Youth Participation In Governance

Youth Participation in Local Governance By Ramon T. Ayco, Sr. March 2008

I.

Introduction

The words “governance” and “good governance” appear frequently these days in the discourse of aid agencies, civil society groups and governments at all levels. In the development world, the term does refer to the activities of government, but it is understood to go beyond government and to include the relationships between formal government institutions and an active civil society. There are eight (8) major characteristics of good governance and the first one is participatory. The other seven includes: consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. Indeed, participatory is the first characteristic and is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand. Civil society refers to that sphere of voluntary associations and informal networks in which individuals and groups engage in activities of public consequence. It is distinguished from the public activities of government because it is voluntary, and from the private activities of markets because it seeks common ground and public goods. It is often described as the "third sector." Civil society includes voluntary associations of all sorts: churches, neighborhood organizations, cooperatives, fraternal and sororal organizations, charities, unions, parties, social movements, interest groups, and families. The inclusion of the family among those forms of social interaction between economy and state yields the broadest definition of civil society. The boundaries are defined variously in the theoretical literature, and there is much elasticity and ambiguity. Reformers in Eastern Europe, who have been key to reviving the use of the term in recent years, use it expansively to define the challenges of a democratic transition from statist regimes. American conservatives are likely to speak of "mediating structures" more narrowly, and focus on the family, neighborhood and local voluntary associations. Left-liberal intellectuals often make the new social movements (women's movement, environmental movement etc.) the heart of their argument for a renewed civil society that places the public sphere on more pluralistic foundations. According to the Centre for Civil Society at the London School of Economics, “civil society” refers to the arena of un-coerced collective action around shared interests, purposes and values. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family and market, though in practice, the boundaries between state, civil society, family and market are often complex, 1

blurred and negotiated. Civil society commonly embraces a diversity of spaces, actors and institutional forms, varying in their degree of formality, autonomy and power. The idea of civil society as a corrective force to both arbitrary government and imperfect markets emerged in the 19th century. The impetus for better governance has come, more often than not, from grassroots movements in both urban and rural areas. Recent examples include the role of student protests in the 1960s in the United States (US) and Europe, citizen and youth protests in some Asian countries (e.g., Philippines, South Korea); movements organized around environmental and global issues, etc. Often the root of such movements and organizations is a feeling of alienation and non-consultation in the process leading to major decisions affecting the livelihood of people. The transition from single-party to multi-party systems in many transition and developing countries has resulted in new, and often fragile, forms of representative government that are superimposed on the erstwhile colonial or authoritarian structures and have not yet taken root among the citizens. In such nations, civil society organizations play a critical role in countering arbitrary actions and consolidating the base of good governance. Moreover, recent efforts to address social exclusion and a democratic deficit focus on the role of civil society organizations, use of volunteers, and partnerships. Democratic deficit involves the lack of voice to the people, beyond electoral franchise and periodic elections. Social exclusion refers to the marginalization of minorities, women, and weaker sections from the processes of policy making, local administration, and the delivery of services. Encouraging civil society organizations can, in time, help address both problems by fostering the involvement of people in specific activities of concern to them, and they create a new assertiveness and habit of participation. In the Philippines civil society started blossoming in the late twentieth century, ironically, during the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos (1972-86). The fifteen years of arbitrary governance, crony protection, profligate living and gross human rights violations, capped by economic collapse, heightened organized resistance to the repressive regime. In four momentous days in February 1986, Filipinos cried, “Enough!” Marcos Dictatorship was toppled down by a people power uprising called EDSA I. The years since EDSA I have witnessed an explosion of civil society groups in the Philippines. From 27,100 non-government organizations (NGOs) registered as non-stock, non-profit with the Philippines Securities and Exchange Commission in 1986, the number almost doubled to 50,800 by March 1992. That figure has increased to anywhere from 60,000 to over 95,000 NGOs today. However, only an estimated 5,000 – 7,000 of these are grassroots NGOs whose organizers focus on empowering poor and excluded people, and who live and work with them to overcome poverty and powerlessness in rural, urban and indigenous communities. The other registered NGOs center their activities around more middle-class interests, as in professional associations, church-related groups, welfare associations, student alliances, professional organizations, labor unions, academic institutions and the like. 2

Formally registered people’s organizations (POs) number in the thousands, augmented by 35,000 registered cooperatives, and a large but uncertain number of unregistered community groups. Although the total figure for POs in the Philippines is difficult to estimate, one can confirm that their numbers are growing. The local as well as national influence of NGOs, and increasingly POs, is all the remarkable when one considers their aim of transforming a society with a population pegged at 82.6 million in 2004 by the National Statistics Office (NSO). A 1998 nationwide survey revealed that no more than 15.9 percent of families listed themselves as affiliated with POs or NGOs, while another 12.9 percent cited membership in cooperatives. While these figures may appear small, in actual numbers NGOs and POs reached 2,384,943 families out of the 14,370,711 total for the entire country. Cooperative families covered 852,385 families. This is no mean feat. The Philippines has often considered as possessing one of the most vibrant, robust, dynamic, and participatory civil society in the world (Clarke 2000, Racelis 2000). Several cases has proven its efficacy in providing policy inputs (Magadia 2003), delivering social services, pursuing socioeconomic development, and generating accountability. There is added significance if this will be juxtaposed in the prevailing belief that the country possesses a “weak state” (Hutchcroft 1991). But beyond this, the context of an active civil society in the Philippines is contingent upon the idea that the process of democratization is an inclusive process that definitely necessitates its participation and active engagement. In fact, as much as there is a burden on the part of the state to institute the necessary reforms and address the existing deficits in its democratic governance, civil society organizations are responsible for a substantial portion of this task. As the primary actor responsible for the transition from authoritarian rule, they cannot sit back, relax, and leave the task to the government as there remains a plethora of problems, inadequacies, and limitations of the current democratic polity. At present, there are two interrelated modes of civil society engagement as far as the agenda for democratization is concerned (Eaton 2003). On the one hand, there is the protest mode which is what most civil society actors are familiar. The tactics of “expose and oppose” run deep within the nature of Philippine civil society as manifested not only in the antidictatorship struggle but significant instances in post-Marcos politics. It comprises of the socalled “parliament of the streets”, coalition-building, collective mobilization, mass actions, media campaigns, and community organizing. This mode of (dis)engagement often is a weapon of last resort, particularly if normal or available venues have been exhausted. Moreover, this contentious approach is often utilized when civil society perceives that the democratic gains that it vehemently fought for are being jeopardized. This precedent had tremendous repercussions for the nature of civil society that developed in post-Marcos Philippine politics. It would not be the last time that societal groups were able to successfully demand accountability from the state. The anti-Estrada campaign that culminated in the so-called People Power II Revolt (or EDSA 2) is a genuine testament of the efficacy and strength of collective mobilization in the Philippines. In this highly contentious episode, societal actors came to challenge the legitimate rule of a very popular leader on charges of cronyism and corruption. The 3

range and intensity of contention spearheaded by the country’s civil society was not witnessed since the struggle against the Marcos regime in the 1980s. Collective action generally aimed at exacting accountability from President Estrada was successfully mounted using the framework of resignation, impeachment, and ouster (RIO). In conjunction with other strategies of societal accountability in different periods of the campaign, civil society groups were able to expose the President’s political scandals, maintain these issues in the public agenda, acquire media attention and national visibility, activate and exercise oversight over political institutions and legal processes, and invite public support and participation (See Arugay 2004). On the other hand, there is the participation mode, a more novel component in civil society’s repertoire of engagement. This has reference to its contribution to the struggle to “restore” democracy in the country. As a stakeholder in the post-authoritarian political dispensation, the organizations that comprised civil society would want to institutionalize their access to power and democratic space in the country’s policy processes. This enables them to forge strategic partnerships to “collaborate and cooperate” with the state as well as other sectors in society in the creation of new structures, mechanisms, institutions, and policies that could improve the health of Philippine democracy. This requires civil society actors to devote their technical competence, experiences, insights, and skills in order to come up with viable alternatives and lasting solutions to lingering problems of the country. This mode may involve policy advocacy campaigns, the establishment of public-civil society partnerships, and direct consultations with political institutions.

II. Youth as a major part of civil society Youth organizations (NGOs and POs) are important part of civil society; and besides youth within youth organizations, almost all other organizations in civil society have youth as members and leaders. From that, we can conclude that youth is a major part of civil society. The youth can be a good and powerful partner in governance not only in contributing novel ideas but most importantly in putting novel ideas into reality. Not only for the youth sector but also for the whole community and society as well. Not only for the future but most importantly at present. Youth have a vital role to play in shaping present and future societies, and their transition to independent adulthood is crucial in this regard. The United Nations General Assembly defines “youth” as anyone between the ages of 15 and 24, the age group when the builders of future families and rearers of the next generation develop concrete attitudes and behaviour about being responsible parents and adults. According to the World Assembly of Youth (WAY), there are about one billion youth living in the world.1 This amounts to approximately one person out of five, or 17 percent of the world’s total population. WAY states that about 85 percent of the world’s youth live in developing 1

On the 2007 International Youth Day celebration the United Nations announced that the world’s youth population reached 1.2 billion.

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countries and 60 percent in Asia alone. The total youth population is 525 million young men and 500 million young women, the majority of whom live in rural areas in the developing world. In Asia in 2007 the estimated number of population of youth between the ages of 15 and 24 is 738 million, accounting for more than 18 per cent of the region’s population. Table 1: The youth population in Asia and its subregions, 1960-2050 (in thousands and as a proportion of the total population) Asia West Asia South-East Asia Year

East Asia

1960 294 380 18.5 11 486 18.4 40 110 19.2 131 486 17.8 1965 325 702 18.4 12 781 17.8 43 086 18.2 149 465 18.4 1970 398 680 19.9 16 064 19.5 51 462 19.1 187 093 20.2 1975 460 113 20.4 19 520 20.4 63 082 20.8 206 080 20.0 1980 514 153 20.8 23 009 20.9 73 414 21.7 224 854 20.5 1985 591 992 22.1 26 591 21.1 82 478 22.1 268 174 23.3 1990 643 035 21.8 29 947 21.0 90 570 22.2 285 267 22.9 1995 645 844 20.1 33 577 20.9 96 683 21.6 251 609 19.2 2000 663 246 19.3 37 784 21.1 102 216 21.2 226 397 16.8 Change 0.8 26 298 2.8 62 107 1.9 94 911 -1.1 (1960-2000) 368 866 2005 720 859 19.7 41 254 21.0 106 941 20.7 243 728 17.3 2010 749 527 19.2 43 944 20.4 108 953 19.7 243 697 16.4 2015 735 023 17.9 46 077 19.6 107 356 18.4 221 084 14.5 Change 14 164 -1.8 4 823 -1.4 416 -2.3 - 22 644 -2.8 (2005-2015) 2020 714 618 16.6 47 184 18.6 106 659 17.4 201 051 13.0 2025 709 765 15.8 48 958 17.9 107 631 16.7 188 238 11.8 2030 718 880 15.4 51 296 17.6 106 209 15.8 189 567 11.7 2035 719 875 14.9 52 612 17.0 103 152 14.9 191 729 11.7 2040 706 101 14.2 52 878 16.3 100 330 14.0 188 789 11.5 2045 681 642 13.5 52 421 15.4 98 288 13.4 180 420 11.1 2050 655 470 12.7 51 974 14.6 96 329 12.9 169 106 10.4 Source: United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision (New York: 2007).

South-Central Asia 111 298 19.2 120 370 18.5 144 061 19.8 171 431 20.9 192 875 20.9 214 748 20.8 237 250 20.5 263 977 20.4 296 850 20.9 185 552 328 937 352 933 360 506 31 569

1.8 21.4 21.3 20.3 -1.1

359 724 364 939 371 809 372 382 364 104 350 513 338 060

19.1 18.3 17.7 17.0 16.0 14.9 13.9

In the Philippines, young people from 15 to 30 years of age comprised 28.43 percent of the total 82.6 million Filipinos in 2004 according to the NSO. However, disparate operational definitions of “youth” exist across government agencies as shown below: National youth Commission (NYC) – 15-30 years old Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) - 15-24 years old Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) - 15-21 years old Department of Health (DOH) - 10-24 years old Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) - 7-18 years old Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) - 7-18 years old These variations are not unproblematic and, in fact, result in administrative overlaps. The situation also presents a formidable obstacle to systematic data collection on the sector for purposes of planning and policy formulation. 5

Youth Rights Before anything else in dealing with the youth we have to recognize first the youth rights. Youth rights refers to a set of philosophies intended to enhance civil rights for young people. Youth rights are inherently responsive to the oppression of young people, with advocates challenging ephebiphobia (the psychological and social fear of youth), adultism2 and ageism through youth participation, youth/adult partnerships, and ultimately, intergenerational equity. With rights of course come responsibilities. In a democracy the right to participate and vote implies a responsibility to become more active in the community, to learn how to listen to the views of others. The "youth rights movement", also described as "youth liberation", is a nascent grassroots movement whose aim is to fight against ageism and for the civil rights of young people - those "under the age of majority", which is 18 in most countries. It is ostensibly an effort to combat pedophobia and ephebiphobia throughout society by promoting youth voice, youth empowerment and ultimately, intergenerational equity through youth/adult partnerships. As opposed to "children's rights" groups, which tend to advocate entitlements for young people and favor paternalistic handling of minors by government, youth rights organizers seek to enhance the role of young people in society through youth empowerment and equal rights. First emerging as a distinct movement in the 1930s, youth rights have long been concerned with civil rights and intergenerational equity. Tracing its roots to youth activists during the Great Depression, youth rights has influenced the civil rights movement, opposition to the Vietnam War, and many other movements. Since the advent of the Internet youth rights is gaining predominance again. Of primary importance to youth rights advocates are historical perceptions of young people, which are informed by paternalism, adultism and ageism in general, as well as fears of children and youth. Youth rights advocates believe those perceptions inform laws throughout society, including age of consent, Child labor laws, right-to-work laws, curfews, drinking age, driving age, emancipation of minors, minors and abortion, closed adoption, corporal punishment, the age of majority, military conscription and the right to sign contracts. There are specific set of issues addressing the rights of youth in schools, including zero tolerance, gulag schools, In loco parentis, and student rights in general. Homeschooling, unschooling, and alternative schools are popular youth rights issues. 2

Adultism is a predisposition towards adults, which some see as biased against children, youth, and all young people who aren't addressed or viewed as adults. Adultism is popularly used to describe any discrimination against young people and is distinguished from ageism, which is simply prejudice on the grounds of age; not specifically against youth. Adultism is ostensibly caused by fear of children and youth.

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A long-standing effort within the youth rights movement has focused on civic engagement. There have been a number of historical campaigns to increase youth voting rights by lowering the voting age and the age of candidacy. There are also efforts to get young people elected to prominent positions in local communities, including as members of city councils and as mayors. Strategies for gaining youth rights that are frequently utilized by their advocates include developing youth programs and organizations that promote youth activism, youth participation, youth empowerment, youth voice, youth/adult partnerships and intergenerational equity between young people and adults. Other issues that concerns youth are education, unemployment, juvenile delinquency …. Youth Activism Youth activism is best summarized as youth voice engaged in community organizing for social change. It deals not only with youth issues like education, unemployment, juvenile delinquency, etc. but also other social issues like graft and corruption, environmentalism, globalization, etc.. Around the world young people are engaged as activism planners, researchers, teachers, evaluators, social workers, decision-makers, advocates and leading actors in the environmental movement, social justice organizations, campaigns supporting or opposing legalized abortion, and anti-racism, and anti-homophobia campaigns. As the central beneficiaries of public schools, youth are also advocating for student-led school change through student activism and meaningful student involvement. There are three main forms of youth activism. The first is youth involvement in social activism. This is the predominant form of youth activism today, as millions of young people around the world participate in social activism that is organized, informed, led, and assessed by adults. Many efforts, including education reform, children's rights, and government reform call on youth to participate this way, often called youth voice. Youth councils are an example of this. The second type is youth-driven activism requires young people to be the primary movers within an adult-led movement. Such is the case with the Sierra Club, where youth compel their peers to join and become active in the environmental movement. This is also true of many organizations that were founded by youth who became adults, such as SEAC, National Youth Rights Association, Global Youth Action Network, and Free the Children. Such is also the case with the European Youth Union. The third type is the increasingly common youth-led community organizing. This title encompasses action which is conceived of, designed, enacted, challenged, redesigned, and driven entirely by young people. There is no international movement that is entirely led by youth, aside from the World Federation of Democratic Youth, which has UN NGO status. A number of local or mission-driven initiatives serve as examples, including Ignite, addressing tobacco use; Seattle Young Peoples Project, located in Seattle; and Article 12, working for youth involvement in Scotland.

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In the Philippines, the chronicle of the Filipino nation is that of youthful aspirations for change. Some of the major figures of the Philippine struggle for independence from Spain had barely reached adulthood when they produced their bravest deeds. José Rizal published his seminal novel Noli Me Tangere (which meant “Touch Me Not”) that exposed the abuses of the Spanish clergy in 1886, when he was just 25 years old. Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto, the founders of the clandestine insurgency movement, began organizing the resistance to the colonial state when they were in their twenties. Bonifacio’s wife and comrade, Gregoria de Jesus, was just 21 years old when she joined the struggle in 1896. Fast-forwarding to the early1960s and 1970s, it was again a strong, socially committed youth movement that began to mobilize against another repressive regime, that of President Ferdinand Marcos. Examples of militant Youth Organizations during 60s and 70s were Kabataang Makabayan (KM), Student Cultural Association of the Philippines (SCAUP), Samahang Demokratiko ng Kabataan (SDK), National Union of Student of the Philippines (NUSP), College Editors Guild of the Philippines (CEGP), and many more. After the declaration of martial law in 1972, these youth activists provided the backbone to the organized anti-dictatorship movement throughout those dark years. Militant youth organizations like KM went underground to pursue their nationalist and democratic goals. Many of them went as far as national democratic guerrilla fighters. People Power of 1986, which resulted in the bloodless ouster of Marcos, was yet another landmark in Philippine history. It was made possible with the help of young volunteers who exposed electoral fraud at the hands of Marcos and provided logistical support to day-long mass mobilizations. People Power II was no different. Again, young Filipinos provided the muscle to peaceful mass actions that led to the downfall of President Joseph Estrada in 2001 over his grave misuses of power and public funds. While the two People Power hallmarks were about peacefully mobilizing against abusive and corrupt regimes of Marcos in 1986 and Estrada in 2001, there was another People Power called EDSA Tres which was a violent expression of urban poor protesters registering their dissent against the Arroyo government over the arrest of “their president” Joseph Estrada. While the former were mainly a middle class mobilizations, the failed siege of the presidential palace on the 1st of May 2001 was an action mainly by urban poor in Metro Manila and suburbs. What comes to the fore here is the ugly class divide that is so characteristic of Philippine society. Perhaps this can explain why the youth has not been able to successfully mobilize as a unified youth movement, since class divisions provide more salient markers of identity than generational concerns. Only when it comes to issue-based campaigns, have there been successful attempts at consolidating various youth groups. One such triumph is the First-Time Voters campaign, which emerged from the voters’ registration fiasco during the time of People Power II. As seen earlier, the lack of public information on the process and deadline of enlistment for new voters resulted in the gross disenfranchisement of 4.5 million young people. Although the youth groups that 8

mobilized to assert their right to suffrage in 2001 were not able to reverse the COMELEC’s stance, their actions grabbed national headlines and engaged all three branches of government. Spearheaded by Akbayan youth, the groups3 filed a case at the Supreme Court, forced the legislature into the special session and provoked a special intervention by President Arroyo. Another recent achievement is the suspension of the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) following the murder of Manila-based University of Santo Tomas engineering student Mark Wilson Chua in March 2001. He had paid with his life for exposing alleged anomalies in his school’s ROTC program. Various student groups across ideological persuasions and geographic locations staged mass actions, which snowballed into calls for reforms to democratize and demilitarize the National Service Program. Legislative measures have since led the ROTC to become an optional program. The collective political psyche of Filipinos was also shaken by the Oakwood Mutiny on 27 July 2003, when a group of young military officers attempted to oust President Arroyo and her Secretary of Defense Angelo Reyes over allegations of corruption in the military. The nation was captivated by the televised coverage of the aborted coup, as the protagonists of the plot were remarkably young, articulate and fearless. Even those who disagreed with their chosen means of advancing their cause sympathized with the young men’s outrage at the senseless deaths of fellow young combatants in Mindanao and the sickening opportunism of turning war into business. It was a rousing reminder that the idealism of youth prevails even in ultra-conservative institutions. Youth participation in the Philippines can therefore be characterized as event-driven. Young Filipinos are not afraid to mobilize in extreme situations, such as when President Estrada plunged the country into a deep political crisis. Yet in “normal” times, only organized youth groups engage in advocacies and political debates, as average young Filipinos are no different from the rest of the “MTV generation” all over the world. Sad to say, the pull of popular culture is stronger than that of popular politics.

III.

Youth Participation in Decision-Making

The word heard round the world today is “participation”. Governments, international organizations, NGOs and community-based groups have rallied behind the idea that all people, young and old, male and female, rich and poor have a right to be part of decisions that affect their lives. For young people, the drive toward increased participation has led to the development of youth parliaments, youth councils, parallel meetings and forums; the publication of thousands of papers, reports and policy documents; and the inclusion of youth programmes in several development agencies concerned with sustainability. The word has spread – but has all of the talk about youth participation been effectively translated into genuine inclusion and empowerment of young people as active citizens? 3

The core group of the movement includes the Student Council Alliance of the Philippines (SCAP), the Movement for the Advancement of Student Power (MASP) and Alyansa, a formation of urban poor youth. A full account of the problem is found in the article “First Time Voters: A Case of Continuing Political Disenfranchisement” by Jonas Bagas. Published by the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Philippine Office.

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To some degree, the answer is yes: youth-affirmative policies have become pathways to good practice in several cities and countries around the world. To a large extent, however, it remains unclear whether or how words in favor of youth inclusion and empowerment have been matched with resources, concrete commitments and action within international, national and local decision-making bodies. Even where youth-participation policies have brought about positive action, much remains unknown about the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of those efforts and the quality of the engagement4 experience. Research shows that young people experienced inconsistency in their everyday lives in relation to their interface with public service decision-making, which led to disaffection. For example, in some circumstance their views were actively sought. In others, they were ignored or less valued than those of adult ‘experts’. In addition the influence young people were able to exert over matters that affect them was dependent on such factors as their social class, geographical location, ethnicity, involvement in social networks and confidence, the free time they have, and their accessibility to adult decision-makers. Public decision-making bodies often appeared reluctant or unwilling to review and reflect on their participation processes, preferring instead to publicize the volume of activity they were undertaking, the numbers of young people involved in consultations, rather than the impact that such activity had generated. Whilst young people’s involvement in participation allowed them to access a new world of politics, government and institutions, young people often complained that this world was dominated by a small elite of regular youth participants, upon whom adults placed an unhelpful reliance, and whose attraction was rooted in their confidence, skills and willingness to relate closely to adult and organizational sensibilities. There were large swathes of the youth population who either consciously did not want to enter this world, or whose lives did not cross over with decision-making opportunities. If public authorities will not harness young people’s ideas and energy, two different things may happen. First this may lead to negative (i.e. anti social) consequences; or to a confrontational or combative actions in the pursuit of their idealism instead of being participative. We can avoid young people going to the streets in order for their voice to be heard. Youth activism can be harness not only outside, like the streets, but also inside the government. Collectively the youth could become the strongest voice in the country. The youth could be a part of that voice for positive change.

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The Centre of Excellence for Youth Engagement, a Canada-based collaboration of youth, academic researchers and youth organizations, has developed a working definition of engagement: “the meaningful participation and sustained involvement of a young person in an activity, which has a focus outside of him or herself. Full engagement consists of a behavioural component (e.g. spending time doing an activity), an effective component (e.g. deriving pleasure from participating in it) and a cognitive component (e.g. knowledge about the activity).” The Centre of Excellence proposes that meaningful “engagement” moves beyond “participation” in relation to the experience of youth in decision-making. (www.engagementcentre.ca)

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As United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan said: “Young people are not only the leaders of tomorrow; they can play a leading role in the development of their communities today. Let us hope that their good works today blossom into lifelong commitments that will benefit all the world's people.”

The issue of power The transition of policy commitment into everyday practice is a challenge not unique to youth engagement, and raises many questions about what power the young citizen can expect over decision-making that affects his or her life. Youth participation has been described as an example of the sort of challenge facing those in positions of power who are being required to move from a traditional vertical model of decision-making to a horizontal process, with stakeholders, citizens and external experts all working to both shape and deliver policy. In this challenge there is also an important shaping context – namely, the paradoxical relationship that adults and adult organisations often have with young citizens. Adults have – the argument goes – always been fearful of young people and seen them as a potential problem for the smooth running and organization of society. But these fears are only one side of a contemporary paradox in the way society views young people. A growth in our fear and suspicion of young people has coincided with concerted efforts to protect children and young people from threats posed to them by adults and society. ‘We often think that children ought to be happy, a notion that dates back to the romanticism of the eighteenth century. We also often want them to be obedient to adults, an idea with deep roots in many parts of the past. We sometimes think of children as innocent, but can equally easily lurch into thinking that some of them are at any rate evil, both of them ideas with a traceable ancestry’ (Hugh Cunningham, The Invention of Childhood, 2006) Competition between the generations and communities There is also a new emerging phenomenon – that of adults and young people being in competition. Whilst adult and young people’s worlds are segregated and separated in many respects, they have been thrust into new competitive relationships – not only in the workplace, but in the consumer market place, and in civil society, where increased emphasis on public deliberation and civic engagement means that adults and young people compete for power and influence over public decision-making. The nature of challenges in society – community cohesion, environmental concerns, and responsive public services, amongst others – requires cooperative relations between generations and communities, made up of dialogue, tolerance, awareness and understanding including a realization of the assets, talent and potential of young people within and across different groups in communities including religious and ethnic dialogue. 11

The evidence presented is only some of that which hints at a growing separation of adult and young people’s worlds. This places particular importance on youth participation being effective. Effective engagement has the potential to build bridges between adults and young people, who can share experiences, learn new skills from one another, and have dialogue that builds trust and understanding. This in itself is valuable, but it can also produce materially beneficial outcomes. Despite endorsements and the strong theoretical rationale, the practice of youth engagement remains unfamiliar to most policy makers and local leaders, and their collective experience is limited (Zeldin, 2003). Moreover, they have questions, the most fundamental being: What are the benefits of youth engagement to young people and to communities? Research on this question has been slow in coming (Torney-Purta, 1990), but the trend may be reversing, with a multidisciplinary body of research beginning to accumulate (Flanagan & Sherrod, 1998) (Table 3). Decision-Making in Families There are extensive data showing that adolescent development is promoted when parents encourage young people to develop and express their own opinions and beliefs, in a context of warmth and firmness (Steinberg, 2001). Eccles et al. (1993), for example, report positive associations between the extent of adolescents’ participation in family decision-making with school motivation, self-esteem, and adjustment during the elementary to junior high school transition. Grotevant and Cooper (1986) similarly found that adolescents who are allowed to assert themselves and participate in family discussions within a context of mutuality – that is, parents and adolescents acknowledge each others’ viewpoints – are most likely to score higher on measures of identity and role-taking skills than parents and adolescents who do not acknowledge one another’s views. The associations are particularly strong when adolescents are afforded the chance to define and reflect on the parameters of a given issue (Olson, Cromwell & Klein, 1975; Smetana, 1988). Participating in family decision-making through action, not only deliberation, also appears to benefit adolescent development. Jarrett’s (1995) literature review concludes that the assignment of early family responsibilities, when properly managed, encourages mastery, enhances self-esteem, and facilitates family cohesion. Among children from low-income families, for example, the review found that the most “successful” youth had parents who intentionally challenged them to use their skills and competencies in the home, such as assisting in and executing domestic and childcare responsibilities. Decision-Making in Schools Efforts to elicit the voice of students in decision-making are often constrained by schools’ focus on academic performance and by the risk of losing order (Fullan, 2001). When youth are given the opportunity to participate, however, positive outcomes are observed, especially when teachers engage them in shared inquiry and service learning in the context of a collective purpose (Andersen, 1997; Melchior, 1997; Yates & Youniss, 1996).

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Newmann and Associates (1996), for example, found that positive academic outcomes were facilitated in secondary schools when teachers engaged students in the construction of knowledge and where a norm existed that valued community connections as well as academic learning. In addition, academic test performance and SES academic inequity were found to be diminished in schools which used these authentic instructional strategies (Lee, Smith & Croninger, 1997). Involvement in extracurricular activities, which often gives youth a chance for decision-making in a structured setting, may also contribute to positive youth outcomes (Mahoney & Cairnes, 1997). Rutter, Maugham, Mortimer and Ouston (1979) found that schools in which a high proportion of students held some position of responsibility, such as student government or taking active roles in student assemblies had better outcomes in behavior and academic achievement. Similarly, Eccles and Barber (1999) conclude that participation may promote academic achievement and prevent involvement in risky behaviors, especially when involvement entails “pro-social activities” and “performing arts”. Participation in school activities has also been found to contribute to esteem building and positive school attachment, which in turn, contributes to a wide range of achievement and favorable behavioral outcomes (Finn, 1989; Leithwood & Jantzi, 1999). Decision-Making in Youth Organizations There is accumulating evidence that youth benefit when given the opportunity to make, and act on, decisions for the common good in youth organizations and programs. The American Youth Policy Forum (1999, p. iv), for example, after synthesizing 18 evaluations of effective programs, concluded that a common aspect was that “youth not only receive services, but provide them. In this way, they change from participants into partners, from being cared for, into key resources for their communities. This change in approach helps build youth resiliency and protective factors in powerful ways”. Other reviews of youth development programs indicate the following to be common across effective programs: the opportunity to develop self-efficacy, to contribute to others, to participate actively in real challenges, and to produce a recognizable program or achievement (Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak, & Hawkins, 1998; Roth, Brooks-Gunn, Murray and Foster (1998). Similarly, Hattie, Neill, & Richards (1997) conclude from their meta-analysis of adventure programs that the positive effects on youth development stem from the experience of actively participating in challenging group problem-solving and decision-making situations. Recent studies have sought to identify the full range of outcomes that youth perceive that they gain from their engagement. For many Chilean student researchers, for example, the dominant outcome was a positive feeling that they had contributed to “a better society in which everyone was committed to the rights, duties and responsibilities of democratic living” (Prieto, 2001:88). Larson, Hansen & Walker (2002) describe the learning outcomes of high school youth in a Future Farmers of America chapter as they engaged in planning a summer camp for 4th graders. Two domains of learning processes were identified in most of the students’ accounts of their experiences: learning instrumentality, or setting a goal and working to accomplish it, and 13

teamwork. Zeldin (2003), found that a majority of youth involved in organizational governance were led to explore their identity and acquired community connections, both instrumental and emotional. Illustrative examples include: Bad experiences in the system gave me a poor self-image. If asked to describe myself before, I would say “I’m Jenine [not her real name] and I’ve been locked up this many times.” Working here helped me reconstruct who I am so I’m able to speak and not be afraid of people. I can debate ideas and not be afraid of myself. I have a totally different outlook on my community. Before I thought, what can I possibly do? Why would adults want to listen to me? But working here showed me that adults are willing to listen and take you seriously. Before I thought there was nothing here but school and jobs, but now I’m more politically aware of what’s going on. Influences of Youth Engagement on Community Settings There are numerous case examples that illustrate the ways that youth can have positive effects on their environments, but there is scant empirical research. Insight may be gained from research on families. During adolescence, parent-child relationships undergo transformations in roles and responsibilities, with a significant shift toward mutuality in decision-making. These shifts are dramatic, but still reflect continuity with the past (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986). It is likely that youth may impact social organizations through similar negotiation processes. Sabo (in press), for example, observed that organizational transformations occurred as youth moved from peripheral roles to roles of full participation. Youth brought their own understandings and expectations to institutional roles, which, in turn, led the organization to conceptualize the roles in new ways. Similarly, when youth are engaged as researchers in schools and communities, studies indicate that the culture and content of decision-making undergoes incremental, yet noteworthy, changes and that youth interests are more keenly reflected in deliberations (Kirshner, Fernandez, & Strobel, 2002; Mitra, 2001). As changes in organizational context occur, policy modifications are also enacted. Fielding’s (2001) four year study of youth as educational researchers, for example, showed that, after initial resistance, the engagement of youth contributed to improvements in curriculum and classroom practice. Similarly, Zeldin (2003) found that adult leaders in youth organizations reported making better decisions with increased confidence as they became more connected with youth through the processes of shared governance. Additionally, youth engagement led some organizations to reflect on issues of representation, which led to improved outreach to, and more appropriate programming for, diverse constituencies. There were ripple effects throughout the community. As some of the organizations gained visibility through their youth engagement and community outreach efforts, they established new standards for other organizations and local foundations. Why is youth participation important? Though youth participation itself can cost time and money in the short run, the process will result in activities that are based upon issues facing youth and upon their understanding of problems 14

and will be therefore more relevant to the needs of their generation. Their participation can lead to better targeting of benefits to youth, the group that can best identify the impact of specific laws and policy. It can also help to secure the sustainability of activities as youth, as primary stakeholders, will be more invested in their momentum. Types of participation range from consulting and consensus building, to partnership, evaluation and management. Youth participation in policy formation can help to highlight the link between public spending (budgets) and youth development, to sensitize people in government to the concerns of young people. In addition to influencing budgets so that they reflect the needs of youth, young people can also help to reform institutions that affect their lives. Institutions should provide mechanisms for youth to participate in deliberations on policy and to help guide and set priorities within such discussions. Youth should be engaged not just with governments or in policy-making but in all aspects of society, setting the stage for their continued participation throughout adulthood. What conditions help provide a good environment for youth to meaningfully participate in society? • Freedom to organize without restriction, prejudice or discrimination (freedom of association). • The ability to meet regularly without impediment (right of assembly). • The freedom to say what they want without fear of intimidation or reprisal (freedom of expression) and to stay informed (right to information). With improved access to information, young people can make better use of their opportunities to participate in decision-making. • The ability to receive support from, and collaborate with, other segments of civil society and the media. How can government facilitate the capacity building of youth organizations? • Allow youth organization to open bank accounts. • Provide space for student councils in all universities and secondary schools to represent the interests of students. • Provide safe and convenient meeting spaces for youth. • Facilitate national and international cooperation between youth organizations. What does it mean to describe good governance for youth participation? It means that youth derive a sense of empowerment from their participation in the decision-making process. While youth participation can be praised, it has to be actively promoted and thus it involves different approaches and methods. 15

How can government promote and include youth in government and policy formation? • Give young people increased access to the decision-making process and policy implementation at the local level. Many youth do not see a connection between politics and their daily realities; however, this does not mean that they are not interested in their futures. A process of building trust may be initiated when young people have increased access to the decision-making process. Young people can emerge from such exposure with increased self-esteem, better communication skills and better knowledge about their communities and effective leadership. Such opportunities are likely to arise in communitylevel activities, and youth are more likely to flourish within an institutional framework of representative local government. Thus, one element of the decentralization of government and a deepening of democracy is the institutionalization of opportunities for youth. • Offer civic education in schools for young people to learn about their rights and responsibilities as citizens. Research has shown that most youth have a strong desire to actively engage with their communities but know little about the decision-making process. By knowing more about the political system, young people will be better equipped to identify, support and monitor the elections of candidates who press for economic progress, social justice, and peace. • Assess the organizational structures of institutions so that youth may play a role in their core functions. Young people’s role should not be limited to that of bystanders or advisors. Institutional reform allows youth to participate on a consistent basis and not only in ad hoc or project-based activities. Organizations at every level have felt the pressure to change their structure at some time; adapting government structures to facilitate the participation of youth should be seen as part of the progress of their transformation over time. The government can appoint a focal point who is consistently accessible to youth organizations. However, participation itself can become over institutionalized and become a part of the bureaucratic routine. Being conscious of this possible outcome can serve to avoid complacency. • Explore the creation of national youth parliaments and local youth councils as mechanisms to include youth in the decision-making process. Some local governments have recognized these forums as permanent statutory bodies that guide the development of policies by serving as a resource for civil servants and legislators. They have also traditionally served as major channels for the cooperation and exchange of information with national governments. Networks of local youth councils can foster exchange between different cultures and regions of a country as well. • Include youth in the international gatherings like, for example, sending youth representatives in national delegations to the General Assembly and other relevant United Nations meetings. Youth delegates enrich the debate and policy dialogue and strengthen existing channels of communication and cooperation between governments and young people. An open and transparent selection process should target a diverse array of 16

youth organizations and include youth in the decision-making process itself. Selected youth should receive a briefing before their arrival so they are familiar with the procedures and work of the UN. Support for youth delegates should continue upon return to their home country—this support should help leverage their experience so that their role as a representative of their country in an inter-governmental forum may inspire other young people and have a continuing impact. • Promote the accessibility of elected officials to youth. Elected leaders should be encouraged to keep “office hours”, through an established minimum per month, designated specifically for an exchange with youth representatives and youth organizations. Young people may hear the leader’s proposals and hear feedback and offer avenues for follow-up to keep lines of communication open. As part of this effort, leaders should also participate in interviews with youth media. • Conduct a survey on the voter participation rates of eligible youth and launch campaigns to increase young voter participation among identified inactive youth. Voting is one powerful sign of youth connectedness. Though much of the information gathered on voter participation reflects national averages, disaggregated data from these national statistics can be helpful in reaching out to youth who are not participating. Organizations made up primarily of young people have specific needs. For example, they often face difficulties accumulating resources. To address this challenge, they should have access to financial services to open bank accounts. So that youth civil society can flourish, youth should be regularly permitted to use city premises, such as schools or meeting halls, to meet. There are different levels of youth participation. The higher the level of participation, the more control, influence and responsibility young people will have on their lives and the future of their communities. There is a difference between ad-hoc and structural participation. Ad-hoc refers to one-time participation in a certain project or conference, while structural participation represents a more continuous involvement over a longer period of time. There is also a difference between direct and indirect participation. Direct participation implies direct contact with the decisionmaking person or body. Indirect participation refers to having one’s opinion represented by someone else, for example by a youth council or youth parliament. Young people can decide on which level, and in what ways, to participate, although the choice may be dependent on the willingness of the level of government or organization and its representatives to listen to youth. Ideally, local and national governments should support young people in their endeavors to obtain resources and to meaningfully participate in youth empowerment programmes and in the formation and implementation of youth policy. Empowering young people means allowing them to make informed decisions that affect their lives. Empowerment is more than the opportunity to influence policy; it is a process of capacity building that includes and often requires access to education, employment, health, and resources. If youth are encouraged and given the tools to fully participate in society, they will become more 17

knowledgeable about their rights, more responsible citizens, and often more self-confident. Young people should be given the platform to take an active role in addressing key questions, such as what capacity deficiencies exist that are preventing effective local development and good governance. Enhancing opportunities for youth participation builds their skills and knowledge base and also serves to better cultivate policies that affect their lives. There is an emerging movement worldwide to give the youth a direct role in shaping policies and programs through the establishment of National Youth Councils (NYCs). For youth organizations they play an important facilitative role in the coordination of youth work, while for governments they serve as a go-to point for expertise on youth issues and concerns. And for the small group congregated over pasta at the UN cafeteria, composed of a team from the Canadianbased TakingITGlobal and from the European Youth Forum, their absence in certain countries is conspicuous. From the research conducted by International Research Project, There are three identified broad categories of NYCs around the world: 1. The most prominent form of NYC is the European model of an umbrella organization that facilitates the work of youth organizations nationally. These groups are in principle run by youth, are independent from the government, and operate in accordance with a democratic elective process. We have called these NYCs “Youth-driven NYCs”. 2. In Europe, most national governments have a structure, called the youth “authority” or “ministry,” to manage state relations to youth. To make things slightly confusing, in some countries, notably in Africa and Latin America, these government structures are also called “national youth councils.” In this report, we have distinguished those organizations that are closely tied to the state as “State-driven NYCs”. 3. Finally, alternatives to the NYC structure have evolved in some countries. We have called these “Other youth umbrella structures” and have included two examples. In Turkey, for instance, an annual Youth Parliament is held with equal regional representation from local youth councils from around the country. The working of the Parliament is facilitated by a youth-led NGO with domestic and international funding. In Ukraine, there have emerged several groups playing roles similar to that of a NYC. In the Philippines, the legal frameworks of the country state place high premium on youth participation. The 1987 Constitution, in its declaration of principles and state policies, explicitly states that “The State recognizes the vital role of the youth in nation-building and shall promote and protect their physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual and social well-being. It shall inculcate in the youth patriotism and nationalism, and encourage their involvement in public and civic affairs.” (Article II, Section 13). Albeit paternalistic in its tone, this declaration reflects a historical state policy of encouraging young people to become involved in politics.

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It was no other than former President Ferdinand Marcos who first enshrined youth participation in politics. The Kabataang Barangay (KB) or “Village Youth” was a youth organization at the grassroots level created in 1975. Essentially the youth wing of Marcos’ support base, the motives behind its creation had more to do with quelling opposition to the dictatorship rather than providing genuine youth representation in community affairs. The KB’s demise was concurrent with the return to constitutional democracy in the aftermath of the 1986 People Power Revolution. In its place, several openings for youth participation were brought about by the increased democratic space, from national-level decision-making processes down to the community (see Sangguniang Kabataan [SK] on page xx-xx).

The National Youth Commission (NYC) The Philippines National Youth Commission is one of the NYCs in the world which falls under the category of “state-driven NYCs.” It was established by virtue of the RA 8044 or the “Youth in Nation-Building Act” of 1995, hailed as landmark legislation in the promotion of youth welfare. NYC acts as the secretariat of the Sangguniang Kabataan National Federation. Tasked to “provide the leadership in the formulation of policies and in the setting of priorities and direction of all youth promotion programs and activities,” NYC has two notable programs: • The Integrated Sangguniang Kabataan Organizational Leadership and Reorientation (ISKOLAR) Program was expected to fulfill the NYC’s mandate to train youth leaders. Unfortunately, ISKOLAR only reached a limited number of areas due to budget woes and poor information dissemination. • The Green Brigade was designed to encourage the youth to participate in environmental issues. Green Brigade covered more areas compared to ISKOLAR but was also hampered by budget limitations, lack of coordination among government agencies, and problems with project continuity given the fast turnover of personnel at key leadership positions. These are compounded by the internal problems of the NYC, namely the lack of teamwork, a nonstrategic approach to program implementation, and the capability to handle a multitude of tasks. The NYC has become more of a planning and monitoring body than an implementer of programs. In essence, the NYC is the government arm that advocates the youth’s causes from within the bureaucracy. It coordinates and partners with agencies that are already implementing youth programs. It also acts as “repository” and “clearing house” on youth concerns in aid of policymaking, providing feedback and input to legislators and government executives.

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The NYC was involved in advocating for the Magna Carta of student rights.5 This proposed legislative measure provides for the participation of student council representatives in decisionmaking that affects the rights and welfare of students, including tuition fee hikes. Other current programs are the Youth Entrepreneurship Program to jumpstart young businesses through revolving loan facilities and the Kapit-Bisig Laban sa Kahirapan, which provides short-term employment for out-of-school youth to address pressing needs of this sub-sector. Significantly, the NYC also hosts the Medium Term Youth Development Plan (MTYDP) secretariat. The first Medium Term Youth Development Plan as a derivative product of two and a Medium Term Youth Development Plan 2005-2010. National Youth Parliament (NYP) Another product of the “Youth in Nation-Building Act,” the National Youth Parliament is another innovation in youth representation. It has been convened every two years since 1996. The responsibilities of youth parliamentarians are to: • act as local/sectoral coordinators of the NYC for a two-year term; • liaise and network for the NYC and provide feedback in line with MTYDP; • participate actively in youth activities and projects; and • assume the role of youth advocates in their respective areas and sectors. Sorely missing in this official “job description” is how delegates ensure that they are indeed representative of the youth in their localities. There are no provisions on consulting constituents and establishing accountability mechanisms. The same can be said of the national selection process of convention delegates. The NYC singlehandedly selects youth parliamentarians on the basis of geographical and gender balances. The only stated requirements are the age limit (below 30 years of age) and people who are not guilty of crimes of “moral turpitude.” It is important to note, however, that the resulting resolutions submitted to the NYC are merely recommendatory in nature and therefore may or may not be incorporated into youth policies. There has been no assessment of this mechanism since its inception.

5

The House of Representative failed to pass the Magna Carta of Student Rights. Last year (2007) Akbayan Party List filed another bill called the Student Rights And Welfare (STRAW) Bill.

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Youth at the National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC) The National Anti-Poverty Commission (NAPC) is another hallmark of the post-authoritarian era. It was created by virtue of Republic Act 8425, also known as the Social Reform and Poverty Alleviation Act of 1997. Its mission is to institutionalize the participation of basic sectors, including youth sector, in the anti-poverty initiatives of the government. The President of the Republic chairs the body. There are two vice chairpersons: one from government and another representing the 14 basic sector representatives.6 As with the other sectors, the Youth Sectoral Assembly elects a Sectoral Council among themselves. From this Council, one Youth Sectoral Representative represents the sector at the NAPC top-level policy-making and coordinating structure, together with 20 national executive government agencies and umbrella organizations of local government units. Aside from its coordinative role between government and private sector stakeholders in development, the NAPC’s overall mandates and functions are to recommend policy and other measures to “ensure responsive implementation of the government’s Social Reform Agenda and the meaningful participation of the basic sectors.” It is also tasked to monitor the implementation and management of related programs and advocates for the mobilization of resources for poverty alleviation, including working with local government units. But up to now, there has not been a comprehensive assessment of the impact NAPC has had on improving the lives of poor people. Certainly the lessons of the NAPC experience on making the poor people’s voices heard will be useful for designing appropriate venues for youth participation in the future. Youth in the National Legislature In the 12th Philippine Congress, only 14 out of 236 national legislators are below the age of 35. This is equivalent to about 6 percent of the total (while only 14 percent were females of all age groups). Of these 14 representatives, at least 6 are members of prominent political dynasties, whose older relatives sit in the Senate or other branches of the government. Introduced in 1998, the party-list system of representation provides an inroad for broad-based electoral politics at the national level. It reserves 20 percent of congressional seats for groups representing marginalized and underprivileged sectors. The youth are one of the sectors identified in the Party-List Act.7 6

7

The 14 basic sectors are: farmers and landless rural workers, artisan, fisher folks, urban poor, indigenous cultural communities/indigenous peoples, workers in the formal sector and migrant workers, workers in the informal sector, women, persons with disabilities, victims of disasters and calamities, senior citizens, NGOs, cooperatives, and of course, children, youth and students.

The Party-List Act (Republic Act 7941) defines a sectoral organization as a group of qualified voters bound together by similar physical attributes or characteristics, or by employment, interests or concerns. The twelve

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However, no youth formation has yet been able to hurdle the 2 percent threshold to earn a seat in Congress. In 1998, the votes of all seven registered youth party-list organizations taken together amounted to a measly 4 percent of the total votes cast for the party-list. The most successful youth party-list to date is Anak ng Bayan (“Children of the Country”), which garnered 1.69 percent of the total votes cast in 2004—but still not enough to win a single seat. It was only in the short period prior to 1998 that Sectoral Representatives, the forerunners of the present partylist system, also included Youth Representatives who were appointed by the President of the Republic. National Movement of Young Legislators (NMYL) The National Movement of Young Legislators (NMYL) came into existence in 1991, as a formation comprising vice governors, vice mayors, board members, city and municipal councilors and Sangguniang Kabataan presidents from ages 18 to 35. According to the movement’s website, such young officials comprised around one third of the total local bureaucracy in 1997. The stated objectives of the NMYL are: 1. To organize and consolidate local young legislators nationwide; 2. To advance the cause and interests of the youth in particular and the people in general; 3. To promote and work for the legislative measures which push forth the rights of our youth, particularly in the areas of: equality education, progressive culture and arts, decent jobs, a humane and peaceful environment, and freedom of speech and expression; and 4. To work for a clean, honest, and service oriented government. The organization stands for the principles of empowerment, political pluralism, equality and “genuine nationalism.” The declaration of principles is an interesting mix of progressive and conservative expressions. For example, “genuine nationalism” is framed in terms of young legislators representing the “hope of the Fatherland.” The section on political pluralism, by contrast, calls for “alternative politics to transform Philippine politics as to accommodate a greater variety of ideas and/or ideologies.” Equally encouraging is the description of NMYL’s appeal for equality: “Because traditional politics thrives on inequality, alternative politics seeks to correct this problem by promoting greater equality among people not only in the politics sphere, but also in the socio-economic spheres. Electoral reforms aimed at “de-linking” money power (or greater chances of winning elections) are part and parcel of the program of alternative politics.”

sectors enumerated are: labor, peasant, urban poor, indigenous cultural communities, elderly, handicapped, women, youth, overseas workers, fisher folks, veterans and professionals.

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But again, no updated records on the NMYL’s achievements or regular activities were available at the time of writing. Political Parties Political parties with youth wings are the Liberal Party and Aksyon Demokratiko, which are parties identified with mainstream politicians. The party of President Arroyo, the Lakas Christian-Muslim Democrats, also formed a youth team in the run-up to the 2004 elections. However, this formation merely functioned as vote generation machinery. Unlike in other countries, Filipino youth have yet to come forward as a unitary force in pushing for a youth electoral agenda. Among alternative parties, the Akbayan Citizens’ Action Party is one of the few parties with a youth program and legislative agenda. Organizationally, Akbayan youth are represented by their own sectoral representative in the National Council, the second-highest governing and policy-making body of the party. Last year (2007), Akbayan Party List filed a bill called the Student Rights And Welfare (STRAW) Bill, a proposed measure that would hopefully reinvigorate a movement that has always been crucial to Philippine democracy. The bill will essentially affirms the rights and freedoms accorded to students by the Constitution and other international human rights agreements but, unfortunately, not yet found expression in our laws and in the government's programs. Rules and Regulations Age requirements for public office vary by position: • The Philippine Constitution states that to qualify for senatorial elections, one must be at least 35 years of age; • Candidates for District Representatives at the Lower House of Congress must be at least 25 years old; • Candidates at the provincial level (governor, vice governor, board members) must be at least 23 years of age on Election Day; • At the city and municipal level, candidates for mayor and vice mayor must be at least 23 years of age on Election Day, while candidates for city or municipal legislative councils must be at least 18 years of age on Election Day; • At the barangay level (barangay captain and councilors), candidates must be at least 18 years of age on Election Day. • Sangguniang Kabataan (see p. xx-xx) must be at least 15 years of age, but not more than 17 years of age on Election Day. 23

The 1973 Constitution amended the earlier suffrage provision of the 1935 Constitution, thus lowering voting age from 21 years of age to 18. For SK elections, all Filipino from 15 to 17 years of age are eligible to vote. Sadly, the Philippine system is not designed to encourage electoral participation. The enlistment of voters is neither automatic nor mandatory. Consequently, there are little efforts by the Commission of Elections (COMELEC) to educate voters on the necessity and requirement of registration. In recent history, this has led to massive disenfranchisement of some 4.5 million young voters8 who were not able to register in time for the May 2001 elections, since there was only minimal public information on the deadline of registration. There was some improvement in the run-up to the 2004 elections, as 4.2 out of 4.9 million eligible new voters were able to register. The Reality of Philippine Politics As can be seen from the discussion above, the Philippine political system is not closed to the entry of young people. Existing legal frameworks ensure broad participation and consultation in the policy process by various sectors. Reality, however, does not quite live up to the spirit of these laws. Perhaps more than individual political will, the greatest obstacle to meaningful youth participation in politics is a pervasive political culture of personality and money politics. In the electoral arena, the highly personalistic nature of campaigning often prohibits the entry of new political players. Power contests are still dominated by members of established political clans who field candidates at various levels from the Congressional districts to the provincial and city levels. Name recall and financial resources are foremost factors here. In the Philippines, political parties and platforms are largely incidental. Voters are not asked to vote for parties, but write down the names of the candidates of their choice on the ballot. In such a setting, it helps to have a familiar last name and well-financed campaign machinery. And so, it is not uncommon to find that young politicians who are second and third generation descendants of prominent politicians. It is interesting to note that during the 11th Congress, from 1998-2001, a handful of young legislators gravitated into an informal bloc in Congress. All of them were in their 30s, well educated and hail from elite families. In keeping with the typical Filipino penchant for popular culture, they were dubbed as the “Spice Boys.” Their youthful projection received much media attention. Yet in the end, they did not do much to break away from the traditional fold.

8

Estimates from the First Time Voters Project, 2004.

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Even the bureaucracy is not spared from the influence of political dynasties. The incumbent appointee to the NYC, Chairperson Paolo Benigno A. Aquino IV, is the nephew of the famed martyr Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino Jr. The NYC Chairperson under President Ramos was Amina Rasul-Bernardo, the daughter of former Senator Santanina Rasul who is from a powerful Mindanao political clan. In such a system, political education often lags behind. Politics, to ordinary people, is a combination of popularity contest and the calculated outcome of patronage exchanges. It is also common knowledge that if need be, intimidation and threats can do the trick in hotly contested elections. Where pragmatic gains dictate the conduct of elections, public debates on platforms and issues become secondary. This has bred a deep sense of cynicism among ordinary voters, in that they feel that it does not really matter who their elected officials are, since “all of them are corrupted by the system” anyway. At the same time, however, a growing reform constituency is steadily contesting these old norms. Various elements of the progressive left movement together with reform-oriented civil society formations are strongly advocating political and electoral reforms aimed at re-designing the rules of the game and holding politicians accountable to democratic principles. By and large, these advocates have come from the student movement that mobilized against Marcos in the late 1960s and early 1970s, also dubbed as the “First Quarter Storm.” Others were politicized during the anti-dictatorship movement that culminated in the first People Power event of 1986. To the extent that the present generation of young activists is becoming part of this movement, the future of Philippine politics might hold more promises.

IV. Youth Participation in Local Governance It is important that today's youth be encouraged to take interest in local government decisionmaking activities and that opportunities be created to foster civic participation by young people. Local governments are closest to the neighbourhoods and communities in which their citizens live and are often the most visible to youth. They have more information on what is happening in terms of systems and procedures, structures and resources for supporting young people’s participation in public decision-making. This is hardly surprising as it is at local government level that public services are primarily delivered to citizens and where day-to-day contact with young people as citizens and service users is a central raison d’etre. They therefore have an indispensable role in fostering the inclusion of young people into society. The local level represents the context in which youth can, generally speaking, be most efficacious. Firstly, issues that are closest to youth (such as schooling, public services and transportation) are generally managed or at least implemented by local governments. Further, Mayors are by definition physically and symbolically closer to citizens - they tend to be more able and willing to make themselves available to their constituents, young ones included. Many Municipal Youth Councils already exist, in a wide variety of incarnations, and in some cases, work very closely with their Mayor and local government administration in terms of policy and 25

programs in the area. This is not to say, even in the best of cases, that youth participation has been truly optimized. Local governments are immediately responsible for upholding the rights of youth, ensuring community cohesion, a healthy environment, a good quality of life, and sustaining social and economic development. Local governments must provide political leadership and a vision for the future for both individuals and civil society organizations. They need to encourage the participation of youth not just in municipal policy making but also at the family, school and local community levels. Locally elected officials and administrators sometimes tend to work in isolated spheres. To remedy this and raise their awareness, they should consistently engage with youth groups and those who have everyday interactions with youth, such as social workers, teachers, and health care providers, with the aim of addressing needs and improving the provision of services. This process can also serve to help evaluate the services in terms of their specific impact on the lives of youth and to increase the transparency of funding and decision-making. A lot of work of local government and its civil society partners is carried on without an explicit recognition of children and youth (think about transportation planning, sanitation, zoning regulations, for instance.). Policy making, planning and resource allocation are often viewed as benefiting some “universal” citizen, without regard to age or gender. A municipal official in the Philippines, quoted in one of the papers (Aguirre), put it very clearly: “We don’t differentiate the concerns of children and youth from those of adults. We see the project as a whole and cannot target particular groups of people.” We know from experience, however, that the actions of local government and its partners are not neutral, and that this hypothetical universal citizen may share few of the needs of a 2-year-old boy or a 15-year-old girl. The participation of young people is only one approach to addressing this problem and there are many other steps that need to be taken. One of the hallmarks of “good governance” is its inclusiveness and attention to equity and participation for all groups. But even progressive governments that refer carefully in their policies to “women and men,” may express an unwitting bias against children and youth. This is not unique to government. This bias can run deep in many quarters. Even in discussions among committed development professionals who are fully aware of the benefits of taking gender into account, it is not uncommon for interest to fade if the topic of children and youth comes up. The unspoken message is that bringing children and youth into the discussion is a not-quite-relevant tangent—that surely their needs are met if their parents’ needs are met. To some degree, this is true. But it is also true that boys and girls of different ages experience the world in particular ways, and may be affected in particular ways (sometimes profound and long-lasting) by a range of decisions and actions. Responses to children and youth by local government can depend on political relationships and alliances. It is small wonder that poor children and youth’s needs are often neglected. Children and some youth don’t vote, and poor children and youth are doubly marginalized. Political alliances are significant in ensuring attention to particular priorities. Barangay Payatas (in the Philippines), for example, was doing well on resource allocations in part because of the friendly relations between the mayor and the barangay captain. Cabannes also indicates, in his 26

assessment of four participatory experiences in South America, that “the mayor's leadership during the initiative, or that of his or her representatives, has been essential in determining the disposition of other local participants, and has given legitimacy to the decisions and agreements reached, as well as the implementation of specific projects.” But both Aguirre and Cabannes make it clear that these political alliances can be a chancy strategy when it comes to longer-term success. Examples from the CFCS database also describe situations where a change in administration resulted in the abandonment of a previously favored project. As Clements points out, “While bodies like UNICEF might consider a ‘Child Friendly Cities’ agreement to have been made with a particular city, the city itself may consider this agreement to have been made with a particular mayoral individual and may have mixed feelings about sustaining the agreement once that individual is no longer in office.” The papers by Cabannes and Barceló demonstrate that even if a project manages to survive through a change in administration, it may change quite radically. A more productive approach appears to be an effort to sidestep these tenuous political alliances in favor of something more solid and enduring. Recommendations in this regard have been numerous, and come especially from experiences in Latin America. Ronald Ahnen, in his discussion of four municipal-level Child and Adolescent Rights Councils in Brazil (referenced in the CFCS overview), points out that, while the sympathy of the mayor is a significant advantage, there are also distinct benefits to political independence on the part of these councils. It allows them to deal effectively with both opposition and ruling parties and to weather changes in administration. A well-organized NGO coalition, Ahnen argues, can make all the difference in ensuring that a council does not become a rubber stamp for the mayor’s office. A good example of children and youth participation in local governance is the children participatory budget council (CPBC) in Barra Mansa, a special project established in 1998, which aims to foster citizenship among children and youth aged between nine and 15, drawing on the experience with participatory budgeting by city and municipal councils in Brazil.9 Children elect their peers to a children’s council, which has at its disposal a small portion of the municipal budget equivalent to about US$125,000,210 for use on the priorities determined by this council (Brazilian Institute for Municipal Administration 2000). The project, established through a municipal law and implemented by the city council under the direct responsibility of the mayor’s office, is part of a broader action plan developed by Barra Mansa city council, which aims to promote and institutionalize the effective participation of children and youth, drawing in all age groups, including teenagers, both to encourage their civic engagement and to recognize their role and importance as both individuals and citizens (Urban Management Programme-Latin America and Caribbean 2000). It is supported by the Municipal 9

For more details of participatory budgeting, see Menegat, Rualdo (2002), "Environmental Management in Porto Alegre," Environment and Urbanization 14(2); also Souza, Celina (2001), "Participatory Budgeting in Brazilian Cities: Limits and Possibilities in Building Democratic Institutions,” Environment and Urbanization 13(1), 159184. 10 Barra Mansa city council allocated 150,000 Reais to the children’s participatory budget council in 1999, R$150,000 in 2000 and has committed R$180,000 for 2001.

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Secretariat of Education through school teachers and head teachers, neighborhood residents’ associations, church groups, and delegates and councilors of the adult participatory budget council. Participatory management councils are highlighted in the 1988 Brazilian Constitution as “...one of the principal tools of public participation for the reorientation of public management” (IBAM 2000). Integrating public participation into municipal budgeting is a process that is being developed by a number of city councils in Brazil which, like Barra Mansa, consider participatory budgets to be “...a democratic way of administering public funds… [as] it is public money, the budget is made public, so the planning process should also be public” (UMP-LAC 2000). The participatory budget councils are seen as real fora for the practice of citizenship and public participation in defining and accompanying the implementation of public policies. Working with public budgets11 enables a range of issues to be addressed that are extremely important for the development of children and teenagers as citizens who are both aware and capable of participating in the social, political and economic affairs of their city and country. Through the CPBC, Barra Mansa city council affirms children’s and teenagers’ rightful status as “full citizens”, as established in the children’s statute. The experience of the children’s participatory budget council also shows that it is possible to carry out urban management with children, rather than only for children (Children’s Participatory Budget Council). In Asia and the Pacific, which has one third of world’s children and youth, experiences varies from country to country: The region is diverse in terms of languages, cultures, religions and political systems. The economies of many countries in East and Southeast Asia are growing rapidly, while other countries, especially those in the Pacific, are seeing very limited investments. Among the main factors that shape the context for child and youth participation in the region are the economic situation of a locality; the political system; social relationships, including gender relations and attitudes towards children; and the nature of the education system. The following paragraphs explore these contexts. China and Vietnam are states with restrictions on media freedom and political expression, limited space for civil society, and no independent human rights organizations (Young 2003). Both countries are paternalistic states that strongly emphasize the responsibilities of citizens towards the state. The state, represented by the government, in turn earns its legitimacy by providing political stability and the structural conditions for economic prosperity. This hierarchical and authoritarian relationship between state and citizen is mirrored in the relationships between parents and children and between teachers and students (SalazarVolkmann 2005).

11

The New Aurelio Portuguese dictionary defines budgeting as: “calculation of the revenue that should be collected from a financial exercise and the expenses that should be made by the public administration, organized by definition by the government and submitted to the approval of the relevant legislative bodies.” To budget is defined as: “to evaluate, estimate or calculate.”

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As a result of rapid economic growth in Vietnam and China, young people’s participation in the labor market is generally high, compared to other parts of the world. Children are under pressure to acquire a good education in order to take full advantage of existing economic opportunities. Primary and secondary school students, especially those in urban areas, have limited free time to spend on social activities that are not directly relevant for passing their academic examinations. Levels of political activity and politicization among young people tend to be low. The globalizing economies in East Asia are creating demands for a new type of workforce. In order to capture new markets and to move beyond low-cost and low-tech jobs, the Chinese education system, for example, is moving away from rote learning and is beginning to encourage students to think critically and autonomously, and develop their creativity. This requires significant changes in the relationships between teachers and students and more room for students’ individual expression. The new Chinese education system supports some of the values underlying children’s participation, and to some extent this makes it easier to promote children’s expression and decision making in school and at home. West et al.’s article, “From Performance to Practice: Changing the Meaning of Child Participation in China” analyzes how children’s participation and children’s roles are changing in the context of the broader changes happening in China’s economy, social relations and education system. These political, social, economic and cultural forces provide the context for child and youth participation in China and Vietnam and in other countries with similar political and social characteristics. These are, of course, generalizations; there are wide variations between countries and significant differences within each country. Some of these factors support, while others hinder, child and youth participation. The situation is very different in a country such as the Philippines, which has a multi-party democracy, press freedom, a diverse and vibrant civil society, and independent human rights institutions. Democratic spaces for political action and social activism are much greater here than in China or Vietnam. The Philippines is also offering some of the greatest opportunities for exploring and experimenting with children’s and young people’s participation in the region. (Cambodia is another country in the region where children’s participation has benefited from expanded democratic spaces.) Protacio-de Castro et al.’s “Walking the Road Together: Issues and Challenges in Facilitating Children's Participation in the Philippines” presents a critical review of NGO and government experiences with children’s participation in the Philippines. With the exception of North Korea and Myanmar, where opportunities for child and youth participation are highly circumscribed, other countries in East and Southeast Asia tend to fall somewhere along the spectrum between the two extremes marked at one end by China, and by the Philippines on the other. The situation in the Pacific differs in significant ways from that of East and Southeast Asia. Pacific island nations are in situations of acute economic distress and face multiple development challenges. Youth unemployment and underemployment are high, while education systems are often focused on academic learning for non-existing white-collar jobs. While youth unemployment is high in some other parts of the region, the disenfranchisement of young people in the Pacific is more likely than elsewhere to turn into violence that can destabilize entire 29

nations, as the recent disturbances in the Solomon Islands and in Timor-Leste show. This is just one of the many reasons making young people’s participation a critical necessity. Other significant differences include the strength of traditional family networks and social pressures to provide material support to relatives (e.g., the wantok system in Melanesia). Although significant progress has been made in developing participatory initiatives with young people, no regular mechanisms have yet been established for their involvement in governance. While transport costs are high between islands in the Pacific, the widespread use of English and similarities in culture and history are some of the factors that can facilitate networking across Pacific island nations. In the Philippines even before it became a signatory to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN CRC), it had already enacted a law to ensure that the voices of children and young people were heard on issues that directly concerned them. Actually the Philippines has been making investment in youth for more than two decades now. The right of children and young people to participate in governance has been recognized as early as the 1970s by the Philippine government through Presidential Decree 603 or the Child and Youth Welfare Code. It is further enshrined in the Republic Act No. 7160, also known as the Local Government Code of 1991, which formed the Katipunan ng Kabataan (KK) to tap and harness the energy, enthusiasm, and idealism of young people. Those aged 15 to 17 years old in a barangay could register in the KK and have the right to vote and be voted into a governing body called the Sangguniang Kabataan (SK). The SK chairperson assumes a seat in the Barangay Council, and is given full powers and authority like any member of the Council. R.A. 7160 is now more than a decade old. Policymakers are divided in determining whether or not the SK has served its purpose. Some argue that the SK introduced young people to political patronage and maneuvering instead of nurturing and strengthening idealism. There is also a perception that the SK has not engendered genuine youth participation since most of its members hail from well-to-do or political families. On the other hand, there are those who believe that the SK’s full potential has yet to be explored. In the 2003 Second National Consultation Workshop on Child Soldiers in the Philippines, participants identified the SK as one of the potential partners toward increased youth participation in the campaign against the use of children as soldiers.12 The National Anti-Poverty Commission - Youth and Students (NAPC-YS) believes that the SK should not be abolished, but reformed instead. With the necessary policy and institutional reforms, the SK can still live up to its potential of being a democratizing institution that effectively responds to local youth issues and concerns and ensures that the youth and students are part of vital decision-making processes in the community.

12

Proceedings on “Enhancing Partnerships Towards Effective Strategies on DDRR,” Second National Consultation Workshop on the Use of Child Soldiers in the Philippines, 09-12 November 2003, Lauremar Beach Hotel, Opol, Misamis Oriental. Philippine Coalition to Stop the Use of Children as Soldiers/Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)/UNICEF- Manila.

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Youth participation in governance: from the 1970s to the present 1970s 1. 2.

PD 684 created the Kabataang Barangay composed of all youth 15-18 years old. The Marcos administration expanded the age bracket to 15-21 years old and created the Pambansang Katipunan ng Kabataang Barangay under the Office of the President. Critics believe this countered militant youth activity and only exposed the youth to graft, corruption and opportunism.

1980s 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The Kabataang Barangay became less popular with the youth. Youth turned to student activism. The League of Filipino Students (LFS) lobbied for the re-establishment of student councils and other rights lost during Martial Law. Student activism waned after the EDSA revolution. Konsultahang Kabataan was organized in February 1987; the NYC was proposed. The Aquino administration created instead the Presidential Council for Youth Affairs (PCYA) with limited powers.

1990s 1. 2. 3.

The National Youth Commission (NYC) was created as a national agency. The 1991 Local Government Code abolished Kabataang Barangay and created the Katipunan ng Kabataan and the Sangguniang Kabataan that covers youth ages 15-24 years old. Age bracket changed to 15-18 years old.

present... 1. 2. 3.

Age bracket again changed to 15-17 years old. The 2001 Regional Youth Summit tackled problems in SK. House Bill 185 aims to replace the SK system with “Youth Sector Representatives.”

These debates led to proposals to abolish or change the SK. House Bill 185, which seeks to abolish the SK, was filed in Congress. At the same time, an SK Reform Bill is being pushed to change the SK system. As these proposals are not based on empirical studies, the Department of Interior and Local Government sought the assistance of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)-Manila. UNICEF-Manila funded a systematic and nationwide assessment of the SK’s impact on the youth as basis for more rational and effective recommendations. UNICEF-Manila commissioned the University of the Philippines’ Center for Integrative and Development Studies Psychosocial Trauma and Human Rights Program (UP CIDS PST) to look into the effectiveness of SK councils across the country. Researchers used an extensive nationwide survey as primary tool, and validated findings through a study of related literature, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions where the youth actively participated.

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The following is the result of said assessment: SK accomplishments Despite the weaknesses of the SK, there have been success stories that show its potential as an important organization. Like the KB, the SK has produced a crop of local government officials, as well as national legislators. SK Federations at all levels have also been consistent in celebrating the annual Linggo ng Kabataan (Youth Week), a yearly weeklong event when youth members get the opportunity to act as officials of all local government and national agencies for a week. Other concrete examples of the SK’s potential as a vehicle for youth participation: • Some SK officials in the barangay and municipal levels consistently involve the KK and other youth in consultations and project development. • A former SK chairperson mentored his successor in developing projects that went beyond holding the usual summer sports-fest such as basketball tournaments for young men in barangays. • Another SK official coordinated with her fellow SK officials and with proper agencies to initiate a reforestation project in her area. Public perceptions on the SK A study showed that both youth and representatives from government agencies do not have a thorough understanding of the SK and its activities. The SK’s most significant function–the ability to make policies and resolutions–did not make it to the list of top three SK roles in the survey. Based on the Youth Attributes, Participation, and Service Providers (YAPS) study NYC conducted in 2004, the youth believe that the SK should create role models for them, and organize sports and youth activities. Asked the same question, government officials said the SK should: 1) Develop and initiate youth programs; 2) Serve as role models for the youth; and 3) Legislate measures to promote youth development. The study revealed that the youth’s interests vary across age brackets: those who are 15-24 years old shared the same level of interest in sports and recreation, studies and employment; while those between 25-30 are more interested in studies, work/ employment, and skills upgrading. 32

In terms of priorities, the 15-17 age bracket ranked studies as top priority, and those in brackets 18-24 and 25-30 said family was their top priority. In addition, the 25-30 age group ranked the need to find a decent job as second priority. The study also showed that the youth are concerned about three main issues: • Health: related to drug and substance use and abuse, and sexual risk behaviors; • Education: access to affordable education and to tertiary education, as well as accessibility to newer forms of information, communication and technology; and • Employment: job availability as the top concern of those in the 18-24 age group. None of the participants in the study raised concerns over youth participation issues. However, those who attended the 2001 Regional Youth Summits raised the following: • Government-related problems; • The SK; • Lack of active participation of the youth; • Lack of information on programs for the youth; • Insufficient and inefficient budget allocation; and • Suppression of student rights Studies also show that the youth are worried most about corruption at the barangay and municipal levels. They are concerned about abusive politicians who engage in nepotism and narco-politics and meddle in election results via vote buying. Some participants complained local government authorities use SK officials as ‘tools’ in advancing their political agenda. They are dismayed over the lack of existing programs for the youth, and lack of support in terms of funding and implementation of existing youth programs that limit their projects to sports activities and street-cleaning initiatives. At the Regional Youth Summits, participants candidly said there was lack of control and autonomy in the SK in the barangay such that SK leaders become mere ‘consultative bodies’ without real power to implement their desired youth programs. They say some political interventions stunt the potential of the SK. SK officials are also generally perceived as incompetent, inefficient, and lacking initiative. These concerns reveal the disillusionment, indifference and apathy of the youth sector towards the government and youth-directed government programs. The low levels of youth participation 33

in the SK and government-related programs, and the popular view that the government is selfserving, manifest these concerns. This lack of faith in the SK could be borne out of the SK officials’ lack of understanding of their duties and responsibilities and the SK structure. They are also unable to navigate through the bureaucracy, create a development plan and budget, and encourage other youth to participate. Other studies recommend changing the age bracket, currently at 15-17 years old, because of the youth’s political immaturity. At this age, the youth are also more concerned about studies rather than civic duties. Abolition of SK Several youth groups have opposed moves to abolish the SK. The Student Council Alliance of the Philippines (SCAP) said the SK is a necessary mechanism “to uphold the interest and welfare of the youth sector through a democratically established institution for governance.” It said abolishing the SK is equivalent to “the repression of the democratic rights and welfare” of the youth. Specifically, the SCAP seeks to strengthen youth participation through the SK system by: • preventing the abolition or phase out of the SK; • strengthening the KK and extending the voting populace of the SK to include those in the 18 to 21-year-old age bracket; • pushing for necessary reforms in the electoral system, particularly the modernization of the Commission on Elections to allow automation of election and voter's registration; and • establishing a collegial body to review, assess and recommend proposals to further strengthen and promote meaningful youth representation and involvement. While allegations of corruption, inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the SK may not be true for all SK Councils, the Region 7 Delegates Corps of the 5th National Youth Parliament also said that the move to abolish the SK can be remedied by reforms. In a statement, the group said the government would “retrogress from its significant and notable achievement of institutionalizing wider youth participation and genuine representation” if the SK were to be abolished. Results and findings Among the key findings of the research is that the SK’s performance of its functions is generally weak. This is especially true in terms of coming up with legislations, submitting reports and holding consultations with its constituents. There is also a mismatch between the needs of the youth and current SK projects. 34

On the other hand, the study also identified the strengths of the SK, including its ability to source alternative funding, and hold active consultation and coordination with various national and local government units and NGOs. Respondents said the SK uses its limited funds efficiently and affects the youth situation and the communities positively. In understanding the experience of Filipino children and the youth in the SK and in gauging its effectiveness, it is important to highlight the following: • While involvement in the SK has both positive and negative effects on young people, the youth reported a generally positive impact (e.g. greater appreciation for country and service, improved leadership skills) from their personal experience working with the SK. • There is lack of knowledge among the public on the duties of the SK. This may account for the positive perception of the SK’s relevance and contributions to the community and youth situation. This is despite the disparity between the youth’s most pressing needs and interests, and the SK’s projects. • Aside from the low level of children and youth participation in the SK, there is also a low level of understanding and appreciation for children’s rights and young people’s participation. • Degree and quality of support, supervision, and assistance from local government officials and organizations are extremely important to the success of the SK. Clear local and national policies on youth participation and procedures have tremendous effect on the youth. Poor awareness and understanding of legal frameworks affects elections and the release of funds, among other things, that can cause SK councils to function poorly. Individual situations and roles of SK members, such as school and work, also affect their performance. These findings led to the conclusion that the potentials of the SK are not being maximized, resulting in projects and programs largely limited to sports and infrastructure development, and environmental protection. The research also includes case studies that highlight principles of good practices among youth organizations. While negative perceptions, weaknesses or ambiguities in policies and the ineffectiveness or non-implementation of these policies weigh down the SK, it still has great potential to become a true venue for youth participation in governance. Through the SK, young people become assets and active forces in solving community problems. Measuring SK’s effectiveness The study gauges the effectiveness of SK participation based on its functions, as mandated by law. Section 426 of the Local Government Code states that the SK is expected to: 35

A. Promulgate resolutions necessary to carry out the objectives of the youth in the barangay in accordance with the applicable provisions of this Code. The SK’s performance of its legislative function is weak. Out of 30 accomplishment reports in the NYC’s records, only 12 made the cut for this study. Of the 12 reports, only three showed legislative acts as accomplishments. Of the three, only one submitted a copy of the resolution passed. However, the outputs also showed SK representatives are capable of coming up with highly relevant ordinances. The immense potential of the youth parliament to engage in legislative action was showcased during the Linggo ng Kabataan. One SK federation passed an ordinance observing curfew hours for minors while another pushed for the support of SK-initiated sports programs from the local government. The third SK federation listed 28 resolutions on volunteerism, education, livelihood, infrastructure and interaction among various youth groups.

Table 2. SK Federation Projects Based on Accomplishment Reports Actual Number Issue/Concern Actual Number of Projects by Addressed of Projects by SK SK Provincial Municipal/City Federations Federations Sports 84 30 Infrastructure 17 50 Environment 33 34 Entertainment 8 26 Capacity-Building 4 22 Promoting Youth 4 9 Participation (includes Linggo ng Kabataan) Health 2 9 Vices 5 6 Education 6 3 Livelihood 1 4 Charity (gift-giving) 1 2 Total Number of Projects 165 195

Total Percentage of Projects

These included the following: • tobacco ban for minors; • creation of bicycle lanes; • the provision of a legitimate venue for street vendors; • sanctions for establishments that dump chemical wastes into rivers; 36

31.67 18.61 18.61 9.44 7.22 3.61

3.05 3.05 2.5 1.38 0.83 100

• housing; and • training for teachers

From 2002-2004, the SK Provincial Federation President of Cebu authored five ordinances on these issues: 1. Provision of support to continue hiring new teachers; 2. Request for the construction of city and municipal libraries; 3. Monitoring of educational facilities, student-teacher ratio, NEAT and NSAT results; 4. Construction of a separate facility for children in conflict with the law (CICL), as well as male and female detainees; 5. Creation of an educational and livelihood training center in the provincial rehabilitation center; and 6. Promotion of peace and order among rival fraternities B. Initiate programs designed to enhance the social, political, economic, cultural, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and physical development of members; There is a mismatch between SK projects and what the youth really need. Based on the survey, the top three SK projects deal with sports concerns, environmental issues, and infrastructure. Programs on education and training, health and nutrition, anti-drug abuse and livelihood were hardly mentioned. SK councils have also failed to follow the required budget allocations mandated by the 2001 SK Constitution and By-Laws. Each of these projects should have a 10-percent (10%) share of the total funds: Green Brigade, livelihood programs, capacity building, and anti-drug abuse campaigns. The review of accomplishment reports shows SK councils had spent their funds mostly on sports-related, environmental, and infrastructure projects. They also focused on beauty pageants, talent shows, dances, social gatherings, music band contests and the like. Participants in the study say projects that address the vital problems of the youth, such as education, health, livelihood, and vices, were lacking. C. Hold fundraising activities, proceeds of which shall be tax-exempt and accrued to the general fund of the SK; 37

Less than 30 percent (30%) of the survey respondents have conducted fundraising campaigns. About 16 percent (16%) solicited funds from government officials and less than 10 percent (10%) asked for solicitations/sponsorships from private groups. When asked if the SK budget was sufficient, majority said they had “just enough” funds. Slightly less than half of the respondents said they encountered problems in obtaining funds. Table 3. Problems and Facilitating Factors in Obtaining SK Funds Rank Problems (in percent) Facilitating Factors (in percent) 1 Problems in obtaining approval of 38.18 Cooperative and supportive 31.67 barangay Barangay Council 2 Problems in the process 29.09 Good barangay operations 27.22 3 Too little barangay funds 17.00 Good SK plans 12.22 Table 4. Agencies that Support SK and Type of Support Provided Rank Source of Support Type of Support 1 LGUs Financial support 2 Government organizations Technical support 3 NGOs / international NGOs Technical support

The survey showed the tedious process of obtaining funds. SK councils found it difficult to get the approval of the barangay captains in releasing their budget. D. Submit annual and end-of-term reports to the Sangguniang Barangay on their projects and activities for the survival and development of the youth in the barangay; One glaring finding in the study is that SK councils do not submit reports, or these reports fail to reach the NYC. There was no standard format used in the reports as SK councils do not get guidelines on preparing them. Of the 30 reports readily accessible at the NYC, the study only used 12. The rest merely contained photos of SK projects. E. Consult and coordinate with all youth organizations in the barangay for policy formulation and program implementation; Surveys and interviews in the study revealed there was very little consultation with the youth in situational analysis, planning, monitoring, and evaluation. It should be pointed out that the SK is not an organization in itself. It is the council of officers that represents the KK which is a larger youth contingent. F. Coordinate with the concerned national agency for the implementation of youth development projects and programs at the national level; Majority of SK survey respondents reported having partnerships with national government agencies and LGUs. The SK usually coordinates with LGUs to ask for financial assistance. For their part, government agencies provide SK councils with technical support (training, materials, and human resources) during project implementation. 38

The Impact of the SK Experience on the Youth The impact of the SK can be gauged by how it has shaped the lives of its members. Survey respondents said involvement in governance has had both positive and negative effects on them. Below are some of the positive effects that were mentioned: a. The experience begins with filing for candidacy. Young people could be internally or externally motivated to run as SK officer, and this affects how they view their responsibilities. b. SK members said they learned important skills and values, and encountered beneficial opportunities during their term. Table 5. Positive Effects of the SK on Members Skills and Knowledge Values/ Qualities Acquired Gained Time management Being responsible Knowledge of legal matters (law implementation, the justice system and legal processes) Decision-making skills

Prioritization skills

Management skills

The value and importance of gaining their constituents’ trust A better understanding of how to interact with others (“you can’t please everyone”) Selflessness

Interpersonal skills

How to handle pressure and negative feedback Tiyaga or hard work and perseverance That service means love (for constituents), treating them as hindi ibang tao (not different from oneself) Independence

Confidence (e.g. in public speaking)

How to fight for one’s rights and be vigilant

Teamwork

Nationalism The value of transparency

Leadership skills Parliamentary procedures

New Opportunities Met Financial benefits (e.g., honoraria) Scholarships

Opportunities to travel

Meeting important people (e.g. high- ranking government officials) Making new friends Opportunity to serve as role models for the youth Opportunity to serve the community through projects

Opportunity to practice legislative capacities Immersion in the ‘real world’ contributed to social awareness

These results confirm previous studies that youth participation and involvement in local governance promote the full and healthy development of young people. SK councils also gained values that developed a sense of responsibility and service to others. Acquiring these values encouraged them to become public servants.

39

SK officials who shared their positive experiences also experienced negative effects. Their responses can be categorized into: negative behaviors learned, challenges and dislikes associated with entering politics. (See Table 5) Some SK respondents mentioned they were exposed to, or were directly involved in, intolerable practices such as corruption and nepotism. Several respondents described one common practice: when the SK liquidates funds or receives solicitations/sponsorships for their projects, the barangay captain gives the SK chairperson ten-percent (10%) of the amount spent. This is reportedly ‘standard practice’ (dubbed as ‘SOP’), which some barangay captains insist on doing, even if SK chairpersons themselves refuse to accept the money. Table 6. Negative Effects of the SK on Members Negative Behaviors Learned Challenges Became ‘plastic’ (phoney/fake)

Became mataray (snobbish/quick-empered) Were exposed to corruption and nepotism Were involved in corruption and nepotism

Pressure from high expectations of community residents and LGU officials Less time for school, family, friends, religious duties, etc. Facing failure when plans do not push through Constant public scrutiny

Dislikes Associated with Politics Gained a negative image/ reputation SK affected by politicking of government officials Gaining enemies automatically (through elections) Lack of acknowledgment for their services

Dealing with conflicts between the SK and other public officials Dealing with uncooperative SK officials Non-participative youth Misunderstandings between the SK and community members

Some SK officials expressed confusion as to what constitutes corruption. Some were not aware that it is wrong to take office supplies for personal use or accept gifts and money. These findings create the impression that dubious practices are rampant within the SK. (See Table 6) SK officials and some respondents said that the foremost negative effect of being an SK member is that they had less time for other responsibilities in school and at home. For the national results, the second most-mentioned negative effect was that the SK members “learned to lie or become corrupt.” However, only a few SK members raised this point. The low number of responses on corruption and shady practices could be interpreted as follows: • SK members want to preserve their integrity; • SK members may be wary of implicating other government officials; 40

• The response was not important to them while answering the survey; or • Incidents on corruption and shady practices were few. While only a few SK members may actually learn to or practice corruption and other questionable practices, the view of non-SK respondents (e.g., barangay captains, councilors, and other LGU officials) could not be ignored. Table 7. Survey Results of Negative Effects of SK Membership Rank National Results (in percent) SK Members (in percent) 1 No time for self, family, school 24.03 No time for self, family, school 2 Learned to lie, be corrupt 9.05 Made enemies 3 Made enemies 6.87 Stress

29.35 12.99 6.49

Good SK practices Being part of the SK changed the way SK respondents view public service and governance. The recurring theme in their anecdotes was that they realized public service and governance involved the personal commitment to serve, and that being in government is a difficult and very demanding task. Despite the hardships, they recognized that serving others could be an enjoyable experience. Below are some examples of good practices of some SK councils: A. Cordova, Cebu A guiding hand and a determined mentor made all the difference for SK councils in Cordova, Cebu. A DILG officer’s active and hands-on approach helped Cordova’s SK work hard and make a difference in the community. The DILG officer made sure political maneuvers could not be carried out during elections. When asked how she did this, she replied: “Ewan ko. Maldita siguro talaga ako. Nung nalaman ko na may ganoon na nangyayari, pinuntahan ko ‘yung lugar tapos kinatok ko sila. Sinabihan ko, ‘Bawal yan, hindi n’yo yan pwedeng gawin (I do not really know. Maybe I’m just strict. When I found out that that was happening, I went there and knocked on the door. I told them, ‘That’s not allowed. You cannot do that.’).” She used the same no-nonsense manner in preparing SK officials in her area in handling responsibilities. During the ISKOLAR training, she shared important information on allocating and acquiring funds, planning and implementing projects, and making accomplishment reports. She required SK officials to submit a development plan at the start of each year and an accomplishment report at the end of every year. The DILG officer’s respect for young people’s abilities has led to continuing efforts to maximize the SK’s performance, while SK’s appreciation for her guidance and mentoring has made them receptive to these efforts. As a result, Cordova’s SK implemented relevant projects such as a medical mission for underprivileged youth in the area. 41

B. Panabo City, Davao del Norte The youth can lead, but they can lead more effectively with the cooperation and support of concerned organizations. The youth learned about culinary arts, basic electronics, and food and beverage/housekeeping through the Hotel and Restaurant Services (HRS) Livelihood Program initiated by the SK chairperson of Barangay San Fernando and conducted in cooperation with TESDA, and the Davao Services Cooperative Federation (DASCOFED), a local NGO in Panabo City. This was the second in a series of livelihood training workshops San Fernando SK conducted. The venue provided a stepping stone for the youth to find jobs. One of the participants became the chief cook of a popular bakeshop in Digos City in Davao del Sur, while another found employment in a four-star hotel in Davao City. One of the participants landed work in Japan, while another returned to school. The SK is planning its next round of livelihood programs which will be on basic physical therapy, refrigeration and soap-making. C. Gamu, Isabela Genuine concern and consistent efforts to make the youth feel needed and supported in local policies and programs allowed youth participation in governance to bloom in Barangay Mabini, Gamu, Isabela. SK elections succeeded due to SK officials’ intense door-to-door campaign, a symposium about the SK, and miting de avances (campaign assemblies) in each purok (district) of their barangay. These activities had positive results: all socioeconomic classes were wellrepresented in the 2002 elections. Mabini’s Barangay Council had a lot to do with these accomplishments. It lends financial and moral support to the SK and gives youth officials room to make their own decisions and craft programs. Mentoring and genuine trust boosted the SK’s confidence in making its own development plan. Youth officials also consulted with the KK and systematically monitored their performance. As a result, about 20 percent (20%) of the KK are active and functional. These active members are divided into working groups that take charge of various projects (e.g. environmental projects, training and workshops for out-ofschool youths). KK members are aware of their functions. The SK heads the quarterly assembly meetings with the KK. Through these meetings, their accountability to the KK is ensured. The Barangay Captain asks young people to evaluate SK projects but does this informally. The SK consults the KK on how to use funds and is subjected to a regular audit. Conclusion The research team believes that abolishing the SK will not serve the best interest of children and young people. It will not shield them from the negative influences of politics and politicians, but 42

would only destroy a unique system and a mechanism that has great potential for youth participation in governance and community service. Providing the youth a seat in local government and a budget mandated by law, and allowing them to take part in shaping local policies and programs make them an important part of the community. While some regard them as a burden, the youth can be productive allies in seeking to solve society’s ills. After all, they are experts on the challenges faced by their peers in the community. Admittedly, the study reveals generally low levels of participation in the SK among young Filipinos. Respondents may not perceive the SK as a meaningful venue for participation. However, by retaining the SK system but with some changes, the youth’s message is clear: they need and want to be involved in the local development process. Recommendations It is recommended therefore, that weaknesses in the SK be addressed by changing crucial aspects of existing policies and implementation. Researchers established a framework composed of five general themes/goals and guides to attain these goals: 1. Strengthen the SK’s partnerships with adult organizations like government agencies, NGOs, faithbased organizations, etc., and children/young people’s organizations such as the KK, youth organizations, and children’s associations. 2. Establish a standard, programmatic system for monitoring, supervision and technical support to the SK. 3. Provide programmatic capacity-building for KK members, SK officials and adult officials. 4. Ensure democratic, participatory, non-partisan, community-based and child-friendly processes. 5. Enforce existing policies. Below are specific recommendations on how these could be done: 1. Strengthening the SK’s partnerships with adult organizations. a.

Systematically tapping youth organizations – including formal, structured organizations and informal ones such as ‘fraternities’ and peer groups – in encouraging youth participation in planning, implementing, and monitoring SK projects. In terms of policy changes, this can mean amending Sections 43 (a) and 431 43

(d) of the Local Government Code to create a position within the SK council devoted to networking and coordinating with youth organizations in the community (i.e., youth liaison officer). This would ensure someone in the SK is in-charge of coordinating with youth organizations in the community for consultation and cooperation in SK initiatives. This means conducting consultation workshops (including activities for situational analysis, planning, monitoring, and evaluation), and implementing joint or co-sponsored projects in coordination with youth groups. b. Fostering closer working relationships between the SK and the SB in performing the SB’s function to make barangays child-friendly. In May 2005, UNICEF-Manila distributed a primer on “What barangay officials can do to set up a child-friendly locality.” The primer identified local institutions that can play important roles in making their barangays child-friendly. One of these is the SK, as it can work more closely with other barangay institutions such as the Barangay Council for the Protection of Children (BCPC), and the Barangay Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Coordinating Committee. The SK can work with these institutions in monitoring the situation of children in the barangay. They can also participate in the preparation, implementation, and monitoring of these institutions’ action plans on children, childcare, and child development. c.

Assigning additional functions to SK Municipal and City Federations, such as consultation and coordination with government agencies, youth organizations, and other civic groups, and situational analysis of children and the youth in their area of jurisdiction. This can be done by amending Section 1, Article V of the SK Constitution and By-Laws. Suggested means to fulfill these functions include: • Creating a directory of the relevant organizations and groups and distributing these directories to SK councils in the barangay. • Coordinating with government agencies and other civic groups that can help create programs and projects (i.e., resource persons or materials for capabilitybuilding or advocacy efforts). • Encouraging youth organizations to help drum up support for SK and viceversa. SK should also consult with youth organizations, not only on programs and projects, but also in policy formulation, situational analysis, monitoring and evaluation. d. Providing relevant, regularly updated information to national government agencies. This can help the SK disseminate information to local SK councils. For example, the National Anti-Poverty Commission Youth and Student Sector (NAPC-YS) and NYC could work together to perform the following: • Collection and consolidation of data on the national situation of the youth. This can include data on the most important needs, interests and concerns of young 44

Filipinos. NAPC-YS and NYC can collate this information and forward it to SK councils on a yearly basis. The information can be disseminated through the SK National Executive Board and by SK Federation officials at various levels until they reach local SK councils • Development of recommendations on programs that can address the youth situation 2. Establishing a standard, programmatic system for monitoring, supervision, and technical support to SK councils. This system should balance young people’s needs and adults’ able supervision with the need for freedom from overly rigid and prescriptive structures. The issue of budget allocation is usually where conflict between the SB and the SK arises. Survey results show instances of both: on one hand, barangay captains who dictate how SK funds should be used; on the other, those who allow the SK to use their funds as they please. Policymakers must maintain their respect for young people’s rights and abilities. Changes in relevant policies and processes should also help ensure that SK councils receive adequate and appropriate guidance from adults—both from government officials whom they work closely with, and from members of civil society. The recommended mechanism can function as a system of checks and balances to minimize irregularities or corrupt practices within the SK. In addition, establishing such a system is important to ensure that SK projects will have an impact on the holistic development of young people in the community and will be consistent with the larger context — that of the objectives and actions of adult local government officials and community members. Adult supervision, guidance and mentoring can take many forms. Thus to be effective, it is crucial for the legal framework to clearly define the roles and functions of various government agencies and/or officials working with the SK. At the same time, the legal framework should provide for mechanisms that will facilitate the performance of functions of agencies and officials. The following are some recommendations on how this can be done: a. Amend Section 426 of LGC to require the SK to formulate an SK Development Plan in consultation with the youth and in accordance with the Barangay Development Plan. This would help SK councils become more transparent and efficient, and minimize difficulties in obtaining funds and reducing conflict between the SK and the Barangay Development Council. b. Revise SK Constitution and By-Laws to include an article on procedures for reviewing development plans. It could specify that the Municipal Planning and Development Office (MPDO) should guide barangay SK councils in creating development plans, while the 45

Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO) should guide municipal/city SK councils. On the barangay level, the review process could be as follows: Before budgets are submitted and reviewed for approval, barangay SK councils should first be required to submit an SK Development Plan to the MPDO. The MPDO should review the plans to ensure that these can be integrated into the Barangay Development Plan of their respective barangays, and with the development plan of their city/municipality. Once the plans have been approved, the MPDO should guide the SK in prioritizing planned programs so they could allocate resources accordingly. As the secretariat of the Municipal Development Council, the MPDO can also assist or endorse the SK to NGOs, religious institutions/organizations, civic organizations and other members of civil society to rally support for the SK’s plans. The review process for municipal/city federations can follow a similar procedure. c. Amend Section 389 (b-11) of LGC to define the barangay captain’s function more clearly. The study reveals the barangay captain’s supervisory role over the SK is vaguely defined in the policy framework. Having relevant policies that stipulate the barangay captain’s function can address this. These policies may include ensuring the SK’s plans and activities are in accordance with the barangay’s objectives, and that the SK Development Plan is consistent with the Barangay Development Plan. The barangay captain should be limited to ministerial roles in approving the development plan and a plan of expenditures. d. Develop a systematic and programmatic monitoring and evaluation system. Findings suggest that DILG officers at provincial and municipal/city levels, working in coordination with the NYC, can best perform overall monitoring and evaluation of the SK’s performance. Policies on NYC’s functions could be amended to include the development of a monitoring and evaluation guide DILG field officers could use in evaluating the SK performance. These agencies could also look into the possibility of forming an inter-agency, multi-sectoral body responsible for formulating this guide, similar to the Advisory Council incorporated in NYC’s recommendations for strengthening the SK. This guide should help DILG officers determine the progress and identify lessons learned by answering the following: 1. What SK councils want to achieve (deciding on their own goals); 2. What they have done (reflecting on their achievements); 3. What they still need to do (determining what action has to be taken); and 4. What changes were seen (examining the impact) Appropriate policy changes could also be made to specify that the function of the Municipal/City Local Government Operations Officer (MLGOO/CLGOO) include monitoring and evaluating SK performance at the barangay level. The Provincial Local Government Operations Officer 46

(PLGOO) includes monitoring and evaluating SK performance at the municipal/city level. SKs involved in a housing project The monitoring and evaluation function of DILG officers should include: • Regular monitoring and evaluation meetings with the SK. The meetings can be held twice a year. MLGOOs/CLGOOs can minimize costs by meeting with SK councils from five or six neighboring barangays in a community center or DILG office at the same time. In clustering barangays together, the field officer can take into consideration the size and number of barangays in a particular municipality/city, as well as how to maximize the efficiency of the process. • Evaluation of SK performance based on a standard guide to be developed by the NYC • Documentation of SK experience. This is important to identify the good practices and the principles applied which could be documented and disseminated. Problems encountered and mistakes must also be recognized so they could be transformed into lessons learned. The documentation should include activity reports and action plans resulting from each capacity-building activity SK councils attend (e.g. Lakbay-Aral activities). In general, the study shows that many perceive SK councils focus on sports more than any other youth concern. One of the possible reasons is the automatic designation of the SK Chair as Chair of the Committee on Youth and Sports Development. Renaming the Committee may prompt government officials and citizens to have a broader view of the SK’s role. Amendments to Sections 430 and 438 (c) of LGC could pave the way for renaming the Committee on Youth and Sports Development as Committee on Youth Development. It is also important to involve SK councilors in various committees in the barangay. This is because youth development should cut across different programs and projects of the community. 3. Provide programmatic capacity-building for KK members, SK officials and adult officials. This will ensure SK councils are adequately prepared for their functions and continue to receive relevant training as their term of office progresses. The training program should involve KK as the bigger organization to develop a pool of future leaders and allow more youth to be involved in the community. Moreover, training should fulfill the important need for adult officials to work with young people in general, and with SK councils in particular. The effectiveness of these capacity-building efforts can be ensured through the following: a. Developing and implementing a continuous, culturally sensitive training program for SK councils at various levels. Existing policies4 on ISKOLAR already outline the process that should be followed. They also identify responsible public officials and government agencies. However, the non-programmatic 47

manner in which ISKOLAR is currently conducted suggests these policies are not being implemented strictly. Involved agencies (DILG, NYC, SKNF) and key officials (DILG Provincial/City Directors, Municipal and Local Government Operations Officers, DILG Regional Action Officers) should be aware of their mandated duties. DILG Regional Directors must ensure the designated ISKOLAR Action Officer of their respective regions perform responsibilities assigned to them in DILG MC No. 99-86 (i.e., provision of technical assistance in the conduct of training, monitoring and evaluation of DILG participation in the implementation of the program). DILG can handle continued training on topics they are equipped to discuss, such as SK functions, responsibilities, laws and resource mobilization. In addition, NYC and SK Federation can tap other government organizations, NGOs, and civil or people’s organizations to conduct training on other important topics. b. Ensuring ISKOLAR covers the following topics: • SK functions and responsibilities • Skills and processes ISKOLAR training Phase I should include: • making development plans; • budgeting funds for activities; • requesting and obtaining funds; • using funds efficiently; • mobilizing resources; • adopting parliamentary procedures; and • Situational Analysis, Planning, Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation (SAPIME) process of project implementation ISKOLAR Phase I should also include a discussion on child-friendly methods and processes. This can help them with activities and programs that will effectively reach out to the youth. ISKOLAR training Phase II for SK Federation officials should include: • skills in building and strengthening networks with NGOs, youth organizations, civic organizations, and other groups that can give support to the SK and 48

• skills in formulating and implementing legislative measures at their respective levels. c. Increase the effectiveness of capacity-building activities aside from ISKOLAR (i.e. Lakbay-Aral activities) by establishing a selection process that allows SK officials to attend activities that match their capabilities. The Barangay Council should supervise to ensure the process is transparent and participatory. d. Review training methods and resource materials currently used and make them more child-friendly or appropriate to SK officials’ developmental levels. Child-focused civic organizations can be tapped to improve materials and processes. The NYC could oversee equal distribution of resource materials through its area offices. They could ensure such materials are equally distributed at the provincial level. Different levels of the SK Federation should coordinate to make sure these materials reach barangay SK councils. e.

Amend Section 431 of LGC to add to the SK chairperson’s functions the duty to echo all training he/she received to all SK councilors. Study findings show the need for SK councilors to gain information and skills SK chairpersons learn through ISKOLAR and other training workshops.

f.

Development of a voter’s education program for KK and SK candidates, to be conducted by outgoing SK officials prior to general SK elections. Educating the youth on the roles they can play as Filipino citizens in ensuring good governance can raise their interest in participation, as well as empower them. This necessitates a change in Section 426 of LGC by adding, ”…conduct voter’s education activities prior to the next Sangguniang Kabataan elections” to the functions of barangay SK councils. In particular, it is recommended that the outgoing SK be mandated to remain in office for one month along with the incumbent SK Council in an advisory capacity. This will ensure the smooth turnover of responsibilities.

g. Development and delivery of orientation and/or leadership and citizenship training modules for the KK and other children’s associations. The orientation should deal with SK functions and responsibilities, their roles, expectations of elected officials and the local situation of children and youth in the community. Other modules can focus on basic laws and children’s rights, identifying problems, planning, prioritizing, and implementing projects. The DILG could develop modules while other national agencies or NGOs could provide training. KK members and other young people should receive orientation/training prior to the SK election. g.

Development of a training program for barangay officials and DILG field officers on working more effectively with the SK. The suggested training program for adult officials could include the following matters: 49

• Children’s rights and children’s/young people’s participation; • Child and young people-friendly methods and processes; • SK functions and responsibilities; • Adult officials’ roles in SK processes. For barangay officials, this includes important roles in reviewing the SK’s Development Plan and budget, requiring the submission of SK accomplishment reports, and imposing sanctions on nonperforming SK officials. For DILG officers, this includes capacity-building, monitoring and evaluation, and networking. 4. Ensure democratic, participatory, non-partisan, community-based and child-friendly processes. Survey results show SK processes are hampered because of the lack of participation of the youth, intervention of partisan politics, and non-democratic and non-child-friendly processes. Partisan politics influences the election process greatly, and may breed nonperforming SK councils. The following are examples of specific recommendations that can ensure democratic, participatory, non-partisan, and child-friendly processes: • Adjust the age bracket for KK members to 15-21 years old. This allows young people belonging to a wider age bracket to participate in SK activities, vote in SK elections, and take part in the KK assemblies and consultations. Thus, Section 6 of RA 9164 can be amended to read: “SEC. 424. Katipunan ng Kabataan. The Katipunan ng Kabataan shall be composed of all citizens of the Philippines actually residing in the barangay for at least six (6) months, who are fifteen (15) but less than twenty-two (22) years of age, and who are duly registered in the list of the Sangguniang Kabataan or in the official barangay list in the custody of the barangay secretary.” • Adjust the age bracket for SK officials to 18-21 years old. Compared to adolescents, young adults are generally more concerned about social involvement, are more systematic in approaching problems, and are more adept at applying acquired knowledge. Thus, the recommended adjustment could ensure that the youth eligible for SK positions are already prepared to hold public office. Therefore, Section 7 of RA 9164 can be changed to: “SEC. 428. Qualifications. – An elective official of the Sangguniang Kabataan must be a Filipino citizen, a qualified voter of the Katipunan ng Kabataan, a resident of the 50

barangay for at least one (1) year immediately prior to election, at least eighteen (18) years but less than twentytwo (22) years of age on the day of the election, able to read and write Filipino, English, or the local dialect, and must not have been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude.” Changing the age bracket, however, is no assurance that all SK councils will be able to perform their duties and responsibilities well. Other changes should accompany these adjustments to enable and maximize the youth to participate to the maximum extent of their evolving capacities. Another possible qualification is for SK candidates to come from KK or any duly registered youth organization. • Strengthen KK groups in each barangay. Members must clearly understand the objectives and have a plan of activities. The KK should also be registered at the municipal/city level as a recognized organization so members can take part in elections. Members of other children’s organizations should also be encouraged to register to participate in the SK elections. This process will also help increase the awareness on KK at the community level. • The number of elected SK kagawads (councilors) may be reduced from seven to three. There have been reports of non-performing SK kagawads and SK Councils that function with only three active members. The SK Council can be streamlined to include one chairperson and three kagawads who would perform specific duties (e.g., secretary, treasurer, liaison officer). Due to the reduced number of SK officials, all SK members may sit during Barangay Council meetings so that the youth representatives would not be intimidated. The SK representatives to local government councils at the municipal and city levels can also be increased to two; at the provincial level, depending on the number of districts, an SK representing a district can sit at the Provincial Board. • SK officials could be excused from classes to attend council meetings. The age bracket of 18-21, the recommended age for SK officials, and the current age bracket of 15-18, are when most young people are enrolled in school. To enable SK officials to fulfill their responsibilities in school and in SK, they should be excused from classes during barangay or LGU council meetings. SK officials should also be given the opportunity to make up for academic lessons or work missed. • Add a provision in LGC that will safeguard SK councils’ access to funds for approved projects. Financial autonomy is an issue that the SK has been pushing for many years now. However, as a government organization, the SK’s financial activities must undergo the same rigorous checks and balances other political bodies go through. An additional safety net is needed to guard against barangay captains and treasurers who refuse to release SK funds despite an approved budget plan. The provision could read: “As a signatory to the voucher, the Punong Barangay’s signing of the voucher should be ministerial provided that the SK Development Plan/budget plan has been approved.” 51

• SK Federations should assess the situation of children and the youth in their areas of jurisdiction. SK Federations in cities and municipalities, through participative methods, should produce a situational analysis of the youth in their areas. This can be done by selecting certain key informants from the youth and adult sectors (e.g. members of the City/Municipal Council for the Protection of Children, NGOs/people’s organizations, members of youth organizations, KK members and concerned adult and children residents) to participate in discussions that deal with the needs, problems, concerns and interests of the youth in their area. A documentation of this situational analysis should be distributed to the barangay SK councils and other concerned agencies, and submitted to higher federations. Higher federations (Provincial, Regional, and National Federations) should compile these situational analyses submitted by SK at the city/municipal level until they reach the national level. These can aid in the creation of an assessment on the national youth situation that could be used as a guideline for programs and policies. • Registration schedules and venues should be more accessible to young people. Legislators should consider the accessibility of registration venues and schedules to young people. This would allow more young people to participate in SK elections, thereby enabling the SK to have a greater impact due to the increased participation of young people in the process. There can be a memorandum of agreement between the COMELEC and the SK, directing the Election Officer to coordinate with the incumbent Barangay and SK Councils to set up registration stations in areas where young people congregate. If necessary and feasible, they should also hold registration sessions during weekends or after school/office hours. • SK elections should be held during summer, separately from the barangay elections. Holding SK elections during summer would increase the chances of the youth’s involvement in elections. Separating SK elections from barangay elections would also lead to non-partisan elections. Amendments should be made on RA 9164 so SK elections can be held during the summer vacation (between March and June). 5. Enforcement of existing policies Some weaknesses of the SK are directly linked to inconsistent enforcement of policies. The following are recommendations on strengthening enforcement of oft-violated policies: • The Board of Election Supervisors (BES) should monitor SK Federation elections at all levels more strictly. Irregularities, such as the conduct of elections without prior completion of ISKOLAR training, should be considered a failure of the elections. BES should also ensure the fair, non-partisan conduct of SK Federation elections in accordance with the Omnibus Election Code. They should be vigilant in preventing the commission of any of the prohibited acts described in Article XXII, Section 261 of the Omnibus Election Code, particularly vote buying and selling and the exertion of undue influence over voters (e.g., ‘housing’ or ‘hamletting’). 52

• COMELEC should investigate any offenses allegedly committed during SK Federation elections • Mandatory attendance of SK chairpersons at ISKOLAR training should be enforced more strictly • Non-performing SK members should be identified and monitored and given appropriate intervention. There are specific guidelines in the SK Constitution and By-Laws that deal with non-performing SK members but SK federations were reluctant to intervene in such cases. Thus, there is a need for DILG support to identify and monitor non-performing SK members and give special re-orientation programs for them to fulfill their functions. Giving incentives to productive SK members would also encourage members to perform better. The NYC already has this incentive program and should coordinate with SK federations to promote high-quality performance. Consideration should also be given to SK members in 4th to 5th class municipalities where barangay funds are less but SK members are able to accomplish relevant projects. • Monitor Barangay Captains to prevent them from abusing supervisory powers over SK. Several SK councils complain that their barangay captains refuse to sign vouchers for the SK to access funds despite having approved budget plans or SK Development Plans. Other SK councils reported barangay captains who tap into SK funds for non-SK expenditures. -Assessment endSK elections Although barangay politics and the SK in particular are supposed to be non-partisan, it is often said that the SK has become a training ground for so-called “trapolitos,”13 who are learning the ropes of wheeling and dealing in politics from their elders. More often than not, the ability of a local SK council to implement projects depends on their ability to foster good relations with barangay officials and local ward leaders. In some places, SK representatives are children or relatives of established politicians who are being groomed for higher office. This is how politicized the situation has become on the ground. Implementation is another problem. Due to the fiscal crisis of the national government, the barangay elections slated for 2005 have been postponed indefinitely. Costs are certainly a consideration here. The last synchronized barangay and SK elections of 2002 cost the Philippine government 461 Million Pesos (about US$8.5 million) to staff 192,109 polling precincts nationwide. It is also in the interest of incumbent officials to retain the present set of barangay and SK officials, which make up their loyal, well-oiled machinery for the next elections. These machinations are no secret. There have been numerous legislative proposals to abolish the SK altogether. However, some progressive groups feel uneasy about such moves. Comments 13

Trapo, in Filipino political parlance, refers to traditional politicians who use patronage politics to further their self-serving goals. It literally means dishrag. A trapolito, as a diminutive, therefore refers to a “little trapo.”

53

Akbayan Youth leader Jonas Bagas: “Corruption and incompetence in the Sangguniang Kabataan is not a function of age. It is a product of patronage politics and the absence of transparency and accountability in the use of public funds. Abolishing the SK is a knee-jerk reaction that would not only fail to address corruption at the barangay-level, but would also deny the Filipino youth political representation in an arena so crucial to their rights and welfare.” On October 29, 2007, Synchronized Barangay and Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) elections were held based on the newly amended Republic Act No. 9340, approved on September 22, 2005 by the 13th Congress of the Philippines. The 14th Congress of the Philippines tried twice to reset the Barangay and SK Elections instead to May 2008 so the elections could be trial for the computerization of elections following Republic Act No. 9369, also known as Amending the Election Modernization Act but were unsuccessful since the Senate rejected the proposed bill. The elections were held in the country's 41,995 barangays and contested 41,995 posts for the Barangay Chairman also known as the Punong Barangay also for the SK Chairman and 293,965 posts for the Members of the Sangguniang Barangay also known as the Barangay Kagawad also for the Members of the Katipunan ng mga Kabataan also known as the SK Kagawad. Table 8. Number Of Established And Clustered Precincts And Registered Voters For October 29, 2007 Barangay and SK Elections (As of 11 October 2007) REGION / BARANGAY DATA PROVINCE/ CITY / Number of Number of Number of Number of MUNICIPALITY Barangays Establishe Clustered Registered d Precincts Precincts Voters 2007 1,695 38,302 29,782 5,999,047 NCR 1,176 5,562 4,261 841,636 CAR 3,265 18,023 12,781 2,628,590 REGION I 2,311 11,722 8,511 1,736,126 REGION II 3,102 36,714 27,040 5,477,854 REGION III 4,011 41,354 30,149 6,180,616 REGION IV-A REGION IV-B REGION V REGION VI REGION VII REGION VIII REGION IX REGION X REGION XII ARMM CARAGA Total

SK DATA Number Number of of Registered Precincts Voters 2007 2,459 246,858 1,232 58,199 3,336 198,038 2,325 114,624 3,475 332,559 4,528 352,941

1,458 3,471 4,050 3,003 4,390 1,859

9,189 18,070 25,667 23,751 16,410 11,678

6,846 13,906 19,355 18,008 11,628 9,071

1,378,687 2,775,507 3,917,439 3,664,908 2,342,816 1,812,173

1,538 3,537 4,350 3,271 4,409 1,946

103,443 232,103 282,965 256,207 201,180 129,699

2,022 1,157 2,552 1,310 40,832

14,546 12,872 10,805 8,527 303,192

11,390 9,248 8,359 6,539 226,874

2,232,954 1,897,212 1,642,328 1,309,814 45,837,707

2,195 1,303 2,652 1,361 43,917

154,488 119,139 121,693 100,206 3,004,342

SOURCE: COMELEC’s Election Records and Statistics Department (ERSD)

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___________________________ References: 1. Children’s Environments Research Group; The Graduate Center, City University of New York; Citation: Bartlett, Sheridan. (2005). “Good Governance: Making Age Part of the Equation- An Introduction.” Children, Youth and Environments 15(2): 1-17. 2. What Is Good Governance?; United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific; UN Website 2008 3. Civil Society; Civic Dictionary; Prepared by Carmen Sirianni and Lewis Friedland, editor-inchief and research director of the Civic Practices Network 4. Civil Society; by Sanam Naraghi Anderlini And Judy El-Bushra] 5. Civil Society and Non-Government Organizations 6. New Visions And Strong Actions: Civil Society In The Philippines; Mary Racelis 7. From Protest to Participation? Accountability Reform and Civil Society in the Philippines; by Aries A. Arugay 8. Rejecting “Old-Style” Politics?; Youth Participation in the Philippines; Djorina Velasco] 9. Youth rights; From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 10. Empowering Young People - The final report of the carnegie young people initiative; Published by the Carnegie UK Trust; January, 2008 11. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon’s message for International Youth Day, 12 August August 2007] 12. Youth in Urban Development: Bringing Ideas into Action; UN-HABITAT; World Youth Forum 13. Toward an Understanding of Youth in Community Governance: Policy Priorities and Research Directions; Shepherd Zeldin, Linda Camino, and Matthew Calvert; Social Policy Report; Giving Child and Youth Development Knowledge Away; A Publication of the Society for Research in Child Development; Volume XVII, Number III 2003 14. Youth In Civil Society - Youth Participation In Decision-Making; Guide to the Implementation of the World Programme of Action for Youth

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