Zoology 100 Notes 3

ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES (3) CONTINUATION OF THE INTRODUCTION IN ZOOLOGY: SCIENCE & ITS PROCESSES SCIENCE • FACTS – emperical evidences • DATA - organized facts -2 types of data: 1. QUALITATIVE DATA 2. QUANTITATIVE DATA SCIENTIFIC METHOD • is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. • It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. • identifiable features distinguish scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. • Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of phenomena, and design experimental studies to test these hypotheses. • Theories that encompass wider domains of inquiry may bind many hypotheses together in a coherent structure. • Theories may help form new hypotheses or place groups of hypotheses into context.

Other cxcs: • the conviction that the process must be objective to reduce a biased interpretation of the results. • Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all data and methodology so it is available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, thereby allowing other researchers the opportunity to verify results by attempting to reproduce them. • This practice, called full disclosure, also allows statistical measures of the reliability of these data to be established

TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1. hypothetico-deductive model A. Use your experience - consider the problem and try to make sense of it. Look for previous explanations; if this is a new problem to you, then do B. Conjecture an explanation - when nothing else is yet known, try to state your explanation, to someone else, or to your notebook. C. Deduce a prediction from that explanation- if B were true, then state a consequence of that explanation. D. Test - look for the opposite of that consequence in order to disprove B. It is a logical error to seek C directly as proof of B. This error is called affirming the consequent. 2. Inductive Method – specific to general idea 3. Indeductive Method – combination of deductive method

inductive and

The essential elements of a scientific method • Operation - Some action done to the system being investigated • Observation - What happens when the operation is done to the system • Model - A fact, hypothesis, theory, or the phenomenon itself at a certain moment • Utility Function - A measure of the usefulness of the model to explain, predict, and control, and of the cost of use of it. One of the elements of any scientific utility function is the refutability of the model. Another is its simplicity, on the Principle of Parsimony also known as Occam's Razor. Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) • is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English logician and Franciscan friar William of Ockham. • the principle states that the explanation of any phenomenon should make as few assumptions as possible, eliminating those that make no difference in the observable predictions of the explanatory hypothesis or theory. • often expressed in Latin as the lex parsimoniae ("law of parsimony" or "law of succinctness"): "entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem", or "entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity". • This is often paraphrased as "All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best. STEPS • • • • • • • • •

IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD Observation Define the question Gather information and resources (observe) Form hypothesis Perform experiment and collect data Analyze data Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis Publish results Retest (frequently done by other scientists)

Example: DNA Discovery • DNA-characterizations: in this case, although the significance of the gene had been established, the mechanism was unclear to anyone, as of 1950. • DNA-hypotheses: Crick and Watson hypothesized that the gene had a physical basis - it was helical. • DNA-predictions: from earlier work on tobacco mosaic virus, Watson was aware of the significance of Crick's formulation of the transform of a helix.[24] Thus he was primed for the significance of the X-shape in photo 51. • DNA-experiments: DNA - the blueprint of genetic information - Double helix of nucleotides - Nucleotides: - Adenine - Guanine - Cytosine - Thymine SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES • "The success of science has more to do with an attitude common to scientists than with a particular method. This attitude is one of inquiry, experimentation, and humility before the facts." - Paul G. Hewitt, Conceptual Physics, Second Edition, p. 3 • "Having a scientific attitude consists in being willing to accept only carefully and objectively verified facts, and to hold a single fact above the authority of the oldest theories. Nothing can be called scientific that is not based on such an attitude." Boris Podolsky, "What is science?," The Physics Teacher , 71-73 (1965). 1.curiosity - a curious person is skeptical about things and shows deep interest in what is happening around him. He asks a lot of questions about nature. 2.objectivity - a person is objective when he applies the scientific methods in finding the answers to problems and analyzes all situation carefully. He can withhold judgment until all facts have been checked. 3. critical-mindedness - a person who is critically-minded seeks reliable information derived from actual observations, experiments, resource persons and research studies. He bases conclusions and generalizations on evidence. 4. creativity - a creative person shows originality and uniqueness of his works. He proposes new ideas and solution to problems. He invents new equipment and improves the defective ones. He can be innovative, too. 5. open-mindedness - an open-minded person is willing to consider the works of others. He is a person who listens and respects the right of others. If proven true, he is willing to change his own idea to give way to the new one. 6. responsibility - an individual is responsible if he considers the consequences of his own actions. He invents and discovers new things for the benefit and not to the disadvantage of the world around him. 7. humility - a humble person does not brag about his achievements. He accepts criticisms and suggestions and is willing to consult others who can help him. 7.persistence - to be a persistent person, he must repeat unsuccessful experiments until he gets he correct data. He sustains interest in his work despite so many errors ans trials. As one scientist put it, "Success is 99% perspiration and 1% inspiration.“ 8. respectfulnes -respect for the view of others. 9. flexibility- belief in cause and effect 10. resourcefulness 11. diligence