if
1
Vd.
is
woman
then the
forced ^^^^
The same
is
equally liable
Va.
A'lII. 27.
^^
4 8 Vd. XVI. 16, 17. 49 Vd. XVIII. 67-74. 5 Vd. VII. 70-72. 5
it
XV.
S.
-'^
-3 Vd. VIII. ^-'4
The
voluntarily
Sd. 26S.
26.
CHAPTER X THEOTJMUCAJ. AND METAPHYSICAL IDEAS Principles of moral conduct
are
generally
rooted in philosophical and religious concep-
A man's conduct may depend very much upon his view concerning his own nature
tions.
and place
in the
universe.
The general
about himself and his relations
and
God
to
to the
ideas
universe
largely determine a man's stand-
point in morality.
The
ethical
and theological
aspect of thought being thus closely connected
with each other, the nature and character of
one
bound
is
to
intiuence
character of the other.
Hence
trianism. idea
of
This
the is
to arrive at
Zoroastrian
ethics
nature
and
true of Zoroasa
well-defined
we must
briefly
examine the fundamental principles of Zoroastrianism in their ethical connection.
Central in Zoroastrianism
God,
the
supreme
power
is
the doctrine of
dominating
the
J
ZOKOASTHIAN ETHICS
so
and
universe,
and
and prayers are
are sacred
tire
Ahura Mazda.
called
before them-, but
is
it
The sun oftered up
always understood that
these are nothing more than symbols.
Zara-
thustra preaches no worship of natural forces in the
modern sense
of
The Gathas
worship.
show that no natural object however great powerful
may
in
any way occupy
or
a position
similar to that of
Ahura Mazda.
means that there
are higher categories in the
This clearly
philosophy of Zoroaster than those of matter an d
force.
spiritual
The is
means the
It
element
as fundamental
evident.
If
the universe
atoms,
life
must be
chance.
As nature
directed,
and
also
of his
to
be
()f
ethics
something more
a chaotic whirl of
more than
man, having
impulses.
is
appears
controlled,
there seems
relation to
forces^
in reality.
upon Parsi
influence of such beliefs
than a blind play of
of the
recoo^nition
to
a
game
be
of
guided,
by some agency, so a superior eflect
power
in
upon the play
this Zarathustra
in
the
Gathas has no shadow of doubt. Mention of two powers Parsi religious writings; the
made in most Good and the Evil,
is
Ahura Mazda and Ahriman.
What, relation
THEOLOGICAL
.S;
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
to the other
have these, one
?
"
Thus
181
are the
primeval spirits who as a pair and yet each
(They
(of old).
are) a better thing, they two,
as to thought, as to word,
and a worse
'^Yea
deed."^
been famed
have
independent in his action,
when
two
the
as to
come
spirits
at the first to make life, and life's and to determine how the world at
together absence, last shall
be
the worst
life,
(
for the
ordered
),
for the
holy
mental state."-
(
wicked
heaven
hell
(
)
the best
)
This seems to mean that there
were two powers from the beginning, the one the author of
good things, the other the author
all
But the two powers have not equal
of all evil.
Zoroastrianism recognises the absolute
status.
and unqualified superiority
of the
The
evil
omniscient and almighty.^^
He
over the
one.
evil
good
spirit is
spirit
is
not
in darkness;
he has a backward understanding; and he will not exist in future/ as
Dy
If
we
place
independent origin, evil spirit, t
«
is
impotent. ^
Casartelli sajs, the question
terms.
of
He
Ys. Ys.
is
Thus,
a question
emphasis upon the
and the capacity of the
the system becomes dualistic.
XXX. XXX.
3.
-i
4
4
Bd. Bd.
I.
16.
I.
3.
«
Bd.
I.
22.
If
:
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
182
we, however, lay greater stress on his
ence and ultimate extinction,
impot-
system
the
is
monistic.
The
therefore,
universe,
analysis
is
is
in
Evil
But while
it.
upon
based
which
here established evil,
of death, *'
the forces of
is
there,
conflict
ethical structure
sharp
the
Ahura says
only a temporary
evil
securely
and the
is
The whole
inexorable.
is
ultimate
its
to be regarded as the expression of
the goodness of God.
phase
in
distinction
between life
the
to
is
the
i'ood
and the forces wicked one
Neither our minds are in harmony, nor our
precepts, beliefs,
nor
comprehensions,
our
nor
our
nor our words, nor our action^, nor our
consciences, nor our souls."
The supremacy be seen from
Ahura Mazda may
of
the
^
attributes ascribed to
Ahura Mazda means
the
''
wise lord."
also
Him.
He
is
omniscient," almighty, righteous,^ the creator'^
He has no beginning and no end.'^ He is the discerning arbiter.-- He is He is self-existhe same now and for ever.^'^
and benevolent,
fi
Ys.
XIX.
7
Ys.
«
Ys.
XXXIV. 9. XXIX. 11.
15.
^'^'
» Ys. i« Ys. 1
1
Ys.
XXIX. 4. XLV. o.
XXX.
8.
12 Ys. i3 Y^.
XXIX. XXXI.
4. 7.
THEOLOGICAL
He
tent.^'*
He He
^'^
Ahura Mazda
Him
help
"^urround
Manah,
''
is
;
^^
183
kind father ^^
like a
unlimited
of
is
time and
wise and sagacious.
^"^
willing instruments to
finds
which
ministering angels,
the
in
METAPHYSICAJ. IDEAS king
like a
is
or a judge. ^"
knowledge.
.^^
—
These are Vohu six Him. Good Mind," Asha, " Eighteousness,"
Khshathra Vairya
''
wished
for
kingdom," Arm-
"Devotion" Haurvatat ''Perfection" and " Immortality." Each of these
aiti,
Ameretat,
embodies some
specific virtue
some function there
are
as
a
for sanctity
which are the
ones,"
They
are
the
sacrifices
and Geush animal
the
14 Dk. ^'
If-
''
holy
on another order " adorable ones."
People
to
offer
prayers
them and they grant boons
in return.
1
of
innumerable and embody abstract
ideas or natural objects.
and
spirit
Spentas, the
later
of spirits, the Yazatas,
Then
Ashi standing
spirits of
Amesha
we meet with
fire,
Tashan
Geush
and
Next to the
life.
also performs spirit.
Sraosha representing the
Obedience, Atar representing
Urvan,
and
guardian
I.
33.
Dk. I. 36. Dk. VII. 441.
Dk. VII. 473. Dk. IX. 594. 19 Dk. XII. 26. 17
1
«
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
184
Against Ahura Mazda and his angels stand
Ahriman and
He
army. Evil
death
He
as
He
independent of the Good
is
regards his
He
/''^
is
He
origin.
full
is
and the worst
a tyrant,
of
liar.
a great deceiver and leads people to de-
is
He
struction. -^^
the
is
author of disease and
But his ultimate annihilation
death.^^ tain.
styled
spirit.
spirit
demons who constitute his '* Angra Mainyu " or the
the
is
is
cer-
His followers are his creation and they
^^
They
support his cause.
are
doomed
also
to
misery and destruction. glimpses
All
ed
moral
vouchsaf-
truth
Zarathustra and to the other saints are
to
due
into
to
from
inspiration received
the
according to their faith. Ahura Mazda
have appointed " a
'^
to
he has made. "
whom
those
teach
ness."
Creator,
us the
"And
-^
just, controlling
come
The Gathas
to
are all
with told
He
is
said to
guide for
besought
through righteous-
paths
Lord, the great
do thou,
me
-^
is
God
Thy Good Mind."
by
Ahura Mazda
-^
to
As regards Mathre, it is said that ''no portion of them is (composed) by the
Zarcosht.
-'
2" Yt. 111.18. 2
1
22
Vd. XIX. lid.
111.
3.
17.
-« Ys. XXVIH. 23 Bd. I. '^. 37 Dk. 1.3. ^4 Ys. LI. 5. 2K Ys. XXXn.l'J.
7.
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS wisdom
of
man and
number
from a
(
not obtained by
man ),
but
it
portion) of that wisdom,-
reasoning faculty
the
made known by
is
er."
But God does not
beloved in tjets
There
sleep.
questions of the
truth
for
strive
supreme
The
;
"Be
through
known
it
who
All ethical
spirit.
the saints
saint
he must ask
and religious truth comes from God especially
to the
here no Yogi
divine illumination in trance.
must actually
man,
to
and prophets.
the Yazds shine in
that,
of
Reveal-
its
give truth is
(
the giver of
existence to Mazdiasni religion and -^
"The Mazdi-
for the professors of the
asni religion-every is
they could not be composed
of current traditions."-^
wisdom intended
18&
men
owing to (their) g-oodness and cease to shine owing to(their) evil."
^^
" Be
it
known that,
of the
many
evidences of the Mazdayasnian faith being the
word that it
of it
God, these three are the chief
contains perfect wisdom.
:
—
First
Second, that
contains more of the truth than other faiths.
Third, that to
gion
it
him who
is
anxious about
gives a complete knowledge about
existence of God." 2 8 2 a
Dk. Dk.
^-
I.
-2.
3.^
Dk. VIII.
I.
54.
3!
Dk. VII.
436. 467.
reli-
the
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
186
Turning
to the question of the
relation bet-
ween God and man, we find that God helps the righteous in
Man
divine.
Him and deemed
all their
endeavours for a
worship Him.
Firmness of
pleasure
God
to
'^'
•'
faith in the religion of
trust in
God
God
becomes more
every
own
his
A
recognised.
one
affair,
The
has no wisdom."''^
)
with
behoves
''(It is)
his
except
efficacy
One should
'^
and prayers on behalf
person
has
"From
'^
trust,
him who
of prayer
is
prayer should be recited when
a person dies. tions
Ahurmazd."
arises a heroic heart. "-^^
Whom
in
regarding
It
and the keeping
A man
more good by putting more and more
and
"
is
the remaining
is
lirm in the Mazdiasni religion
people righteous.
faith
The deed which
absolutely necessary.
produces
life
must in return place his trust in
whom
any
of
(
deceased
one had acciuainiance."
pay homage
to
us,
supplica-
offer
to,
that
-'^
to
is
worship, Spenamino Auharmazd, the Creator of the good creation,
with thought, word and
deed, for His gift of Life and Body." special reverence 3 2 3.T
Dk. Dk.
is
I.
9.
:<4
I.
r>o.
•'-'
To
due; because we owe
Dk. XII. tJ9. Dk. Xf. r)'2.
*c J-
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
lire
to
648. (>4I.
it
THEOLOGICAL
.S:
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
the existence and sustenance of man."
187
''
'"^^
It
should be scrupulously guarded, and be held
symbol of worship." ^°
as the
-'The
demon-worship are clearly repudiated. Mazdayasnian
should
and
Idolatry
instruction
receive
as
regards the abhorrence of the demons, and the rejection of idolatry."
Man There
is
is
'^o
between good and
free to choose
predetermines the course of his
They
And between
word and deed.
thought,
'*'
life.
they two, and a worse, as
are a better thing, to
evil.
no dominating necessity which entirely
'^^ these two let the wisely acting choose aright.
^'
then with your ears
Hear ye
bright flames It
is
for a
with eyes of the
all
men
themselves from
Fate or the
man and God has
for himself."'^-
sufficient
sin as
unknown
which often
ability
well as from
the source of their sins and
situations,
better mind.
decision as to religions,
man, each individually given to
see ye the
;
to
save
Ahriman
woes."^^
factor
decides
in
all
human
events
in
a
mysterious way
is
Menali-hhraf.
^'Even with the might and the
3 8
3 9
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
644. 645.
recognised especially in the
4« Dk. IX. 635. 1 Ys. XXX. 3.
4
4- Ys. XXX. 2. ^3 Dk. VII. 44L
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
188
powerfulness of wisdom and knowledge, even
then
is
it
not possible to contend with destiny.
Because when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse,
wanting
comes
in duty,
intelligent
;
the
the wise becomes
forth,
and the astute
in evil
becomes
faint-hearted becomes braver,
and the
braver
becomes
diligent
becomes
lazy,
faint-hearted
and
;
lazy
the
the acts
"As to him who is a lazy, and bad man when his destiny becomes
diligently.""''
ignorant
a helper, that laziness of his then becomes like
unto diligence, that ignorance unto knowledge,
And
and that vileness unto goodness.
as to
him who is a wise, worthy, and good man, when his destiny is an opponent, wisdom of his then turns to stupidity
ignorance
that worthiness to ledge, skill secluded."'*-'^
brity
and foolishness and ;
and
his
''Happiness and adornment, cele-
and dominion,
skill
and
suitability are
not through the will and action
of
men, but
through the appointment, destiny and the sacred being."
"^'
It is
However, something
*
Mkh.
54.
*r.
Mkh.
will of
evident here that a
man's part in his own making out.
know-
and worthiness become manifestly
is
almost wiped
is still left 93.
+«
to
Mkh.
man's 10.
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS ^'
exertion.
one's is
self,
189
not possible to provide for
It is
through exertion, that benefit which
not ordained
but a morsel of that which
;
is
ordained comes on by means of exertion. Yet the exertion,
when
it is
fruitless in the worldly
existence, through the sacred beings not being
with
it,
comes, afterwards, to one's
still
assist-
ance in the spiritual existence, and outweighs in
the balance."
also,
an attempt
of the ^'
Dadistan-i-Dinih
In the
"^^
made
is
to
adjust the claims
human agency and super-human
agency.
There are some things through destiny, and
there are
and
some through
action... that
life,
wife
and wealth are through
child, authority
destiny and the righteousness and the wickedness of priesthood, warfare, and husbandry are
through action."
'^^
Another question
whether any modification of fate,
any change
in
operations of destiny,
A
and good works.
in
that which
is
is
programme
the
possible through prayer
distinction
is
drawn
4
7
),
bet-
^'DcvStiny
ordained from the beginning,
and divine providence sacred beings
raised
the otherwise irreversible
ween destiny and divine providence. is
is
is
that which they
also grant otherwise.
Mkh.
54.
4 8
Dd.
215.
(
the
But the
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
190
provide
beings
sacred
and manifest
the
in
spiritual existence little of that grant.""-
Almost doctrine
every
causation
some
has
religion
Though
atonement.
of
of
sort
law of
the
acknowledged by Zarathustra
is
in
the tield of ethics, that out of the good comes evil evil, if a man repents of much ground for hope. Expiamany forms; it includes the recital
good and out of his evil he has
tion takes
and the confession of
of prayers
man
Dastur or a righteous object
any other holy
and the sincere repentance experienced
one's soul and
in
of
before a
sins
punishments
undergoing
of
and the performance
of
the
many many
Not only words and deeds should
good deeds.
show the changed attitude
of the soul but
it
should be clearly expressed by altered charac" Again,
ter.
his if is '*
if (
a
man
repent by means of
)
tongue and deeds, of the smallest
mind
his
not a
(tit)
redeemer of
Expiation
tion,
not
is
is
that
for
sin,
and
forgiveness, then he
himself
wherein one
(from is
sin)."''^
in contri-
with repentance for a sin committed and
does not commit 4!>
Mkh.
r'^
Dk.
55.
II.
69.
that -»
sin
again."
^^
Other-
Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.
14.
THEOLOGICAL
former sin
wise, the
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS is
not expiated,
must
repentance
the
.^-
be
Further
^-
heartfelt.
191
When
-^-^
these conditions are well observed, repenXance is
said to have
a
few
power
known
to
remove
aiiaperefha
as
except
all sins
unatonable^
or
These are the burying or burning of corpses,
and eating dead
cooking
''The
intercourse.
matter,
any
committed
other
remitted by his repentance.
Mazda,
religion of
If
he
it
is
he has com-
If
is
absolved by
"The
repentance, for ever and ever."^"^
his
Spitama
Zarathustra
away from him who makes confession
takes
bonds
the
it
of
his
sin
(the sin of) breach of trust (
deeds
evil
mitted no other evil deeds he
of
unnatural
here hath repented of
thoughts, words and deeds.
all his evil
has
man
the
of
sin
atonement; usury
it
;
sinned."
for
it
takes it
takes
which there
away away is
no
away the worst sin of takes away any sin that may be it
takes
Thus even unatonable
-^^^
"
removed. perfect
deeds
)
;
;
A
man's sins are expiated by his
knowledge
his doing good 5 2
Sd.
5 3
Dk. 1.9
309.
sins could be
of the divine faith
works
and by
for his final renovation."
-+ Yd. III. 21. 5 5 Yd. YIIL 29.
5 6
Dk. YII.
476.
^^^
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
192
"Every is
sin that is not repented of, (i.e.
not expiated by countervailing good deeds)
condemnation
entails a
pure through
becoming
them
implore
to
is
contrition,
and
the Lord.
As
are
to
forgiveness,
their
Thus the punishment
other sins
expiation,
And
with
is
there
whole
death.
in
number, various.-^''
disobeying the
The expiation fines.
there
of
''Through
remains no passage to
non-expiation
passage to heaven.
The
is
express
to
grave sins such
justice,
by pecuniary
of
presence of
atonements for all
men without
behests of the king, all
many
the sins are
^^'
expurgation
the
repent in the
to
likewise
as killing
The and for
punishment."
for the expiation of sins
requirement
so
which
hell.
remains no
""^^
belief in future literature.
The
existence pervades the soul of a
destroyed with his death.
man
is
not
All the anomalies
and the imperfections of the earthly existence The rightare removed in the life Beyond. eous are rewarded, and the sinful punished here as well as hereafter.
heaven «7
and enjoy Dk. IX.
629.
»8 Dk. IX. 031.
its
The former go
pleasures.
Here
^» Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.
14.
to
we
)
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS note that paradise
an exalted
variously styled '*
Gathas^
the
in is
*^
193
the conception of
state
mind.
of
It is
Abode of Good Mind," Good Thought " and
the
the glorious heritage of
Hell
so on. called
a state of mental agony.
is
"the House
Thought" and
so
**The
on.
early
Sage announced the eternal truth rewards
Heaven and the
ot
Hell can only be from within.
may
fairly say
It is
*'of the worst
of the Lie,"
Iranian that the
punishment of
He
gave us, we
through the systems which he
has influenced, that great doctrine of subjective
which must
recompense,
change
in the
receives is
made
There
place for the
and the highest one
are
also
four
mixed
Zoroastrians
ly asserts that
types
and
of hell
always
6
hell. is
a
believed
" weal and immortality "
righteousness Mills. S.B.E.
the
in
Zarathustra repeated-
the lot of the' good and righteous.
who from 13
of endless
people, called Hamistagan.
immortality of the soul.
fall to
essential
In the later Avesta^ mention
it."^^
Intermediate between heaven
The
an
of four kinds of heaven, of thought,
of word, of deed light.
work
mental habits of every one who
(
in
mind and
VoL XXXI.
p. xx.
will ''
He
life
;
ZOKOASTRIAX ETHICS
194
shall verily perform
that which
on him earth."
is
for
me, for
Zarathiistra,..
my
most helpful (for
shall they bestow rewards
cause)
beyond
this
All the evidence points to a doctrine
^^
of personal immortality.
good persons
*'A11
will
obtain immortality and a final well-regulated constitution through the instrumentality of the will of the
Lord Creator having reference
**
His
the soul becomes immortal and adorned with
the ample *'
to
By communion with God
final intentions."*^-
Be
it
life
of eternity in the second life."
knoAvn that the duration of the soul
everlasting;" "the ideas
Along with
^"^
this
Ahura Mazda
is
belief appear
millennium and
of final renovation,
resurrection.
^-'^
will
come
at the
end of Creation and the great work of renovation will be accomplished. ^'
By
^^
a miracle
there will be a final renovation and
become immortal."*^
*'
and the
fruit of the soul
and the
fruit of the
The ( is )
men
fruit of the
will
body
the Kenovation '
joy."^'
"The
Renovation
(is)
undecaying^
world, shall be never dying, not
decaying, never rotting ever living, ever useful «i Ys.
XLVI.
19.
6 5
«9 Dk. I. 22. 6 3 Dk. VIII. 425. «4 Dk. V. 301.
cr. «•-
Ys. XLIII. 5. Ok. VII. 472.
Dk. XI.
87.
THEOLOGICAL /
profit-making
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
.>c
having power to
),
195-
all
fulfil
when dead shall arise and immortal life shall come, when the settlements shall all be Again: "Let Angra Mainyi^ deathless." ^^ wishes,
the Evil Spirit, be hid beneath the earth -let the dead arise,
and
be sustained in these
now
the Devas disappear let
the bodily bodies."
lifeless
The
life
let
;
:
^"^
evil forces of the
universe are
sure
to-
succumb before the good ones and the ultimate triumph
of the latter
:
that
the firm faith of
is
But the optimistic
Zoroastrianism.
spirit goes
farther and secures salvation not for the good
but for the evil also.
only,
It
is
true that
the evil souls will be tried at the time of the
judgment and required
collective
final
through blazing process
for
purification.
fire.
But
this
is
to
go
the cleansing
them and it will lead to their Then Ahura Mazda will at last
take back to Himself
all
the creatures that are
The final triumph Spentomainyu over Angromainyu is by
his
may
be
by
created
sufiicient
Him."*^
superior
strength. ^^
It
of
noted that Soshyos or saviour prophets help the world in this process of redemption. 6 8 7
XIX. Dk. XII. Yt.
XIX.
11.
« »
Yt.
7.
7 1
Dk. YII.
12.
462.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
196
We
come
how the consummatum, is.
to the final question as to
ultimate good,
the honutn
What
represented in these writings. bliss of the righteous is
The goal
?
of
is
the final
human
life
not conceived by the Parsis as in the Buddh-
ist
Here are two
idea of Nirvana.
*'ButAhura Mazda
passages:
significant
give both
will
universal weal and immortality in the fulness
of his righteous order and from himself as the
And he
of dominion, (with his saints).
head
will likewise
might
to
friend."
^-
time (of
Good Mind's vigorous
give the
him who
in spirit and deed is his Again " Then shall begin the infinite happiness) and then shall happen the
final renovation,
impoverishment of the
the
Drujj the resurrection of the dead, and the
attainment of the
body and the redemp-
final
and
tion (from hell) of the people of this world;
hence mankind shall live in eternal
and
in splendour,
will, action
and with immutable wisdom,
and (endless) time."'^ There
no absorption of the individual no annihilation of the the self in a fuller
self,
kingdom
and richer than
7» Ys.
felicity,
XXXI.
21.
is
is
here
in the Absolute,
but a realisation of
of God, a realisation^ possible here. 7 3
Dk. V.
332.
INDEX. ADARBAD MAKASPAND 26.
Atman
Adoption Adultery
Atropat 155. Authority 148, 149,
114. 123,
122,
124,
125, 126, 127, 128, 177.
Agriculture 32, 33, 34, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 162.
Aliriman 147,
52,
184, 195, 196,
Aim
41, 42, 49, 50.
Ahura Mazda 25,
Avarice 144, 145, 146, 163,
Bareshnum
46, 47.
Bodily
injuries
173.
78, 87, 108, 111, 122, 133,
Bribery
140, 141, 156,
162,
180,
182, 183, 184,
194,
195,
Airyana-vaega see
Casuistry 96. 70, 97, 183.
191.
Ardashir I. 39. Asceticism 65, 85.
A&ha63. Ashi Vanguhi 113, Asno Khratu 50. As8 33. Assemblies
Atar
36.
73, 183.
50.
33.
Casartelli Dr. 41, 181.
Araretat 70, 183.
Anaperetha 167, Anger 146, 163.
172,
Carlyle 76.
31.
Ahu.
Alexander 39. Amesha Spenta
162,
93.
CAMA 49, Camel
196.
48, 49, 50.
101.
Bartholomae C. 135. Benevolence see Charity.
Body
29, 36,43,
150^
151.
45, 59, 70, 73, 74, 76, 77,
Akho
37, 72.
43.
BAODHA 42,
70, 97, 100,
156, 160, 176,
155,
Athravan
Celibacy 65, 75, 111. Charity 66, 106, 107,
108,.
134,
135,
136,
137^
138, 139,
140,
141,
142,,
133,
143.
Cheerfulness 163. Children 74, 75, 79, 112„ 122, 183.
113.
Cock
33, 76.
Company
164,
Confucius 158. Conscience 42,
47, 52.
INDEX
198
ContentmeDt
163, 154, 155,
156.
FALSEHOOD
Contract 91, 94, 171, 172. Courtesy 97, 142.
Fame
Cow
Family
31, 32.
Criminal law 170.
DAENA
42, 47, 48, 68, 78,
Daeva 37, Dakhraas
56, 70, 71, 78.
Dead body
103,
105,
166, 168, 174, 175.
Dead matter
164.
104, 105, 166,
Fire 37,
78, 102, 103,
76,
79, 80, 85, 86.
Fravashi
42, 43, 44, 73, 119.
Freedom
of will 52, 53, 57,
187.
Frohar
168.
Death 71, 184. Decency 163, 164. Demon-worship 187. Dhalla Dr. 42, 44, Disease 71, 184.
50, 52. see
Fravashi
GAUTAMA BUDDHA 63. Gavashni
62.
Geiger Dr.
56.
30, 41, 47, 49,
115, 128, 169.
Generosity 139, 140.
Disinterestedness 68.
Geush Tashan 183. Geush Urvan 183.
33, 81,84, 176.
Drinking 139. Druj 37, 70, 91, Dualism 53, 60,
74.
Fasting 66, 85, 86. Fate 187, 188, 189. Firdausi 28.
Food
58.
102,
100.
104, 174, 175, 176, 186.
102.
Dannesteter
Dog
89,90, 91.
92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99^
Glory 73, 74. Golden Mean
97, 99.
181.
158.
Good thought, word and
EARLY RISING Earth
deed 76, 86.
174, 175.
59, 60, 61, 02,
105, 106.
(xratitude 160.
Eduard Meyer 38. Educated reason 51.
HABIT
Education
Hamistagan
Eugenics
52, 158.
Haoma37,
83.
Hang
Evil 182, 195.
Evil thought, word deed 60, 61, 62.
Expediency
52.
and
96.
Expiation 190, 191, 192.
193.
122.
50.
Haurvatat
Heaven
70, 183.
45, 193.
Hell 45, 193.
Herodotus
67, 89,
128.
64,
INDEX Holiness 105,
Honesty
10(5.
92, 94, 95, 98.
Hormazd Shapur Horse
26. j
Khratu 42, 50. Khshathra Vairya 78, 183. Khusrd Noshirwan 29. Killing 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
33, 35.
168, 176, 177.
Horticulture 34.
Hosh
199
King
50, 51.
35, 165, 166.
Knowledge, see wisdom.
Hospitality 140, 141.
Huniata, Hukhata, Hvar-
LAW
shta 62.
Humility
152, 153.
Husband and wife
115, 116,
120,
117, 118, 119,
161,
68,
162,
170,
171.
Lehmann
121,
64, 67,
Leviticus 167.
122.
Life 64, 69, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 176, 177.
IDLENESS
Louis H. Gray 131.
87, 88.
Image-worship 39, 187. Immortality 45, 70, 192
MAHABAD 29.
193.
Indebtedness Industry
Manas
89.
7 66, 76, 78, 86, 87
88.
Innate reason
Mani 51.
Intellect 50. Intellij'ence 50, 51.
AH
40.
Manichaenism 27, 40. Manufacture 34, 38, 78. Margarjan 168.
Inspiration 184.
J
I
62.
Manashni, Gavashni, Kunashni 62.
Marriage
65, 74,
79,
111,
112, 177. I
122, 123.
Marriage
Jaini J. L. 63.
Mazdak
Jamshid
Medicine
82.
— age 34.
^Jan 42.
Mercy
Jaoshi Khratu 50. Jealousy 146, 163.
Metals
34.
Might
73.
Justice 93, 160.
163.
161,
162,
114.
40.
106, 107.
Mill Dr. 193.
Millennium
194.
Misappropriation
KARMA 55, Khart
42, 50.
62.
96.
Mithra
73, 90.
92,
95,
INDEX-
200
Moderation
Prosperity 72, 73.
66, 158.
Moksha 55, 60. Money 34, 38 Moulton Dr.
Prudence 163. Public Duties 164, 165.
25, 42, 48, 89.
Punishment
167, 178.
Purity 100, 101, 102,
NASU
Next of kin marriage Xvaetvadatha
see
Nietzsche 74.
Nirwana
103,.
104, 105, 106.
101,
196.
RAPE
125.
Rashnu 161. Ravan see Urvan. Regard
for
animals
31, 32,
Noshir^van 26. 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,.
OBEDIENCE
83, 84.
See autho-
rity.
Optimism
58, 59, 73, 195.
Ordeal 171.
Renovation 194, 195. Renunciation 65, 75. Resurrection 124, 196.
Revelation 184,
Revenge
PASTORAL LIFE Peace 141. Penance 85.
31, 32.
63.
98, 100, 171, 173.
.
SALVATION
I'erjury 92.
Peshotanu
Righteousness
Robbery
185.
148.
72,
126,
169,
Samsara
196.
55.
Samyag-charitra 63.
175, 177, 178.
I'hilanthropy 143.
Samyag-darsana
Polygamy
128, 129.
Samyag-Jnaca
Position of
women
Poverty
Power
119.
Saoshyant
106.
101, 128,
178.
Pride 108, 109, 148, 153. Priesthood 35, 37, 38, 151, 152.
Procrastination 88. J*romise-keeping see Truthfulness.
59, 70, 195.
Self-control 162.
l*re-existence 45.
woman
Sanitation 101, 102, 103, 170.
95.
l*regnant
63.
63.
Shah Namah28,
141.
Shapur 11. 40. Sheep 32, 33. Siyavush 171. Slander 146, 147. Slaves 38.
Soul 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 108.
.
INDEX Spirit 49.
Sraosha
183.
vState 35.
Strength
Sun
72, 73, 74,
7.'>.
Water 102, Wealth 98,
159.
94, 96, 98, 100, 173.
Thrift 66, 162. Truthfulness 67, 89, 90, 92,
COURSE
45,
INTER126,
Wisdom
127,
103, 174.
*
107, 108, 109.
51, 156, 157, 158.
Woman in menses 101,126. 177.
Work
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99.
UNNATUKAL
26.
75, 183.
WARS 37.
169, 174.
Temperance 66, Tennyson 59. Theft
Viptak 127. Vir 42, 50, 51 Vistashpa 69. Vizorg Meher
Vohu Mano
180.
TANAFUK
201
76, 77, 86.
XVAETVADATHA
129,
130, 131, 132.
128, 167, 171, 178.
Upazana 168, 169. Urvan 42, 44, 45, 46, Utilitarianism 67.
YAZATA
ZARATHUSTRA 29, 69,
YACH Vadak Vaksh
62.
183, 185.
47, 48.
74,
180, 194.
124.
Zarir 28.
42, 52.
Zohak
82.
76,
25, 26, 77, 147,
i
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UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY
Rdi/tuii
and
Plcilu-^oph i/
:
/I
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
l.y
IVintod at the Mirfsion Press, Siirat n. K. 8colt, and imblislieil l»y A. G. Wi(l;.'ery the Collej,'e, Baroda. I. V. 1919.
ZOROASTHIAN ETHICS
By
MAGAXLAL
A.
BUCH, M.
A.
Fellow of the Seminar for the Comparative Stn
With an Infrnrhicfion hv
ALBAN
n.
WrDGERY,
Professor of Philosophy
Study
and
of PiPlii^doiis,
BAK
DA
515604
^f.
of the
A.
Comparative
Baroda.
P n E FACE
The present small volume was undertaken as
one
subject
Seminar
for the
established
study
of
as
Fellow
Comparative Study the
in
College,
in
the
of Religions
Baroda, by
His
Highness the Maharaja Sayaji Eao Gaekwad,
K
C.
by
Professor
S.
etc.
I.
The
subject was suggested
Widgery who
guided the
also
author in the plan and in the general working out of the theme.
It is
his
hope that companion
volumes on the ethical ideas associated with other
Such
religions
will
shortly
the aim which His Highness establishing the Seminar. treats
of
religious
the
elaborate than Dr.
be
undertaken.
ethical studies form an important part of
it
had
in view in
The chapter which conceptions
is
less
might well have been, because
Dhalla's masterly volume on Zomasfrirm
Theolof/y^
New
York, 1914, cannot be dispens-
ed with by any genuine student of Zoroastrianism,
and
all
important details
may
be learned
from
it.
Widgcrv and
for
It
lor
his
only remains to thank writinf,'
a
continued
L;enoral
help
I'rotessor
introduotion
thronghont tho
process of the work.
ma(;am.ai.
a. imcii
n
CONTENTS hit I'uduct Lull Blblluf/raj'hi./
I,
•••
•••
1
Ahbrfji'latiuiiS'"
•••
17
•••
and
...
PART Available
T he
Literature 11.
The H
i
s t
[
Z u ro
or
i
ea
Conditions
a
1
•
•
a
s t r
•
•
•
III.
Psychological Conceptions
IV.
The General Moral Attitude
V.
The Value
VI.
:
.••
and
Deceit:
VIll.
Virtues IX.
The Ethical
Vices
other
:
...
•••
in
Legal
Theological
• • •
30
...
41
•«•
5-5
and
60
...
cSO
...
Ill
and ...
loi^
Pieferences ...
167
Metaphysical
171)
in Zoroastrian Literature
X.
1
Purity
Ethics of Sex Relations
Benevolence
a
...
•"
and Impurity '.•
MI. The
i
Industry and
•••
Truthfulness
oe
24
II
of Life
Indolence
a •••
8
nd
•
PAKT
i
•••
•••
Conceptions Lidej:
I'jy
INTRODUCTION The age in
which we
in
many ways by
practical "
" the
of
live
distinguished
is
In the realm
realism.
its
there
wide- spread
a
is
impatience amongst the educated against the
dominance the
scope
sacrifice
of traditional ideas tending to limit
enjoyment of the
of
concrete
experience
good or
to
sake
of
for the
In the realm of thought
abstractions.
there has been and
itself
a decided revolt against
is
the over emphasis of abstract universal principles as distinct
from actual particulars with
their individual characteristics. is
more
or
less
common
branches of thought is
especially
reflections
some
real
relation
in
to
all
significance for ethics
important.
of
Men
ask
moral philosophers
the
that
shall
have
and important bearing on the problem
of
what the moral
it
should be lived.
a definite
its
:
This attitude
life
how
should contain and
Ethics
is
required to have
and intimate relation with the
indi-
vidual details of morality and not to remain in the discussion of the purely formal. spirit of
Kant
ethics
spirit of Aristotle.
now
From
the
turns again to the
2
/•
:;/oii/>f*jii'iii4^;PTHics
'
Though
the view that the good cannot be
defined has incidentally been implied at various
times in the history of moral philosophy,
only within recent years that
has begun to be realised.
its
In the
involves that moral experience
it
is
true import
place
first
it
immediate,
is
that the knowledge included in any science of
though
ethics,
it
may
be knowledge by descrip-
dependent upon knowledge by direct
tion, is
Moral good
acquaintance.
form of intuition, and terms of
is
In the
itself.
is
known
intelligible only
second place
become more and more evident that to
some
in
all
in
has
it
attempts
explain moral good in a general manner,, duty, or as that which brings the greatest
e.g. as
amount of pleasure,
or as the
and
or as self-realisation,
way
of deliverance,
so on,
are of only
secondary value and importance.
The
chief result of these
with relation
make
it
to
the
much more
of the past there has
empirical.
but too
this
of ethics
attempt
to
In the ethics
and ultimate problems^
discussion has
relation to the ethical facts of actual to
is
been much keen discussion
of abstract principles
often
modern tendencies
science
had life.
little
The
bring about a closer relation has
INTJfiqDUGTrOX
s
involved a superimposition of the principles
upon actual conduct
as
were from without.
it
In consequence the conceptions of the ideal have almost all lacked content,
have, in
been conspicuous by their poverty.
fact,
Spinoza in order
had
moral
to pass
of thought
As
an account of substance
to give
almost immediately to the attributes
and extension and then
explain these had to pass on
in order to
modes, thus
to
eventually taking in the immediate experiences of actual
so ethical
life,
bring their conceptions
writers
order to
in
into touch with facts
have been forced back
to particular experiences.
From
we begin
these only can
we wish
if
an understanding of what the moral
must be regarded
as a natural science concerned
with the data of moral
effort
'*
life.
Ethics" as a science we understand the
to
come
a complete
to
comprehension of the moral similar
to
that
which,
in
and systematic
life,
for
in a
manner
example, the
science of botany
is
prehension of
the forms of plant-life
all
concerned with the com-
the relations between these forms. task,
for
includes
In other words, the science of ethics
in detail.
By
life
therefore,
is
a
survev
of
The
and first
the facts of
)
;^(HiOX.S.'FKIAiN.'>;TKICS
morality.
The
facts
with which
necessary
it is
to beirin in order to form a science of ethics are
These judgments are
moral judgments.
to
be
grouped as clearly as possible into classes and the relationship
between
surveyed
classes
with
coherent and
hope
and forming
principles
general
complete
and the
the facts
the
as
of a
possible.
miirht be divided as follows in a
finding
whole
manner
as
Ethics similar
a division elsewhere adopted for the study
to
of Theology.
'
i<:thics.
KMPllUCAL ETHICS.
\.
The
a.
II.
i)sycliological facts
of tlie
Moral
Critical
{
Examination
of empirical data
Life.
History of floral Systems.
riie
}).
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. a.
b.
Constructive
(
Forma-
tion of ideal system).
The Comjiarative Study
c. :
of
Moral Systems.
In the realm of ethics as in any other branch of knowledge there seems no adequate ground for
any claim
to
tnc actual possession of
complete
coherent
Here as
elsewhere
system
of
humanity
with developing knowledge.
moral is
a
goods.
concerned
The course
of
the development will be an important consideration for understanding the system. *
The Comparative Study
of Religions. Raroda, 1919 p. 10.
IJsTRODUCTION
&
Brief reflection on this view of the science of it
ethics
will
implies
that
ly important
is
historical
the necessity of acknowledging
The ultimate problem
ledge.
in all
recognition that
development of ethical know-
between these two
in
the
to
the human mind possesses a making moral judgments. Equal-
capacity for
the
lead
knowledge
some
relative
:
is
of the relation
similar to that involved
the recognition of reason as
manner absolute and not merely
must be united with the acceptance
a theory of evolution of knowledge.
It
of
appears
deny either the power of
alike impossible to
reason or the evolution
of knowledge.
only way in which they
may
be united
The is
to
regard the evolution or development of knowledge as dependent on
the
increasing degree
with which reason comes into relation with subject
its
any particular branch of
matter in
may
experience.
This
contact with
details
or
be either
by a closer
by attention
to
new
parts of experience.
A
survey of the actual course of history
suggests that the advance of ethical as of other
knowledge of a larcre
is
chiefly
number
due
to the
accumulation
of small contributions
made
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS by
number
large
a
not
least
are individuals
'insight"
of
To them
capacity.
special
there
degree
workers.
and certainly
sphere,
morality,
in
with a remarkable
individual
of
every
Nevertheless, in
or
due radical
are
changes and great advances, even though these
have usually been prepared of the
many.
by the
for
etibrts
not in contradiction with the
It is
knowledge that some
belief in the evolution of
such individuals have attained an intuition or
immediate
good with
majority
to-day, have not
more which
of
enlightened
men,
of
the degree of philosophical
Aristotle.
But we do
deny the
reality of
For part
of
more men
not, in consequence,
any evolution of knowledge.
this evolution
that of bringing
is
to the appreciation of the
which profound its
or
and knowledge possessed by Plato
capacity
and
one
clearness
Obviously, the majority of men,
ly reached.
the
a
them have never independent-
others even after
even
with
acquaintance
aspects of the
earlier
knowledge
minds attained, and
to
detailed application.
The general
practice of
men
accords with this contention froni pu1>lic o[)inion,
:
in ordinary life
for
when, apart
they look for knowledge
INTRODUCTION of the requirements of morality, they turn to
the
ofreat
moral teachers of the race.
attempt to form a science
method must be
In the similar
of ethics a
in part adopted.
In the moral
Judgments of outstanding moral teachers are to be found the most important facts for the
The study
science.
of the writings
these judgments and those of the
which
more promin-
ent followers of these teachers are will
in
embodied,
have the task of systematising the judg-
ments- and relating the various groups together
knowledge of what the The examination of the
in order to arrive at a
moral
life
includes.
groups of particular judgments should lead to the recognition of the principles which unite
them
in
such groups.
Though the moral judgments
of saints
and
moral teachers are the most important part of the data of ethics, advance in ethics
depends
partly on advance in other branches of ledge.
not
For
this reason,
possible for
judgments made necessary
may al
if
for
no other,
knowit
is
us to be satisfied solely with at a
time when any particular
knowledge
was not available.
take an example.
knowledge tends
to
The advance
We
of medic-
give good reasons for
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS the insistence on the moral
judgment found
amongst most peoples against the marriage of persons
closely related
have appeared arbitrary
man
enables
how
accurately
of the keenness
due
to ascertain
and
On
accord
to
of medical
more
or
from
far the abstinence
marriage should go.
proval of
now seen
is
The advance
with facts of n^iture. science
What may
by blood.
inter-
much
the other hand
force of the
less
moral disap-
promiscuous sexual relations has been
to the cognisance of the possible evil
sical results.
phy-
Let us suppose, as seems probable,
that medical science should eventually find an absolutely reliable
means
preventing these
of
This would not constitute
results.
throw of the moral judgment cuous
sex
throw
the
relationships
emphasis
over-
against promis-
rather
:
an
it
would
on the genuinely moral
aspect by taking the attention from the merely
physical
consequences.
Increased
knowledge
of the conditions necessary for the best life
of
the
individual and for the stability of
the social organisation would then form a
higher inducement to abstain
moral
moral
laws in this direction.
important than
all else is
from
much
breaking-
For ethics more
the moral judgment
INTRODUCTION
intrinsic
first
of a scientific ethics should be in
place to throw
which are
such
the
as
the non-moral
then
separate
treated
The
question.
as
a
failure
to
from
The
religious.
relation of the moral to
be
goods
relief the
into
intrinsically ethical as distinct
goods,
other
the insistence on the
worth of chastity and purity as such.
The aim the
instance
this
in
itself,
^
make
may
subsidiary the
clear
distinctions thus implied has led to hindrances to
moral
by reason
progress
of
confusions
resulting, for example, in regarding as authori-
some obsolete precepts
tatively religious
earlier ethical attitude, or
of practices
as
of
an
again in the retention
moral which are simply the
practical application, for obviously prudential of
reasons, sanitation.
not
the
These
defects
ethics, but of the
duties,
ideas
early
are.
of
it
on
physiology
need hardly be
philosophical
more
or
said,
systems of
practical codes of moral
found most frequently in the sacred
writing's of the reliorions.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
10
A
survey of moral judgments in a particular
literature,
such as
attempted here,
is
required for other sacred literatures.
commence with
reasons led us to
The
of Zoroastrianism.
ethical
Zovoastrianism has always been
the literature
character
of
recognised
in
We
a general way and frequently eulogised.
wish
matter
the
that
systematically and in
reason
ficant
character
might
The
are
least
of
the moral
some
life
of the
as lived in this
it
practical character of the Zoroas-
be a cause for Parsis taking
so detinite a part ial
and industrial
of
the
virtues
is
at
aspects
may
trian ethics
signi-
practical
moral precepts of Zoroastri-
here
attain,
universal
world.
pages
essentially
To whatever heights
anism.
most
be considered
Another
detail.
the
is
the
of
should
also
is
Various
in
modern Indian commerc-
life.
A
emphasised
fuller appreciation
the following
in
required amongst some non-Zoroastrian
circles of Indian
society.
Iii
saying this
it is
not meant to imply that the Zoroastrian system as
a
whole
system
in
is
superior to that of any other
India or
elsewhere
simply concerns the need of to these
particular virtues.
:
the question
greater
attention
INTRODUCTION
II
ZoroAstrian ethics impress one with a remark-
able vigour, giving reality and earnestness to the moral
made
Whatever objections ma}^ be
life.
to the view, the idea of a radical distinc-
tion between the
good and the bad
Historically the insistence on
of this vigour.
the
reality of
the
the ground
is
may have become
conflict
thus pronounced on account of actual struggles in
which Zarathushtra was involved.
amongst the Parsis
whether
question
to
open
It is
in
India the struggle of the good against the bad lias
not in recent times assumed too individualform, whereas for Zarathushtra and for
istic a
the greater part of Parsi literature the conflict
was most probably
far
more
The general character
social.
of the ethics suggests
There
a certain Lehensiueisheit, a savoir vivre. is
a healthy recognition of physical goods and
of the duty
striving
of
for
them.
In
the
distinction between the different types of occup-
there
ation,
an admirable absence of any
is
manual labour
depreciation of .with
(
so-called
)
intellectual
as
compared
occupations,
In
depreciation otherwise very wide-spread. India, especially,
this
attitude
of
it
would be an advantage
the Zoroastrian
ethics
a
if
were
Z(^ROASTRIAN ETHICS
12
more widely adopted ceive of no
way
in practice.
which a wealthy Parsi might
in
and the
better carry out the spirit
the
that
It
is
practical
letter of the
the encouragement
Parsi moral code than by of agriculture.
can con-
I
no excuse
maintain
to
regard
with
precepts
to
agriculture were for another age or for particular individuals
;
human
depends now as much
life
The main
as ever on their fulfilment. in this
direction between
past
that today
is
the present
there
is
or
communally,
and the
urgent need for
attention to scientific methods. idually
difference
Parsis, indiv-
more
might adhere
closely to their moral precepts
by doing some-
thing definitely for advance in this direction.
The breadth with
its
of the Zoroastrian moral ideal,
little
and
physical
admirable though
its is
it is,
spiritual
emphasis on the duty of intellectual
and the search
for
knowledge.
which have come most
first in
too
effort
The peoples
definitely
under the
iniluence of Zoroastrianism do not rank
the
goods,
associated with
among
intellectual research with regard to
the scientific study of nature or of history or of
j)hilosophy.
thought
"
and
The " right
on
insistence
word
"
is
not
"right often
INTRODUCTION applied
13
such a manner as
in
to
encourage a
life of scholarship.'"''
More heif "
serious than this,
seems
In the literature that
self-sacrifice.
us
with
find
much
any kind.f This
self-sacrifice of
also
to
difficult
is
it
very "Lehensiveis-
against the virtue of
militate
to
its
almost
the
is
left to
reference to
is
in
complete
harmony
absence
of
any thing which suggests a If on the one hand the form of mysticism.
asceticism,
sane
and
of
practicality,
virility
which
common
of Zoroastrian
the attention
sense,
and
are
aspects
ethics
of non-Zoroastrians
be directed, on the other hand
non-Zoroastrians the moral will
life
may
which
the
to
may
ethics
of
present other aspects of to the Zoroastrian breadth
add a greater depth.
The Zoroastrian system
of ethics,
historical systems, has a theological to this, for the reason
is,
as
most
background;
mentioned in the preface,
the author refers only briefly. fact
the
The
significant
however, worth emphasising here that
* In the nineteenth century and since many scholarly dasturs have devoted themselves strenuously to the study of their sacred scriptures. t The part played by " charity " in Parsi morality
is
not thus denied.
See Chapter VIII.
ZOIIOASTKIAN ETHICS
14
system
the
no
contains
conception
pantheistic
Zoroastrianism
of
any
of
In
reality.
agreement
in
is
evidence
this,
other
with
fundamentally ethical systems, such as .Judaism, Christianity and Islam. that
suirijcsted
It
may, therefore, he
consideration
closer
the
of
nature of moral distinctions and their implications
would tend
ahandonment
modihcation and even
of the
facts of
moral codes, especially in their
different
devolopment
historical
pantheistic
essentially
The empirical study
systems. the
to a
the
of
may have
influence on philosophical .opinions
greater
a
than has
yet been the case.
The aim
of the science of ethics being to
arrive at an accurate of
the
contents
of
and complete statement the moral
in
life
their
relationship as judged by the moral consciousness,
it
may
be reasonably supposed that no
2)articular existent
may
pleteness
system
is
Com-
complete.
graduall}' be obtained
by the
development and comparison of the different systems.
In such comparison, though insistence
on the aspects of similarity may strengthen conviction
concerning the
aspects, a wider
validity
of
these
and richer view than any
will.
INTRODUCTION obtained only
be
differences,
the
aid
to
due attention
by
especially those
common
way
the
attainment
knowledge of the ideal
the
to
which supplement
At present the best
elements. in
15
is
of
wider
a
by careful sj^stematic
common
study of individual systems upon a plan.
From
the foregoing
formed that the ideal
easily be
to the
knowledcre of which we wish to attain a kind of
and
sum
total of different
relations, but with
This impression
ciple.
complete
is
eclectic,
good qualities
no one dominant prinis
such dominant principle therefore
of the
meant that
different systems together
a
is
moral
to
life,
survey
of
might not lead
recognition of such a principle.
upon
For
not justifiable.
though no reference has yet been made not
may
impression
the
What
that from no principle does
is it
to
any it is
the the
insisted
appear
possible to deduce, without empirical consideration, all the
goods which the moral
life
includes.
In the following account of Zoroastrian ethics several fundamental principles are emphasised,
but personally principle.
I
do not find any one supreme
The only principle of which I am which might serve the purpose of
at all aware,
/OKOAS'I'KIAN ETHICS
H)
unifying the elements of the moral
life,
is
one
which, found detinitely in the literature of the has
Jews,
become
central
the
in
ethics of
The warning - viewed as the
(Christianity, the yriiicii>le of lore. is
perhaps
necessary
that,
supreme imifying principle of the moral love
no
im[)lies
simply
and
service
binding
feeble
solely
moral virtues.
the
together
life
sentimentalism
—
but
motive of an active all
the
individual
BIBLIOGRAPHY Andarz-i Pahlavi
Atarpat-i
text, edited
The
Maraspand.
and translated by Peshutan
Bombay, 1885. Andarz-i Khusru-i Kavatan. The Pahlavi text, edited and translated by Peshutan Dastur Dastur Behramji Sanjana.
Behramji Sanjana.
Arda
Viraf.
Bombay, 1885. The Pahlavi text, edited and
translated by Hoshangji Jamaspji Asa, Martin
Haug, and E. W. West. Bombay, 1872. Avesta.
Translated into English by James
Darmesteter and L. H. Mills. Boohs of
the East, vols.
Bahman
Yasht.
Pahlavi text by E.
Books of
the East,
In
Tlte
Sacred
4,23,31.
Translated
W. West.
In
from Tlte
the
Sacred
vol. 5.
Bharucha, Sheriarji D.
A
Brief Sketch of
the Zoroastrian Religion and Customs.
Bombay,
1893. Bilimoria, N. F.
Light of Theosoph}^
Bundahishn. text by E.
in
the
Bombay, 1896.
Translated from the Pahlavi
W. West.
the East, vol.
Zoroastrianism
In The Sacred Books of
5.
Casartelli, L. C.
The Philosophy
of the
Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. 9.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
18
Translated from the French by Firoz Jamaspji
Jamasp Asa.
i^ombay, 1889.
Dadistan-i
Dinik.
Pahlavi text by
Boohn of the Ea^f,
the
The Sacred
In
vol. 18.
Dadachanji, F. K.
Light of
Avesta
the
Bombay, 1913.
and the Gathas. Dhalla M.
from
Translated
W. West.
E.
New
Theology.
Zoroastrian
York, 1914.
Dinkard.
from
lated
and
Darab
Books 3-7. the
Pahlavi
Edited
and trans-
by Peshutan
text
Bombay,
Vols. 1-18.
Sanjana.
1874-1912. Dinkard.
lk)oks 7-9.
Pahlavi text by E.
Translated from the
W. West.
In
TJie
Sacred
Books of the East, vols. 37, 47.
Encyclopaedia of Religion by James Hastings.
Edited
and Vols.
Ethics. 1
—
9.
Edinburgh, 1908-1917. Epistles
of
Mannshchihar.
from the Pahlavi text by Sacrrd
BooJx'x
K.
Ganj-i Shayigan.
Translated
W. West.
In
Tlo>
18.
The Pahlavi
text, edited
and translated by Peshutan Dastur Bchramji Sanjana. Bombay, 1885.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Geiger, Wilhelm.
19
Civilization of the Eastern
Iranians in Ancient Times.
the
German
Sanjana.
Darab
by
2 vols.
Translated from
Peshutan
Dastur
London, 1885, 1886.
The Pahlavi
Hadokht Nask.
Hoshangji
and translated by
W.
Martin Haug, and E.
Haug, Martin.
edited
text,
Jamaspji
Asa,
West. Bombay, 1872.
Essays
on
the
Sacred
Language, Writings, and Eeligion of the Parsis. Edited and enlarged by E.
3rd ed.
W. West,
London, 1884.
Hodivala,
K.
S.
and
Zarathustra
Contemporaries in the
Rig
Veda.
His
Bombay,
1913. Jackson, A. V. Williams.
Prophet of Ancient Iran.
Kapadia,
and the
S.
Xew
Zoroaster,
The Teachings
A.
Philosophy
of
the
the
York, 1899. of Zoroaster
Parsi Eeligion.
London, 1905.
Menant D. and Murzban M. in India.
Eng.
Mills, L. H.
with
the
Books
ed.
The Parsis
Bombay, 1917.
Avesta Eschatology compared of
Daniel and Revelations.
Chicago, 1908. Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids
and
Israel.
Leipzig, 1905, 1906.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
^)
— Our Own Religion
Ancient Persia, 1913.
in
Minu-i Khrat. Translated from the Pahlavi text by E.
W. West.
In The Sacred Books of
the Ecu^t, vol. 24.
Mistri, R.
Bombay,
I
H. Zoroaster and Zoroastrianism.
DOG.
Modi, Jivanji J.
The Religious System
of
the Parsees. Bombay, 1885.
Moulton, James H. Early Religious Poetry Cambridge, 1011.
of Persia.
London, 1913.
Early Zoroastrianism.
The Treasure
of the Magi.
London, 1917.
Rapp, A. The Religion and Customs Persians
of the
and other Iranians, as described by
the Grecian and
Roman
Authors.
Translated
from the German by K. R. Cama. Bombay,
1876-1879.
Sad Dar.
Pazand text by Books of the
from
Translated E.
luisf,
W. West, Vol.
in
in
Pahlavi-
The
Sacred
24.
Sanjana, Rustamji E. Zarathushtrianism
the
the
and
Zarathushtra
Liepzig,
Avosta.
190G.
Airan.
Shatroiha-i Pahlavi
text
by
Bombay, 1899.
Translated
Jivanji
from
.lamshedji
the
Modi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Shikand Gumanik Vijar.
2t
Translated from
W.
the Pahlavi-Pazand text by E.
The Sacred Bools Tiele, C- P.
Peoples.
West.
In
of the East, vol. 24.
The Religion from
Translated
of the
the
Iranian
German
by "
G. K. Nariman.
Wadia, Ardaser
Part S.
1,
Bombay, 1912.
The Message
of Zoroaster.
London, 1912. Wilson, John. The Parsi Religion. Bombay, 1843.
ABBREVIATIONS AnAtM
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS PART
I
PreliTnincu^y
Before embarking upon the special study of Zoroastrian Ethics three preliminary enquiries are necessary
very
:
these
we intend
to
undertake
briefly.
A. The question as to the character of the literature available for the study.
The
B.
social
and
historical
conditions, so
far as
they can be known, in which the moral
ideas
arose and the changes and modifications
were made. C.
The problem concerning the psychological
nature of man, as understood by the authors of this
literature, so
far
as
these
psychological
views have a bearing on ethical questions.
CHAPTER A.
I
THE AVAILABLE ZOKOASTRLVN LTTEKATUliE
The early Zoroastrian literature falls into two main divisions the Avestan and the :
Pahlavi. I.
down
The Avestan writings which have come fragment of the ancient
to us are only a
literature
much
which has perished.
of
These
consist of (a) the Yasnaj including the Gafhas^ (b) Vlsperad, (a)
Yitsna
(c) is
Yashfa, (d) Vendidad.
to invoke, or to Avorship. in its entirety
in
The whole book chapters. three parts
chapters
parts
of
the
It
is
praise^ recited
Ya^^na ceremony.
consists of seventy-two
be
the Gatlnts
seven
later part.
the
may
It :
= to
from zaz
derived
;
and
Yasna
Tho Gathas
divided ;
the
which (yf.
into
Yasna of tho
ga
remaining forms
= to
a
sing).
THE AVAILABLE LITERATTTRE There are
psalms.
are
J.
H. Moulton, assign
1000
date
the
these
to
Dr.
b.
Yasna of the seven chapters
is
Yasna
is
ated
with
sacred
a prose
The
prayers.
Zarathustra
objects.
dominating personality
the
The
c.
also full of prayers associ-
later
is
of
consisting
writing,
divisi/ojis
Roughly we
17 hymns.
consisting of
may, with
rive
2iy
the
in
whole Avestan literature and particularly in
(b)
the Gathas.
Visperad lords'
(Av.
^"ispe
ratavo
resembles the Yasna
)
'
the
all
in language,
form and subject. (c)
The
Yaslds
praise')
(
Av.
Yeshi
'
worship
by
form a poetical collection of 21
hymns, glorifying the angels and heroes of ancient Iran. (d)
The Vendidad {vi-daeva-data-nhe law against the demons ') is a priestly code of laws,
written in the form of a
dialogue
between
ations
and
penalties.
and
Ahura-Mazda
Zarathustra, containing
the various kinds of
prose
an
account
purification, It
may
of
expi-
be located
in the post-Alexandrian period.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
26
P'tlilavi
II.
heroic
Parthian,'
(<
times
or
)
i.
'belonging to
e.
Persian literature
Middle
'
dates from the 3rd century
century
a.
has
roots
its
It is
d.
the
in
the
to
d.
a.
9th
not an abrupt growth, but
The
Avestan writing.
contents of the Avestan books are explained
and elaborated
Pahlavi writing.
in the
Zoro-
aster appears no longer as a merely historical
personage but
is
transformed practically into a
superhuman being. The concepts
of the Gathic
period lose something of their original charac-
and become
ter
more
and
formal,
definite,
stereotyped.
Ancktrz-i Atrepat-l Mara.f<pandan precepts concerning
religion
contains
and worldliness
delivered by Dasturan Dastur Adarbad
respand to his son in the time of
Zarthost.
It
Hormazd Shapur,
Mah-
was written
the grandson
of the founder of the Sassanian dynasty.
The Arda-Vi /'((/, written about the sixth century
heaven and is
supposed *
a. d.,
sets forth
hell, as related
to
or
descriptions of
by Arda-Viraf, who
have visited them.
Ganj-t-Skayl(jan* was written in the reign
of Noshirwan the Just, about 505 his
fifth
minister
Vizorg-Meher.
It
A.
D.,
by
distinguishes
THE AVAILABLE LITERATURE
27
between permanent and evanescent wealth and lays is
down
precepts to acquire such wealth as
and
permanent,
happiness of
conducive
The Dined- Menuk-i'Khrat spirit
of
to
the
true
mankind.
wisdom
(
*
opinions of the
was written
)
in the sixth
'
century, by a devoted Mazda-worshipper.
It
contains questions on religion answered by the spirit of
wisdom.
The Shayast-la-Shayast
improper')
customs regarding ceremonies.
(*'
the proper and the
sins, impurities
and religious
was probably written
It
and
miscellaneous laws
contains
the Muslim conquest,
(a. d.
before
636-651).
The Shikaud-Giimanik Vijar ('doubt-dispelling explanation
is
)
a
work,
controversial
'
which attempts
to prove that
good and
not come from the same source.
evil
do
It criticizes
the attitude of Judaism, of Christianity, and
Manichaeanism.
It
was written
after
the
middle, but before the end of the 9th century.
The Dinkard ^-reatest of the
was compiled ninth century.
(
*
Acts of the Religion
'
),
the
Pahlavi works of the period,
by It
a high-priest, is
'a large
during the colleption of
information regarding the doctrines, customs,
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
•28
and literature of the Mazda-worship-
traditions,
W.
pin<( reli<(ion/ (E.
West).
The Dadlstan-i-Diiuk ('religious opinions or decisions
'
ninety-two questions on
contains
)
religious subjects put to a high priest with the
answers given by him. years before 881
was written some
It
a. d.
The Epistles of Mauushchihar give some light
upon the condition
of the
(a. d. 881
at the time.
The Bundahishn
*
(
Mazda- worshippers
).
original creation
'
)
deals
with the cosmogomy, mythology, eschatology of the Zoroastrian
about
A. D.
faith,
Aii/adf/arl-Zarh'an Zarir.
having been written
88G.
Referring to
introduction to
i.
it,
The Memoir of
e.,
Firdausi says
Shah Namah
'^
:
in
his
There was a
book of ancient times which contained many episodes. different
It
was scattered
Mobeds
the family of the
works
hands of
fond of
history of ancient
So he called aged Mobeds from
parts of the country
him
the
He was
Dehkans
collecting materials for the
times.
in
There was a Pehelwan of
These
and
great
all
collected the historical
men
narrated
before-
the accounts of the kinirs and of the events
THE AVAILABLE -LITERATURE
When
of the world.
that
great
29
man
heard
from them the narratives, he laid on them the foundation of a great book.
became a memoir
Thus
(
the
work
The Buhra'in Yashf was written after
had been over-run by to the reign of
Iran
a foreign race subsequent
Khusrd Xoshirvan.
It professes
Ahura-Mazda's revelation
to be
)
in the world."
Zoroaster
to
about the future of the Iranian nation. TIte
the
Besaflr professes to be a collection
from the time fifth
of
Mahabad
Sasan, being fifteen in or Zoroaster
Zerdusht, the
who
different Persian Prophets,
fifth
to the
time of the
number
;
of
whom
was the thirteenth and
Sasan the
last.
It
different
from
the
language
of
flourished
is
written in a
Avestan
and
Pahlavi.
The Sitd-dir ('a treatise on one hundred subjects
'
)
is
in the early part of the
this
is
very
old,
but
16th century was that
we
have no
evidence concerning the date of
The book
its
reliable
authorship.
deals with various religious duties
and customs. The tone to priestly
The opinion
written in Persian.
control
of
complete submission
characterises the book as
written in a period of subjection.
CHAPTER TiiK
An
II
nrsTORirAL and social conditions* account of the ethical ideas evolved by
the Iranian people in successive ages of their
demands
history,
as
preliminary
a
a
brief
description of the actual social conditions of
Only when
the people in the different epochs.
these ideas are placed in their right historic setting
and viewed
in the light of the
general
conditions of civilization in which they rose to
prominence, can their merely temporary aspects bo distinguished from what ent worth.
The prominence
in certain ages,
ance of
may
others
of certain beliefs
and the comparative
former and neoflected the This
insignific-
depend necessarily upon the
general social conditions which
•
be of perman-
cliapter is based
the
fostered
latter.
chiefly
upon Geiger
;
and
the article " Ancient Persia,^' Encyclopa'dia Britannica. Iltli
.«(!.
SOCIAL CONDITIONS For
consideration
first
is
31
the civilization of
the Gathic and the later Avestan periods.
The 1000 B.C., and the Avestan period from about 800 B.C. to 200 A.D. The Pahlavi period then commences and ends with the ninth centurv. Gathic Age
An
may
well be located around
examination of the existing evidence
leads one to the generally accepted belief in
the x\ryan origin of the Iranian people. in the
frequent called
Indeed,
Avestan writings themselves there are references
to
AiryaMrt-vaega
Aryans).
(
Their country
Iran,
is
the land of the
Possibly the Avestan people arose
as a distinct people
spread
it.
themselves
in Eastern Iran
over
the
other
and then parts
of
Persia.
Even, so early as the time of the Gafhas, the Iranians Avere in a transitional stage with regard to their
mode
nomadic.
of
the Gathic be noted.
to the agricultural stage
of
Here, however, a difference between
Age and the later Avestan Age may The chief object of attention in the
former was the cow. to
They were no longer
In fact, they were already passings
from the pastoral civilization.
life.
'
Cattle-breeding' appears
have been the main occupation of the people.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
32
compared with which
agricultural interests
all
This suggests
occupied a su])ordinate place.
that the people were at that time passing from
nomadic
the
.
The
oxistence.
more
to a
life
its
leads eventually
to
The cow
success partly
And
a settled state of living.
soil.
upon
a stable existence
methodical cultivation of is
said
despise
to
masters and to favour peasants only.
other
In the
later writings of the Aresfa^ agriculture -a
of
careful rearing of cattle on a
large scale depends for
the
form
settled
assumes
position of importance equal at least to that
For example, the Vendidad
of cattle-rearing. gives a
of the following meritorious w^orks
list
indicating forcibly the character of the existing •social
conditions
course of
life
liousehold
fodder
an
and
and
of sheep
canals
arc
permanent
of grain, of
the planting
of cultivating the land
wells
of a
The cultivation
cattle,
The breeding
1\'.
Piety and a law-abiding
The founding
II.
III.
;
for
;
I.
:
of trees
and cows.^
;
The
becomes specialised;
made
to further
agri-
cultural operations.
A
second
noticed.
In
important
Gathic
the 1
Vd. Ill
difference ao-e.
1-5.
must be
Zoroastrianism
SOCIAL CONDITIONS was not established;
was only introduced.
it
This introduction was no
less
than a religious
revolution, accompanied with all of conflict of
new and
83
But the
old.
tolerably well established
symptoms
its
was
faith
when we come
to the
later Avesta.
The
early
agricultural forests,
civilization
was
the tilling of the
supreme importance.
above
The
civilization.
soil,
all
an
clearing
of
were objects of
The cow, the dog, the
€ock, the she- camel were especially cared for
on account
of
their
farming population and
great
usefulness
human conduct
to
a
towards
them was brought under moral precepts. The dog was regarded as a friend of man, because it
to
protected cattle and flocks
:
hence
dogs were severely punished.
must be extended them. his
to
female
Hot food was not
pregnant.
The horse derived
employment
all injuries
Tender care
dogs to be
who were given to
his chief value
in warfare.
from
The camel was
indispensable for traversing surrounding deserts,
and covering great distances
The cock
is
referred
to
in
in
short
connection
time.
with
an agricultural
early rising,
an essential
-civilization.
Sheep, goats and the ass are also
for
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
34
mentioned
in the
During
earliest literature.
the Avestan period agriculture attained a con-
The
siderable degree of development.
Mazdayasnian
of the
against
may
all
faith
were asked to fight Further, we
and waste.
sterility
note the development of horticulture and
of artificial irrigation, wells
and the construction of
and canals.
Manufacture received gradually
A
attention.
increasing
considerable development of
the existence
implied
handicraftsmen.
a
of
Metals
special
were
class
it
of
worked with
Gold was esteemed the most precious
skill.
metal and jewels were made of
was
followers
silver.
Much
Next
it.
made
use was
to
it
of brass or
bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Copper Tiles were
was used. was
known.
not
prepared.
Chariots
are
But
ghxss
frequently
mentioned.
The art of medicine received attention. In the VendUlad we lind that care is demanded in
the
treatment
of
the
diseased.
Medical
treatment was extended to beasts also.
Though coined money does
not seem to have
been used, considerable progress was made in
commerce.
Exchange was
effected
through
i
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
medium mainly
the
35
For
of domestic animals.
example, the fee for the cure of a son of a family of a certain social standing was a horse. All this presupposes an evolution to a certain
degree
In
of
the
fact
a
into
regular
a
had
state
very
existence.
distinct
of five divisions
the
:
town or
clan, the
constitution
early
emerged
was composed
It
family,
tribe,
of society..
the village
or
the district and the
The family was the unit of society, The village was a group of families. The township did not possess much The idea of a district occurs real influence. province.
not the individual.
in the Gcdhas.
It
many
contained
settlements
occupied by one or more races.
Lastly there
" country,"
geographical
was the
expression.
chiefly
a
At the head of every family was
the master of the house.
Similarly, there was
the master of the village and the master of the tribe.
Over the whole province or country was
the king.
Each head enjoyed
measure of authority king was called also
an *armed
conflict class.
in his
Yima ruler.'
own
a substantial
sphere.
The
(the rich in flocks) and
Traces are found of a
between the priestly and the political
The power
of
these
heads
was not
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
We
unlimited.
hear of popular
assemblies^
which were opened with prayer. To shine these assemblies was a great distinction.
The
rise
and growth
not entirely peaceful.
was
of Zoroastrianism
From
in
the beginning a
constant warfare was waged between the Zoroastrians
The Gathas The
and the non-Zoroastrians.
give sufficent evidence of perpetual feuds.
atmosphere in which the were
faith
xjuietistic
preached
sermons of the
first
was
anything
atmosphere of religious peace
but ;
a
was
it
turmoil between antagonistic ideas. The
full of
conflict
was a double one
;
the one between the
Aryans and the non-Aryans
in
general and
between the ''believers" and the "unbelievers "
among the
Iranians
struggle between the latter was well as religious.
the
pious,
It
economic as
was a struggle between
husbandmen,
stable,
The
themselves.
Ahura Mazda, and attached
devoted
to the
to
rearing of
cows, and the restless, nomadic elements which persisted in injuring
regarding the
new
agriculture
faith.
and
in
dis-
This struggle lasts
through the Avestan period.
The adversaries daivas or demons.
of
the
faith
They were
were
called
also stigmatized
SOCIAL CONDITIONS
They
as drihjas.
37
made sudden
often
inroads
into the cultivated districts of the Zoroastrians
and carried away and
called daevas
That they were
captives.^
shows the contempt
driijas
with which they were regarded.
This actual
historical conflict led to the expression of the
nature of morality as a struggle against evil
Under the circumstances, the people bound to be warlike. Wars being
powers.
were
common virtues. fields,
led to a special recognition of martial
Men
prayed not. only for cattle and
but also for
*
troops of warriors.' x\rmies
were organized by the kings.
A
high
priesthood.
themselves
called
They fices
;
position
ofi'ered
assigned
Athravans
or
the
to
their creation.
They
fire-priests.
prayers and performed the sacri-
tended the sacred
lire
and prepared the
They encroached
Haoma-drink. on
was
The Avesta was
little if at all
the functions of the secular government,
maintaining medical
themselves
and
practice
purificatory clear lines
ceremonies. are
by the
In
earnings
the
drawn between
Vd.
III. 11.
.
Gathas,
of
no
social classes,
but in the later Avesta, mention 3
from
performance
is
made
of
ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS
38
three classes: priests, warriors, and peasants.
Possibly
"manufacturers"
captives
either
pawned away
was a
there
Lastly,
class.
formed class
a
fourth
of
slaves,
war or persons who had
of
their freedom.
Gradually
Zoroastrian
the
faith
became
firmly established and society attained a
compact
organization
The
civilization.
Medians
and
and a high degree overthrew
Persians
established
and to reduce were
generously
that they
to rule the civilized
world
The subject
races
to unity.
it
felt
of
the
empire.
great
a
Eduard Meyer says that they had a great mission
more
dealt
with.
swore allegiance to the king,
The Persians
and he protected
them. All judicial and administrative decisions were based on the advice of the leaders of the people.
There were twenty provinces in the
time of Darius
I.,
each under a governor. Each
was divided into minor governorships. were
imperial
with
postal
highways,
stations,
There
regularly provided
which
facilitated
com-
Money currency was introduced munication. about the 4th century H. c. Still payment in The kind was often the rule in the court. society progressed in many other ways. Darius
SOCIAL CONDITIONS founded harbours,
from the Nile
completed
great
a
What
to Suez.
39
the Persian kings of the empire was
tinued in the empire, carried beyond
place in
Whether
luxurious
The Persians
under the influences of
Later
life.
Greeks
the
They
Alexander conquered Persia.
have
to
destroyed
Zoroastrian
again
was
be noticed from the evidence
deteriorate
to
it
important modifications took
may
of the inscriptions of the kings.
began
a matter
and may have been
boundaries.
its
not,
as
it,
is
Zoroastrianism undoubtedly con-
of question.
supreme or
canal
the religion of
greater
the
The
literature.
revived under
the
under
are said
part
of
decaying
Parthians,
the faith
but the
Avestan language was replaced by the Pahlavi or Parthian.
The Ardashir
Sassanian I.
Empire,
marks
a
inaugurated
turning-point
in
by the
history of Persia. Image-worship was abolished;
and
a belief in one
god restored. The remaining
Avestan literature was collected and arrangred.
The priesthood was
reinstated in a
position of
importance. Ardashir believed that " the altar
and the throne were always inseparable and jnust always sustain each other,"
The Sassanian
ZOllOASTllIAN ETHICS
40
period forms a brilliant page in the history of Zoroastrianism. But during
were made
to set
up
various attempts
it
The most
hostile sects.
important of these was Manicha^ism, founded
by Mani, Whether a heresy ism or not
was opposed
it
view
the
which
Darkness
universe was
to
the spirit of the
" According to
Zoroastrian faith. cht\3an
Avithin Zoroastrian-
admixture gave
rise
the
and Darkness,
Manichaiism
quietistic, ascetic
was
suppressed
heretical
sect
Mazdak who But a
consequently regarded
people
in
the
evil
was
and repre-
cosmopolitan,
and unworldly."'^
This sect
Shapur
Another
by
appeared
H.
under
tauorht a form of o
spirit
admixture
of
such as marriage and
is
by Mani and his followers as hensible.
material
All that tends
essentially evil
begetting of children,
and
Light
of to
to the prolongation of this state
of Light
the Mani-
the
of indifference
of
came over the Sassanians.
time of the later
With the success of the Arabs,
this
about the
downfall of the faith
thousands
remained
followers
lead
communism.
:
and
brought
only
some
many
of
these migrated to India. 4
E.G. BroM-ne,"^ lAteranj History of Persia:' pp.160-162.
CHAPTER Advance
in ethical ideas
knowledge
human mind. considered
Though
in
can take place in
attains a certain
amount
concerning the nature
of the
a society only after of
III
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS*
C.
it
Ethical relation
should
principles to
human
mind was fond
the Persian
be
capacities. of
making
psychological distinctions, the extant literature gives no evidence of an analj^sis of the
mind anything in Jain
so detailed as
like
and Buddhist
the Avesfa
is
Avorks.
human
that found
The psychology
of
neither simple nor primitive, but
presupposes some philosophical speculation.^
According
human
to the Avesta^ the
ality consists of five
elements —
'
person-
vitality' (ahu),
"This section is preliminary only and does not represent a complete independent examination of the material. Much use has been made of W. Geiger. Civilization of
Ancient Iran. Vol. I. Ch. Ill and Casartelli Philosophy of the Mazdayasnian Religion under the Sassanids. Ch. V. 2 Ys. 1 Geiser I. 124. 4 and 6— ;Yt. XIII. 149. :
XXVL
<
42
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
'
'perception' or 'sense' (baodha)^
'ego' ((?ae/ia),
and Fravashi.^
(^wrcan),
'soul'
Man
Pahlavi writers.
The
soul.
Dlnhard and other
ally accepted division
ness).
the
divided into body and
is
man was
spiritual part of
farohar (guardian
Ichart
by
variously
Lists of psychological powers are given
divided. in the
Psychological
developed
further
are
distinctions
is
:
jan
spirit),
(life),
(
(memory), dino
Among
vir
),
ravan
(soul),
and hod (conscious-
Other powers are akho intelligence
The gener-
writings.
(
(judgment), reason
),
hosh
(religion), vakt^h (conscience).
elements
were
mysterious
powers, parts of the
human
being,
though not
belonging
individual
these
for
elements
of
Frarashis
is
Dr.
the
to
responsible
acts.
its
this
type.
and
not
The Frarashis
are
soul
The conception
of
peculiar and difficult to interpret.
Moulton
thinks
of
them primarily
as
Roman manes. Dr. Dhalla much in common with the Platonic ideas. Now they are referred to as parts of the human personality now as corresponding to the finds
that
have
they
;
celestial spirits.
well-defined luive not a
Nevertheless, they have certain
characteristics.
mere
ideal
The Frarashis
existence,
but are real,
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS spiritual
positive,
highest
the
part
essence of things, as
Every good
distinguished from the accidental. creature
constitute
man, without beginning
of
They form the
and end.
They
entities.
under the heavens has
who
Fravashi
acts as
life
its
corresponds
and
partly
its
guardian
after
with
it.
Fravashi.
its
Every new-born babe brings with
during
it its
own
spirit
both
The conception idea
the
all
physical and mental planes
feelings or volitions
while everything good and the Fravashi only.
is
of
bad--'
But
man.
has
its
atman,
Like the Fravashi, the atiiutn does not
short,
the
Ahura Mazda its
is
not
it is
connected with good creations
actively interfere in the course of a
In
;
nor in any way affected by the
responsible,
thoughts,
soul
of
Atman
(atman) in the Hindu psychology. above
43
Fravashis are to help the
human
life.
the agencies
of
creation forward in
righteous endeavours and tendencies,-a task
which they
fulfil
by each one connecting
itself
with one particular person or object and doing its
utmost
all
necessary assistance.
supply that person or object with
may, of course, be maintained that from the point view of atman the distinction of good and bad is invalid. *It
of
to
:
ZOUoASTinAN ETHICS
44
The Farukars
or Fravahars of the Pahlavi
correspond
period
the
to
Fmvashit;
the
of
Avestan age. These possess distinct personalities
and enter into the bodies by their own But while all creatures heavenly will.
sweet
or earthly were thought to have their Fravashis^
the Farohar.^ belong only to the earthly objects.
much
In fact, the original conception loses its
arc
with the
identified
stars
of
The Farohars
dignity in the later times.
one of the
in
The Farohar purifies the air body by means of fire and thus helps to
P.ihlavi works.' in the
maintain it
In the post-Sassanian writings,
life.^
becomes a mere principle of digestion. In the
Revayet of Barzii Kavam-iid-Dln, '<
The function
someness
remove every
The
of the
Fawhar
the food
to
is
find
to give whole-
which men eat and
indig'cstible matter.
to
""^
(Ircaih represents 'soul' or as Dr.
maintains 'the ego proper, the real is
we
Dhalla
I-ness.'^
It
the Urvan or ravan (so called in the Pahlavi
period) which constitutes the responsible
capable
of
making choice between good and
3
MUh.
4
l)k. III. 165, VI.
6
92.
(^)iiotc
in
self,
Dr. Dlialla.
.S-kS.
Cania Memorial
V(»liniie, lo4-15S.
p. 144.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS 6vil
and hence
valso
Not
rewards and
men, but animals
Ahura Mazda has
a soul
have other divine beings.^
so also
much
liable to
only
possess the soul."
and is
becomes
it
punishments.
45
There
evidence in favour of the view
that
the Zoroastrians believe in the pre-existence of
The
the soul. 9 the body
but
;
spiritual world.
above, and world. ^^
soul
^^
not created alonof with
It
body
the
from
comes from
does not owe
Similarly
existence
is
enters
it
has
the soul
The
predominate.
an
clearly
sent to heaven or hell according as evil deeds
world
the
existence to this
its
the death of the body.
after
the
its
soul
It
is
good or
requires to
be protected against spiritual decay and death.
The
soul
of
man who commits
a
crimes, becomes extinct.^-
a
It
said in the
is
the soul of a man,
•dog
is
merely
who
Vendidad that Yanghapara
kills the
destroyed only for a temporary period.^^
As regards
a mortal sinner
in his future
XXXIX.
body they
7
Ys.
8
Yt. XIII. 81, 84. Spiegel Memorial
9
this is
sort of stupefaction, a suspension of spiritual
activities.
**
But
unnatural
pp. 100-105.
I. 2.
Volume
(
it
is
stated
that
the high priests
10 Bd. 64. 11 Gs. 20. 12 Sd. 268. 13 Vd. XIII.
3.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
46
head once, and the
will cut off his
make him
last
time
and
will
they
will
inflict
three night's severe punishment."^'^ Lastly
we may
alive again,
refer to the account
from doing
(
to
evil,
soul
is
)
evil ones.
him an idea of heaven and directs him to make choice of reject
There
is is
It protects
body of man through superior wisdom^
the gives
"
The man_
restrain
to
induce him to speak good
words, and abstain from
soul
"
Revayaf of Barzu Karara-iid-Din.
the
function of ravan
and
ravan in
of the
what
is
Avhat
good,
is
is evil."^^
a reciprocal
and soul on body.
It is
dream,
hell in
influence of
Thus
body on
stated that
it is
owing to (his) soul that (a man's) body
And each
well- warned
rendered
by
dull
strength of the other
the ;
(soul
and body)
weakening
for,
of
when any
the
of the
powers of the soul become enfeebled, every one of the
powers of (the) body
And when harm
stand-still.
part
of
the
body,
co-related soul.
injury
Therefore,
is it
is
is
brought
to a
done
any
to
caused is
to
owing
its
to the
purity of the soul that the body pertaining to this world
n
becomes valuable.
SIS. 'M)X
1
.">
And
the acquis-
Cama Memorial Volume
154-158.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS by the soul
purity
of
ition
powers of the body pertaining Bodily
are
illnesses
through the
to this world. "^^
removed by the Thus the cure of
best
recitations of the Avesta.
body
is
47
through the soul and that of the soul
is
through the body.^^
must
It
be understood
however that the body and the soul are
The body
is
roban
the soul,
is
distinct.
the instrument of the soul.
which
is
the
'<
ruler
The over
the body. Just as the head of a family conducts the household, and the rider the horse, so does
the soul conduct the body."^^
Another
spiritual
Avesta was daena.
power referred
Some
to in
the
scholars translate
it
by the English word 'Conscience'; others (Moulton
v/as
one of them) by
Fravashij daena
human
soul
is
and continues
the Fravashi^ a daena
man
its
Like the
after death.
Unlike
associated with a bad Different views
exact functions.
the 'daena
Dr. Geiger
to
is
as well as a good.
held as regards
'self.'
largely independent of the
or
are
According
conscieuce
is
a
divine power existing eternally, which unaftectted by the sins of evil courses. I
6
Dk. IV.
192.
man warns him
According 1
.against all
to other scholars, the
7~I)k. IV. 224. 240.
i 8
Dk. VI.
353.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
48
It
that each
emphasise
to
the fact
own 'individual
his
responsi-
and an immortal ego within him, which
bility
would Frt,sY.s,
meant
is
man had on
pass
weal
to
daena of a
the
bodily form
"
:
I
am
In
woe.^^
man
good
the
takes
a
and encounters
his death
after
him, saying
or
own good thoughts, The daena of
thine
words and deeds, thy daena.^^^^ 11
bad
man
similarly appears as an ugly hag.
The word
dlno corresponds
literature to the
the
in
Avestan form daena.
Pahlavi It
means
the religious spirit.
The Baudhu means
It participates in
sciousness.'
of the Urvan. literature,
'intelligence' or 'con-
The
the responsibility
hoi or hod, of the Pahlavi
corresponding to the Baodha of the
Avestan period means also consciousness, the faculty by which a
the sun is (
" As
himself.
the light of the world, and a
the liglit) of a house,
{Jiod^j
the
is
man knows
lamp
so does the intellect
animate with watchful light the lord of
house
(
viz.
the
body
),
and
does
so
animate the rider on the horse, as also
it
it
directs
the master of the house to take care of the i» Moulton p. 264.
»• Yt. XXII.
11.
Mkh.
19.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS house,
and the
49
rider of the horse. "^^
If the
departs from the body, the soul be-
intellect
comes much
and the body
distressed,
insensible. ^-^
In the Revayat of Barzu Kavam-ud-Dinj the " The function of following account is given :
Boe
(spirit) is to rule over
perform
intelligence, under-
and judgment,
standing
its
that
so
may
each
duty, and co-operate for the entire
welfare of the body.""
Ahw means •co-terminous
*
life-force.'
with that
opinion of Dr. Geiger
of
existence
Its
body.
the
is
This
however, controverted
is,
by some Parsi scholars, who maintain that means both bodily and spiritual life. Ahu
it
is
appointed to find and watch over the corporeal functions of man.^^ the Avesta
•of
),
apprehension serves to keep
of
is
The Pahlavi Akho, and
man from
then to the
at last to of
33 3 3
stars,
the sun.^^ It
evil.
Dk. VI. 354. Dk. VI. 354. Cama Memorial Volume
sin.^^
According to
first
to the nearest
then to the moon and is
stated in the Revayat
9
4 Dr. Geiger.
9*
Dk. V.
::;
faculties
V.
I.
125.^
337, 338.
«« SIS. 341-2. V
154-158.
4
always
It
Barzu Kavam-ud-Din that when the
i 1
Ahu
the power of the spiritual
good
one account, Akho passes fire,
(
...
::,
^
^:
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
50
depart from the body,
the vital
mixes-
force
with the wind, whereas akJio returns to
itself
heaven in company with the soul of the because
not affected by the sins of man.
is
it
pious,.
But the ravan^ hoCy 3i.ndfroharj according to the Revayat have to account for the good and
man."
evil of
According of
types (
intellects
(
Gathas^^
there
khratit
and two
)
twolives
).
Avesta
one
the
nhroto hhratii
'
source
is
The two mental
is
hhratu called
superior
in
the
Jaoshi
obtained by the
obtained through the validity
to
former
the latter.
lives are distinguished as bodily
faculties
intellectual
and
mentioned in the
Pahlavi writings are khaH^ vir and intelligence.
intelligence
account passage. • 7
^
*
they correspond to our body and soul.
;
The
the other
'
the wisdom
*
Wisdom
ear.'
asno
called
is
original intellect,
is
are
The two intellects are distinguished the first and the last,^^ and in the later
ahii
as
the
to
is *'
It
and
is
of
two
acquired
given
of
Be
known
it
Khart
Jiosh,
kinds,
innate
intelligence.
both
in
that the happiness
Cania Memorial Volume 154-158.
9» Haug. p. 310.
3» Ys.
An
the following
XLIV.
1».
Haug
p. 310.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS
51
is desired in two ways One, bymeans of the power of innate reason pertaining to the soul, which is ( a principle ) for sending
of the soul
out
movements (thoughts)
inner
the
raise the
to
effect
:
soul
to
higher
a
to
the
rank.
(Another) by means of educated reason, which (a principle) for sending
is
ments
In
within."^°
the
intelligence
and
;
for
move-
the
highest
places
all
man
rank and the best thing for
in
outer
him who
is
innate
inferior in
is
innate intelligence the best thing in the second
grade
is
learning.^^
Innate intelligence express-
es outwardly the intuitions of
intelligence
impressions
communicates from the
man
to the
outside
;
acquired
interior
the
Hosh
world. ^^
means practical good sense and vir is reason^ Nobody can buy these at any price. It may be here remarked that knowledge as an essential
factor
emphasis
in :
virtuous
a
thus
it
is
life
said that the
the strength of wisdom. ^^
is
known
received first
Again,
due
strength *^
Be
it
that all good qualities exist because of
the heavenly principle of wisdom."^*
Virtue,
however, requires not merely knowledge, but 3
3
1
Dk. L 60. Dk. III. 134.
3» Dk. 3 3
I.
3 4
60.
Dk. VIL
475.
Dk. IL
83.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
sb
<*
also practice.
man
Education makes
noble
;
good habits endow him with a virtuous disposition education is a corrector of man, good ;
"habits the
A
guardian of his
soul."''^
faculty corresponding to the
modern word
conscience was recognised. It was called Vaksli i.
e.
man
the power that guides
And
path.
the invisible power
soul, to help
in this
warnings
it
to
make
and
to
is
the
world
it
in the right
that
in the
behave properly
conscience
walk in the good
is
that
path.-^'*'
•'
gives
The
soul
and the farohar are because of conscience and it is also owing to conscience that the soul and ;
farohar perceive
;
and conscience
is
the eye (of
souls and farohars.y** And the soul performs the
work relating prevails
in
conscience."-^'
wishes and the farohar
to (its)
the
vigour of
The presence
its
own, through
of conscience
means
power of perceiving the right thing. The power of doing the right thing implies freedom of will. *'
God has given
save
themselves
from
Ahriman the source in the Avestaf
man
3» Gs. 11. 3« Dk. HI. I«4.
men
to all
sufficient ability to
as
sin
well
of their sins
is
called 3 7
*
as
from
and woes.""
lord of the corpbr-
Dk.
III. 165.,
38 Dk. VII. 441.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTIONS
Man
world.'
eal
53
has the power of governing
himself, the power denied to other creatures.
This capacity, vouchsafed as a distinctive
human
all
gift to
beings, of initiating either good or
evil actions,
own
at one's
will,
creates in
man
In our view
a sense of moral responsibility.
thus alone ethics becomes possible. This brief sketch of the psychological ideas
known is
not
to the Zoroastrian writers
possible
to
find
in
human
faculties.
many
lists of
human
is
a
considerable
diversity
principles of division. also
have
meaning.
always
not
Further,
demarcation
is
mind is
there
The
these.
on fixed logical
The terms employed the same definite
no very
exact
line
of
drawn between the bodily and
the mental faculties.
recognition
faculties,
in
based
not
classifications are
it
them very exact Though we
classifications of
encounter
shows that
of the
We
look in vain for the
tripartite
division
of the
and
volition.
There
into reason, feeling
no marked metaphysical or psychological
dualism in a man's soul, corresponding to the modified metaphysical and ethical dualism of the later Zoroastrian philosophy. substantial
steps
were
Nevertheless,
taken in psychology,,
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
-54
when
the broad division between the material
and the non-material parts of the human whole when attempts were made to was made ;
•differentiate different
when
it
faculties
;
and above
was recognised that man's
will
is
all,
free.
And
with such a psychological conception of
man
the moral ideal was possible.
PART
II
CHAPTER
IV
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE First
an attempt
will
be made' to
give
a
general idea of the moral attitude of the Parsi faith
and of
its
characteristic principles.
A
clear grasp of the fundamental standpoint of
Zoroastrianism will enable
us to survey the
details with greater facility.
The view here taken iible
of life shows a remark-
absence of the recognition of the deeper
metaphysical
problems
related
with
ethical
The Hindu mind misses anything
problems.
really corresponding to the mysterious concepts
like
May ay
Ka.rma, Sainsara,
play so important a part in
Moksha^ which
Hindu
speculation.
Concerned predominantly with practical morality
this
religion
€thical religion.
centres
round
is
known above
The main the
ethical
all
as
an
interest generally
implication
of
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
56
rather than their deep philosophy.
questions
This
indicates
weakness
The from
predominantly unmetaphysical char-
acter of the system of
The
life.
is
the positive view taken
utilitarian genius of the Iranians
instinctively avoided all attempts to
pure
abstractions
which
is
There
practical.
no attempt
and darker shadows the
adumbrate
and thus evolved a view
essentially
mysticism,
at
and
strength
the
whole system.
consequence which directly flows
first
this
once
at
of the
of
no
fathom the deeper
to life,
transcendental.
is
no
flight to clutch
Dhalla
Dr.
" Religion should be such that
its ideals
says':
can be
applied to our work-a-day world.
Its
ings should be
exigencies
This
of daily life
The
reality of
questioned for a ]y real.
The
stuff is
The
:
very simplicity. '^^
it is
not
is
always supremei-
not sacrificed on the
altaa-
made
same
finite is
that constitutes the infinite
:
of the
the infinite
the deepening, the expansion of the
not quite different from or opposed to 1
teach-
the characteristic of
its
immediate experience
moment
finite is
of the infinite.
is
through
Zoroastrianism
the
applicable to
Dr. Dhalla.
p. 358-9.
finite^ it.
»
'
"^
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
57
Two features which follow from this attitude may be observed at once. The one is the firm and
belief in the reality of the individual soul,
in its capacity for activity.
contribution to the
sum
The
individual's
good of the
total of the
world receives special recognition in Zoroastrian
Man
ethics.
is
held to be largely a free-willed
being, capable of initiating both good and evil activities
and according as he leans more on the
one side or the other, the fate of the universe is
decided for good or
from
being
a
mere
evil.
wheel
Man
machinery, a helpless tool in
is
thus far
a
universal
the
hands of
in
powers vaster and superior to himself. a choice
to
make,
a
choice
both
to
He
pregnant
has
with
himself and to
infinite
possibilities
others
he has a part to play, a part which
;
helps to turn this way or that
way the
tide of
success of the moral forces of the universe.
Constant faith in the power of man, genuine respect for his individual efforts,
and persistent
insistence on his activity in the right directions
give to the whole view a tone of vigour and
make
it
a very powerful lever to
masses from passivity and indolence.
uplift
the
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
-^
Another feature which this positive view
is
A
vailing about man's destiny.
This
in its possibilities.
with the
contrasted
operations of destiny and so often
irresistible
breeds
may be
outlook.
pessimistic
taken of the worth and individual
room
little
In
much
view
the
importance of left
is
or
Man He
the master of his fate.
the
dark
for
mysterious views about man's future.
very
confi-
view which resigns us to the
fatalistic
a
of
belief in the
immediate experience inspires
reality of
dence
outcome
the
the optimistic tone pre-
is
is
is
not
a negligible factor in the constitution of the
This inspires him with a sense of
universe.
make
power, a consciousness of dignity, which light the difficulties of the situation
mind with
bright
Darmesteter says
was
a
it
—
religion of
the word old
:
;
Aryan
it
hopes '*
tion
;
;
gives
not
his
The Zoroastrian
religion
in the noblest sense of
life
two
the
midst of
which
dim percepthings were vioraliti/ and or only a
so that the Zoroastrian faith its
fill
future.
religions in
those
and
the
brought two things of which the
arose had no idea
hope
about
not only
follower a moral rule through
only directs his
heart,
his
tongue,
life
hi»
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
59^
hand, teaching him good thought^ good word^
good deed
;
but
prevail at last
it tells
him
that the good will
he does his duty
if
;
that a son
come and open Ormazd and exterminate The poorest, the the evil from the world. meanest Zoroastrian in the world knows that of the prophet, Saoshyant, will
the eternal reign of
he
born a soldier
is
-Ormazd
will
of
Saoshyant and that
conquer through him."
^
Every
Zoroastrian necessarily believes in the ultimate
triumph of the good, although his optimism type, but largely based
not of a facile
man's
is
upon
eftbrts or sufferings as direct contributions
towards the realization of the future millennium.
Like Tennyson he believes that 'good will be the
goal of
final
*'Good shall
At
last
And
—
fall
far off
—
at last, to
all,
every winter change to spring."
The system irrepressible It
and that
ill'
the
is
outcome of the robust,
optimism of the Iranian mind.
can be broadly distinguished from the views
of certain thinkers,
chiefly Eastern,
<;onsidered life as radically
and then
desire 2
its
extinction.
ERE
IX.
who have
and unalterably
647.
evil
The Iranian
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
60
with bright hopes both for
life is filled
and
and
hereafter,
salvation
life
here
Mohsha
or
is
considered as consisting not in the negation of life,
but in
its fullest
realization.
As Zoroastrian metaphysics posits two spirits,. Spenta Mainyu the Good spirit, and Angra
Mainyu the Evil
spirit, so also
Zoroastrian ethics
evolves the fundamental opposition between the
Good and the
the forces of Life and the
Evil,
forces of Death.
The whole universe
two opposite camps ready out.
The duty
man
of
arrayed in
is
to thrust
consists
each other enlisting
in
himself on the side of the good, by furthering to
the best of his
and retarding
Ahura
ability all the vital forces
the forces of death.
all
says to the wicked one
minds are
nor our beliefs, nor our
words, nor our actions,
nor our souls." ^
In the
writings,
The
thought,
the
second
third
good
thoughts, 3
Ys.
first is
deed.^
evil
XIX.
nor our consciences,
Arda Viraf and other
the distinction
maintained.
is
^'Neither our
harmony, nor our precepts, nor
in
our comprehensions,
Pahlavi
;
words, 15.
footstep
sharply
is
is
the good
good word, and the
The
practice
and 4
AV.
evil
of
deeds
154. 189.
evil is
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
A man
punished.5
harm, good deeds
A man
no
let
man's
for
;
life
good
not eternal."
^
by good
himself
good
words,
He who
good deeds." ^
evil idea possess is
^^should maintain
thoughts,
my
your thoughts,
all
good and
son, be about
your mind
should prefer " good to
to sins, virtue to vice, light
"Let
darkness."^
to
61
and
tongue,
thinks good thoughts,
^'
speaks good words, and does good deeds, does
by
his
good thoughts and words and deeds
cause his soul to reach the best place. "^ said in the Menuk-i-khrat that
a righteous
own deeds in the **I
am
man
when the
passes over the
is
bridge, his
kind come to meet him
of a virtuous
form of a handsome maiden. no maiden, but
It
soul of
I
am
She says
:
thy virtuous deeds,
thou youth, who art well-thinking, well-speaking,
well-doing,
way
the same
and a
to
death, his evil deeds
maiden, and
the
deeds, thou
good
of
wicked
come
»
AV.
«
Gs. 21.
is
190.
man, in the
maiden says
who
monster,
and
evil-speaking, evil-doing
Holiness
religion. "^°
after
his
form
of a
am
thy
*'I
:
In
evil-thinking,
art
of evil religion.
"^^
acquired through good thoughts, 7
An At
s
Gs. 22.
M
»
1. 1
Gs. 32.
Mkh.
19.
1 1
Mkh.
23.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
62
good words and good deeds. ^- But
''the soul
of
him who
follows evil professions becomes guilty
through
evil
deeds."
thoughts
"And
^^
of danger
and the increasers of
**Evil passions
owing
are
extremely hurtful."
The
words and
evil
evil
the evil thoughts are the cause evil passions."
to evil,
^*
mean and
^"^
oft-repeated reference to thoughts, words
and deeds, siveness
suggests
and depth
at once
of the
the comprehen-
ethical position
of
these writings. For the root of good or bad words or deeds
The to be
is
to be
found in good or bad thoughts.
basis of the ethics
may
therefore
inner motive
is
of
be
said
But though the
fundamentally spiritual.
primary importance, the outer
act or consequence
is
also recognised as possess-
may
ing a value which ethics must consider.
It
be remarked here that the importance
of the
word and deed
triad of thought,
strian scheme in
of life
is
some other Eastern
in the Zoroa-
not without
its
parallels
In the classical
faiths.
Sanscrit writings, the reference to manaSy vach
and kannan exactly corresponds to Humata or Manashni, Hukhata or Gavashni and Hvarit Dk. 13 Dk.
I.
1.
20.
20.
1* Dk. ifi
Dk.
I.
60.
II. 86.
;
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE
65
The eightfold path which Gautama Buddha preached as a way to the extinction of suffering is more or less an expan-
shta or Kunashni.
sion of the Zoroastrian formula
Right Faith,
:
Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Living, Right
Effort,
Equally noteworthy
Right Self-concentration. is
which the Zoroastrian
correspondence
the
triad
exhibits with
Jainas.
They
conviction,
the
three
jewels
of the
Sainyag-darsana^
are
and
faith
Right Thought,
perception
samyag-jnana^ right knowledge
;
right
combined
sainyak-chari-
tra, right conduct.^^
The sum total of duty one word Asha^ which may be
translated
whole world-order
their
expressed by the
in particular
Righteousness
as
Under the dominating all its better
state,
is
is
or
terms
Purity,.
influence of the idea, the
kept in
to be
purest
its
elements advanced towards
promised realisation and
ments gradually made
to
its
worse
ele-
This
disappear.
is
then the broad meaning of Asha^ the funda-
mental concept of Parsi ethics. '
The main
fullest 1 «
idea of the
realisation J. L. Jaini.
of
the
Parsi
ethics
vital forces
Outlines of Jainism 1916
is
the
and the
—
p. 52.
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
'€4
consequent
disappearance
tendencies.
In the words of the poet:
<<
T'is life
Oh
ethics
whereof our nerves are scant,
and
life
fuller that I want."
course
In the
opposite
not death for which we pant,
life,
More
the
of
the
of
development of the
and
fuller
earliest stages of civilization,
when
received
idea
this
a richer
content.
In the animistic
tendencies largely
stract ideas are
prevail,
and ab-
understood only under the guise
of something concrete, morality consisted very
largely in a struggle against evil spirits. Every-
which
thing
supposed spirit.
has
All such evil spirits
Hence the very great elaborate
tendency
pernicious
a
is
be due to the action of some evil
to
rituals
must be
insistence
calculated
impurity, under the
out
all
which an
evil
root
to
shelter
of
exorcised.
shown on the
spirit generally lurks.
The
idea
gradually
interpretation.
religious
work in
duties
As
Lchmann
more
liberal
remarks,
the
go hand in hand with the
of civilisation.
the
receives a
time of the
We
must remember that
Gathas, the people were
mainly pastoral and agricultural.
The work
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE of promoting
life
to the age.
The work
and the
took the special forms suited of breeding cattle well
art of cultivation receive special atten-
Many an important work
tion.
65
of bridges, houses, canals,
such as building
the
destruction
of
noxious creatures become highly moral when looked at from this point of view.
The
idea
of
underlying the above
utility
agricultural ethics received a further extension
when man's of
health and vigour become objects
Thus marriage as a the sexual relations and a guaran-
particular
regulator of
pure and healthy progeny was highly
tee of
lauded.
All
of
relations,
Positive
to
all
progeny. structive
to
inas-
utmost impoverishment
obligations
were laid upon
maintain and promote his
and then
unnatural
condemned
strongly
as they led to the
life.
man
illicit
were
intercourse,
much
attention.
energy
first
produce and bring up healthy
The same emphasis upon the conis shown by the
elements in ethics
great contempt expressed for asceticism in each
and every form.
had no fascination
mind
The
for the intensely practical
of the Zoroastrians.
such as was
at
ideal of renunciation
A
state of celibacy
one time popular among ancient
f
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
GO
Brahmans and mediaeval Christians did not find favour amongst the followers of Zoroaster. In It was the same with reference to fasting. virtues,
negrative
fact, all
which
from more positive and
fruitful
to the diminution
life- forces,
releofated to the
From
of
lead
activities
were either
backcjround or ig^nored.
general
this
divorced
if
standpoint,
not
is
it
strange to find that all practical virtues which lead to success in life receive
The
tion.
qualities
of
industry, moderation are
a true Zoroastrian. So
marked
recogni-
temperance,
thrift,
deemed
essential
far Parsi ethics
for
appear
as ethics of utility.
The
best
attitude
of
spirit
will
be
the
missed
Zoroastrian
if it is
the calculations of worldly profit
what
\yas
mind.
A
chiefly
and
dreamt of by
the
human
soul
conspicuous place was assigned
virtues.
anthropy
loss
were
the Iranian
vivid appreciation of the higher and
.finer possibilities of
A
moral
supposed that
Charity in
all
large-mindedness
or good- will, its
are
virtuous organization.
shapes part
The
to
grew up. altruistic
active
and
philforms,,
and parcel of a followers of Zoro-
aster learnt well to identify self with the larger
THE GENERAL MORAL ATTITUDE community and
self of the
work
to
67
in a spirit
of disinterestedness for the larger brotherhood.
A
manifestation
further
tendency of the ethics
the
of
idealistic
seen in the very great
is
regard attached to tjiithfulness in mind, word
and deed.
This
well-known
trait
comes out
definition
of
the
Persian
given by Herodotus, when he said the truth
in the
finely
ideal
that to tell
and bend the bow were the main
part of Persian education.
Such, briefly expressed, of
system
the
is
the
main attitude
developed
ethics
We may
Zoroastrians. of
of
conclude
by
in the
Lehmann--'* Keviewing the whole
the
words
field
we
note the extremely formal and rather juristic character of the Zoroastrian ethic,
Persian genius practical
for
always
utilitarianism
enters
into
righteousness and justice. life,
this
control
and veracity;
ness, regularity
of this ethic
not
and
scheme
of
industry,
self-
in social life, righteous-
social accord.
an abstract
accommodate
irrational life.
is
and things
In the individual
appreciated
ethic
the
while the
itself
to
The
reverse
stiffness that life
and
will
whose
consequences are often inimical to
The monotonous opposition
of
good to
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
€8
evil
and
evil
good leaves no room
to
intermediate stages of real
for
life,
in the soul of
vidual and spontaneous states
mankind. emotions
The Persians cared
little
for
the
disinterestedness
even
in
the
of
we
religious feelings
a lyric element
accordance with called
<
law
;
too often the want of
feel
on the contrary we always
;
the heavy burden
is
for the
the indi-
of the juristic spirit.
this, '
(
^
religion
daena
)
'
feel
In
in the Avesta
and the Persians
could not distinguish between the two ideas." 1
7
ERE
V. 516.
^^
CHAPTER V THE VALUE OF LIFE INDUSTRY AND INDOLENCE :
The
Zoroastrian ethics
character
positive
essentially
best brought out
is
the
of
by
its
constant and reiterated emphasis on the value of
Life itself
life.
the longer
is
very good thing and
a
In the Gathas,
the better.
is
it
Zarathustra prays " In order that
known
to
men
the
true
I
may make
and sacred aims of
Ye me a long life for this."^ And do Thou, O Lord
their desires, grant
Again he says bestow
:
'^
long-lasting
a like
Zarathustra spoke to Vistaspa
O
man,
of a
O
good
life :
"I
on
us."^
bless thee,
lord of the country, with the living life,
an exalted
of
life,
of a long
life.
May thy men live long May thy women live long May sons be born unto thee of thy own !
I
body 1
!"^
Life as such
Ys. XLIII.
13.
2
Ys.
is
a divine thing
XXVIII.
7.
3
;
it
Yt. XXIII.
is 1.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
70
created by
Ahura Mazda; death
abomination
owes
it
;
Ahura Mazda life,^
the
is
and the source
always an
is
existence to Ahriman.''
its
lord
deeds of
the
of
the joys of life/
of all
Haiirvatat or health and Ariieretat or immortality are
very frequently
Ahura Mazda gives words and deeds.^
Amesha
the
Ameretat, state
''
life.
That
restore
We
ing,
and master
of
life
and the world
when
when he
will die,
rotting, ever living
when
The
final
unto the victorious
will cleave
never grow old and never
will rise,
unto
sacrifice
pictured as eternal, deathless
is
the world, which
and never
unto the pros-
Spenta."^
and his helpers,
Saoshyant
unto Haurvatat,
sacrifice
Amesha
man
of
we
seasons
the
objects of prayer.
'*\Ve sacrifice
Spenta,
of the
perity
made
these as a reward for holy
its
wish.
(
shall
thenceforth
never decaying
and ever
When
increas-
the dead
and immortality will come,
will be restored at
wish,
its
the creation shall grow deathless
prosperous creation of the good
spirit,
— the
— and
the Druj shall perish."'^
»
Ys.
XXX.
Ys.
XXXI.
« Ys.
4. 8.
XXXIII.
10.
7
Ys.
XXXIV.
«
Yt.
II. 6.
»
Yt.
XIX.
1.
19-20
;
89-90.
THE VALUE OF LIFE Death, disease, decrepitude are
Death
the
is
Holy word, aw^ay.
ing
worst
both hunger and
by Mazda
;
away."
fled
may
The
^^
may
I
fled
follow-
take away
from the world created
thirst,
that I
Before the
away, Death
fled
asked: ^'That
is
abhorred/
all
of all evils.
''Sickness
the Daeva
boon
71
take away both old age
and death, from the world created by Mazda." ^^
"To
Sickness, I say a vaunt
thee,
Death,
avaunt
I
say avaunt
To
!
physical
thee,
O
To
'
say avaunt
and
imperfection
considered hateful.
I
"There
thee,
O
Pain, I say
thee,
Fever,
To
!
!"^-
All
malformations are
no hump-
shall be
backed, none bulged forward there; no impotent,
no
no
lunatic,
one
with decayed
tooth, no leprous to be pent up."^^ If life itself is
so
supremely
things which subserve esteem. son,
"Give me,
it
desirable,
Ahura Mazda's
Fire,
a speedy glory, speedy nourishment,
speedy booty, and abundant nourishment,
all
are also held in high
abundant
glory,
abundant booty,
expanded
an
mind, and nimbleness of tongue
and
for
soul
and
understanding, even an understanding contini« Yt. IIL
7.
11 Yt. IX. 10.
18 Vd.
XX.
7.
13 Vd. n. 29.
J
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
72
ually growing in
and that never
largeness,
its
wanders, and long enduring virile power." order that our minds
our souls the best,
An
as well."^^
health,
male
strength,
children,
in assembly,
who
and ready
(of
who smite and
to
help.''^^
number
great
a
praisers
God) and
are
their
one stroke their
strike at
is felt
not
smitten,
be
rich
Mayst thou
*'Mayst thou
king Husravah
warriors,
!
May
!
strength to
ten sons be born
three as Athravans,
three as tillers of the
with
Mayst
Pourusaspa
like
three as
ground
one of them be like Gamaspa that he thee
thyself !
a good share of bliss, like
Mayst thou have
!
Kangha thy own body,
reach the of
horses,
in
have
who
in joy
ever
foes,
of
chiefs
enemies,
be rich in cattle, like an Athwyanide
thou
for
<"Give us strength
life.
smite at one stroke
glol-ified
things which
prosperity, all
Give us
victory.
delighted, and
be
our bodies be
intense appreciation
advance the forces of
and
may
let
"In
^^
!
may
May bless
great and ever greater happiness
I
Mayst thou be freed from sickness and death like
Peshotanu
14 Ys. LXII. 4. 15 Ys. LX. 11.
!
Mayst thou have piercing »c Ny. III. 10. Yt.
XXIV.
6.
THE VALUE OF LIFE Mithra
rays, like
the fire
as
moon
!
Mayst thou be warm like
!
Mayst thou
Mayst thou
!
man
an old
be resplendent,
can be
And when thou
!
"
abode of the holy Ones
happy,
all
The same
^^
!
blissful spirit of
optimism breathes through
invincible
the following passages: " Give me,
lively
hast
thousand years, (mayst
thou obtain) the bright,
Ahura Mazda!
like
be long-lived, as long-lived
fulfilled a duration of a
robust
75
Atar, son of
lively welfare, lively maintenance,
of welfare,
fulness
living;
maintenance, fulness of
fulness
"We
life."^^
of
worship
Strength and Prosperity and Might and Victory
and Glory and Vigour." "(Give) unto that man
him health of body, him victorious
brightness and glory, give give
him
sturdiness of body, give
strength of body, give
give
long
him life,
him
full welfare of wealth,
a virtuous offspring, give
give
him
the bright,
all
him
long^
happy, blissful
abode of the holy Ones."^^ Prayers are directed to the Fravashis of the holy persons "for the
vigour of health, for the glory,
made by Mazda,
for the health of the body, for a
offspring
for a
for a long 17 Yt.
lonsf
XXIV.
dominion
life,
2-5.
and
good virtuous
full of
for
18 Ny. V. 10.
all
splendour,
boons and
i9 Yt.
I.
33.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
74
Ahura Mazda says:
remedies."'^
Aryan
in wealth,
rich
in
glory
;
store of intelligence, with
''I
made
the
rich in Hocks, rich
Glory, rich in food,
provided with store
full
full
of money,
to
withstand need and to withstand enemies
It
destroys Angra Mainyu, who
death."
is all
:
-^^
Hero we find an apotheosis of strength, energy, might, victory, glory, worldly power and prosperity is
and
spiritual
sense
of
in Zoroastrianism
conflict
which might have induced Nietzsche
famous book the
to his
It
with the
such as these coupled
passages
optimistic
power and prosperity.
title of
'
to
give
Thus spake
Zarathustra.'
Man own
therefore
physical
must not only enhance
and
equip himself with
and
mental all
vigour,
necessary
the
his also
means
qualities instrumental in this struggle for
more
fulness of existence, both
individual and
communal.
For
mended and
children and wealth
mended. has a wife,
end marriage
this
is
recom-
are recom-
Spitama Zarathustra, he
'<
is
far
superior
to
no wife; he who has a family, to
but
him who has none
;
wh-o
him who has is
far superior
he who possesses riches
»« Yt. XIII. 134, 135.
2
1
Yt. XVIII.
1.
THE VALUE OF LIFE is
far
above him who has no riches." poverty and
life of is
75
Thus a
and renunciation
celibacy
very remote from the Zoroastrian ideal.
It is
very necessary to take very strong and ample
upon
for
food,
vigour
depends
that
of the body,
but also
and
spiritual energy.
"
eat
has
do
strength
to
beget
w^orks
in
fills
''And
former
is
;
does not holiness,
of
two
the
of
receives
better than he w^ho
the latter
above
intellectual
himself with meat
him Vohu Mano much
does not do so
the
husbandry, strength
children.""^
men, he who
all
No one who
strength to do works of to
only
not
is all
him by
the
Asperena, by the worth of a
but dead
worth
;
the
of
an
sheep, by the
worth of an ox, by the worth of a man.
man
can strive
iT^idhotu
arrow
;
;
the
against
he can strive against the winter
strive
Ashemaogha."^"* j)ains 22
23
against
him on
47.
24
33.
2 5
the head,
ungodly
the
Hunger and
and they should not be Vd. IV. Vd. III.
fiend,
he can strive against
;
the wicked tyrant and smite
can
of Asto-
onsets
he can strive against the well-darted
with thinnest garment on
he
This
fasting
thirst are severe
inflicted
on men.-^
Vd. IV. 48, 49. Vd. Vn. 70, 71.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
7«
This brings us to
importance of work
the
and particularly agricultural labour, because
work
is
with
is
intimately
and
Carlyle,
might
worship.'
The habit '
:
Rise
Zarathustra,
said
that
me
up.'
Whichever
up
shall
enter
two
the
of
paradise."
applaud-
one
gets-
first
Upon
^^
is
cock calling
the
is
is
address
bed-fellows
up, here
like
Work
'
of early rising
then
''And
ed.
another
have
prosperity
that
activity
connected.
it
this fact
depends the importance attached to the cock in
Parsi
who
man
cocks
(
gives a house with a
Agricultural part
prosperity
of the
asked:
Which the
is
erects
a
just
is
)
who
gives
like
forms
an
happy
?
''^
essential
When
the second place where
is
one
hundred columns.
general prosperity.
earth feels most
"It
A
literature.
two Parodar birds
it
is
the
Ahura Mazda answers:
place whereon one of the faithful
house
with
cattle,
with a wife,
herds
within; and
cattle
continue to
a
priest
within
;
with
with children, and good
wherein
afterwards
virtue
thrive,
fodder to thrive, the doc: to
to
thrive,
the-
thrive,,
the wife
to thrive, the child to thrive, the fire to thrive^ 2 6
Yd. XVIII.
26.
2 7
Yd. XVIII.
28.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
77
and every blessing
of life to tlirive."^^
when
Which
it
asked,
is
where the Earth given ful
"It
:
feels
happy
And
the third
is
place,
The answer
?
is
the place where one of the faith-
is
sows most corn, grass, and
Zarathustra, where
ground that
he waters
ground that
dry, or drains
is
Spitama
fruit,
too wet."
^^
is
Zara-
thustra placed the tilling of the soil on a level of equal dignity with such
as
and righteousness.
veracity
and
labour, welfare,
is
high ethical qualities
activity
all
Agricultural
furthering
"Not
essentially virtuous.
righteous liver, not for the thrifty -earth,
To the question: What
^°
Mazda answers
"It
:
is
sows corn sows righteousness
:
Mazda. "^2
agriculture
The man who
"He who
dost not
me
till
with the
religion
abstains
from
"0 thou man,
a great sinner.
is
the
he makes the
Mazda walk, he suckles the
religion of
is
sowing corn again and
Spitama Zarathustra.""'^
again,
left
arm and the
ever shall thou stand at the door of
right «8 Vd. ^» Vd.
the
Mazda? Ahura
food that feeds the religion of
who
for the
tiller of
shall there be destruction together with
the wicked."
of
human
III.
2—3.
III. 4.
Ys. XXIX. 5. SI Vd. III. 30.
3
3 2
Vd.
III. 31.
X
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
78
who beg
those
fainted
came,
Daevas
;
groaned, w4aen
Daevas
the
when it grew, when the
Daevas' hearts
the
knots came, the ears
''When barley was-
the Daevas started up,
created,
then
for bread. "^^
flew away.
the
In that
house the Daevas stay wherein wheat perishes.
though red hot iron were turned about
It is as
their
in
is
when
throats,
The earth
corn."^^''
feels
there
plenty
is
of
very joyous when there
an abundance of flocks and herds/^ Industry
and
manufacture
there
not
are
passage in the
is
unto metals."
sacrifice
The same
respect
accompaniments writings.
world sheep,
and
Ahura
life
and
its
expressed in
earth
and
necessary
the
in the
and
cattle
trees,
good
Pahlavi
who
rewarded,
other
The
Mazda."-'"
we
;
^^
are
the
all
many noxious
(excellent power)
for
is
Women
" honored
*'we sacrifice
Yctshts
unto Khshathra-vairya
Thus
neglected.
creations of
souls of those
who
killed
creatures in the world; and the
prosperity of the waters and sacred
fires
and
fires
in general and trees and the prosperity of the earth was also 33 •**
Vd. Vd.
III. III.
increased
28—29. .S2.
thereby
3 5
Vd.
III. 5.
'6
Yt.
II. 2, 7.
;
3 7
and they aV.
162.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
is
given to the souls of
also
and
tillage
to
Good treatment men who looked
exalted and adorned.^^
were
l^
In the
cultivation.^^
^
Ganji-
Shayigan' the same tendencies find expression.
A man who
gets wealth in this world through
God's favour, " does works that lengthen the
men, increase their progeny and pros-
lives of
Every man should marry and "conti-
perity."'^'^
nue his progeny
world and give them
in the
the required strength and is
drawn
A man
comforts.
(of a day) sports
Attention
food."'^^
to the necessity of
looking to bodily
should "spend a third portion
in eating
and enjoying
his
indulging in
food,
rest."
'^-
A man
with his
surplus wealth should do such works as render the body is
duty
make
land and
purchase with if it
anv
will not
rate
Cultivation
comfortable.'^-^
a necessary
make
of alien
;
a
man
it fertile.'''* it
water
"Jf
you have wealth
and arable
immediately give
is
forbidden. "^^
soil
fruits,
a fair begfinning:."'*^
wealth
of land
should cultivate
which, will at
Destruction
The land
be-
comes happy when oxen and sheep repose upon it
brought from an uncultivated
or
it is
3 8
AY. AV.
163.
4
3 9
164.
4 2 Gs. 21.
45
4
Gs.
2.
4 3
4 6
1
Gs. 21. Gs.
6.
state
4 4 Gs. 21.
An. Atm. An. Atm.
4. 8.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
80
cultivation
to a state of
when
burrows
the
Dinkard
man's
with
'* :
life
(
First,
be
known
good
in
by
condition." its
comes resourceless and languid."
much
sary to maintain it is
far
also necessary to
Be
The body ^^
it
is
be-
It is neces-
keep trouble and
strife
life is
expressed
throughout the range of Parsi literature.
animals
also.
A
the kine that they fodder
*'
human
prayer
is
beings,
made
may have
look
in
pregnant female,
Mkh.
God
to
for
from the famed, and from the humble,
the faithful to
every
to
It
but
comfort and have
from the potent and the weak."^^ "
7
it
immortality
respect for agriculturists-,
reverential tenderness for
extends not only to
4
;
from them.^°
A
\
'*
"^^
without food
food
)
thirdly
soldiers that they
by improving the mortal body. kept strong
lives
cattle,
soul works for
that the
men's
to
giving proper food to the
might
are
the virtue connected
or protecting
pasture
giving
secondly,
creatures
Three things are recommended
extirpated/' in the
and habitableness or
of noxious
28.
»8 Dk. VII. 452.
the
»o sd. 281.
same way
either
4» Dk. VII. 460.
It lies
with after
two-footed *i Ys.
XXXV.
or 4.
THE VALUE OF LIFE four-footed,
bitch."
woman
two-footed
Arda
the
In
^-
many punishments are molest or
kill
or four-footed
we
Viraf,
of
find
Arda Viraf
life.
whose breasts were
saw the souls of Avomen,
placed upon a hot frying-pan. They w^ere souls
women who gave
those
of
infants no milk, but emaciated them."^^-^
woman
^'
their
**
the
own
and destroyed
of the wicked
The souls who killed the
that
on those who
inflicted
any forms
81
man and
water-otter in the water
and smote and slew other creatures of Ahura
Mazda"
'^
had
man who
the
slew a pious
much
unlawfully
man
soul of
meets with a
The wicked man
death. ^^
cruel
The
eat excrement.
to
'*
who made
slaughter of cattle and sheep
and other quadrupeds" has
his limbs
broken
The souls of wicked persons who gave hard work and insufficient food to beasts suffered severe punishment.^^ The body
and separated.
^°
woman was
of a
poison and
torn, because she
oil of
opium
to
gave people
eat.^^
Animosity
should not be entertained towards nor injury
done
to
anything
-2 Yd. 5 3 5
4
5 5
6-
AV. AV. AV.
XV.
belonging
19.
^>c
186, 188, 197, 200.
5 7
201.
5 8
170, 184.
to
AV. AV. AV.
the
good
174, 192. 194. 19t).
H2
ZOKOASTKIAX ETHICS
creation. 5^^
Domestic animals should be kept
out
harm's
of
diminution or undesirable.
is
should
children.^'
of
sacrifice
''It
man
confine a
Men
way.^^
women and
defenceless
life
a sin
without
considered
is
strike or to
to
to do
cause,
protect
All useless
harm
to
Zohak has advised people to be cruel and revengeful and to slaughter men; any female/'"-
men to lay corn in summer men and cattle.'-^' "Abstain
but Jamshid advises
and
winter for
from
unlawfully
cows,
sheep or goats,
(
needlessly that
happen unto you thereby ing
A
)."'^'
slaughtering
)
no distrust
at the
(
part of the Dliikard
final is
may
reckon-
concerned
with the excellence of physicians, their merit
from doing good, and sin from not doing good; the
quality
that
exists as regards medicines,
seeking a physician for animals also, and else to the
no food death.
is
r>9
r.
1
C'--
The
one of those which
sin, affecting
striking
<-o
purpose/^"^
In one section
^'^
about the ful
same
there
much
sin of giving is
worthy of
are particulars
the soul, due to unlaw-
and wounding beasts of burden
Dk. IX. 643. Dk. IX. ()4:{. Dk. I. 41. Dk. IX. 1)31.
RS Dk. YII. 438. Dk. V. 31,-). Dk. Bk. VIII. 48. Dk. IJk. VIII. 07.
<•-
<'••'••
•'•'*•
THE VALUE OF LIFE and
''One section concerns the mode
cattle."^'
and object of confinement of sheep, and dog that are for the atttiction
toration
;
;
the operation
what extent
also to
slaughter, the care of is
their res-
is
them even
sin to give animals
for
in confinement^
on the same subject."
eugenics w^ere applied to
was a
a beast of burden,
mad and
and when not restored, but come
and whatever
It
83
Laws of the animal kingdom. bad
^^
males, to admit
males to animals at an improper time.^^ The
same general attitude
When is
he commits a
keep close
much
swallow
that
ox,
catches
cock should not be
animals
those which affect
the w^ar
the
The
An
noxious creatures
endeavour
and
these especially
Dk. Bk. VIII. 84. C8 Dk. Bk. VIII. 105. 6 9 Dk. Bk. VIII. 139.
6 7
the
is
should be spared,
w^ith.
Among
and
idea
that
while
us injuriously should be
made
the earth.
the
horse,
locust
killed."-
done away to kill
and
and
Particularly the lamb, the
ploughing-
useful
One must
slaughter of animals
the cattle species. the
any one who
sin."^
watch over one's animals,^^
refrain from
all
kept up in the 8ad-da>\
a person molests or smites
innocent,
kid,
is
should
be
reptiles of
the
^e Sd. 36L 7 1
Sd. 286.
7 2
sd. 295.
frog
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
84
in the water, the
snake and scorpion, the ant and
A
the mouse should be destroyed."^
hedgehog
should not be destroyed, but put into a hole in the
wilderness, where
it
may
many
destroy
ants and snakes."" Similarly a beaver should not
be killed, but put into running water. '^ But the
animal which required particularly good
ment was the dog,
treat-
because he afforded a very
valuable
protection to one's property against
thieves, ^^
and because he
mischievous
He who
dog."''
dog
'^
who
of
killed or injured a
gives bad food to a shepherd's
guilty of the
is
thousands
Very heavy punishments
insects."'
are inflicted on those
kills
same
guilt as
though he
should serve bad food to a master of a house of the
first
rank."
"^
Thus the shepherd's dog
very great importance.
It is
is
of
allowable to kill a
sheep for the nourishment of a shepherd's dog,
which
is
deprived of food.^^ ''Every time they
eat bread,
it
is
necessary to withhold
morsels from their to a dog, 3
and
it is
own
not desirable to beat a dog." Vd. xni. 4, 7 Vd. XIII. 20. fo Dk. Bk. VIII.
sd. 306.
7
4 sa. 318. 7. Sd. 350.
7
7
three
bodies and to give them
7
-5
7C Vd. XIII. 39, 40. 7 7 Vd. XIII. 2.
8
**!
Sd. 292.
etc.
83.
"^^
— THE VALUE OF LIFE The most remarkable Zarathustra
is its
feature of the ethics of
attitude towards
which flows directly from
and the world.
life
85
its
asceticism,
towards
attitude
This characteristic
ferentiates this faith broadly
dif-
from many other
great religions of the world, particularly from
Hinduism.
Its
character in this
has
matter
already been seen in the emphasis placed upon
and
life
activity,
agricultural
upon worldly
It is also
of wife
seen in the penances
and
body are never
in
works,
public
securing
for
Mortifica-\
any favour with the
Avestan or Pahlavi writers. of noxious creatures,
children.
prescribed
the violation of religious precepts. tions of
upon
and economic goods, upon marri-
and the possession
age
goods,
The
destruction
the construction of useful
the
rendered in
assistance
good marriages, these are the forms
which atonement takes. All forms
of abstinence
which lead
of
to
the diminution
are rigorously excluded.
tinued for a long time similarly 'Sad is
is
Dar we
requisite
fasts.
is
life- forces
Thus celibacy conprohibited.
Fasting,
unequivocally condemned. In the find the following passages to
abstain
:
'^
It
from the keeping of
For, in our religion,
it
is
not proper
\
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
«6
that they should not eat every day or anything
because
it
would be
us the keeping of
With we keep
a sin not to do so. fast
is
this
that
from committing sin with our eyes and
fast
tongue and ears and hands and
The importance
of
work
feet.'"*-
and activity
continually emphasized in this literature.
the Avesta, the habit of early rising
commended. In the subsequent matter
receives
a
more
Diligence in good works
highly
is
literature, the
definite is
is
In
treatment.
Ankc
necessary.^-^
Viraf saw the soul of a lazy man, whose whole
body was gnawed by a noxious creature was
his right foot
any good work
did
not
gnawed.
He
(when he was
but
;
never this
in
world) except that with his right foot he cast a
bundle of grass before a ploughing
The
industrious
man who
cares.^^
to obtain
'^
of
Industry
industry.''*'
is
a
freedom from anxieties and
Be industrious that you may be able
your
8 2
Sd. 348.
8 3
AV. AV.
8 4
by
glory
great
mankmd A man earns
assisted
aspires to a place in heaven. ^"^
concomitant
ox.'^'^
162. 175.
wishes."'^'^ »'> Gs. 13. 8c Gs. 11. 8 7 Gs. 18.
"Rise early that you 8 8
An. Atm.
7.
THE VALUE OF LIFE
may
be able to continue your work."
up your
wealth by his good industry able to store so that the
up
virtue."
Keep be
will
who has acquired
'"'He
is
by that wealth
Practise no sloth
''
-^
''
'^^
fame
your
and
industry
increased thereby."-'^'
is
87
duty and the good w^ork, which
;
it
may not remain lazy man is said to
necessary for thee to do,
He who
undone.""-
a
is
Because
be the most unworthy of men.
it is
declared in revelation, that the creator Ahura-
mazda produced no corn
man
;
for a lazy
man
of anything in gifts
him who
for
is
a lazy
must be no giving
there
and charity
and entertainment are not
;
and lodging
be provided for
to
him. For this reason; because that food which a lazy
man eats, he eats through
injustice
;
impropriety and
and. on account of his laziness and
unjust eating, his body then becomes infamous
and the soul
wicked.-'^
In the catalogue
heinous
the sin of
doing no work, but
sins,
eating unthankfully and unlawfully twelfth.'"*
In the Dinkard
the virtue of honest work. trious
with
personal
s» An.
7.
^i An.
'JO
8.
9 2
Atm. An. Atm.
much ''
Atm. 10.
and 9.
placed
said about
Whoever
zeal
Mkh.
is
is
of
is
indus-
labour, 9 3
s*
Mkh. Mkh.
he 53. 72.
ZOIiOASTRIAN ETHICS
88
remains fresh
in wealth."
God has
created
dilii^ence
the
the
**Be
'^'^
work of the Creator
ned.""^ **One should pass his
bidden
as
should, as
known that
it
(by
directed by him,
is
contin-
in industry
life
Dasturan
the
By
world for work
Dastur)
one
;
irrigate the land,
promote the growth of vegetation, and endeavour
under
his
conferring other
direction,
do the deeds
to
blessings on
the world
;
one
should follow a noble occupation and not
a
mean one; and one should not be idle."^" From diligence arises skilfulness and ultim'* We, men,, ately prosperity and power. ^'^
ought
to toil
hard for the personal gratification
of the pious people and for
and
joy
thanks-
^'Idleness should be swept
giving to God."^'^ out of the world."
^^^
In the Sad Dar, persist-
ence in one's own work and punctuality in
its
Man must
be
performance are insisted
on.
continuously employed on
then
the work becomes
his
own work, and
his own.^^'^
duty and good work, which
''Every
'requisite
it is
to-
perform, they should accomplish while within that day, and not postpone for the morrow." 9 5 !>fl
9
7
Dk. 1.53. Dk. VII. 495. Dk. IX. 034.
^» Dk. XII. 0(5. i>i> Dk. XI. 1-2. 1'^" Dk. XII. 47.
i«i Sd. 259. i
<>
2
Sd. 344.
^^-
CHAPTER
VI
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT PURITY AND IMPURITY The
virtue
reverence
great
According
to
truthfulness
of
by
the
was
:
held
ancient
in
Iranians.
Herodotus to speak the
truth
and bend the bow constituted the most
essential
Love
of truth
parts of the Iranian education. is
closely
light
;
connected
with
purity and
love of
while falsehood belongs to darkness, to
Ahriman.^
Amongst them
Herodotus,
falsehood
(the Persians) says
passes
for
graceful act, next to that comes of debt, and, in truth,
most
dis-
notably for the reason
that the debtor necessarily lies in addition. ^
a
the incurring
is
obliged to speak
Herodotus says the ancient
Persians had no markets, because these would lead to the practice of deceit.^ 1
2
3 Herodotus I. 153. Rapp. pp. 313-4. Herodotus I. 138. Cf. J. H. Moulton Early Zoroastrianism p. 397.
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
90
In the Acestay this virtue
condemnation of
the constant '
lie
•of
or (leceitfulness,
'
the
Anita
The
;
Druj
lie.'' it
is
for truth,
and
who
'
the
'
demon
opposite
of
in all its forms.
a wicked one
is
'
thus opposed to draj.
is
derived
''
The
unto Mithra brings death unto
lies
much
the faith-
hundred evil-doers could
as a
v/orld,
'
the very
the whole country, injuring as ful
opposite the
its
Draj
denote a wicked man. Mithra stands
to
ruffian
the
embodies wickedness
epithet (Iregvant
from
'
taught most by
is
Break not the contract,
do.
Spitama, neither the
one that thou hadst entered into with one of the unfaithful, nor the one that thou hadst entered into with one of the faithful
who is one of thy own
faith.
For Mithra stands for both the faithful
and the
unfaithful."-^
tic
because
it
This passage
is
characteris-
exemplifies the respect for truth
which the Zoroastrians were expected at all times
and
in all relations.
local, provincial,
It
tribal or sectarian
held good for
man as such.
nobody must
lie,
to cherish
was not a matter
;
it
''Unto whom(Mithra)
neither the master of a house,
nor the lord of a borough, nor the lord of a town nor the lord of a province." Otherwise Mithra 4
Y.S.
XXX.
8.
-
Yt. X.
2.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT
principle of falsehood takes in
having
deny
to
neighbour sion."'
Down
man who
robs the man.
lent
lying " is
etc."^
absolutely
the the
the
the thing and
steals
house
keeps in his
property,
There are
and
breaks
to wit,
:
This he doeth everyday, every
word-contract, contract,
his deed
in the world
it,
long as he
neighbour's ^
his
''He that does not restore a loan
necessary.
ov\rn."
any
in all business transactions
night, as
from
for
who knowingly
the deed of men,
to the
(
there the pain
shall be as hard as
Honesty
no one make
received
the ox or garment in his posses-
)
''
are strongly
life
It is said ''Let
discountenanced.
the
Minor forms which the
town, the province.^
bold
borough,
the
asunder the house,
l)reaks
91
as
though
it
six types of contracts
hand-contract, field- cojitract.
word-contract,
he
his
were his
the If
shall
a
;
the
man-
man
give as
the amount of the hand-contract. The hand-contract is cancelled by the sheep-
damages
^contract
and
so
on.^*^
And
not
only
the
breakers of the contracts, but even his relatives
to a certain extent are involved in his crime.^^ 6 7
Yt X. 17. Yd. lY. 46.
^
9
Yd. IV. Yd. lY.
54. 1.
i
"
n
Yd. lY. Yd. lY.
2-4.
5-10.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
92
Arda Viraf rewards were attached
In the the
to
practice
penalties
shown
are
follow
to
from truth and honesty.
walked
The
all
departure
truthful speaker
splendour with
in lofty
and severe
truthfulness
of
great glory. ^-
" Every one -who speaks correct and true,
honour and know." *'
who,
in the
falsehoods"
had
and ashes with it
tongue
his
was forced
a bushel
when
because
many
spoke
world,
A man
worm.i''
I
But the soul of a man
^^'
to
lies
and
gnawed by a measure dust
and gallon and
to eat
in the world he " kept no true
bushel, nor gallon, nor weight, nor measure of
length
he mixed water with
;
dust into at a
grain and sold
them
wine and put to
the
people
high price and stole and extorted some-
thing from the good."
wicked
man who
in
^5
'^This
is
the soul of that
the world kept back the
wages of labourers, and the shares of partners; and
now the soul must suffer severe punishment." The soul of a man was gnawed with worms for ^"^
having
committed perjury and extorted wealth
A man
from the good.^because he 12 1
^
AV. AV.
''
was torn by demons-
kept back the food of the dogs of
162.
14
203.
1
••
AV. AV.
176, 199.
ic
173, 19").
i "
aV. AV.
178. 180.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT shepherds and householders."
The same was
^^
man who had
the case with a
93
removed the
'*
boundary-stones of others, and took them as
own."
his
The giving
^^
condemns a man
severe
to
evidence
of false
A
punishment.-^
man was suspended by one leg in the darkness of hell, for a city " was confided to him for administration, and that which was
proper
to
do and order, was not done and not ordered."-^
A
man's eyes were scooped out and his tongue
cut away, because his
was
justice, in
*'
the
world,
and he took bribes and made
false
false
decisions." -
Similar emphasis
is
placed upon truthfulness
A man
in the other Pahlavi literature. live
according
*'One
is
ciples
supposed
of
truth
the
to
principles
of
should truth. -^^
according to the prin-
to act
when he behaves truly and own souL" -^ The assert-
sincerely towards his ions
of a truthful
upon.-^
That man
man is
can
be
venerable
the promises that he has made."
ent
in
-^
most relied
who
"fulfils
''Be consist-
your thoughts so that you command
the confidence (of people). Be truthful so as to 18
AV.
181.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
94
be trustworthy."
-"
Falsehood
by truth/^ "Tell not fulness
Do
double-dealing.
''
other words
not
man and
on
and
worthy
true
condemned.
man
according to the him.''^''-
'^
him round." stealing."
soever
^^
so
to
one
Men
are
and
insisted
terms of your
Take not anything from
him
"Prevent your **
is
in
Requite a trust-
a thief or give not anything to '-
^''-
(
hypocritical
theft
contract with
)/'
Honesty
facts.
<'
doubly
one thing
say
another to another
conceal
Truth-
^^^
hypocrisy or
with
not speak
by the devil to be
taught to
do
subdued^
to be
is
anybody."
compatible
not
is
lies to
but bring
hands
from
Break no kind of promise whattarnish your good name.'"
as to
^^
"That land is the happier, in which a righteous man, who is true speaking makes his abode "^^-^ Truthfulness
which
is
enables
reckoned the second good work
man
a
to
heaven.
attain
-^^^
Abstinence from falsehood and promise-breaking
respectively
are
thirty-tirst is
dubious regarding 2 7
An
Atni. 5.
2H
Gs. 20.
2 9
An Atm. An Atm.
^"^
the
good works.""
••
i
'^2 'A.
7.
•«•»
•^
all
and
the
false-hearted
man
thirtieth
A
things, good or bad/^'^
An Atm. An Atni. An Atni. An Atni.
5. o.
•'• •'>
•-•
8.
^7
S.
-^
Mkh. Mkh. Mkh. Mkh.
27. 7.S.
75. 53.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT Truthfulness
95-
on the whole a safe habit.
is
'*In
keeping oneself untroubled, the discreet speaking which
Fairness in *'
Do
path of truth,
is
good,"^-^'^
business transactions
is
essential.
in the
is
all
from the wealth of others;
not extort
own
so that thine
For
said that
is
it
own
w4io eats anything, not from his
but
industry,
human head
holds a
human
another,
froixi
brains.'"
^^
pleasanter which
regular
and
eats
better
and
hand,
''That wealth
is
collected by honesty,
is
not
*He
:
one who
like
is
his
in
may
industry
regular
become unheeded.
and
one consumes and maintains with duties and
good
works."
honesty
better than
is
which
'-'Poverty
''^
opulence which
As
the treasures of others
opulent,
who
the w^ealth
is
a
man
through
is
to
much
of
from
him who is when
wealth,
not produced by honesty,
is
is
though
he takes trouble in duties and good works and righteous
gifts, his
good work
own, because the good work the wealth
is
abstracted."^-
is
80
" has acquired wealth by crime, glad
of
it
39 4
thereby,
Mkh. Mkh.
that
then not his
his
is
for
whom
him who
and becomes
pleasure
13.
4
Mkh.
41.
12.
4^ Mkh.
42.
1
from
is
worse
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
^6
him
for
imhappiness."
than
misappropriation
is
sin
of
the twentieth in point of
and that
heinousness,
The
"^^
of
theft
is
the seven-
teenth.^^
We
meet with
shall
and detailed
a broad
treatment of the virtue of truthfulness in the
A
Dinkard. or
contradiction between expediency
The ''
to one for the particular
what appeals
something eternal
and truth as
attitude praised
and hurtful truth
)
(
to
iind
And,
any time, be spoken."
"^^^
is
very injurious still it
),
at
if
untruth
Iind
still,
man who
it
speak the truth
venient and beneticial,
the
moment
perceived.
the reverse of casuistry.
must be spoken.
men should
holy
is
any place holy men
If at
is
it
(
the
any
place,
very
con-
must never,
''Be
it
known
hopes
far-sighted
at
that
to be
saved from damnation by being in the good graces perfect
of the
Almighty on account
veracity, his proper sense
his fidelity
to plighted word.""^*^
or plighted word should
of
his
of justice,
''A promise
not be spoken,
nor
A detinition "And truth is
should obligation be forgotten.""'" of truthfulness
is
oriven here. o
4.»
Mkii.
4!j.
^> I)k.
4 4
Mkli.
7-2.
-10
I.
L'7.
Dk. VII. 427.
^7 Dk. IX. 643.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT this
9^
whoso speaks anything speaks what he
:
ought
speak and speaks so with caution as
to
though God and the Ameshaspends stood near behind him
listening
observing him."
"^^
'^
The
best thing
is
falsehood."^^
and the worst thing of the
unity
essentials
whoso having ( his )
;
and pious
"The
Nor are we
life is this
tamper
justified to
with truth for courtesy's sake.
One's
^'
own
tongue should not be trained to be polite (serve) falsehood."
From
to
^^
the above quotations
it
can be clearly
inferred that deception or druj in all
and shapes should be given up. falsehood
:
from
return into
to
it
this
is
and word
cast out the druj entirely
body would not allow
the body."^^
truth
is
(of morality)
that ycu should keep (your) thought
and deed entirely true
and
utterance
his
to
its
forms
Evil
or
man by Ahriman or Harm is done to all people
implanted in
is
"
the evil principle.
through the deceitfulness of the Deceiver." ^2 ^<
you
If
force out falsehood
jour body
will
delivered (from hell)." 48 Dk. 4
9
7
Dk.
XL XIL
0.
40.
5
5
from
your) body,
(
improved and your soul
be
1
^3
'^
And
Dk. XII. 3L Dk. Xn. 59.
all
the physical
52 Dk. 5 3
I.
22.
Dk. L 53
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
98
danger that originates in the body, because of the residence within
Giving
of falsehood."-^''
who promulgate as
among people
uttering
power
evidence
and
-^"^
" Those
the bad religion cause such
caused by
is
does so
of the
coining are condemned.
counterfeit
evil
false
it
coiners
money
of
by
lead in place of gold, or
by alloying gold with lead."
^^
All attempts at
misappropriation of others'property are distinctly
"Wealth should not be
immoral.
is
obtained
(so)
will
passage
which
suggests
committed even this
is
:
mine.*"^^'^ is
grossly
for
by
that
the
following^
theft
"
in intention.
One
^^'
And
may
be
robber}^
whoever speaks about the wealth which
not his
is
be ravaged."
robbery in
asked to avoid
is
realized
because that (wealth) which
acts
sinful
own,
thus,
Theft
is
<
a
*
Would
that
it
capital offence.''*^
dishonest in a priest to take
were It
money
performing some ceremonial and then to
omit
it.
and not
**
And he who
perform
shall take his
his ceremonial,
is
money, just as
though he had abstracted from the angels and the righteous guardian spirits, S4 Dk. IV. 239. -.5 Dk. IX. 029.
66 '^-
Dk.
I.
5 8
51.
Dk. XII.
and destroyed^
52.
"'»
Dk. XII. 3. Dk. IX. 629.
TRUTHFULNESS AND DECEIT as
much
propitiation
would
as
possible from that ceremonial."
9»
have
been
^o
in
The same emphasis on truthfulness continues ^' The possession later literature. of truth
is
the one power of the
through the
faithful,
The many kinds
singleness of truth.
of false-
hood, which must become confused and mutually
many, are
affecting to
in the
one source of deceitfulness." to
the
take early to
from
aggregate,
^^
*'
It is
necessary
speaking of truth and
doing of justice and to maintain oneself therein, for
nothing whatever
better
is
Owing
kind than truth created this world,
among manHormazd
to truth
and that other world and
truth has remained on the spot and on account of truth is
One
becomes pure
it
hood."
^-
*'
man
That any agreement and promise
they make with any one to
truthful
better than the whole world speaking false-
and
perform
many it is
things
it is
bring
may go
to
to
necessary so far
pass.
Although
harm by means
of
it,
not desirable to perform that agreement
with duplicity." of promise'
)
^^
It is a
Mihir-druj (a 'breach
and any one who commits
6
Dd.
6 1
Sg. 120.
243.
6 2
Sd. 323.
^3 Sd.
287.
it
ha&
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
100
the heaven closed for
even
to
man's
a
The
him.^'^
A
children.
taint extends
breach of
a
covenant between two persons with no witness to
God
except
it
the worst sin.^^
abstain
to
requisite
is
is
•
^'
A
**
There
liar
from
strictly
falsehood- and falsehood
no hereafter
It
abstinence from
great
speaking
has to
thief
lose
men
they are
necessary to practise
is
committing theft and
A
taken.
may
thief
be beaten
;
^'
double the amount of
property he has stolen and a robber has forfeit a fourfold
^
speakers of
anything from mankind by force."
seizing
A
*'
is
Aharman."^^
the
for
falsehood and in the midst of
contemptible." 6^
It
the chief of sins."
a co-operator with
is
is
*'
amount
may have
to
of property he has his ear cut
while a robber
may
oft'
and
be killed."^
PURITY AND IMPURITY It
might be said without much
tradiction that the virtue most
A
of purity.
tutes
:
**
praised
is
that
rough definition of what consti-
moral impurity
sentence
fear of con-
To render
is
given in the following
the soul full of blemishes
fi4
Sd. 287.
C7 sd. 322.
<•'«
Sd. 288.
<••«
Sd. 822.
cc Sd. 322.
C!.
Sd. 320.
7o sd.
.S2G-7-8.
PURI'rV M^T> IMPURIO^Y
101
there are evil understanding, deceit, injury to purity, apathy, pride, scorn, evil passion, slander,
adultery
this
has
physical
down
and
idleness."
reference simply
Very often
^^'^
freedom from
to
Elaborate rules are laid
pollution.
Vendidad, regarding the purifica-
in the
tion necessary in case of the places where deaths
have occurred, and where a
given
has
All the passages relating to
birth to a child.
physical
woman
show the great attention
cleanliness
paid to sanitation and hygiene in those days. It
was clearly recognised that cleanliness
A woman
part of godliness. as a
woman
and work
intercourse
is
;
ordinary social
forbidden to her
then after some time she
may wash
with dead bodies
position
)
rushes
go a process
7
very
a
man
of purification
other things
Vd. V. 50-59
;
Contact
decom-
upon a man who touches a
Such
should then under-
known
as
Bareshnum^
become unclean through 7ia Yd. VII.
0a Dk. IV. 233.
7 1
and
dangerous for man.
nasii (or the infection due to
dead body.-^^
Many
is
and
;
herself
be restored to her normal position. ^^
The druj
a
with child has to remain quite
from other persons
isolated
is
in her menses,
XYI.
8-12.
6-7.
.
102
.*.
:
:;:Z:01^'0vl^*I^KIAN.
this infection
;
hence these two must be cleansed.
Certain things
can be well cleansed such as
vessels of gold or copper
or
ETHICS
while vessels of clay
;
wood cannot be cleansed
such sacred elements as
at
fire
Further,
all.'^
and water should with impure
not be polluted through contact things such as a dead body.'^^
The
earth
must
not be rendered unclean and for this reason
dead bodies should not be buried nor
The Earth
feels
sorest
the
grief at
burnt.''' '*
place
whereon stand most of those Dakhincis on which men are deposited."''' Such things
corpses of
as a bone or
hair should
pollute the earth.
not
be
allowed to
The ground whereon dogs
men have died shall lie fallow for a year.'^ ^' He who should pull down Dakkmas (graves)..
or
and deed are remitThe ted as they would be by a Patet."'^'^ *' on a down bodies of the dead should be set
his sins in thought, word,
place,
where they know there are always corpse-
"^^ eating dogs, and corpse- eating birds.
In the Arda Vimf, we find that the breach of the above rules brings with 7 9
7 3 7
4
Vd. VII. 73-75. Vd. VI. 26-41. Vd. III. 8-9.
it
severe penal«
7* Vd. VI. 1. 7 6a Vd. VII. 51. 7 6 Vd. VIII. 10.
PURITY ANi) Impurity after
ties
Water and
death.
103
are
fire
to be
looked to with care and reverence, because they
The woman who threw hairs from her head upon the fire had her body gnawed by noxious creatures.'^
are instruments of purification."
A man
was forced
mankind,
of
own body and
and refuse
flesh
" brought
he
and dead matter
refuse his
the
to eat
because
to water
and
bodily fire
and
men and
those also of other
;
he was always carrying the dead alone, and
was polluted
he also did not
;
wash himself
in
this occupation.""'^
The same <*
fire,
ideas
recur in the later Pahlavi
In the Dinhardy
writings.
is
it
water and the earth
written that
should be kept pure from
fragrant and air should be kept
all
noxious substances and things liable to decay,
owing
that
to
men
them
from disease and pestilence."
may ^°
*'
not
sufier
People should
be admonished to remove to a distance from the
house, dirt arising from keeping birds, sheep
and goats *'
lest
men
should be injured thereby." ^^
One should keep away from the
"there 77 7 8 7 9
is
a dead
AV. AV. AV.
man
or
a dead
155; 162, 163.
so Dk.
176.
8
177, 178.
8 2
1
place where
dog."^1.
42.
Dk. VII. 437. Dk. IX. 648.
The
ZO^IOASTKIAN ETHICS
104
intimate dependence of the purification of the soul
upon the cleanliness
nised
the
in
is
ranked as
operation
an
recog-
is
"A
Manushchihr.
Epistles of
washing which
body
of the
not religiously ritualistic
among
the
is
useless
The extent to which physical purity insisted upon may be seen from a passage
ones."^-^ is
such as the following declared
that
purified, is
when he
not able
it is
is
body
LOt
is
wash
him,
good works by thought,
to seek
word or deed, and
thereby
is
it
whose
thoroughly
they
until
As
'' :
not able to purify his soul,
then a matter for the truly wise to seek
even for purification of the soul by the purifi-
The
cation of the body."^''
considered in the
the Sad DaVj esteemed. tained
women, honour for the
*'
life
of
first
man
the sanctity of
If the
fire
is
not
pregnancy becomes
in the vicinity of the
men, and there
their words. "'^
«3 84
purity. fire
"^^^
scarcer
is
main-
for
king becomes
EpM. EpM.
is
the
and less
no approbation of
All dead matter It
In
highly
is
properly
male children are born,
fewer
abomination.
is
thing to be
requisite
EpM.
is
a veritable
"to
284.
8 5
285.
»« Sd. 271.
303.
demolish
PURITY AND IMPURITY
10^
the habitation, house. ••and abode, of au}' one
who has eaten dead heart
body and
out of his
scoop out his eyes."^'
beneath the ground.
and
matter,
No
necessary
it is
corpse
to fetch his
Such matters
^"^
water on the
and paring
feet,
of nails are insisted
Menstruous women should be avoided.
remnant remain
of her
food
of
is
her loses
any
its lustre. ^°
No
She must
use.
of three
at a distance
steps
least
at
A
thing looked at by
It is
not proper for her
from a righteous man.
to
of personal
not making
cleanliness as washing one's face,
on.^^
to
hidden
to be
is
put a bare foot on the ground.-^
Thus purity
is
and the
understood in the most
to be
comprehensive sense,
including
internal, physical
and
spiritual
words and deeds. In
of thoughts,
or purity in the spiritual sense
man
to cultivate
is
" Holiness ness
is
is
for
is
purity
a basic conof a
the highest good.
to life, the greatest good,
that
is
;
holiness
good
the spirit of righteousness.
man
happiness."'- " Purity
thustra,
fact,
The main aim
cept in Parsi ethics.
external
the
in the
is
for
man, next
that purity,
religion of
Holi-
Zara-
Mazda
8 7
Sd. 336.
8 9
Sd. 312,317,275.
9i Sd. 333.
8 8
Sd. 294.
9
Sd. 302-3.
»2 Yt. XXIII.
for
8.
— ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
106
him who
cleanses
thoughts, words,
his
and
own
with
self
deeds.""''
*^
May
good
all
my
actions be performed in the Divine Righteous-
Holiness
ness."^"^
is
acquired through good
thoughts good words and good
''Purity
deeds.""^
has been called the best quality of the soul and
by
man
a
it
With is
saved from hell."
is
-^
this exaltation of the idea of holiness,
connected the idea of the intrinsic superiority
of the spiritual
goods over the goods of the
One must not suppose that as the mundane things are highly appreciated by the world.
Avestan and Pahlavi writers, this ethics was merely utilitarian in the narrow sense of the
Far from running
term.
spiritual qualities of
down the higher
men, Zarathustra evidently
places the utmost possible emphasis
And
upon
these.
the proper sense of proportion was observed
in estimating the relative value of the material
Thus
higher virtues of man.
things and the in a passage in
the
Haptan
Yast
we
find
:
-^*We sacrifice unto Khshathra-Vairya (excellent
power) fice
;
wc
sacrifice
unto the metals
unto Mercy and Charity."-'
9 3
Vd. V.
9 4
Ys.
»5 Dk.
21.
XXVIII.
2.
9 6
I.
It is
20.
Dk. VIL454.
'•>-
;
we
sacri-
here clearly Yt.
II. 2«.^-7.
PURITY AND IMPURITY
the
worship of brutal force
that
indicated
by us
thing to be desired
sole
lO"
;
not
is
not
is
it
from such spiritual virtues as
to be divorced
charity.
This conclusion can be
amply confirmed by
a survey of other writings.
mercy and
Thus
we
one of the fragments,
in
following passage
"To
:
treasures
obtain the
forego not the world
of the material world
For he Avho
of the spirit.
the
find
the
to obtain
treasures of the material world destroyeth the
world of the the
spirit •
• •
•
• •
Li^ht nor
Celestial
Ahura Mazda."
'^
"^^
man
is
dust
who,
-dust
performs passage
and the horse
the
world
praises
and good
duties
..this
and
spiritual
Passages
world.
in other Pahlavi
the
kingship
and the wealth 9 8
dust,
of
as
ideals
of
it
the
that
superiority
TdFr. 90-93.
*'
AV.
out of of
abound
Nay even
this
of
accompanies 9 9
those
type
the
kings
This
^^
brings
above
writings also.
of
and
piety,
works."
very significant
very forcibly the measureless
moral
is
and the body
he alone mingles not with the
in
is
be ye aware also of
silver are dust, ;
me
Paradise of
the
And
this, that cattle are dust,
and gold and
neither
shall possess
it
203.
world
will not
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
108
last
but the deeds of frasokereti
;
done by one
in his
and
lasting
or charity
)
be ever-
The
wealth
same kind as those
''of the
is
(
will
^^0
indestructible."
of the world things,
good times
good or bad which one finds
in sleep,
but which disappear as soon as he awakes from
Body perishes; hence
it."^^^
souls
A man and
men
that '^
must consider
body
his
to be the
not proud of your
that
for
tiies
from tree seat
their
virtue.^*^^
an inn
receptacle of his
wealth
to tree
on any."
soul
''Be
his own/'^*^^
wealth and
world's
this
permanent
for
this world to be
and must make good deeds
world,
is
it
should do deeds of
goods in this is
like a bird
and never has
From
^^^
The
the ultimate triumph of virtue over vice. *'
ultimate
value of virtue
is
its
this follows
so great
and so
Ghanamino into obscurhim miserable." ^^^ In the Menuk-i-khratj we encounter many passages infinite that
ity
and
it
will sink
make
which breathe the same
spirit.
" Thou shouldst
not become presumptuous through any happiness of the world is
;
for the
happiness of the world
such like as a cloud that comes on a rainy day^ 100 Gs.
3.
10
12.
1
Gs.
102 Gs. io» Gs
30. 34.
io4 An. Atm. io« Gs. 29.
6.
;
PURITY AND IMPURITY which one does not ward
off
109
by any
Thou
hill.
much arranging the world-arranging man becomes
world;
shouldsfc not be too for the
spirit-
Thou shouldst not become presumptuous through much treasure and wealth
destroying.
end
for in the
it is
necessary for thee to leave
Thou shouldst not become presumptuous
all.
through predominance
;
end
the
in
for
it
is
necessary for thee to become non-predominant.
Thou
shouldst
presumptuous
become
not
through respect and reverence
;
for respectfulness
does not assist in the spiritual existence. shouldst,
not
Thou
through
become presumptuous
great connections and race; for in the end thy trust
is
become presumptuous through
not
death comes upon thee at
he
Thou shouldst
on thine own deeds.
is
the
more
*'
last."^°^
unforeseeing
who
life
In
;
for
wisdom
does not
provide for the spiritual existence, and attends to the worldly one."^^^
'^
In heart he
is
the
more seemly who abandons the worldly existence and seizes the spiritual one and by his ;
own
will accepts righteousness as a yoke."^^''
The
spiritual aspect
of existence
is
distinctly
recognised and assigned the place of superiority loe Mkh. 16,51,80.
io7 Mkh.
67.
los Mkh.
77.
Z0K0A8TKIAN ETHICS
110
the
over
material
Sad
the
in
principle of the religion
is
''that
Dar.
One
thou prefer
the friendship of the spiritual existence to that of the worldly one,
the
spirit
precious; on
the world
thou
and consider the things of
world as contemptible and those of the
let
is
tliis
account the glory of
sought with
the spirit escape." i^'»
S.l.
329.
scorn, ^^'^
and do not
CHAPTER
VII
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
A
state of
marriage was regarded as highly
important by the Iranians, considered even as a sacred
Thus Ahura Mazda
duty.
sented as saying " The far
man who
above him who lives in continence
keeps a house
is
far
is
repre-
has a wife ;
he
is-
wha
above him who has none
;.
who has children is far above the childless man he who has riches is far above him who he
;
has none."
^
Hence
it
was considered a great sin
either to allow maidens
to
grow up unmarried
The worst deed is when they keep which hostile a maiden from marriage and immure her as "Every man that has a an unmarried one.-
or to prevent their marriage.
men commit
material body should regard his as a good
And
work incumbent on him should
he 1
Yd. lY.
promote 47.
»
A't.
the
own marriage to
perform
marriages
XYI[.
59.
of
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS Through the marriage
Others."'
come
A
related to each other
father
is
to incur
said
enable a daughter
excitement.^
to satisfy
the cap-
her menstrual
Prayers for marriage are common.
To give
powers.^
for
husbands
assistance
to
to
the
them good unions
co-religionists in securing for is
be-
who does not
attained
Maidens offered their prayers higher
men
tie
contentedly/
live
sin
who has
having a son
ability of
and
In the Vendidad, we
a very meritorious act.
find that such acts are considered as atoning for
Hence we
sins.'
find that such
philanthropic
Parsi organizations as the Parsi Panchayat help
the poor Paisis with
From
poses.
money
for
marriage pur-
the above quotations
it
may
be
concluded that marriage was mainly recommend-
ed because in the
place,
first
increase of population
and
it
tended to the
also because both the
found the fulfilment of some of their
sexes
highest capacities in a married of having
many
children
is
state.
The duty
always laid down.
and complete (my Yasna) to women who have many sons and to prosperous home life, which continues with-
*'And
I
celebrate
those of the
a 3
G09.
5
Dk. Bk. VIII. US.
IX. G40.
c
Vt. V. 87
Dk. IX.
4 J)k.
;
XV.
39-41.
7
yd. XIV.
15.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS reverse
out ness *'
Vanguhi
the great Ashi
those
libations
is
be
will
to
me
dried out,
or
which are sent seed
Barren-
deprecated very clearly in the Yasts.
is
And
of
throughout the year."^
113
said
' :
accepted
either
None
by me,
by a man whose
by the courtesan who
produces untimely issues
by young boys
or
;
who have known no man.' " ^ This is the worst deed that men and tyrants do, namely, when they deprive maids, that have or by girls
'^
been barren bringing
for a
long time, of marrying and
children."
forth
A man
^^
marry and niultiply his progeny. strive for the increase of
"Frequent
her.''^-
A man
women, to
in like
repetition is
s
9 1
act of
and beget a
to
espouse
child.
And
manner, should have a longing Children are deemed
espouse a husband.^'*
other
the
of
in to
an act of great
necessary for various reasons but for the
One should
should endeavour
a wife in his youth
should
progeny by going
propagating the offspring worth." ^^
"
^^
particularly
delegation of one's functions to some
individual and
Ys. 1.6. Yt. XVII. 54. Yt. XVII. 59.
for
securing access to
11 Gs. 28. 1
2
1
3
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
1
637. 639.
4
Sd. 278.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
114
heaven.
adoption
one
to
is
legitimate
a
If
child
recommended,
whom
*'
wanting,
is
If there
and there be no provision of a child the creator has
commanded him
make some one of his soul
priests
and
relations
adopted son for him.^^ serving wife and child
results
for
him,
son of his own, as a friend
a
child, ^^^
without any son, real or adopted, the
occur
that he should
and should receive a
every duty can be delegated."
of
be any-
may
sickness from heaven
if
from
*'
to
it
because
If
he dies,
is
the duty
appoint
an
any one has a
If
the acquisition of a male her,
is
it
suitable
for
adoption by that person."^-
The marriage-age the age of fifteen.
^^
Further evidence of the
absence of early marriage fact that
was attained at
of girls
may
be found in the
maidens are often mentioned as pray-
ing for suitable husbands.^"*
It
is
confirmed
by the words of the ritual, in which the pair show their consent after " truthful
are asked to
consideration." It is interesting to
how
the match was
Very often
the
17
Sd. 316.
i» Yt. V. S:
i«
Vd. XIV.
brought about. I* Sd. 279. 18 Sd. 280.
note
15.
parents
or
— THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS arranged
the guardians
Women
the marriage
sometimes took the
At
matter.-*^
initiative
marry with mutual consent. of both parties.^^
woman,
avail
^'
you wish
If
the
the friends
to
marry any
yourself of some choice as your
go-between and propose
him."
in
Often negotia-
made by
tions for marriage were
affair.
two parties often
the
present,
115
to the
woman through
22
Let
us
what
inquire
allowed general
influence
Sometimes
deciding
in
the
Business motives often
choice of the parties. prevailed.
considerations wer6
it is
not love or sentiment,
but practical necessity which dictates mxarriage
way
b}*
of atoning for certain
But as Dr. Geiger points
transgressions.^^
out, a higher idea of
marriage as a union based upon mutual love
was not altogether
singer addresses the of marriage in these shall both seek to
only thus will
it
The
lost sight of.
young
priestly
parties at the time
words:
" In piety you
win the love of each other,
lead
you
selection of the wife or
to joy/'
-^
In making
husband some
special
2 1
Vd. XV. 9. Pand-namak-i-Aturpat-i-Maraspandau XLII.
2 2
An. Atm.
2
3.
^3 Vd.
XIV.
15.
2 4
Ys. LIII.
5.
:
ZOKOASTKIAN
116
1<:THICS
considerations are to be looked
O
may
find
offspring
a
;
^-^
Mazda."
Mind,
-"
''
and
intelligent
him they
much ways, arts,
and
also
a giver ii
of
an a
is
in
various
known comforts
other well
himself,
;uid
brilliant,
of (other)
and moral
hurtful
and
a
people."-'' (lualifica-
should possess beaury, strength,
energy, swiftness, tallness, bright clear
eyes, long
arms and small
«- Yt. XV. 40. Ys. Lin. :i
s"
^«2!'
to
to
highly skilled in the
intellectual
tioMs, a husl);ind
to
and
"He
gain- causing
the customs
liesides these
•'"
ot*
give
sweet-tongued, gives
remover of injurious
fearless
rejecter of
virility,
is
full of resources,
is
things,
is
will
daughter
man."-"
learned
happiness,
ready-
most devoted
is
your
husband who
delightful
learned,
Righteousness
to
Marry
and
long,
thou Pouruchista,
husband who
Good
the
all life
wise, '*
thou young daughter,
thee as thy
as
us well
will treat
husband."
tongiied
O
husband, young and beautiful of
a
us
give
:
virgins
Grant us
'*
Vayu, who dost work highly, that we
who
body,
Vayu, saying
prayer to
otter a this,
The
to.
^"^
heels.-'-
^''^
Qualities
An. At 111. 7. i)k. n. mi.
Yt. XVII. ±J ^t. \'1II. l:5;in.l 14: Vl. XIV. 17. Zavatliustra aiul Zaiatlin:^iriai.nsni in llie A vesta. :
p.
21
:i.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
11'
The quality
desired in a wife are mentioned.
most essential in a bride was that she must be quite chaste before marriage. ^^
and homage
to
offer praise
the house-mistress, holy and
We
guiding aright. to
"We
and homage
offer praise
woman promoting good
the holy
thoughts,
words and deeds, receiving her instruction well
good
Purity,
^-
a strong body, a beautiful form, a
birth,
well-shaped
a
stature,
tall
"
husband
to her
and obedient
a
breast,
slender
and such other physical qualities are •' Let your love ever specially appreciated.^^^ waist
woman and
be for a fore-sighted and modest
marry such a one alone."
whom
worse with
"
with pleasure, ^^^ disposed,
" Choose a wife that one
is
good
;
3
1
virtuous wife
who
good who
"Women
spected."^^ four kinds
A
:
who
of character
is
in the
end
is
live
well
not good, and bad Vend. XIV.
3 2
G. IV. 8,9.
3 3
Visp. II. 7
3 4
An Atm.
3c
Mkh.
;
4.
is
;
because
more
;
;
and neither good
Yt. V. 127. Yt. XVII. 3 7
re-
not bad, and
15.
3 5
^^^
are necessarily of these
good as well as bad
41.
the
is
possible to
good helper of enjoyment."
a
is
That wife
not
is
it
-'"^
Mkh. Mkh.
69. 10.
11, etc.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
118
From among
nor bad. is
not bad and
is
manage household and comfort
these any
good should be selected
and
aflfjiirs
to the
to give
to
happiness
master of the house."
should not be taken
prostitute
woman who
a
as
A
^^^
wife.^^
Other factors such as those of race and faith also entered into the matter.
'^
It is
apparent
that difference of race cannot secure an advant-
ageous condition to pass
life in,
connivance at
defects, similarity of thoughts, participation in
benefits or
other, for
injuries
and contentedness over what
some women
(owing force
occasioned to one or the
to)
them
earned
is
in spite of the ability of,
;
and
lack of courage in their husbands, to
purchase more articles for their use
than are necessary and, failing to obtain these
from their husbands, domineer over them,
show
off their superiority."'^^
Men
should
tie
to
the
knot of marriage with believers in the religion, so that strength
might accrue to them and
to
the people of their race for deliverance from hell
by means of prayers and devotions to
From
the
Avesta
it
God.''^
evident that
is
woman
occupied a position of honour in the system of 38 Dk. 11.77. 3« Dk. Hk. IX. 211.
*« Dk. 11.98. 4
1
Dk.
II. 91.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Iranian *
She was styled N'mano-pathni
life.
the mistress of the house
;'
was called Nmano-paitij house
'
as the
A
and perform
estate
Women
wife might priestly
it
declare
it
As man
and put
unto others who
The
it."''^
''
it.
souls
'cuid
it
woman
may
together in the next world/"
company
Husband and
into
let
practice
act according
fravashis of pious
and women are praised together. often in the
or
and perfectly anything good,
really
or her
and teach
men
They live Ahura Mazda is "^^
of female Yazatas/^
wife are to behave respectfully
towards each other. 4 2 43 44
manage
functions/'*
are entitled both to receive the highest
education and impart
to
the
of
be equal or superior to
tries to
her husband in love/^
him
master
She sometimes chooses her
ing to his sphere.
knows
while her husband
*the
She has to perform household work, husband performs other duties pertain-
husband/' she an
119
The
first
essential in con-
Yt. XV. 40. Ys. LIII. 4. The Airpatistan Avestan fragments.
Quoted
in
Zarathustra and Zarathustrianism in the Avesta. P. 214. 4 5 Ys.
XXXV.
4c Ys.
XXVI.
4
7
6.
7-9;
Vd. IX. 42; Ys.
4? Ys.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX. XXXIX.
1.
2; Yt. XIII. 155. 2.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
120
jugal
life is
mutual
Zarathustra's advice
love.
and bridegrooms
to brides
is
" Let each one
:
cherish the other in righteousness
unto each shall the home
life
tender treatment of wives
is
husbands.
cause
tution
misery. ^°
great
A
'^^
enjoined upon the
husbands of
Terrible
thus alone
:
be happy."
evil
consti-
Much
regard
should be had for one's wife and protection " One's
should be given her.^^
aged
should
relations
must not be allowed "
^-
fort."
to
own
wife and
and
kept happy,
be
remain without com-
One should be loving
to one's wife
and
guide, but one should not be excessively fond of
them."
whom
'<
5^^
one
The
is
wife of one's
choice
Wives
the
tinore
of
much
forward
"And in
to )
nijSforardliness."^'*
husbands and co-operate with them in designs.
e.
affection
should be obedient
return
in
i.
by the marriage ceremony
tied
should always be treated with
and without
(
to their all
good
we sacrifice to the holy woman,
good thoughts and words and deeds,
receiving her instructions well, having her hus-
band
as her lord."
*» Ys. LIII. »« Gs. 15. 4
1
Mkh.
67.
5.
^^''
-^s
**And
I
summon
Dk. Bk. XII.51.
*3 Dk. Bk. XII. 61. 'i*
Dk. IX.
637.
the
woman
-s G. IV.
9.
THE ETHICS OF 8EX RELATIONS
121
advanced in her holy thoughts, words, and deeds>
and well lord."
subordinated,
obedient
A woman
wives.
atmosphere
the
in
whose
ruler
her
is
Cruel punishments are reserved for dis-
-^°
was
because
suspended " scorned
she
her husband and master, and cursed, abused
and defied him."'" refuse
eat
eaten
much meat
Women
A woman
was forced to
the
she
in
world,
the}^
concealed from her husband.
^"^
broken promises
husbands
their
to
had stayed away from their husband,
and been
never
contented " These
cohabitation. -^°
and granted
are such as
personally obedient and do service
unto
had
were thrown head downwards because
they had
and
because
the
husband and
father and mother."
^°
the
Here
child is
:
no
must be the wife
unto
the
a picture of an
woman from the Zoroastrian point of view: The woman who is young, who is properly disposed, who is faithful, who is respected, who ideal ^'
is
good-naiured,
who
enlivens the house, whose
modesty and awe are virtuous, a friend
of her
own father and elders, husband and guardians, handsome and replete with animation, is 1
5 «
Visp. III.
5 7
AV.
4.
172, 187.
«8AV.
196.
AV.
191.
«»
soMkh.
78.
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
122
over
chief
associates." to
women who
the
A
^^
She should
her husband.
say to her husband, so that
I
for thee,
may
What
"
think them
so that
I
may
;
fold her
arms and
are thy
thoughts,
what
necessary
speak
necessary for thee so that
may
I
As the great sanctity
it
of
it
is
and what
;
first,
was
life
all violation of
was looked upon with great horror. wails thrice:
is
"^^
do it?
married
held in such high importance,
Vanguhi
own
her
are
wife should be all obedience
Ashi
about the courtesan
who who
destroys her fruit ; next, about the courtesan
and
for the
brings forth a child conceived of a stranger third time she says
men and
worst sin that
tyrants
when they deprive maids, barren
for
long
a
*' :
time,
that of
This
do,
have
entreated
to
hurl
her
that what gives
''who
Jo/ti,
faithful
Him
mixes
her
and the unfaithful,
6
1
Mkh.
fi
5
Sd. 320.
108.
6 3 « *
Haoma
Jahi
is
Ahura Mazda
the greatest pain
in
and
mace against the
harlot of lustful wavering mind.^"^ personification of adultery.
the
been
marrying
bringing forth children."" The Yazata is
is
namely
the
seed
the says
is
the
of
the
of the worshippers
Yt. XVII. 57-60. Ys. IX. 32.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS Mazda and the worshippers
of
made to
is '*
fly
of the Baevas^
and the righteous."
of the wicked
123
away when the world
^^
The Jahi
progresses. ^^
Lead not astray the thought of other wives,
for
by so doing your own soul
very sinful."
ments
will follow infidelity in
woman who
become
will
In the next world severe punish-
^^
had
married
committed
life.
adultery
A was
to hell.^^ The man who had seduced the wives of others was stung by serpents.^^ Wicked women who captivated the eyes of the men of God had to eat the blood of their own fingers.''^ " Thou shouldst
suspended by her breast
an abstainer
be
because
all
from
the
wives of others;
these three would
become disregard-
ed by thee, alike wealth, alike body and alike soul."^i
In the
spoken of as a harlot
is
Dinkard adultery
sin.^^
Any
is
woman
is
woman.
Vd. XVIII.
woman
''That
will.
6
62.
e« Vd. 6 7 e 8
But
regarded innocent when the act
committed against her
should be considered free and innocent 6 *
often
considered equal in point of heinous-
ness to that with a menstruous
the
is
connection with a
XXI. 17. An Atm. 6. AV. 171, 188, 194,
9AV.
195, 197, 200.
191.
^ i
AV. 192. Mkh. 12.
7 2
Dk. IV.
7
who
233, 237.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
124
has committed
who
is
man."
The Dadistan-i-Dinik,
''^
Dahak was
adultery; ''and by control
it
all
put an end
is
with son occurs."""^ sin,
A
is
case
refers
other
or '
is
sort
and without the
of
living
Adultery
thing,
will
the intercourse,
a
paramour
excitement of
a
to various types of
its
death in the
7
3
Dk. VII.
7
4
Dd. 217. Dd. 228.
7 «
birth. 441.
^'^
:
daughter,
or
sister
'^
A
to
father satisfy
daugrhter/"
murder such
woman through woman through
the woman's swallowing a drug and its
It
or of speaking thus
go in unto thine.' "
who harbours
Adultery leads
my
as the death of a child in the
just after
a very
is
bargain in adultery.
unto
in
menstrual
the
intermingling of
sin of giving a girl for a girl,
the
I too,
sinful
disturbed,
is
reprobated in the Dinkard which
Do thou go
while
commit
worse than theft or spoliation. "^
to a
about
''
is
to
first
lineage
authority of the husband an
heinous
faithless
says that Vadak,
the
to,
but
aid from
from the
save her
to
the mother of
son
stranger
proved to have received no
people
other
adultery with a
its
murder
Sexual intercourse with
7 7
Dk. Bk. VIII. Dk. Bk. VIII.
7 8
Dd. 229.
7 6
66. 66.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS an
woman
infidel
grounds. course he
'*
as
is
who
125
is condemned on special The committer of the illicit inter-
unobservant and grievously sinlul as
own
shall lead his
child from his native
habits and the good religion into foreign habits
and
infidelity
may commit
as to the sin
;
childhood he
in
and as that which he
is
equally
with
rape on
from causing a
the
is
may commit
it
sinful
from
abstain
which that child
it."
-^^
another's
woman
sinner,
manhood One should
in
occupy a separate
to
One should
bed from her husband. ^^
and
wife
avoid adultery on this ground
''
strictly
through
that
everyone who beguiles the wife of another,
and commits iniquity
with her, that
woman
moment, unlawful as regards -^ her husband." The wife should crave pardon
becomes, in
a
or death at the death of her husband, If
strange
men
water,
it
woman who
a
case.^^
"'
will
takes
make
into a
diminish,
it
look at a tree or shrub, the fruit
become scanty, and a righteous
man 7
9
man
diminish Dd.
229.
8 6
it
if
sd. 305.
if
river
of
she take a
of the
trees
she speaks a word with
will It
with two
consorts
look
a
in that
make is
the
glory of the
necessary to kill si
Sd. 324.
8 2
her
Sd. 325.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
126
sooner than a biting serpent and similar crea-
and wild
tures
harmful to
my
beasts,
because she
(God's) creatures."
more
is
^^
has
a woman in her much condemned. When a man intercourse with a woman who has
the
whites or sees the blood, he becomes a
Sexual mtercourse with
menses
is
"
Peshotanu.^^
or sees
Whosoever
with
intercourse
blood,
shall lie in sexual
woman who
a
no
does
has
whites
better deed than
he should burn the corpse of his own
man who had an
The
if
son."^-^
with a
intercourse
menstruous woman had the impurity of the
woman
discharged into his
natural intercourse
man who
a
there
sin,'
it
;
it
ment
unnatural
nothing that can cleanse from
and
for ever
which there
ever.'^"
is
The ninth Fargard,
about " the devilry,
no atone-
" Of the sins which
people commit, the unnatural sin heinous."
'
is
the most
Yathais,
8 4
8»Vd. XVI.
Sd. 331.
Vd. XV.
7.
•«
is
the blighted destiny, the
complete pollution, the grievous stench, 8 3
For
nothing that can pay, nothing
a trespass for
'^"^
un-
All
jaws."^^
severely prohibited.
voluntarily commits
is
that can atone, is
is
AV.
170.
17.
the
^t vd. VIII. 27. s's
Mkh.
71.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
127
heinous sinfulness, and the annoyance to
all
spiritual and worldly virtue of the sodomite."
Another part of the Dinkard
is
^^
concerned about
" the vicious desire of the performer and permitter of unnatural intercourse; also their violent lustfulness,
heinous practice and corrupt, pol-
luted bodies, blighted in destiny destruction
their
they
see,
of
life in
;
great through
the things which
and every greatness inevitably provides
them a merited death
;
as great in sinfulness,
Azi-Dahak, in oppression, as the serpent
as
in witchcraft as Tur-i-Bradro-resh, the
Srobar,
Karap,
destroying the righteous and as a
in
deceiving apostate in falsehood. "^°
The grievous
sinfulness of wealth acquired through unnatural
intercourse
is
mentioned.^^
the Dadistan-i-Dinik that
who
first
of males ''
It
is
showed
to the
It
is
related
in
was the Viptak
it
males the intercourse
and the way of destroying the
seed.^-
necessary to practise abstinence
from
committing or permitting unnatural intercourse.
For
this is
there
is
religion,
the chief of
sins
in religfion
;
no worse sin than this in the good
and
it
is
«9 Dk. Bk. IX. 185. » «
all
Dk. Bk. VIII.
111.
proper to
call
those
9 1
Dk. Bk. VIII.
9 5
Dd. 218.
71.
who
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
128
commit
of death in reality."
worthy
it
should cut
the heads or rip
off
of both parties in the
commit the same
four-footed females
One
Dinkard.^^
with
cerned
''
the
is
'"^^
who wants washing, with her who any
or
Penalty
sexual intercourse with a
to
other
of
not
those
con-
pregnant or the
wife with a child at the breast.
attached
in the is
who have
those
of
sin
debauched a woman who
they
just the
Dinkard
part of the
bellies
sin of defiling
mentioned
also
is
is
it
The
as that with man."'^"^
up the
And when
women,
with
sin
*'
act.'"'
One
^^
is
is
woman
a foreigner
authorised
for
intercourse.'^^ It
been
has
writers that
*'
by
some* European
polygamy was once prevalent
The testimony
Persia. to
asserted
of the Greeks
is
in
quoted
Thus Herodotus says
support this view.
:
Each one of them marries several legitimate
wives and acquires for himself yet several more
cannot
be drawn
themselves.
from the religious records
Thus Dr. Geiger thinks
that a
S7 Dk. Bk.VIII.162. Sd. 26S. Dk. Bk. VIII. 72. » » Dk. Bk. VIII. 100. See Kapp. Religion and Customs of the Persians,
»3 Sd. 267.
«f'
9 4
«<•
sd. 261. «•!
definite conclusions
Rut very
concubines."""
pp. 208-300
:
Heroa.
I.
135
;
Strabo,
p.
733
etc.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS passage in the Vendidad the
of
III. 3. ('* in
women and
righteous,
129
the house
children
are
present in rich abundance ") implies the exist-
ence of the state of polygamy then. wives
may
be meant sons' wives
But by
also.
It
may
be that some rich people contracted marriages
with
such
many
At any
wives.
custom
now,
nor
rate there
in the religious records that
indication
no
is
any
there
is
clear
was
it
once prevalent,
A
problem of special
nection with
the
importance
Iranian
marriagfe
question of the Xvaetvadatha or marriage.'
meaning maintain
between
in
'
con-
is
the
next of kin
The quarrel here rages round the
Some western
of the term.
that
it
nearest
once
scholars
meant the marriage betw^een
relations,
and children and brothers and
modern Parsis maintain that
it
parents
sisters. The means and it
always meant marriage between
first
cousins.
The evidence adduced by the former deserves some examination. In the first place, the foreign
the
on
writers
existence
of
such
Secondly, there are to
the
custom
in
have
Persia a
testified
custom
unmistakable the
Pahlavi
in
to
Persia.
references writings.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
130
Thus
in
Nash
"
:
o-iven
woman
And
in
Fargard
21st
the
this,
that
too,
marriage to a
to another
man who had was seen
woman the
some
tion.
And
snake.
reverence
In the Arda-
The
references.
soul of a
contracted a next-of-kin marriage
in the
enjoyment of a splendid
woman, who
the soul of a
was
marriage
next-of-kin
is
even so as a
man, by him who teaches
unto father and husband."
Viraf, there are
daughter
a
father,
the daughter and the other dtie
Baku
the
of
posi-
violated
attacked
by
a
^^^
Arda Viraf had married his seven sisters. The next-of-kin marriage was the second of the seven good works
fourth
point
in
classes of sins.
^^-
of
^^^ ;
its
dissolution
among
heinousness
The
was recommended because
it
The custom
it.
tends to preserve
the purity of race, to increase the lity of
husband and
to
prevent
wife,
Mkh. 10* Mkh. 10
1
^^^
and
26. 71.
compatibi-
increase
to
the
Another motive was
perversions of faith.
loo AV. 197.
the
third book of the Din-
kard contains a long defence of
affection for children.
is
thirty
^^''
From
the
i»3 Dk. II. 91. 10* Kevayat. Tr. West. Vol. XVIII. S. B. E. p. 416-7.
THE ETHICS OF SEX RELATIONS
complete progress
next-of-kin marriage arises
world luito the time of the renovation
the
in
131
of the universe.
Then
^^^
marriages were not
said
is
it
that such
uncommon among
certain
other peoples of the world.
But
it
is
maintained that
there are no passages which
^^^
the nature of the relationship.
didad,
it is
said that those
in the
clearly
who
Avesta^ indicate
In the Ven-
carry the dead
must afterwards wash the hair and bodies with the
urine
men
or
of
cattle
or
draught oxen, not of
women, except the two who have
formed Xvaetvadatha,
But from
^°'
passages the nature of the marriage gathered.
As
regards
foreign authors, is
it
it
evidence of the
the
not in perfect agreement
with
the
it
Persian
The Persian Revayats are
meaning of next-of-kin marriage;
means marriage
thus summarises
of
first
cousins. Louis H.
the situation
astrianism never advocated
it
by non-Zoroastrian Persians; at least
these
cannot be
cannot be accepted when
writings themselves. clear about the
all
per-
;
:-
it it
->'
Gray
Pure Zoro-
was practised was advocated
during the Sassanian and early Arab
105 Dd. 225. 107 Vd. VIII. 13. loe Ys. XII. 9 Visp. III. 3. G. IV.
8.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
1.32
periods by a Magianized priesthood to
have been a theoretical
the
religious
period ideal)
;
it
and
ideal,
political
;
it
situation
of the
was constantly resisted (even as an
by a large-and doubtless, ever
ing-body
appears
prompted by
of the faithful
i«8
ERE.
;
it
increas-
has disappeared."
VIII. 458.
^^^
CHAPTER BENEVOLENCE
OTHER VIRTUES
:
Zoroastrianism
weH
of
Charity
moral
Kindly and piously the faithful, be is
well
I
it
life
is
as
to give
ever so
for the
poor as
one of the naain conceived
unasked
little of
to
here.
one of
one's riches,
"
of.
Mazda
?
with the Righteous Order, and
Mind
AN^D VICES
What then is your What are your riches, may become your own in jny actions spoken
kingdom, that
a gospel
is
as the rich.
essentials
VII
to care for
(
thy
)
Good
your poor (in their suffering.)"
He who admonishes one
for his
good
is
a gift to his religious faith in the love of
^
offering
Ahura
Ahura Mazda will give the most prosA perous life to him who gives gifts to men.^
Mazda. ^
man or a woman, who knows ly should declare 1
Ys.
XXXIV.
5.
it
a
the duty thorough-
and inculcate
Ys.
XXXIII.
2.
it
3
upon those
Ys.
XLVI.
13.
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
134
who may perform
it
as
it
^
is
^'
Never may
I
stand as a source of wasting, never as a source of withering to the
Mazdayasnian
body or of
for the love of
good-will extends to
We
"
universe.
all
villages, not
The
life."^
spirit of
good beings of the
worship the souls
;
those of the
tame animals; those of the wild animals; those of the
animals that live in the water
of the
animals that live
those
the
of
running ones
Thus
it
flying
entirely
is
ones
those
;
the
of
grazing ones."^
those of the
;
those
;
under the ground
within the
comprehensive
range of the Zoroastrian sympathy to love and reverence the beings of the animal kingdom.
But the range all
the waters
;
is
wider
we worship
pray for th^ joy
still.
all
"
We
worship
the plants."
'
"I
and comforts of this country.
I
pray for the health and happiness of you, holy
men
;
I
pray for a thousand blessings on him is
heaven."^
''
good and lives between earth and
whosoever
I
pray for the freedom and glory of
the entire existence of the holy (man) while I bless
it,
and
I
pray for the repression and shame
of the entire existence of the wicked."*^ 4 Ys. *
XXXV.
Ys. XII.
3.
6.
Thus
6
Yt. XIII. 74.
«
Ys. LXVIII. 15.
7
Yt. XIII. 79.
«
Ys. VIII.
8.
;
BENEVOLENCE
135
the whole existence becomes the
sphere for the working of
But
charity
is
mere passive sympathy
not
active helpfulness as well.
it is
same
appropriate
human sympathy. '^
If
men
either friends or brothers
faith,
of the
come
to
an agreement together that one may obtain from the other either goods or a wife or knowledge,
him who desires goods have them delivered to him let him who desires a wife receive and wed her; let him who desires knowledge be taught the holy word." ^° The spirit with which let
;
all gifts
should be doled out must not be cynical,
but joyous. Zarathustra,
Thus " Woe to him, Spitama who gives alms when his soul is
not joyful over almsgiving
;
for in
alms
lies for
the corporeal world the decision for good
all
thoughts, and good words and good deeds."
Charity
is
inculcated in
Morality
Pahlavi literature.
private individual concern,
others
to
between
as
well
as
man and man
mutual good- will.
1
2
Gs.
5.
1 1
it
is
forms in the not a
mere
refers essentially
oneself.
All
relations
are to be regulated
by
Virtue requires charity as
an essential ingredient. ^^ le Vd. IV. 44.
all its
^^
That man
is
most
LXXXIV. (tr. C. Bartholomae Altiran, Worterbuch.)
Nr.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
136
venerable
who
you enjoy use
it
to
up
stores
acts of charity. ^^
in charity. "^"^
"Be always charitable
you may secure your place
its
and meets
it
on the way
alms-giving.
''
to
of a
heaven, describes
among which
special virtues,
that
in Garothman."^^^
The maiden who represents the good deeds soul
" If
any extent the power of wealth,
And alms were
she mentions
given by thee
him who came forth from near and him, too, who was from afar." ^^ The man who to
provides lodging accommodation for the
and secluded and traders heaven, ^^ "
He who
is
is
said
to
sick
arrive in
very rich should use his
superfluous riches in supporting (ochers) and in other
tions."
good deeds pertaining
to
higher rela-
*^He who at his doors gives to the
^^
pious dervishes food and water enough to supply their
obtains
wants,
return."
^*^
**A
man
among men through
an
excellent
gets
respect
is
-^
"
An
exalted final is
for
21
13 Gs. 31. 14 An Atm.
4.
16 i7
Mkh. Mkh.
An Atm.
6.
is
Dk.
ifi
and glory
through charity and charity
exalted final life."
in
charity by which the world
becomes easy and happy." life
thing
19.
73. 75.
II. 73.
i* Dk. VIII. 454. »o Dk. VII. 468. «i Dk. VIII. 458.
an
BENEVOLENCE But
discriminate
is
it
137
which
charity
preached here. The right arm of help
is
not to
is
be extended to the lazy or the improvident or the undeserving.
It is
the
'
faithful
who
'
are
constantly referred to as the worthy object of
''He who relieves
charity.
"And
Ahura king."--
poor makes
the
that gift
the more
is
unprofitable which they give to the unworthy."
"Those who deserve patronage
the poor)
e.
( i.
^^
should be patronised as one's own; and
they
if
are not satisfied with such patronage, then they
should be admonished."-'^
opened
for the
way should be
''A
happiness of worthy and excel-
lent people, for the
good of the
devout people and
(
for the
follower of the good religion, to preserve himself against
(rigours) of possible
summer and
souls of the
every
relief of)
who may be unable hunger,
winter."
-^
thirst,
"As
one should not partake of food
after feeding the
The following
needy."
and
far as till
-^
four quotations are significant
because they illustrate the nature of the attitude to
be adopted towards people of other religions
in
matters of charity. 2 3
Vd. XIX.
2 3
Mkh.
82.
2.
''
If
he who
Dk. VII. 437. 35 Dk. IX. 638.
3 4
2 6
is
a dervish
Dk. IX.
638.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
138
(
man
a poor
or of
)
be also a
man
no honest motive, then,
be given religions,
too,
of evil religion
anything might
him as a gift." -^ <' People of evil who may be in danger of suffering
from hunger, thirst and cold, should be saved from these (hardships)."-^ give
an
who
infidel
is
and medicine
clothing
;
It is
the custom to
not a foreigner food,
but
wealth,
horses,
accoutrements, wine, and land should not be
Men
"
given to foreigners and idolaters.-^
of
the good religion should give something to a
man
of different religion only in case of
necessity,
lest it
should be given
become as
a sin."
'"^'
extreme
No
to vicious people; Avhich
further their evil desio-ns.
help
might
"Different thinors are
not to be given as means to the vicious. "^^^
The higher manifestation and
the
from
it.
and wife ness."^2
of charity
love
is
co-operation or mutual service born,
Zarathustra advises the young husband to
'^
love each other throuo^h ricjhteous-
"When men
love
and
one
help
another to the best of their power they derive the greatest pleasure from loving their fellow-
men."^^
This love or good-will shows
2 8
Dk. XII. 11. Dk. IX. t)38.
«9
I)(l.
9 7
197.
so sd. 282. 1 Dk. XII. 62.
3
3 2
Ys. LTII.
o.
3 3
itself
Dk. VIII.
454.
BENEVOLENCE in
such
virtues
different
139
or
liberality
as
generosity, sympathy, hospitality, peacefulness, patience, good temper, courtesy and disinter-
The power
estedness.
us
affords
the
comfort.
greatest
millennium every one
generous
of
persons
will please (his soul)
(following) the path of generosity. ^^
formance
most
two
generosity
generosity
Charity
holy
The
are
to
liberality
itself
as
also
"The miserliness."-''^ of the generous man are
^'without
a heart has the light of the
The generous man
fire
*'
pertaining
exhibits
heart and conscience
warm and such
good,"^^
higher order
of a
and love."
are
qualities
excellent
intelligence
by
Among
'^
speaking of thanks and per-
doers of deeds of
the
In
^'^
exalted
is
Liberality however should be
among men."^^
shown towards the deserving
only.
When
*'
they provide any munificence or liberality, is
necessary
worthy
that
they
provide
As
regards
that
provides any munificence for it
is
called a vain
advantage. "39 3 4
Gs. 18. 35 Gs. 29.
work and
Liberality
it
person
the a
shown 3 8
Dk. IX.
39
Sd. 291.
Dk.
who
without
to the
14.
Mkh.
37
it
the
unworthy,
gift
II. 71.
3 6
for
worthy
555.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
140
is
spoken of as one of the four principles of the
religion of Zarathust/^ liberality
For the exercise
''
grand, in such manner as
is
and pleasanter, on which a
manner,
in like
man
liberal
wind that blows upon a
manner
man and
man
for the
moon
sun,
shine upon a liberal man."^^
He
says that
has not been able to
any recompense and happiness that are
suitable for a liberal
Again He says
"
:
persons
unworthy/'
;
except a blessing/^
for the sake
who provide
them something
man
have created the supreme
[
heaven of heavens liberal
those
for
better in
sits,
cow and goat that a liberal
for the
stars that
Hormazd find
ground
for the
man, better
liberal
and pleasanter
eats,
of
better
walks, better for the
the horse on which a liberal like
it is
and gloomy
who
of
any
worthy
for the
hell
for all
is
anything
give
of the
and give
to
the
''•^
Other qualities which How naturally from the attitude of good- will
who has sympathy concerns.
^'^
4 1
not averse
Hospitality should
panied by self-praise.
4
is
"^^
*'He
to
be
unaccom-
is
hospitable
who
Sd. 329.
4 2 Sd. 342.
4 4 Qs. 12.
Sd. 342.
4 3
4 5
Sd. 343.
He human
are also extolled.
Dk.
[I.
72.
BENEVOLENCE
141
and entertains
towards the good
with what has been given him
endowed with higher good men of his ing It is
the
at the
for the host to
approach
Arda-Viraf
it is
and thirsty
food,
wards
to
task."
^^
Some
details regard-
forms of hospitality are also given.
customary
seat
regarded as
is
than the (other)
gifts
city.""^^
(his guests)
of a
rise
guest.
from
his
In
the
"^^
stated that to ''give the
the
is
make enquiry
of
hungry
and
thing,
first
after-
him and appoint
Menuk-i-Khrat gives a
his
description
setting forth the details of hospitality extended
As soon
as
it
enters
angels of every
man
righteous
to the soul of the
angels and arch-
the
it,
description
and ask him questions.
paradise.
iii
come
meet him
to
Ahura Mazda
says
that no questions should be asked but that he
should be seated upon an all-embellished throne.
The Shah-Kamah inferior in rank, if
the two were
to
meet his guest. ^^
mony
is
says
that
host
the
the guest
if
saluted
was
him,^''^
but
the host went
equal in rank,
A
'^^
state of peace
and har-
preferred to one of enmity and discord.
''With your elders and friends do you 4« Dk. VIII. 455. -17 Vd. XIX. 31.
4
8
4»
AV. 153. Mkh. 21.
I.
-5
••*
i
live
on
234 and 257.
11.
12
and
58.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
142
Do
terms of peace. possible,
is
keep
not submit to and
at a distance
from
all
nurse feelings of anger and enmity against
He who
has the wealth of patience
He who
finder.5^
A
no miser. speaking
who
speech,
A
and
behaviour towards
be excellent.
"
millennium. ^^
do or speak
prominent
desire in the
gains a bad injurious to
than
He his
at
anj^^body let
in
acquire
will
time of the
to
our fellow-brethren and
do
reputation,
).''
your deed or
-^^
good
to
Pahlavi writings.
human
others
the
men
Whenever you have anything to
broad interest
an active
(
?
in
good
all
A man
^^^
speech be sweet and civil."
A
Who
'*
sweet
courteous,
is
the habit of
is
suavely.^'^
our greatest affection
friends by his courtesy,
to
fault-
and a great respecter of persons. "^^
man's
should
good disposition
courteously
extremely
is
you."^^'
possesses a good disposition
command
should
it
such as
no
is
if
them
A
who deems
interests to be
A man
should
are
person actions
more just be
most
anxious to do disinterested good to his fellow»2
An Atm.
1
;
BENEVOLENCE The wishing
brethren.
one
of happiness for every-
which are great and good good
for the
these
"
desires or
others
;
He
kind regard
soul
among virtue
towards others
pleased with
is
a
whose
in
well disposed
is
and
;
the works
classed as the seventh
is
works.*^^
dwells
among
the sixth
classed as
is
143
and
happiness of
the
thereby he becomes capable of prevent-
among men and of promotvirtue among them."^^ One
ing mutual injuries ing the union of
should
give
" to
prominence
the
virtue
of
benevolence and of taking care of others, so that
by this the vice
revengefulness
of
is
weakened and the power of the vindictive druj rendered harmless."
is
of three types
:
first,
6-
Philanthropists are
who
those
are
philan-
thropists through the love of religious reward
secondly, those lastly,
who
are so through pure love
there are those
are
known
protected ^'
who
who do good
to them.^^
in this
world
"
A
man's body
by philanthropy.
One should have regard and
affection
(people of) one's community, and should
them, and Mkh.
6 6
1
live
27.
Dk. V.
276.
6 3
Dk. VII. Dk. VII.
4
446.
6
453.
6 5
is
"^"^
for visit
with them, in one abode. 6 2
;
to others
"^"^
Dk. VII. 453. Dk. IX. 642.
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
144
make a wicked man holy to make an ill-formed man wise"^^ are amongst the greatest functions of men. One
" To make an enemy a friend
;
to
;
should be reverent patronize
and
of
man
towards the world
should
One
benefit to one's co-adjutors.^^
give
obligation
helpfulness,
is
and
keep his door open so that he and his
to
one
might associate with have the negative form
fellows
We
Rule
:
" That
nature only
for its
own
of these
mischief as
and
o-ood,
Golden
good when
it
not good
is
self."^^
The absence
much
another.^^
the
of
is
shall not do unto another whatever
as
and
ones
one's great
to
inferiors
one's
good qualities implies
their
expresses
this
presence
implies
in
various
itself
forms, such as avarice, anger, jealousy, slander,
enmity, selfishness, hatred, revenge, stubbornpride.
ness,
have a value
Although things
become a ground *'
The
attributes
discontented "
for the sin
of covetousness.
Dk. Vol. XI.
make men cause them to
of avarice
"^
and
7.
world
they can easily
«« Dk. XII. 31. fi7 Dk. Bk. VI. Vol. X. f.H
of this
own,
of their
14.
6» D(l. 271 7o Us. 7.
;
quite
seek
AnAtm.
1.
BENEVOLENCE shadowy good.
145
Avaricious people are repre-
The
sented as severely punished.
man was had it
'*
stretched
much
collected
wealth and he consumed
not himself, and neither gave
a share to the good
The
headlong into world, gave
<^
oven.'*'^
demon
nor
place,
nor allowed
it
in store."
^^
thrown
were
persons
" in
the
caravanserai
for
because
hell,
no
Form no
these
covetous desire; so that
may
of greediness
and the treasure tasteless
but kept
it,
nor lodging, nor space, nor baking
travellers,
the
;
some
of
souls
soul of a
upon a rock, because he
to
world
the
of
thee,
and
may
that
of
are
two
"There
unperceived."^^''
not deceive thee, not
the
be
spirit
most
evil
vices pertaining to a perverse intelligence of a
miserliness and animosity. "^^
lower order
" Whosoever
whosoever
is
is
liberal
niggardly
is
is
and
praiseworthy
despicable."
^^
"
One
should not be immoderately covetous as regards
power and wealth." science as ice,
^^The heart and con-
which are the abodes
and 7 1 7 2 7 3
10
^^
it is
of avarice, are cold
the meanness and the coldness (of
AV. 174; AV. 200. Mkh. 10.
198.
7 4 Dk. IV. 198. '^ Dk. V. 351. 7 6 Dk. XII. 56.
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS
146
the man) which show him to be avaricious."-'^ One ought not to be excessively desirous of
good
''From greediness
things.''^
arises
cor-
ruption and from corruption perplexity and evil "'^
heart."
''
thinks
it
world."
'^'^
That man has the worst
right If
one
man of
to
power he
is
the
in
of
spirit
of wrath
heaven.
is
'^'^
one ''
In
more seemly who, when he
indulges his wrath,
and not
A
do evil deeds. ^-
The suppression
ways of arriving
the
heart on obtaining
anger by the
subdue
should
this
cannot obtain reverence
him strength
endurance.'-^
who
Anger makes man ungrateful
and honour.^^ and gives
sets his
he
material wealth,
desires,
amass the riches of
to
commit
Jealousy creates in
is
sin
able to allay the wrath,
and gratify himself."
man
'^^
the desire of destroy-
happy condition and
teaches
ing
another's
him
to
entertain vicious hopes about others. "^°
A man
should subdue jealousy by good inten-
tions.'^'
man
is
Slander makes
most odious who
fault-finder 7 7
7 8 T->
men unworthy.
and a
Dk. IX. 555. Dk. XII. 62. Dk. XII. 69.
HO Dk. III. 129. 8 1 Dk. VII. 492.
bitter 8 2 8 3
^4 8.>
is
^"^
That
a proud tormentor,
slanderer of men.^^
Gs. 8. Gs. 26.
Mkh. Mkh.
75.
77.
8 6
Qs. 8. Qs. 26. «« Gs. 8. »» Gs. 17. 8 7
BENEVOLENCE
147
Arda-Viraf found that those, who, Jaad committed
and embroiled people
slander
had their tongues put
to'gether,
mitting slander
a
is
world
in the
very heinous
Com-
out.^°
"Com-
sin.^
mit no slander, so that infamy and wickedness
may
not happen unto thee.
slander
is
For
said that
it is
more grievous than witchcraft rush of every fiend
in hell the
is
;
and
to the front,
but the rush of the fiend of slander, on account of the
grievous sinfulness
Slander
is
one
the
of
to
is
the soul full of blemishes.^^ abstain from
slander,
not depart through .and
good works,
his antagonist
be
the
who has
A man
should
the performance of duties
so long as
of
sins.
he does not make Slander
eaten
dead matter. "^^
said to
like
is
The
Angra Mainyu.^°
" the evil
abjures
is
"Every one who
slander about any one
pride was created by thustra
render
the sin of which ''doe&
satisfied."^''"
greatest
indulges in
the rear."^-
which
vices
mind, and
obedience, arrogance and falsehood."
^^
him
sin
of
Zaraall dis-
'^'Goin-
mio no sin from stubbornness or shame. "^^^ "JSe f'« AV. 189, 174, 9iMkh;73. 9 2 Mkh. 9.
ITS.
9 3
9 ,
Dk. IV^
4 Sd. 306.
-9 5
sd. 356.
233. '
96 yd. 97 Ys.
XXXIII.
>> An
Atni.
I.
11.
7.
6.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
148
proud of and
not
indifferent to every
and every thing." °^
Hatred, discord, revenge-
A man
fulness are depreciated.
enmity by
days
hate
A man
cruel. ^^^
do
no
terrible
should not in his palmy
Harbour
anybody. ^°-
and
against
should subdue
Enmity makes men
peace.^°°
and
person
wrong
to
no revenge
any
man.^^^
Revenge, oppression and tyranny denote want of charity.
^^"^
necessary.
^^^
unhappy
To oppose revenge patience
The thought
of rendering
is
man
increases through revenge^^
MINOR VIRTUES
We
will
now
deal with other virtues and
which receive
Tices
less
elaborate
in the Zoroastrian writings than
mentis ned.
The reverence
for
treatment
those already authority, es-
pecially of the sacred beings, of priests elders, is
is
inculcated.
Much
stress,
on the virtue of obedience.
laid
that all rightly constituted persons to
be in harmony
•divine
mind, and
wishes of 99
all
in
with
the
and
of
therefore,
means
It
must
strive
dictates
of
the
due subordination
to
the
having claims upon
their reverence
MINOK VIRTUES and regard.
Obedience
terms
highest
the
constitute
way
referred to
most
the
to
beneficent
Along with the Good Mind
Ahura Mazda.^
enables us to draw near to God.- Sraosha
the will
of
God
is
who
In
practise
will
Several persons had
their
stench,
their father
souls
of
strongly
women,
reverence and obedience to their
husbands and lords
mud and
is
the
world,
other
the
an
condemned.^
strongly
In the Pahlavi writings this virtue upheld.
is
it
Disobedience or opposition
angel of obedience. to
the
in
being said to
Gathas,
the
in
is
14i^
be quite
because
well
chests plunged in
they
" distressed
and mother, in the world."
those
who had
off."
been
^
The
disobedient
unto their rulers in ihe world were likewise punished.^
Obedience
is
necessary part of a virtuous
emphasized
man
as
a
in the Ganj-i
Shayigan and Andarz-i Atarpat-i Maraspand.
A man
should not do any wrong either to his
parents or to his masters.^
Children of good
behaviour and wives who abide by the wishes of their husbands, afford the greatest delight 1
2 3
XXVIII. 6. XLIV. 16. Ys. XXXIII. 6. Ys. Ys.
* 5 6
AV. 162. AV. 188. AV, 202.
7
Gs. 27.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
150
Obedience
world. ^
this
in
parents and preceptors
respect,
listen
and
him)."^^
and act up
their words,
to
orders."
superior
(
''Love
^"^
do
not
your
be
him
''Have respect
your
Obedience in the
must
and
head
live
in
towards
(
accept
Consider
).
his
words." ^-
wishes of
accordance with the " The final
(obtained)
life is
through ready and willing obedience
and ready and willing obedience life."
'^^
the
master,
are
is
in
for
one
" obtaining the favour
:
that
God
to
God
to
deeds
Meritorious
passage described as of
man
the chief
for
to
who merit it is highly praised To obtain deliverance a man
to all
Dinkavd,
Ahura Mazda.^^
final
of
and
master
careless
your religion and community
of
orders
" Treat your father and mother with
thing.^
their
the
to
the most honourable
is
is
the
employer
whose orders one works, obedience
under
to the master,
submissiveness to the ruler, behaving respect"
fully towards everyone
duty of the child towards
its
Gs.
9
Gs. 19.
i«
An
11
14.
Atni.
1
7.
i
and ^^
to secure his
" Be
it
An Atin. 1. An Atm. 4.
i^ Dk.
And
I.
61.
known i •* i
it
is
the
and respectful
to be obedient
father
keep him pleased." «
"
^^
'
ic
love
that
among
Dk. V. 4oS. Dk. IX. 629. Dk. IV.
and
l>63.
MINOR VIRTUES deeds
the
submission kings."
men, the deed that
of
world
the
beneficial to
the habits
(
worthy teacher."
b}^ *'
is
death
not
is
or
father,
them,
mother
a sin or crime
by disobeying is
saved
forgiveness for sin.^^
;
and
if
people receive
much
and harm arising from
certainly not desirable that they
is
it
of his
desirable to distress one's priest,
disquietude,
trouble,
)
(
of his masters or lords,
obtaining his master's
It
)
The man who has become
^'^
the wages of which
commands
acknowledge
in the footsteps
Margarjan punishment
liable to
the
masters and just
disciple should
or follow
highly
is
remaining in
the
is
to one's meritorious
"The
^"
151
should give them back a reply with an aggravation.
Because their satisfaction
with the satisfaction
One should that
I
may
:
"
What
the
sacred
beinor."-o
is
your
will
think and speak and do
Obedience should be shown of
connected
therefore say always in the presence
persons
of these
of the
is
high
priests
to
the
and every
;
So
?
it."^^
commands duty
that
people perform they should perform by their authority. 17
18
*
Dk. I. 9. Dk. V. 283.
it
is
declared in the good
19 Dk. V. 271.
20 Sd. 301.
21 Sd. 302.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
152
religion that
grains
many good
they accomplish as
if
works as the leaves of the of the
or
desert,
trees,
the
or the sand-
drops
of
rain,
which they do not perform by command of the high
or to their satisfaction, no merit
priests,
whatever attains to their souls, and.
the
for
good works they have done they obtain sin as a recompense."
than one,
it
"As two wisdoms
^^
becomes
makes
therefore
enquire of the high
priests."
of age
years
fifteen
it ^^
more
expedient to *'
it
are
When man
is
necessary
that he should take one of the angels as his
own
one of the wise as his own
protection,
and one
sage,
own high
of the high
priest.
"^'^
as his
priests
In every
matter
that
comes forward, one should enquire of the wise
and
relations, so
have their advice, and
as to
not transact any business according to
own
idea
and opinion.
Frequent references the
to
humility are found in
To oppose anger man needs
Dinkard.
meekness. ^^
one's
^^
'*
A man
improves
himself
by
humility when he rises in rank by his wealth
and
good
deeds.""
''One
8 2 Sd. 266.
2 4
2 3
2« Sd. 349.
JSd.
290.
sa. 289.
should 2G Dk. 2 7
not
II. 81.
Dk. VII.
447.
be
MINOR VIRTUES sovereignty and
elated with
153
power
verily his good altogether recedes."
may
creatures,
regard
mankind
and not
in
such a way that he
of
may
because verily
towns he will be regarded as an arrogant
man and
people will be exceedingly vexed with
"
From humility God and from the
him.'^ of
;
that
best
the
as
think himself to be the best in the
A man way
should conduct himself in such a
he
because
;
^^^
spiritual belief." arises violent
arises the recognition
recognition
God
of
But from overbearingness
^^
speaking and ultimately a
loses his reputation.
man
The man who always own wisdom and
''
has such an opinion of his
good
that
qualities
intelligent
and
him,
— such
a
man
not
he
)
that he
;
is
is
is
inferior
deforms and weakens his
soul with these two vices of others). "^^
believes
is
and the other
superior to another, to
he
(
another
He who
is
(
pride and contempt
arrogant
is fit
to
be
contemptible.^^
A
feeling of healthy contentment
necessary for a good is
good which 2 8 Dk. XII. 53. '9 Dk. XII. 62.
life.
is
deemed
That act of charity
is
done with the wealth of
3
Dk. XII. 65. Bk. III. 130.
3
1
3 2
Dk. V.
331.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
154
He who
contentment.^^ is
and
wealth
and In
''^
spent in innocence
by thee ) show no sorrow Dlnkard, this virtue is
(
the
Those who are possessed of
often referred to.
the three attributes of contentment,
rank and industry, tions
with
the
quality,
when
doubt hold
without
Contentment
it
is
from
free
wanting contentment the
sown
(
mind and of
in
man )
he
is
nature,
is
If
coming world
becomes perverted of
The thought
"^^
rendered
of self-content the vice of greed
The honest
"
harmless
by
Again by increasing the virtue
self-content.
**
a good
evil seed of riches of
bereft of intellect."
injuring others
is
idleness.^^
the world and the poverty of the is
rela-
and know the
Self-existent,
necessary. ^^
is
superior
To oppose ambition content-
Self-existent.'^
ment
the
us
gives
" For things that
rest/''
cannot be obtained or grief."
the most contented
contentment
of
ease
greatest
is
life
A
the least needy.^"*
effort
is
removed.''^
accruincr from a ricrhteous
the result of appropriate habits of
contentment which are devoid of any propensity to ambition,
devoid of avarice, anxiety,
An Atm.
3 3
Gs.
11.
3c
3 4
Gs.
13.
36 Gs.
18.
Dk. 38 Dk. 3
7
1.
3 9
Dk.
II.
so.
-io
II.
81.
4
Dk. III. Dk. VII.
1
II.
lust,
84.
158.
440.
:
MINOR VIRTUES harmonious
and improved by
A
story
is
155
tendencies."
who were
told of two talented priests
drawing water from a well and supplying
work
the
of
"mobed
them accepted two
of
some one who
we
;
ness,"
a
is
them
given of
is
under
contentment
less
provided than
much
for
)
rest
Give them
•' :
better
" sinful, idle, discontented-
law-breaking
good illustration
*
(
Similarly,
use."'^^
much
is
he might need
mobeds."
of
and the
jujus,
were sent back with the words to
to
it
They were each given
tillage.
two-thousand jujus by the
Each
'^-^
courage and
ixioral
" Atropat,
misfortune.
son of Mahraspend, said thus
calamity come upon me
:
A
quality.^'*
evil
" Never has any
which
have
I
not
received with six objects of delight therefrom first ( is
that
only
)
passed
calamity
might
since worse than that
Secondly, that out of the calamities
happen.
which
my
myself that
bless
I
this,
been
have away.
in
Thirdly,
liappened not to
my
store
for
that a
soul
but
me
*2 Dk.
is
so
virtuous
has caused this
VL
424.
+3 Dk. XII.
that
to
my
the
body. I
am
4* Dk.
a
accursed
calamity unto 81.
has
calamity has
Fourthly, that I bless myself that
man who Aharman
one
11.
me 84.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
156
owing
my
to
individual
goodness.
evil
comes
me and
to
(
my )
children
me
to
(
therefore
rendered so
much
by
(
the treasures of Aharman, and he (
it
are kept
and whatever
lessens
)
but
;
children.
Aharman
of calamities for the good,
comes
my
does not reach
Sixthly, that the treasures of full
they cause
calamity that
or
reaches either myself or
every
that
Fifthly,
much
so
( is )
)
therefore
incapable of doing (wrong)
)
unto another good (man)."'^^
An
appreciation of intellectual excellence as a
factor in moral life
is
met with.
''
We
worship
the perception; we worship the intellect; we
worship the conscience." son of
'^^
Ahura Mazda,
"Give me,
knowledge
sagacity
;
quickness of tongue; (holiness of ) soul
memory
;
has
immense experience and learning
;
good
most advantageous
learned arc most
shining.'*''
most competent who Dk. XII. 35. 46 Yt. XIII. 74.
attained
is
ihe most
The companionship
eligible of men/''
46
a
not acquired
is
He who
through learn in or."'*''
is
;
and then the understanding that goes
on growing and the one that
learned
Atar,
4
is 7
;
That
the wisest. ^^'
Ny. Y.
48 Gs.
14.
10.
of the
the acts of the
*'->
-'f
man
is
From Gs.
18.
Gs.
7.
the this
MINOR VIRTUES
157
much
importance of learning, education derives of
its
Do
"
value.
not refrain from educating
your wife and children, your countrymen and
you have a son send him
to
school from his early years, for education
is
yourself."
''
^^
[f
the life-giving eye of man."
^^
^i\ j^gj^ should
try to educate themselves in a religious institution, so ihat to
know
and
(
them is
Wisdom
^^^
)
good
it
which
happens it
to
He who
than
wealth
world. ^^
of
perfect
is
rich.^^
every
the
manage and
spiritual
wisdom
in
better
is
kind
the
in
In the Dinkard, the foundations of
**
in
knowledge and
From good knowledge
wisdom, and from good wisdom disposition,
2.
An At m.
5.
^^Gs. 25. «4 Mkh. 7.
good
arises arises
and from good disposition
»iAnAtm. »•
Of
power of
Wisdom
other
(
wisdom
)
the
also
virtue are found to be laid
wisdom.
*'
through wisdom,
provide
should be considered
men
to
oneself through
foT
wisdom. "^"^
keep aloof from
possible to
is
existence
possible
existence
to
highly extolled.
is
because
;
worldly is
be able to pray (to God),
knowing
thus
the benefit
the
may
they have committed any sins
if
by
they
good arises
«»Mkh.
70.
Mkh.
89.
««
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
158
good
and from
good nature,
nature
arises
righteous action and by righteous action the
draj ^*
be
will
The source
and
of all morality
knowledge
of wise
God
originator
the
is
Creation."
from
dispelled
^^^
wise knowledge
is
wisdom and wisdom in divine
divine of
''Education
5^
world."
the
;
the
is
life
of
man-
^ind."59
Many
other virtues are referred
ation has full recognition and one of the ijolden
mean
Moderation
of Confucius. tivoid excess sin
is
and
this is
it
and of maxims
*'
The essence whereas
;
in
(
Mean
is
the mean.
x\nd from
thus manifest that virtue
is
supreme
of
the
" Everything
the Mean."^^
is
faultless
Religion,
the
^"^
and Deficiency
Excess
is
Moder-
reminded
that which would
is
deficiency.
essence of virtue
should be
of Aristotle
to.
Golden
)
Mean,
and the
this;
good thought, good
word, and good deed."^^
Every virtue has a
tendency
corresponding vice.
(Golden)
to give place to a
This follows from the psychological fact that every
man
tendencies.
fis
Dk. VII.
f'».:Dk.
constituted
is '*
These
442.
XII. 28.
,6
several
1
6 2
by
a
variety
goodnesses
Dk. Bk. VI. Vol K. 11/ Dk. Bk. VJ. Vol X. 12.
of
and
MINOR VIRTUES
159
blemishes do not subsist in a particular person
and
at
and
in every age."^^^
but in every person
particular time,
Temperance
in drinking
and eating
upheld
is
as a conspicuous form of moderation.
and bad temper
possible for good
It is
^'
to
come
to
He who is a when he drinks wine, is
manifestation through wine."^''
good-tempered man,
such like as a gold or silver cup which, how-
much more they burn
ever
and
brighter.
It
words, and deeds more virtuous
thoughts,
his
and he becomes
;
and pleasanter unto wife and
gentler
companions and
friends,
in every duty and good is
becomes purer
it,
keeps
also
and
is
work.
more
And
child,
diligent
he who
when he drinks wine,
a bad-tempered man,
thinks and considers himself more than nary.
He
carries
displays insolence,
and
makes
acts arrogantly to a
his
tresses
servant
;
own
wife
ridicule
peace,
child,
and brings
But the moderate drinking
is
72.
«*
He slave
and
the good,
of in
dis-
discord."^^
good since -fit
digests the food, kindles the vital
^^3" Dk. XII.
and mockery,
good person.
and
and dissipates the joy
''carries off
ordi-
on a quarrel with companions,
fire,
increases
Mkh. 467^ «* -Mkh.
47.*
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
160
understanding and
the
removes
blood,
and
inflames
the
In the Dinkard also this
complexion." ^^
From immoderation
**
recosfnised.
semen and
intellect,
vexation
is
arises full
heaviness, and from full heaviness unhealthiness -and
from unhealthiness death."
Gratitude
a good
is
not to be ungrateful
^^
One ought
quality.^*^
towards the good
spirits
and towards mankind.^^ One should pronounce thanksgiving
for
the
welfare
(
emanating
)
good people, but one should not curse
from
the evil people for the mischief **
work.^°
When
a
upon any one
or kindness
which
person confers a it
is
they
benefit
necessary that
the latter should understand the value of
it,
and lay the obligation upon himself; and,
if
he be able he should provide a benefit to that
amount great
that person."
for
sin
;
the
himself and
A
sinner
sense
^^
is
Ingratitude
akin to
is
Aharman
punished by him.^^
is
of justice
is
essential.
Justice
man should not take worthy man or that a learned
requires that an unworthy
advantage over a ««
Mkh.
« T
Dk. XII. 67
a
47. ;
also B. VI. V.
XII. 52. B. VI. V. XII. 49. «• Dk. II. 72.
•» Dk. XII. 63. ^ « Dk. XII. 9. ' »
Sd. 357.
'« Sd. 357.
MINOR VIRTUES
161
person should not be governed by an unlearned
man
person or a vicious
should not exercise
man."
authority over a virtuous
embodiment
the
His
Rashnu
of the principle
administration
of justice
^'
of
is
justice.
renders
no
favour on any side, neither for the righteous, nor yet the wicked, neither for the lords, nor
As much
yet the monarchs. will not
it
he who
is
equally,
and has no
turn,
a
partiality
and monarch
lord
it
and
;
considers
with him who
in its decision,
is
the
^^He who keeps his own
least of mankind.""''
and law,
self to justice
as a hair's breadth
will not then practise
own
injury to others for his
benefit
;
and
will
not do for others whatever he does not think
proper for his
own
self.""^
and impartiality
fairness
"
towards other religions.
any
there be
The same is
If in
worth
writings
to
be
spirit of
observed
other countries reading,
new,
ameliorating, good, and divinely inspired, these
should
be
And whatever
procured....
writings of other nations
not be accepted." <*
refers to 7
3
Gs. 16.
7
4
Mkh. 11
the
18. also
^^
A
is
Dk. Bk. VIII.
the
unbelievable should
section of the
advantage
in
Dinkard
from just judges,
73.
7* Dk. XII. 70. ?« Dk. IX. 605.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
162
harm from unjust sentencing and
sxnd the
false
So, also, the advantage from truly
decisions.
demanding, truly answering, and assisting th& just."
The reason why
-^
Mazda, and
of -Ahura
lire
is
moon and sun
created better than the stars and
and
man
a righteous
called
is
in
revelation greater and better than the spiritual
and worldly creation,
lies in
wisdom and
his
justice."'''
An
appreciation of the
security is
found
is
in these writings.
disapproved of:
weapon
"
his hand,
in
brandish
it
it,
is
reign
[f it
man
a is
law and
of
All violence
rise
up
wir.h a
an Agerepta
an Avaorishta
;
if
;
smite a man, with malicious after-thouo-ht
an Aredus
;
upon the
a Peshotanu."
"'^
All
fifth
The
praised.
A man
desirable.
7 7
Thrift
Self-control
is
is
on a
is
very
should not submit to bodily
That man commands our greatest
^^
aft'ection
is
" Let the wrath
thrifty tiller of the soil
level with the righteous. ^^
desires.
it
attempts at employing
rapine be cast down."'^^
of
he
Aredus he. becomes
brute force are condemned.
demon
if
he actually
"
who
well represses his evil passions
Uk. Bk. VIII.
7« Dd. 11. 7» Va. IV.
17.
102.
«o Ys. «i Ys. «8 Gs.
XLVIII.
XXIX. 7.
5.
7.
MINOR VIRTUES by
sense
his
of
fear
evil
of
shame,
of
endurance,
powers
163
his anger
reputation,
avarice
his
contentment, and his quarrels by justice." '*
Cheerfulness
^^
Open-mindedness
virtues,
is
and
b}^
his his
his
his sense of )
(
a recognized virtue^
cheerfulness
whereof the opposite
(
are
)
(is) cynicism,"'^''-
manifest that mournfulness and cynicism
It is
should be done away with/'^ insio'ht
(as
by
by
his jealous}^
'^
it
ation
into
)
There
nature of the
the
makes trouble"
is
a keen
human mind
for itself
by imagin-
''One should not have
in the precept:
worry and sorrow for anything that has not
Prudence
reached him."^'= it
known
that he
is
is
mentioned.
prudent among
''Be
men who
abstains from utterino- and commitiincr the sin that has occurred to his mind.
prudent (man)
is
And
the more
he who abstains from thinking
him in desire. he who adopts ways
of the sin. which has occurred to
And
the most prudent
and means that
Want The
his
of decenc}^
Avill
is
is
may
refrain from sin,"
^^
considered want of sense.
who " walked without ran about uncovered, made water on the
souls of the persons
shoes, 8 3.
Gs, 14.
8 4
Dk. XII.
.
43.
8 6
Dk.XII.
47.
8 6
Dk..XIL.
54.
8 7
Dk. VI.
392.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
164
had
foot "
to suffer
*'
severely.*^**
possible one should not expose (the -cold
as
far
body);-"
and hot winds should be guarded
winds
And
^against.
As
besides
clean
a
this
dress,
protecting the body, should be put on according
work
to the requirements of one's
Good reputation
tion."^^ -of
praise.
It
most fragrant thing
the
is
The man «ecureth good name the world.^^
best recompense."
cultivated *'
He who
and
or occupa-
always an object
is
'*
who is
in
the obtainer of the
Good company should be
*^^
evil society
should be avoided.
walks in good society makes
business of his to injure people."
of the good
men
in
both the worlds
is
'^^
The
the best thing.-^
no-
it
society ''
One
should always be diligent in (one's) conference with the good people."
'K)ne should
^"^
•co-operate nor consort with stupid, selfish lustful
men
;
not
and
since he always comes to disgrace
and helplessness who co-operates and enjoys company with stupid, selfish and lustful men." -"^
A
life
of
public
usefulness
which people have no right 8 8
AV.
172.
«» Dk. IX. 037. »• Gs. 19.
»i
Dk. IX.
»« (Is-. •a Gb.
12.
17.
is
a duty from
to shrink.
627.
<*
To
Dk. XII. 12. «« Dk. XII. 50.
»-»
MINOR VIRTUES
men who
those wise
choose
161V
to
from
retire
the post conferred on
them by the king, or
who, in order that they
may
in content-
live
ment, give up the business or service which was entrusted to them, tain such
no
—
enter-
good notions of securing happiness,
benefit can accrue in life
ment
those that
to
(of their work)."^^
by this relinquish-
For the proper care
the kings should
of public interests,
fulfil
the
upon them.
A
king should possess certain good qualities.
He man
high obligations incumbent
must be of good
religion; he
of good conscience
;
must be a
he must possess forbear-
ance, love of his subjects, cheerfulness of heart,,
He
simplicity.
should look to the prosperity
of his subjects, promote the worthy
and punish
the wicked, do justice to people in open courts
and above
follow the will of God.^^
It is
often emphasised that above all a king
exists
all
that
governments
not peoples for
governments.
for the sake of his subjects,
are for peoples and
'*^A best
worthy sovereignty
is
(means of) protection of
sovereign
is
great
»T
Dk.
its
^^
of the
subjects.
dignified by
or
the care of his people." »« Dk. IX. 608.
the result
A.
reason of
" The learned kings^
III. 180-3.
9 8
Dk. VI. 422.
;
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
Jee
-of
the
with the view
State,
high degree of fulfilment
),
efficiency,
by
Divine
noble aspirations, learned, the
such
illustrious,
of ruling with a
should strive (for the Grace, as
of
new and
encouraging
the
and the churitable
being grateful towards those who are loyal to
and have
aftection for the State;
conferring of
bounty on the supplicants, and on those that -are in
solicitude
owing
to
poverty
;
gratifying
with a good and befitting remuneration annually the learned
men who may
be in constant
anxiety for having, to labour for their food and livelihood."
^9
»o Dk. IX. 009.
CHAPTER
IX
THE ETHICAL IN LEGAL KEEERENXES ZOROASTRIAN LITERATURE
IX
The main document regarding the criminal law of ancient Iran, which has survived
own
times,
the Vendldad,
is
of the Iranians.'
us
V
I
reef
e.
g.
to
our
Leviticus
the
Some Pahlavi
information
legal
writings give
Shayast
the
la
Dadisfan-l-Dinih and the Arda
the
Shaijast,
'
yamah.
Two
types
breakers
of
law —penalties
of
some main kinds. grave
punishments
they
inflicted here.
sin,^
punishment 1
2
earth
and
But some crimes are so not warded ofi' by
Vd. I. 12. Vd. VII. 23.
These are called
Among
these are
the eating
dead matter,^
and
self-pollution.'*
the burying of the dead,^ •Capital
on
for
are
^^anaperetha' 'unatonable.' the unnatural
store
in
Of the former, there are
penalties hereafter.
that
are
penalties
is
reserved 3
4
Vd. I. 13, Vd. VIII.
for
certain
17.
27,
.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
168
Margarjan' is often The term employed to mean worthy of death/ This punishment is meted out expressly in two cases. The man who carries a corpse alone and the man who pretends to cleanse one oftences.
'
'
dead matter or one infected with
defiled with
a
disease,
pestilential
without the necessary
knowledcfe, render themselves
liable
punishment. One instance indeed
where an attempt person
seems
treated
is
be
to
more
man
its
defilement
train general
affects seriously
Another punishment
only.
""
The reason
of
sort in
murder usually
disease, while
mentioned
But generally
lightly.
the
that
mentioned above brings one
this
to take the life of another
said to deserve death.
is
murder
is
to
is
the
cutting off of the hands and similar parts of
punishment
the body.
Darius
on a
But the most common punishment
is (
^
rebel.^
that of inflicting a certain
upazanas
ashfra
(
'
the
),
» «
number
of stripes
with the two implements, aspahe
whip
horse
charana (scourge). of five
this
inflicted
stripes,
)
and the Sraosho-
The lowest penalty
the
highest
is
that
is
that
of ten
Karnamaki^ArtakhshirPapakan, IX. 16-17. Old Persian Inscriptions on Mount liehistan, IL 74,
8fl.
THE ETHIC AL
IN
LEGAL REFERENCES
The crime
thousand.
or
16»
criminal deserving-
two hundred stripes are called Pesho-tanu or Tanii-peretha
(
which means 'One ), own body' and payment
Tanafur
who pays with
his
'
There are varying degrees-
with one's body,'
between the lowest penalty and Pesho-tanu.
Now many
scholars are led to believe that
it
extravagant that minor crimes could actually
is
accompanied
be
with
heavy
such
physical
punishments, and some other interpretation sought.
murder
For instance,
ten
stripes.
derived not
is
to strike, but
Hence
the
the
from Av. ''Az"
drive
offender
many
of those
tit
to be driven
so
many
term
from Av. ''Zan"' to drive.
the translation of the formula runs thus
so
is-
the
that
perpetrator the punishment
its
thousand
*'upazana"
absurd
is
water-dog could have actually
of a
brought upon of
it
Then *'
Let
away (from the country)
noxious animals,
which are
away with the horse-whip and
with the Sraosho-charana.
Thus the
community will derive some substantial benefit and at the same time punishment will be inflicted."^ Or as we see in the later Pahlavi writ-^ 7
This view
is
strongly
supported by
Civilisation of Ancient Iran.
Geiger.
The
;
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
170
ings,
punishment
the bodily
stripes are
It is
hundred and
is
fifteen
rupees
reasonable to inquire into the principle penalties
Here
various crimes.
Vendidad
the
are
adjusted
useful to
not a civil
to
remember but
code,
administered mostly
law
Hence we observe that while
the priests.
transgressions
is
it
is
includes a criminal l)y
for
hundred
therefore ec^ual to nearly six rupees.
upon which these that
remitted
considered equal to three hundred
stars or thirteen
a stripe
is
In the Revaets, two
a money-tine.
against
precepts are
religious
severely punished, offences against public order,
which are
tried
by
secular
the
tribunal
are
accompanied by milder punishments.
But we
while
homicide
arc is
still
surprized to find that
punished with ninety stripes, ihe murder of
a water-dog carries ton thousand
that affect
all
with
violations
disastrously
it
of the
the
a homicide affects one
the
punishment of
The reason seems
stripes.
to
he
hiws of sanitation
whole population, but
man
only.
The ancient
priests might have based the severity of punish-
ment
in the case of a
value for
the
general
dog upon the enormous well-being
^ittachcd to that creature.
which
they
THE ETHICAL
LEGAL KEFEKENCES
IX
171
by
All punishments are generally dealt out
But
the priests or the legal authorities. certain cases, any
man
can take the law
in
into
own hands and inflict the punishment Thus any man who catches in the
his
himself. ..act,
the sodomite, the courtesan, the highway-
man, the corpse-burner, might however, offences,
these
and non-repetition of the act
are suthcient fur him.
'^
Id ambio'uous cases where identify the ;
If,
without knowing the sinfulness of his
actions, confession
to
him.
commits
non-Zoroastrian
a
kill
offender,
it
was not easv
to
the ordeal was resorted
appealing thus to the invisible powers to
Siyavush passed through
decide the matter.
two burning piles of wood and issued safe
;
and
thus his innocence was established. Sometimes the ordeal was performed Avith boiling water.
Now
us turn to offences.
let
All
breach of
^contracts was accompanied with severe punish-
rments.
a
If
man
broke a word-contract, he
^was punished with
^ach
type,
^
if
three
hundred ^^
liiindred stripes of ea<jh type, ^
Yd. IIL
40.
stripes of
he broke a hand-contract, six
»
Vd. IV.
11.
•
If
he broke a
10 Vd. l¥. 12.
)
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
172
sheep-contract, if
with seven hundred
^^' ;
an ox-contract was broken, the punishment
was of eight hundred man-contract and a
punished
ively
A
^-
stripes.
field- contract
with
but his near
relations in all
held to be a party to the
breach of a
were respect-
hundred and
nine
thousand stripes of both kinds.
to
stripes
a
Not only he
^^
these cases will be
and
sin,
undergo similar punishment.
will
be liable
^"^
Bodily injuries also brought with them penal-
Seven types of outrages are mentioned
ties.
in
the Vendidad.
The crime hand stance
of rising
is
five stripes,
Araorishta
weapon, stripes
and
*'
he is
hundred
repetition. ^^ is
guilty
of
a
this
times
the
wTYvTls.
1
»
V(l.
IV.
14.
1
»
»
;
V(i.
IV.
15, 16.
1
«
2
but
Ten time
seventh
Here the it
rises to-
^^ for the sixth repetition.
»* V(l. IV. 5-10.
»
first
the
for
(
brandishes a
(8) A)'ednt< (wound).
1
^^
offence.
fifteen stripes at first,
two hundred stripes
first in-
reaches two
it
man
the punishment for
two
penalty
blow" when is
till
eighth time.
for the
stripes,
in the
in one's
but with the repetition of
the act, the punishment rises
himdred
''stroke.'*
up with a weapon
The penalty
agerepta.
is
(1) Agerepta
^^
Vd. IV. va. IV.
17.
is-20.
17 I
«
Yd. IV. Va. IV.
22, 25.. 26.
29_
THE ETHICAL -/4)
Xvara
IN
LEGAL REFERENCES
wound,'
^sore
thirty stripes for the
hundred
wound first
'
the
carries
Tepetition
first
is
punished
which
is
The
bone-breaking.'
seventy
haodhah
single
-"^
(6) Asto-hid
first oflPence is
stripes
and
'
tanafur
the
is
(7) Fraza-
unconscious
rendering
punishable
causing
or
The penalty is ninety stripes and repetition makes a tanafur.^^
Thefts
a
and robberies were duly punished.
The punishment
fining or mutila-
either
is
tion or imprisonment.
Theft of a dirham cost
the oftender two dirhams, one ear,
and
two
hundred
raised to two
reached on the third repetition.-^
•death.'
to
(5) For takat-vohiini ^bloody the punishment is fifty stripes for the
ofif'ence,
with
fifth
stripes.^-
stripes, for the fourth repetition. '*
with,
crime and the
punishment
17^
a slight imprisonment.--^
dirham meant a
fine of four
ten blows
Theft of another
dirhams, forfeiture
of both ears, thirty blows and double imprisonment.^''
third
The
hand was cut
right
repetition
and
dirhams was punishable by
was compelled
2 1
Vd. IV.
37, 39.
on the
hundred
hanging.-'-^
A robber
of
restore property four times
to
19 Vd. IV. 30, 33. «o Vd. IV. 34, 36.
of^
five
theft
2 t
Vd. IV.
2 3
Sd. 326.
4
Sd.327.
2
40, 42.
2 ^
Sd. 327.
ZOKOASTKIAN ETHICS
17J
i\>
much
had taken and was even
as he
if
public safety required
is
held a serious crime.
The defilement hundred
stripes
buried.-^ if
of the earth, a sacred element^
It
A
inflicted
is
on a
man who
he luiows
fails
to
be
the period extends to a year.-^ If the neglect
extends
two
to
the
years,
A
unatonable.-"^
otl:ence
becomes
penance
severe
of
state
culprit
taken
is
where he
will be
way
lonely
place,
given the coarsest food and
Avorn-out clothes. this
dry
a
to
is
The
ordained for carrying the corpse alone.
of
five
a thousand stripes,
to
rai.scd
is
punishment of
which
a corpse
disinter
to
killed^
it.-^
his neck
Mazda docs not
And is
Avhen
he grows old in
ot!'.^^
If a
cut
fasten
'
worshipper
the well, so that the
corpse eating dogs, and birds carry the bones to the water
and the
trees,
his sin
amounts
to
The punishment amounts to four hundred stripes, where a man who has touched a corpse touches water and trees without being
tanafiir.''^
a person
cleansed.-^'-
If
matter
water
to
_______
'
2 7
va.
ii[.
3(3.
2« Vd. III. 37. 2'-»
Vd.
III. :w.
and
wilfully fire,
he
carries is
worthy
so va. III. 15,21. 3 Vd. VI. 47, 48. 3 2 Vd. VIU. 104, 106. 1
dead of
THE ETHICAL Waste
de.itli.^^^
unnecessary cloth on the
of
dead bodies brings with ing from four hundred
worshippers
If the
Avhereon
do^js
Peshotanus.^^^
they shall
thousand
Mazda
of
man
Feshotanus,
are
also
for
may
they are
be there.
a
till
it
and
is
it
on
thirty
if
grease or
ground,
the
to
reaches a thousand
orround.-^-^
The man who
a house in which a nicrhts in
man
winter and a
the
The penalty
stripes."
the body or the dead dog or a
on the
-^^^
dead man, as large as the
gradually for greater and gre.iter
ment,
if
any bones^
throw on the ground a bone of
marrow How from punishment
ground
They
of the little finger
top joiuL
of
^-^
sow or
died,
dead dog, or of
rises
shall
not look on the ground
shall
stripes.
and men have
dung, urine, or blood that
hair,
a
punishment rang-
a
it
to a
withia the year, the piece
water,
if a
REFERENCES
IN LE(iAL
stripes,
man
is
when
thrown
brinc^s fire into
has died, within nine
month
in
summer
be-
comes a Peshotanu.^'^
The
sin of cooking a corpse
34 3 5 3 6
331).
Vd. VIII. 23-25. Vd. VI. 4, 5. Vd. VI. 8, 9.
unatonable and
The man who
punishable with death. '^^ ^^ Sd.
is
3 7 3 8 3i.
4
Yd. VI. 10, 11. Vd. VI. 24, 25. Vd. V. 43, 44. Vd. I. 17. VIII.
has^
73-4.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
176
carcase
the
of
-«atea
is
His barrow shall be dug out,
unclean for ever. his heart
dog or a man
of a
be torn out,
shall
bright eyes
his
shall be put out/^
penalties attached to any maltreatment
The <>f
dog
kills .thous-
of the creatures of the Evil Spirit
and
sheep
protects
-smite a shepherd's for
A
dogs are very rigorous.
ands
man
a
If
cattle.
dog so that
becomes
it
and shall unfit
work, he shall pay for the loss due to the
The
mischief."^-
means
The from
killing
hundred
penalty of eight
a
shepherd-dog
a
of
stripes.'*'
penalty as regards some other dogs varies five
hundred
to
a thousand
But the murder of a water-dog punishment
the heaviest stripes or
thousand
equivalent.
its
He
stripes
piously bring
He
shall
pay ten
godly
shall
into the fire of
it
thousand
ten
of *'
stripes.''^
carries with
and
Ahura Mazda
ten thousand hard, well-dried, well-examined
wood, to redeem his own soul
^odly and piously
Baresma
He
tie
;"
or "
He
shall
ten thousand bundles of
shall offer
up
to
the
good
waters ten thousand Zaothra libations with the 4
1
4 2
Va. VII. 24. va. XIII. 10.
*3 Vd. XIII. 4 4 Vd. XI II.
12. 4, 12-15.
THE ETHICAL
Haoma and
liS
LEGAL REFERENCES
He
milk.
the
shall
177
ten
kill
thousand snakes of those that go upon the
Other noxious creatures such as
belly."
may
waterfrogs,
land-frogs,
toises,
ants,
tor-
worms,
men
be killed, or he shall give to godly
twice the set of seven implements for the
fire,
or war- implements to warriors or agricultural
implements
the husbandman,
to
or procux'e
water for them or stables for their oxen, or he
promote marriage between the
shall
Heavy
penalties
attached
are
with
offences connected
faithful. to
"^-^
various
A
sexual relations,
worshipper of Mazda who suppresses the issue of
woman
a
Peshotanu.''^
with If a
the
man
lasciviously touch the
has the
whites
or
becomes
whites,
shall again
a
and again
body of a woman, who
sees
blood,
the
that
so
whites turn to the blood or the blood turns to the whites,
the
penalty for
the
first
time
is
thirty stripes, for the second time fifty stripes, for
the
third time
seventy
fourth time ninety stripes/^ lie
stripes,
for
Whosoever
in sexual intercourse with a
the shall
woman who
has the whites or sees blood, does no better 4* VdrXIV. *6 Vd. XVL
12
1-18. 13.
*7 V(l.
XVL
14-16.
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS deed than
own
If the act
man
the
wilfully,
ment
he should burn the corpse of his
if
son/^
shall
thousand
of a
done by both parties
is
undergo the punish-
and atone
stripes,
by other meritorious deeds such thousands sacred
it
as killing of
creatures,
and building
offerings,
The crime a
noxious
of
for
making
of
of
bridges/'-
woman who has brought forth child and who drinks water to
of a
still-born
quench her
thirst
amounts
to a tanafur.^^^
A
man who has intercourse Avith a pregnant woman and if the pregnant woman comes to grief
becomes a Peshotanu.^^
thereby,
unnatural sin
unatonable
is
But
if it is
submitted
to.^-
penalty
is
eight hundred stripes.
deed
done with a
to
if
punishment.
if
1
Vd.
is
woman
then the
forced ^^^^
The same
is
equally liable
Va.
A'lII. 27.
^^
4 8 Vd. XVI. 16, 17. 49 Vd. XVIII. 67-74. 5 Vd. VII. 70-72. 5
it
XV.
S.
-'^
-3 Vd. VIII. ^-'4
The
voluntarily
Sd. 26S.
26.
CHAPTER X THEOTJMUCAJ. AND METAPHYSICAL IDEAS Principles of moral conduct
are
generally
rooted in philosophical and religious concep-
A man's conduct may depend very much upon his view concerning his own nature
tions.
and place
in the
universe.
The general
about himself and his relations
and
God
to
to the
ideas
universe
largely determine a man's stand-
point in morality.
The
ethical
and theological
aspect of thought being thus closely connected
with each other, the nature and character of
one
bound
is
to
intiuence
character of the other.
Hence
trianism. idea
of
This
the is
to arrive at
Zoroastrian
ethics
nature
and
true of Zoroasa
well-defined
we must
briefly
examine the fundamental principles of Zoroastrianism in their ethical connection.
Central in Zoroastrianism
God,
the
supreme
power
is
the doctrine of
dominating
the
J
ZOKOASTHIAN ETHICS
so
and
universe,
and
and prayers are
are sacred
tire
Ahura Mazda.
called
before them-, but
is
it
The sun oftered up
always understood that
these are nothing more than symbols.
Zara-
thustra preaches no worship of natural forces in the
modern sense
of
The Gathas
worship.
show that no natural object however great powerful
may
in
any way occupy
or
a position
similar to that of
Ahura Mazda.
means that there
are higher categories in the
This clearly
philosophy of Zoroaster than those of matter an d
force.
spiritual
The is
means the
It
element
as fundamental
evident.
If
the universe
atoms,
life
must be
chance.
As nature
directed,
and
also
of his
to
be
()f
ethics
something more
a chaotic whirl of
more than
man, having
impulses.
is
appears
controlled,
there seems
relation to
forces^
in reality.
upon Parsi
influence of such beliefs
than a blind play of
of the
recoo^nition
to
a
game
be
of
guided,
by some agency, so a superior eflect
power
in
upon the play
this Zarathustra
in
the
Gathas has no shadow of doubt. Mention of two powers Parsi religious writings; the
made in most Good and the Evil,
is
Ahura Mazda and Ahriman.
What, relation
THEOLOGICAL
.S;
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
to the other
have these, one
?
"
Thus
181
are the
primeval spirits who as a pair and yet each
(They
(of old).
are) a better thing, they two,
as to thought, as to word,
and a worse
'^Yea
deed."^
been famed
have
independent in his action,
when
two
the
as to
come
spirits
at the first to make life, and life's and to determine how the world at
together absence, last shall
be
the worst
life,
(
for the
ordered
),
for the
holy
mental state."-
(
wicked
heaven
hell
(
)
the best
)
This seems to mean that there
were two powers from the beginning, the one the author of
good things, the other the author
all
But the two powers have not equal
of all evil.
Zoroastrianism recognises the absolute
status.
and unqualified superiority
of the
The
evil
omniscient and almighty.^^
He
over the
one.
evil
good
spirit is
spirit
is
not
in darkness;
he has a backward understanding; and he will not exist in future/ as
Dy
If
we
place
independent origin, evil spirit, t
«
is
impotent. ^
Casartelli sajs, the question
terms.
of
He
Ys. Ys.
is
Thus,
a question
emphasis upon the
and the capacity of the
the system becomes dualistic.
XXX. XXX.
3.
-i
4
4
Bd. Bd.
I.
16.
I.
3.
«
Bd.
I.
22.
If
:
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
182
we, however, lay greater stress on his
ence and ultimate extinction,
impot-
system
the
is
monistic.
The
therefore,
universe,
analysis
is
is
in
Evil
But while
it.
upon
based
which
here established evil,
of death, *'
the forces of
is
there,
conflict
ethical structure
sharp
the
Ahura says
only a temporary
evil
securely
and the
is
The whole
inexorable.
is
ultimate
its
to be regarded as the expression of
the goodness of God.
phase
in
distinction
between life
the
to
is
the
i'ood
and the forces wicked one
Neither our minds are in harmony, nor our
precepts, beliefs,
nor
comprehensions,
our
nor
our
nor our words, nor our action^, nor our
consciences, nor our souls."
The supremacy be seen from
Ahura Mazda may
of
the
^
attributes ascribed to
Ahura Mazda means
the
''
wise lord."
also
Him.
He
is
omniscient," almighty, righteous,^ the creator'^
He has no beginning and no end.'^ He is the discerning arbiter.-- He is He is self-existhe same now and for ever.^'^
and benevolent,
fi
Ys.
XIX.
7
Ys.
«
Ys.
XXXIV. 9. XXIX. 11.
15.
^'^'
» Ys. i« Ys. 1
1
Ys.
XXIX. 4. XLV. o.
XXX.
8.
12 Ys. i3 Y^.
XXIX. XXXI.
4. 7.
THEOLOGICAL
He
tent.^'*
He He
^'^
Ahura Mazda
Him
help
"^urround
Manah,
''
is
;
^^
183
kind father ^^
like a
unlimited
of
is
time and
wise and sagacious.
^"^
willing instruments to
finds
which
ministering angels,
the
in
METAPHYSICAJ. IDEAS king
like a
is
or a judge. ^"
knowledge.
.^^
—
These are Vohu six Him. Good Mind," Asha, " Eighteousness,"
Khshathra Vairya
''
wished
for
kingdom," Arm-
"Devotion" Haurvatat ''Perfection" and " Immortality." Each of these
aiti,
Ameretat,
embodies some
specific virtue
some function there
are
as
a
for sanctity
which are the
ones,"
They
are
the
sacrifices
and Geush animal
the
14 Dk. ^'
If-
''
holy
on another order " adorable ones."
People
to
offer
prayers
them and they grant boons
in return.
1
of
innumerable and embody abstract
ideas or natural objects.
and
spirit
Spentas, the
later
of spirits, the Yazatas,
Then
Ashi standing
spirits of
Amesha
we meet with
fire,
Tashan
Geush
and
Next to the
life.
also performs spirit.
Sraosha representing the
Obedience, Atar representing
Urvan,
and
guardian
I.
33.
Dk. I. 36. Dk. VII. 441.
Dk. VII. 473. Dk. IX. 594. 19 Dk. XII. 26. 17
1
«
ZOKOASTRIAN ETHICS
184
Against Ahura Mazda and his angels stand
Ahriman and
He
army. Evil
death
He
as
He
independent of the Good
is
regards his
He
/''^
is
He
origin.
full
is
and the worst
a tyrant,
of
liar.
a great deceiver and leads people to de-
is
He
struction. -^^
the
is
author of disease and
But his ultimate annihilation
death.^^ tain.
styled
spirit.
spirit
demons who constitute his '* Angra Mainyu " or the
the
is
is
cer-
His followers are his creation and they
^^
They
support his cause.
are
doomed
also
to
misery and destruction. glimpses
All
ed
moral
vouchsaf-
truth
Zarathustra and to the other saints are
to
due
into
to
from
inspiration received
the
according to their faith. Ahura Mazda
have appointed " a
'^
to
he has made. "
whom
those
teach
ness."
Creator,
us the
"And
-^
just, controlling
come
The Gathas
to
are all
with told
He
is
said to
guide for
besought
through righteous-
paths
Lord, the great
do thou,
me
-^
is
God
Thy Good Mind."
by
Ahura Mazda
-^
to
As regards Mathre, it is said that ''no portion of them is (composed) by the
Zarcosht.
-'
2" Yt. 111.18. 2
1
22
Vd. XIX. lid.
111.
3.
17.
-« Ys. XXVIH. 23 Bd. I. '^. 37 Dk. 1.3. ^4 Ys. LI. 5. 2K Ys. XXXn.l'J.
7.
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS wisdom
of
man and
number
from a
(
not obtained by
man ),
but
it
portion) of that wisdom,-
reasoning faculty
the
made known by
is
er."
But God does not
beloved in tjets
There
sleep.
questions of the
truth
for
strive
supreme
The
;
"Be
through
known
it
who
All ethical
spirit.
the saints
saint
he must ask
and religious truth comes from God especially
to the
here no Yogi
divine illumination in trance.
must actually
man,
to
and prophets.
the Yazds shine in
that,
of
Reveal-
its
give truth is
(
the giver of
existence to Mazdiasni religion and -^
"The Mazdi-
for the professors of the
asni religion-every is
they could not be composed
of current traditions."-^
wisdom intended
18&
men
owing to (their) g-oodness and cease to shine owing to(their) evil."
^^
" Be
it
known that,
of the
many
evidences of the Mazdayasnian faith being the
word that it
of it
God, these three are the chief
contains perfect wisdom.
:
—
First
Second, that
contains more of the truth than other faiths.
Third, that to
gion
it
him who
is
anxious about
gives a complete knowledge about
existence of God." 2 8 2 a
Dk. Dk.
^-
I.
-2.
3.^
Dk. VIII.
I.
54.
3!
Dk. VII.
436. 467.
reli-
the
ZOROASTKIAN ETHICS
186
Turning
to the question of the
relation bet-
ween God and man, we find that God helps the righteous in
Man
divine.
Him and deemed
all their
endeavours for a
worship Him.
Firmness of
pleasure
God
to
'^'
•'
faith in the religion of
trust in
God
God
becomes more
every
own
his
A
recognised.
one
affair,
The
has no wisdom."''^
)
with
behoves
''(It is)
his
except
efficacy
One should
'^
and prayers on behalf
person
has
"From
'^
trust,
him who
of prayer
is
prayer should be recited when
a person dies. tions
Ahurmazd."
arises a heroic heart. "-^^
Whom
in
regarding
It
and the keeping
A man
more good by putting more and more
and
"
is
the remaining
is
lirm in the Mazdiasni religion
people righteous.
faith
The deed which
absolutely necessary.
produces
life
must in return place his trust in
whom
any
of
(
deceased
one had acciuainiance."
pay homage
to
us,
supplica-
offer
to,
that
-'^
to
is
worship, Spenamino Auharmazd, the Creator of the good creation,
with thought, word and
deed, for His gift of Life and Body." special reverence 3 2 3.T
Dk. Dk.
is
I.
9.
:<4
I.
r>o.
•'-'
To
due; because we owe
Dk. XII. tJ9. Dk. Xf. r)'2.
*c J-
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
lire
to
648. (>4I.
it
THEOLOGICAL
.S:
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
the existence and sustenance of man."
187
''
'"^^
It
should be scrupulously guarded, and be held
symbol of worship." ^°
as the
-'The
demon-worship are clearly repudiated. Mazdayasnian
should
and
Idolatry
instruction
receive
as
regards the abhorrence of the demons, and the rejection of idolatry."
Man There
is
is
'^o
between good and
free to choose
predetermines the course of his
They
And between
word and deed.
thought,
'*'
life.
they two, and a worse, as
are a better thing, to
evil.
no dominating necessity which entirely
'^^ these two let the wisely acting choose aright.
^'
then with your ears
Hear ye
bright flames It
is
for a
with eyes of the
all
men
themselves from
Fate or the
man and God has
for himself."'^-
sufficient
sin as
unknown
which often
ability
well as from
the source of their sins and
situations,
better mind.
decision as to religions,
man, each individually given to
see ye the
;
to
save
Ahriman
woes."^^
factor
decides
in
all
human
events
in
a
mysterious way
is
Menali-hhraf.
^'Even with the might and the
3 8
3 9
Dk. IX. Dk. IX.
644. 645.
recognised especially in the
4« Dk. IX. 635. 1 Ys. XXX. 3.
4
4- Ys. XXX. 2. ^3 Dk. VII. 44L
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
188
powerfulness of wisdom and knowledge, even
then
is
it
not possible to contend with destiny.
Because when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse,
wanting
comes
in duty,
intelligent
;
the
the wise becomes
forth,
and the astute
in evil
becomes
faint-hearted becomes braver,
and the
braver
becomes
diligent
becomes
lazy,
faint-hearted
and
;
lazy
the
the acts
"As to him who is a lazy, and bad man when his destiny becomes
diligently.""''
ignorant
a helper, that laziness of his then becomes like
unto diligence, that ignorance unto knowledge,
And
and that vileness unto goodness.
as to
him who is a wise, worthy, and good man, when his destiny is an opponent, wisdom of his then turns to stupidity
ignorance
that worthiness to ledge, skill secluded."'*-'^
brity
and foolishness and ;
and
his
''Happiness and adornment, cele-
and dominion,
skill
and
suitability are
not through the will and action
of
men, but
through the appointment, destiny and the sacred being."
"^'
It is
However, something
*
Mkh.
54.
*r.
Mkh.
will of
evident here that a
man's part in his own making out.
know-
and worthiness become manifestly
is
almost wiped
is still left 93.
+«
to
Mkh.
man's 10.
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS ^'
exertion.
one's is
self,
189
not possible to provide for
It is
through exertion, that benefit which
not ordained
but a morsel of that which
;
is
ordained comes on by means of exertion. Yet the exertion,
when
it is
fruitless in the worldly
existence, through the sacred beings not being
with
it,
comes, afterwards, to one's
still
assist-
ance in the spiritual existence, and outweighs in
the balance."
also,
an attempt
of the ^'
Dadistan-i-Dinih
In the
"^^
made
is
to
adjust the claims
human agency and super-human
agency.
There are some things through destiny, and
there are
and
some through
action... that
life,
wife
and wealth are through
child, authority
destiny and the righteousness and the wickedness of priesthood, warfare, and husbandry are
through action."
'^^
Another question
whether any modification of fate,
any change
in
operations of destiny,
A
and good works.
in
that which
is
is
programme
the
possible through prayer
distinction
is
drawn
4
7
),
bet-
^'DcvStiny
ordained from the beginning,
and divine providence sacred beings
raised
the otherwise irreversible
ween destiny and divine providence. is
is
is
that which they
also grant otherwise.
Mkh.
54.
4 8
Dd.
215.
(
the
But the
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
190
provide
beings
sacred
and manifest
the
in
spiritual existence little of that grant.""-
Almost doctrine
every
causation
some
has
religion
Though
atonement.
of
of
sort
law of
the
acknowledged by Zarathustra
is
in
the tield of ethics, that out of the good comes evil evil, if a man repents of much ground for hope. Expiamany forms; it includes the recital
good and out of his evil he has
tion takes
and the confession of
of prayers
man
Dastur or a righteous object
any other holy
and the sincere repentance experienced
one's soul and
in
of
before a
sins
punishments
undergoing
of
and the performance
of
the
many many
Not only words and deeds should
good deeds.
show the changed attitude
of the soul but
it
should be clearly expressed by altered charac" Again,
ter.
his if is '*
if (
a
man
repent by means of
)
tongue and deeds, of the smallest
mind
his
not a
(tit)
redeemer of
Expiation
tion,
not
is
is
that
for
sin,
and
forgiveness, then he
himself
wherein one
(from is
sin)."''^
in contri-
with repentance for a sin committed and
does not commit 4!>
Mkh.
r'^
Dk.
55.
II.
69.
that -»
sin
again."
^^
Other-
Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.
14.
THEOLOGICAL
former sin
wise, the
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS is
not expiated,
must
repentance
the
.^-
be
Further
^-
heartfelt.
191
When
-^-^
these conditions are well observed, repenXance is
said to have
a
few
power
known
to
remove
aiiaperefha
as
except
all sins
unatonable^
or
These are the burying or burning of corpses,
and eating dead
cooking
''The
intercourse.
matter,
any
committed
other
remitted by his repentance.
Mazda,
religion of
If
he
it
is
he has com-
If
is
absolved by
"The
repentance, for ever and ever."^"^
his
Spitama
Zarathustra
away from him who makes confession
takes
bonds
the
it
of
his
sin
(the sin of) breach of trust (
deeds
evil
mitted no other evil deeds he
of
unnatural
here hath repented of
thoughts, words and deeds.
all his evil
has
man
the
of
sin
atonement; usury
it
;
sinned."
for
it
takes it
takes
which there
away away is
no
away the worst sin of takes away any sin that may be it
takes
Thus even unatonable
-^^^
"
removed. perfect
deeds
)
;
;
A
man's sins are expiated by his
knowledge
his doing good 5 2
Sd.
5 3
Dk. 1.9
309.
sins could be
of the divine faith
works
and by
for his final renovation."
-+ Yd. III. 21. 5 5 Yd. YIIL 29.
5 6
Dk. YII.
476.
^^^
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
192
"Every is
sin that is not repented of, (i.e.
not expiated by countervailing good deeds)
condemnation
entails a
pure through
becoming
them
implore
to
is
contrition,
and
the Lord.
As
are
to
forgiveness,
their
Thus the punishment
other sins
expiation,
And
with
is
there
whole
death.
in
number, various.-^''
disobeying the
The expiation fines.
there
of
''Through
remains no passage to
non-expiation
passage to heaven.
The
is
express
to
grave sins such
justice,
by pecuniary
of
presence of
atonements for all
men without
behests of the king, all
many
the sins are
^^'
expurgation
the
repent in the
to
likewise
as killing
The and for
punishment."
for the expiation of sins
requirement
so
which
hell.
remains no
""^^
belief in future literature.
The
existence pervades the soul of a
destroyed with his death.
man
is
not
All the anomalies
and the imperfections of the earthly existence The rightare removed in the life Beyond. eous are rewarded, and the sinful punished here as well as hereafter.
heaven «7
and enjoy Dk. IX.
629.
»8 Dk. IX. 031.
its
The former go
pleasures.
Here
^» Dk. Vol. X. Bk. VI.
14.
to
we
)
THEOLOGICAL & METAPHYSICAL IDEAS note that paradise
an exalted
variously styled '*
Gathas^
the
in is
*^
193
the conception of
state
mind.
of
It is
Abode of Good Mind," Good Thought " and
the
the glorious heritage of
Hell
so on. called
a state of mental agony.
is
"the House
Thought" and
so
**The
on.
early
Sage announced the eternal truth rewards
Heaven and the
ot
Hell can only be from within.
may
fairly say
It is
*'of the worst
of the Lie,"
Iranian that the
punishment of
He
gave us, we
through the systems which he
has influenced, that great doctrine of subjective
which must
recompense,
change
in the
receives is
made
There
place for the
and the highest one
are
also
four
mixed
Zoroastrians
ly asserts that
types
and
of hell
always
6
hell. is
a
believed
" weal and immortality "
righteousness Mills. S.B.E.
the
in
Zarathustra repeated-
the lot of the' good and righteous.
who from 13
of endless
people, called Hamistagan.
immortality of the soul.
fall to
essential
In the later Avesta^ mention
it."^^
Intermediate between heaven
The
an
of four kinds of heaven, of thought,
of word, of deed light.
work
mental habits of every one who
(
in
mind and
VoL XXXI.
p. xx.
will ''
He
life
;
ZOKOASTRIAX ETHICS
194
shall verily perform
that which
on him earth."
is
for
me, for
Zarathiistra,..
my
most helpful (for
shall they bestow rewards
cause)
beyond
this
All the evidence points to a doctrine
^^
of personal immortality.
good persons
*'A11
will
obtain immortality and a final well-regulated constitution through the instrumentality of the will of the
Lord Creator having reference
**
His
the soul becomes immortal and adorned with
the ample *'
to
By communion with God
final intentions."*^-
Be
it
life
of eternity in the second life."
knoAvn that the duration of the soul
everlasting;" "the ideas
Along with
^"^
this
Ahura Mazda
is
belief appear
millennium and
of final renovation,
resurrection.
^-'^
will
come
at the
end of Creation and the great work of renovation will be accomplished. ^'
By
^^
a miracle
there will be a final renovation and
become immortal."*^
*'
and the
fruit of the soul
and the
fruit of the
The ( is )
men
fruit of the
will
body
the Kenovation '
joy."^'
"The
Renovation
(is)
undecaying^
world, shall be never dying, not
decaying, never rotting ever living, ever useful «i Ys.
XLVI.
19.
6 5
«9 Dk. I. 22. 6 3 Dk. VIII. 425. «4 Dk. V. 301.
cr. «•-
Ys. XLIII. 5. Ok. VII. 472.
Dk. XI.
87.
THEOLOGICAL /
profit-making
METAPHYSICAL IDEAS
.>c
having power to
),
195-
all
fulfil
when dead shall arise and immortal life shall come, when the settlements shall all be Again: "Let Angra Mainyi^ deathless." ^^ wishes,
the Evil Spirit, be hid beneath the earth -let the dead arise,
and
be sustained in these
now
the Devas disappear let
the bodily bodies."
lifeless
The
life
let
;
:
^"^
evil forces of the
universe are
sure
to-
succumb before the good ones and the ultimate triumph
of the latter
:
that
the firm faith of
is
But the optimistic
Zoroastrianism.
spirit goes
farther and secures salvation not for the good
but for the evil also.
only,
It
is
true that
the evil souls will be tried at the time of the
judgment and required
collective
final
through blazing process
for
purification.
fire.
But
this
is
to
go
the cleansing
them and it will lead to their Then Ahura Mazda will at last
take back to Himself
all
the creatures that are
The final triumph Spentomainyu over Angromainyu is by
his
may
be
by
created
sufiicient
Him."*^
superior
strength. ^^
It
of
noted that Soshyos or saviour prophets help the world in this process of redemption. 6 8 7
XIX. Dk. XII. Yt.
XIX.
11.
« »
Yt.
7.
7 1
Dk. YII.
12.
462.
ZOROASTRIAN ETHICS
196
We
come
how the consummatum, is.
to the final question as to
ultimate good,
the honutn
What
represented in these writings. bliss of the righteous is
The goal
?
of
is
the final
human
life
not conceived by the Parsis as in the Buddh-
ist
Here are two
idea of Nirvana.
*'ButAhura Mazda
passages:
significant
give both
will
universal weal and immortality in the fulness
of his righteous order and from himself as the
And he
of dominion, (with his saints).
head
will likewise
might
to
friend."
^-
time (of
Good Mind's vigorous
give the
him who
in spirit and deed is his Again " Then shall begin the infinite happiness) and then shall happen the
final renovation,
impoverishment of the
the
Drujj the resurrection of the dead, and the
attainment of the
body and the redemp-
final
and
tion (from hell) of the people of this world;
hence mankind shall live in eternal
and
in splendour,
will, action
and with immutable wisdom,
and (endless) time."'^ There
no absorption of the individual no annihilation of the the self in a fuller
self,
kingdom
and richer than
7» Ys.
felicity,
XXXI.
21.
is
is
here
in the Absolute,
but a realisation of
of God, a realisation^ possible here. 7 3
Dk. V.
332.
INDEX. ADARBAD MAKASPAND 26.
Atman
Adoption Adultery
Atropat 155. Authority 148, 149,
114. 123,
122,
124,
125, 126, 127, 128, 177.
Agriculture 32, 33, 34, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 162.
Aliriman 147,
52,
184, 195, 196,
Aim
41, 42, 49, 50.
Ahura Mazda 25,
Avarice 144, 145, 146, 163,
Bareshnum
46, 47.
Bodily
injuries
173.
78, 87, 108, 111, 122, 133,
Bribery
140, 141, 156,
162,
180,
182, 183, 184,
194,
195,
Airyana-vaega see
Casuistry 96. 70, 97, 183.
191.
Ardashir I. 39. Asceticism 65, 85.
A&ha63. Ashi Vanguhi 113, Asno Khratu 50. As8 33. Assemblies
Atar
36.
73, 183.
50.
33.
Casartelli Dr. 41, 181.
Araretat 70, 183.
Anaperetha 167, Anger 146, 163.
172,
Carlyle 76.
31.
Ahu.
Alexander 39. Amesha Spenta
162,
93.
CAMA 49, Camel
196.
48, 49, 50.
101.
Bartholomae C. 135. Benevolence see Charity.
Body
29, 36,43,
150^
151.
45, 59, 70, 73, 74, 76, 77,
Akho
37, 72.
43.
BAODHA 42,
70, 97, 100,
156, 160, 176,
155,
Athravan
Celibacy 65, 75, 111. Charity 66, 106, 107,
108,.
134,
135,
136,
137^
138, 139,
140,
141,
142,,
133,
143.
Cheerfulness 163. Children 74, 75, 79, 112„ 122, 183.
113.
Cock
33, 76.
Company
164,
Confucius 158. Conscience 42,
47, 52.
INDEX
198
ContentmeDt
163, 154, 155,
156.
FALSEHOOD
Contract 91, 94, 171, 172. Courtesy 97, 142.
Fame
Cow
Family
31, 32.
Criminal law 170.
DAENA
42, 47, 48, 68, 78,
Daeva 37, Dakhraas
56, 70, 71, 78.
Dead body
103,
105,
166, 168, 174, 175.
Dead matter
164.
104, 105, 166,
Fire 37,
78, 102, 103,
76,
79, 80, 85, 86.
Fravashi
42, 43, 44, 73, 119.
Freedom
of will 52, 53, 57,
187.
Frohar
168.
Death 71, 184. Decency 163, 164. Demon-worship 187. Dhalla Dr. 42, 44, Disease 71, 184.
50, 52. see
Fravashi
GAUTAMA BUDDHA 63. Gavashni
62.
Geiger Dr.
56.
30, 41, 47, 49,
115, 128, 169.
Generosity 139, 140.
Disinterestedness 68.
Geush Tashan 183. Geush Urvan 183.
33, 81,84, 176.
Drinking 139. Druj 37, 70, 91, Dualism 53, 60,
74.
Fasting 66, 85, 86. Fate 187, 188, 189. Firdausi 28.
Food
58.
102,
100.
104, 174, 175, 176, 186.
102.
Dannesteter
Dog
89,90, 91.
92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99^
Glory 73, 74. Golden Mean
97, 99.
181.
158.
Good thought, word and
EARLY RISING Earth
deed 76, 86.
174, 175.
59, 60, 61, 02,
105, 106.
(xratitude 160.
Eduard Meyer 38. Educated reason 51.
HABIT
Education
Hamistagan
Eugenics
52, 158.
Haoma37,
83.
Hang
Evil 182, 195.
Evil thought, word deed 60, 61, 62.
Expediency
52.
and
96.
Expiation 190, 191, 192.
193.
122.
50.
Haurvatat
Heaven
70, 183.
45, 193.
Hell 45, 193.
Herodotus
67, 89,
128.
64,
INDEX Holiness 105,
Honesty
10(5.
92, 94, 95, 98.
Hormazd Shapur Horse
26. j
Khratu 42, 50. Khshathra Vairya 78, 183. Khusrd Noshirwan 29. Killing 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
33, 35.
168, 176, 177.
Horticulture 34.
Hosh
199
King
50, 51.
35, 165, 166.
Knowledge, see wisdom.
Hospitality 140, 141.
Huniata, Hukhata, Hvar-
LAW
shta 62.
Humility
152, 153.
Husband and wife
115, 116,
120,
117, 118, 119,
161,
68,
162,
170,
171.
Lehmann
121,
64, 67,
Leviticus 167.
122.
Life 64, 69, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 176, 177.
IDLENESS
Louis H. Gray 131.
87, 88.
Image-worship 39, 187. Immortality 45, 70, 192
MAHABAD 29.
193.
Indebtedness Industry
Manas
89.
7 66, 76, 78, 86, 87
88.
Innate reason
Mani 51.
Intellect 50. Intellij'ence 50, 51.
AH
40.
Manichaenism 27, 40. Manufacture 34, 38, 78. Margarjan 168.
Inspiration 184.
J
I
62.
Manashni, Gavashni, Kunashni 62.
Marriage
65, 74,
79,
111,
112, 177. I
122, 123.
Marriage
Jaini J. L. 63.
Mazdak
Jamshid
Medicine
82.
— age 34.
^Jan 42.
Mercy
Jaoshi Khratu 50. Jealousy 146, 163.
Metals
34.
Might
73.
Justice 93, 160.
163.
161,
162,
114.
40.
106, 107.
Mill Dr. 193.
Millennium
194.
Misappropriation
KARMA 55, Khart
42, 50.
62.
96.
Mithra
73, 90.
92,
95,
INDEX-
200
Moderation
Prosperity 72, 73.
66, 158.
Moksha 55, 60. Money 34, 38 Moulton Dr.
Prudence 163. Public Duties 164, 165.
25, 42, 48, 89.
Punishment
167, 178.
Purity 100, 101, 102,
NASU
Next of kin marriage Xvaetvadatha
see
Nietzsche 74.
Nirwana
103,.
104, 105, 106.
101,
196.
RAPE
125.
Rashnu 161. Ravan see Urvan. Regard
for
animals
31, 32,
Noshir^van 26. 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82,.
OBEDIENCE
83, 84.
See autho-
rity.
Optimism
58, 59, 73, 195.
Ordeal 171.
Renovation 194, 195. Renunciation 65, 75. Resurrection 124, 196.
Revelation 184,
Revenge
PASTORAL LIFE Peace 141. Penance 85.
31, 32.
63.
98, 100, 171, 173.
.
SALVATION
I'erjury 92.
Peshotanu
Righteousness
Robbery
185.
148.
72,
126,
169,
Samsara
196.
55.
Samyag-charitra 63.
175, 177, 178.
I'hilanthropy 143.
Samyag-darsana
Polygamy
128, 129.
Samyag-Jnaca
Position of
women
Poverty
Power
119.
Saoshyant
106.
101, 128,
178.
Pride 108, 109, 148, 153. Priesthood 35, 37, 38, 151, 152.
Procrastination 88. J*romise-keeping see Truthfulness.
59, 70, 195.
Self-control 162.
l*re-existence 45.
woman
Sanitation 101, 102, 103, 170.
95.
l*regnant
63.
63.
Shah Namah28,
141.
Shapur 11. 40. Sheep 32, 33. Siyavush 171. Slander 146, 147. Slaves 38.
Soul 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 52, 108.
.
INDEX Spirit 49.
Sraosha
183.
vState 35.
Strength
Sun
72, 73, 74,
7.'>.
Water 102, Wealth 98,
159.
94, 96, 98, 100, 173.
Thrift 66, 162. Truthfulness 67, 89, 90, 92,
COURSE
45,
INTER126,
Wisdom
127,
103, 174.
*
107, 108, 109.
51, 156, 157, 158.
Woman in menses 101,126. 177.
Work
93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99.
UNNATUKAL
26.
75, 183.
WARS 37.
169, 174.
Temperance 66, Tennyson 59. Theft
Viptak 127. Vir 42, 50, 51 Vistashpa 69. Vizorg Meher
Vohu Mano
180.
TANAFUK
201
76, 77, 86.
XVAETVADATHA
129,
130, 131, 132.
128, 167, 171, 178.
Upazana 168, 169. Urvan 42, 44, 45, 46, Utilitarianism 67.
YAZATA
ZARATHUSTRA 29, 69,
YACH Vadak Vaksh
62.
183, 185.
47, 48.
74,
180, 194.
124.
Zarir 28.
42, 52.
Zohak
82.
76,
25, 26, 77, 147,
i
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UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY
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