Worldviews And Opinions Of Scientists: India 2007-2008 Summary Report
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International Survey
Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Punjab
Uttaranchal
Haryana Arunachal Pradesh Delhi
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Nagaland
Assam
Meghalaya Bihar
Manipur
Tripura Madhya Pradesh
Mizoram
Jharkhand West Bengal
India India
Gujarat
Chhattisgarh
Daman and Diu
Orissa
Maharashtra
India 2007-08
Andhra Pradesh
Goa
Karnataka
Pondicherry
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
SUMMARY REPORT
Ariela Keysar and Barry A. Kosmin June 2008
International Survey
Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists India
2007-08 SUMMARY REPORT
Principal Investigators Professor Ariela Keysar and Professor Barry A. Kosmin In Cooperation with the Center for Inquiry India Chairman, Dr. N. Innaiah Scientific Advisory Board Dr. Meera Nanda Professor Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi Dr. Frank L. Pasquale Research Analyst Steven Schmidt
Contents Part I The Profile of the Scientists.......................................2 I-A. I-B. I-C. I-D. I-E. I-F. I-G.
Gender................................................................... 2 Age Profile............................................................. 2 Year Doctorate Received......................................... 2 Current Position..................................................... 2 Scientific Disciplines............................................... 3 Scientific Publications............................................ 3 Current Institutional Affiliations............................... 4
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues....5 II-A. Reasons for Becoming a Scientist........................... 5 II-B. Status of Science and Scientists in India................. 5 II-C. Scientific Temper -- India’s Constitutional Duty................................................. 6 II-D. Funding Science..................................................... 6 II-E. Preferred Economic Model...................................... 7 II-F. Status of Women.................................................... 7 II-G. Scientific Literacy in India....................................... 7 II-H. Opinions Regarding Evolution.................................. 8 II-I. Animal Research..................................................... 8 II-J. Ethical Constraints on Science................................ 9 II-K. Efficacy of Traditional Therapies and Technologies.......................................................... 9 II-L. Degrees in Vedic Astrology and Ayurvedic Medicine.............................................. 10 II-M. The Meaning of Secularism................................... 10 II-N. Blessing of Rocket Launching............................... 11 II-O. Science versus Religion........................................ 11
Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture Program on Public Values Trinity College 300 Summit Street Hartford, Connecticut 06106 USA Phone: (860) 297-2381 E-mail: [email protected] www.trincoll.edu/secularisminstitute
The establishment of ISSSC has been made possible by a grant from the Posen Foundation of Lucerne, Switzerland.
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs............................................12 III-A. Current Religion................................................... 12 III-B. Vegetarianism....................................................... 12 III-C. Secular/Religious Outlook.................................... 12 III-D. Beliefs about God................................................. 13 III-E. Belief in Miracles.................................................. 13 III-F. Traditional Beliefs................................................. 13 III-G. Spirituality............................................................ 14 III-H. Meaning of the Term Spiritual................................ 14
© Copyright ISSSC 2008
Design by Jo Lynn Alcorn
1
Introduction
T
he Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists in India Summary Report gives the highlights of an international, academic web survey conducted by the nonpartisan Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC) of Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. The survey was conducted between August 2007 and January 2008 in cooperation with the Center for Inquiry India. The large national sample of Indian scientists, the first of its kind, included 1,100 participants from 130 universities and research institutes. The intent is to conduct a series of surveys in various countries with differing cultures, in order to learn who today’s scientists are and what they think about contemporary moral and ethical issues. The criteria for inclusion in the survey were possession of a personal e-mail address at a scientific institution that was in the public domain and having a doctorate or equivalent qualification. The scientists were approached individually to participate via an e-mail contact letter, which was followed up by an electronic web-based survey questionnaire. The survey was administered directly from ISSSC in Connecticut and replies were transmitted directly to a dedicated website. The Center for Inquiry India helped design the questionnaire. All the respondents were assured that participation was completely voluntary. No incentives of any kind were offered and no support or encouragement was sought from the scientists’ own institutions. The 130 institutions with which the participants are affiliated are listed in Part I-G. The institutions with the largest number of respondents were the Indian Institutes of Technology in Kanpur (58), Kharagpur (53), Madras (51) and Bombay, Powai (50). Other institutions with large numbers of participating scientists were the Indian Institute of Science (41), the Indian Statistical Institute (33), the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (24) and the National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro Science (21). The median average time spent online completing the questionnaire, including answering questions and adding comments, was 21 minutes. The survey instrument invited the respondents to participate “in an international research project designed to explore the beliefs and values of scientific professionals.” The self-identified “scientific professionals” were assured in the instructions: The information gathered in this study will be kept confidential, of course. The data will be reported only in the aggregate and you will not be identified in any way in any reports. Many of the questions deal with personal beliefs and worldviews. If you find any questions intrusive or insensitive, feel free to skip them. You have the right to change your mind about participation in this study at any point. At the end of the questionnaire you can offer additional comments and express your feelings. In fact, many hundreds of respondents took the opportunity to offer a rich array of comments, explanations and expansions upon their answers to the questionnaire. This rich material will be reported separately on the ISSSC website, along with detailed multivariate analyses, a full description of the methodology and the text of the questionnaire. In this report, the exact wording of the survey question appears in the heading of each figure. This summary report contains three sections. The first is a profile of the respondents. The second describes their opinions on political, economic and scientific issues. The third delves into their worldviews and religious beliefs and attitudes.
1A pioneering study of 800 Indian scientists limited to five institutions (India Institute of Science, Bangalore; Delhi University; Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi; American College, Madurai; and C.M.S. College, Kottayam) was carried out in the early 1970s (David Gosling, Science and Religion in India, The Christian Literature Society, Madras, 1976).
2
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
Part I The Profile of the Scientists I-A.
Gender
Total number of respondents 1,100 Males
919
83%
Females
138
13%
43
4%
Did not report their gender
I-B.
Age Profile Most of the respondents were born in the 1950s and 1960s. The participating Indian scientists are primarily over 40 years of age, yet the sample also captures the views and opinions of young scientists.
Less than 40
22%
40-54
46%
55+
27%
Did not report age n = 1,100
I-C.
5%
100%
Year Doctorate Received Data on the year when their doctoral qualification was obtained, combined with the data on the age profile, shows that most of the scientists received their doctorates after the age of 30.
Before 1969
4%
1970-1979
13%
1980- 1989
27%
1990-1999
29%
2000+
20%
Did not report year n = 1,100
I-D.
100%
7% 100%
Current Position The sample includes both junior and senior scientists. The respondents are overwhelmingly engaged at present in scientific endeavors (93%), mainly at a university (73%)—for institutional affiliations, see 1-G.
Researcher, Scientist
4%
Assistant Professor
21%
Lecturer or Reader
3%
Associate Professor
16%
Professor
44%
Emeritus Fellow/Professor
7%
Did not report their current position
5%
n = 1,100
100%
3
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
I-E.
Scientific Disciplines The Indian scientists were asked in an open-ended question about their scientific discipline or scholarly field. These have been grouped into eight fields. This analysis shows there is a concentration in applied fields.
Engineering
34%
Life Sciences
12%
Behavioral/Social Sciences
11%
Mathematics
11%
Physics
10%
Chemistry
9%
Medicine/Veterinary/Health
8%
Earth Sciences
3%
Did not report their field
2%
n = 1,100
I-F.
100%
Scientific Publications Median number of publications in peer-reviewed international journals by field
The data on the professional publications of the scientists show that this tends to be higher in the natural sciences.
Chemistry
40
Physics
40
Life Science
34
Engineering
16
Earth Science
15
Medicine/Veterinary/ Health
15 12.5
Mathematics Behavioral/ Social Science
4 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Median number of publications
35
40
45
4
I-G.
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
Current Institutional Affiliations Acharya Nagarjuna University Alagappa University Aligarh Muslim University All India Institute of Medical Sciences Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Anna University Banaras Hindu University Barathidasan University, Palkalai Perur Bengal Engineering and Science University Bharathiar University Bhavnagar University Birla Institute of Technology and Science Brugarh University Central Drug Research Institute Centre for Advanced Technology Centre for Advancement of Sustainable Agriculture Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Ch. Charan Singh University Cochin University of Science & Technology Dangoria Charitable Trust Deccan College of Engineering and Technology Delhi College of Engineering Department of Ocean Development Department of Science and Technology Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information & Communication Technology Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry Fakir Mohan University Fergusson College Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Gandhi Institute of Technology And Management Gandhigram Rural University Ganpat University Garhwal University Gulbarga University Guru Jambheshwar University Guru Nanak Dev University Hamdard University Indian Agricultural Research Institute Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore Indian Institute of Management, Indore Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow Indian Institute of Mines Indian Institute of Rural Management Indian Institute of Science Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Indian Institute of Technology Madras Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
Indian National Science Academy Indian Statistical Institute Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Indira Gandhi National University Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai International Institute of Information Technology - Hyderabad Jadavpur University Jamia Millia Islamia Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research Jawaharlal Nehru University Jaypee Institute of Engineering and Technology Jaypee Institute of Information Technology Kakatiya University Kalasalingam University Karnatak University Kasturba Medical College King George Medical University Lucknow University Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology Maulana Azad Medical College Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Medical College Baroda Mohanlal Sukhadia University Motilal Nehru National Institute Of Technology - Allahabad National Academy of Agricultural Research Management National Geophysical Research Institute North-Eastern Hill University Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University Panjab University Physical Research Laboratory Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Punjab Agricultural University Punjabi University Raman Research Institute Rani Durgavati Vishwavidyalaya Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics Sambalpur University Saurashtra University Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology Sri Venkateswara University St. Stephen’s College Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Tata Institute of Social Sciences Topiwala National Medical College University Institute of Chemical Technology University of Agricultural Sciences University of Calcutta University of Calicut University of Delhi University of Hyderabad University of Madras University of Mumbai University of Mysore University of Pune University of Rajasthan Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute Women’s Christian College
5
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues II-A.
Reasons for Becoming a Scientist Most of the scientists chose this career path because of personal interest and curiosity. Some followed a teacher or a role model and others thought of doing good in the world. Only a very small minority were attracted to science for its financial rewards or social status.
What was the main reason that led you to become a scientist? Personal interest, curiosity
55%
A teacher/role model
20%
Doing good in the world
11%
Job opportunities
6%
Vocation/calling
6%
Social status, international contact, financial reward
2%
n = 1,100
100%
Status of Science and Scientists in India On the scale of 1 to 7, a majority of respondents answered four or more, indicating that in their opinion scientists are generally well respected in India.
In your opinion, how well respected are scientists in India? 100 90 80 70 percent
II-B.
60 50 40 30 20 27
10 0
1
5
1
2
Very badly
29 16
14 3
4
5
6
8 7 Very well
6
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-C. Scientific Temper -- India’s Constitutional Duty To what extent do you think that India today is fulfilling its constitutional duty “to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform?” (Article 51Ah)
In Indian usage, “scientific temper” refers to free inquiry, the application of logic and the avoidance of bias and preconceived notions.
(On a scale from 1 to 7) 100
Overall, the majority of responses to this question on the constitutional duty to develop “scientific temper” are negative and critical.
90 80 70 percent
60 50 40 30 20 24
10
29
23
6
0
1
2
3
4
14
4
5
6 7 Very much
Not at all
Funding Science To what extent should government and public funding of science be based on its technological benefits to the nation?
Most respondents believe that public funding of science should be based on its technological benefits. Furthermore, most approve of private-sector involvement in basic science.
To what extent do you approve of private sector commercial involvement in basic science? 100 90 80 70 percent
II-D.
1
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2
5
1 Very little
6
6 2
10 9 3
16 14 4
25 21
21 24
21 22
5
6
7 Very much
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
7
II-E. Preferred Economic Model The preference for a mixed economy is consistent with the respondents’ support for both government and private funding of science.
Which is your preferred economic model?
56% Mixed economy 21% The free market 9% Socialism 6% Village based/autarchic 8% Unsure
II-F.
Status of Women Three out of four of the scientists believe that the current under-representation of women in the sciences (see Part I-A) is due to nurture, that is, to culture influence and learning, rather than nature, i.e., biological and genetic reasons.
In your opinion, is the under-representation of women in the sciences due to nature (biological, genetic, inheritance) or nurture (learning, cultural influence)?
75% Nurture 9% Nature 6% Unsure 1
II-G.
Scientific Literacy in India Overall the Indian scientists think that scientific literacy in the country is low. They rank school teachers as having the highest rate of scientific literacy while ranking politicians lowest. Interestingly, the media score the third highest, just below young men and above young women. Government officials and business people are also perceived as more scientifically literate than the Indian population as a whole.
How would you rate the scientific literacy today of the following groups in India? (Mean scores) School teachers
3.6
Young men
3.4
Media people
3.1
Young women
3.1
Government officials
2.7
Business people
2.6
The population as a whole Politicians
2.3 1.9 1 2 3 4 5 Very low
6 7 Very high
8
II-H.
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
Opinions Regarding Evolution The vast majority of the scientists endorse the theory of evolution (88% “definitely” or “probably”) but there is a slight tendency towards “human exceptionalism” with a lower degree of definite commitment to the concept that “human beings developed from earlier species of animals.”
Do you think that the process of biological evolution is a fact? Do you think that human beings, as we know them, developed from earlier species of animals? 100 90 80
percent
70 60 50 40 66
30
54
20 10
3
0
2
5
22
3
8
Definitely not Probably not
II-I.
30
9
Unsure
Probably
Definitely
Animal Research Scientists’ responses on using animals in research offer no differentiation between the two species, cows or pigs. Two-thirds of scientists have no problem with this issue.
In your opinion, should researchers in the life sciences refrain from doing research on cows? In your opinion, should researchers in the life sciences refrain from using pigs in research projects?
12
Yes
10
22
Unsure
26
66
No
64 0
10
20
30
40
50 percent
60
70
80
90
100
9
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-J.
Ethical Constraints on Science The levels of opposition to personal engagement in potentially controversial areas of scientific research range widely by issue. Of course, depending on the scientific discipline of the respondent, the individual ethical issue can be either “theoretical” or “practical.” Detailed findings according to scientific fields can be viewed on the survey website.
Would you refuse to work on any of the following because of your moral or religious beliefs? 64
Designing Biological Weapons 54
Designing Nuclear Weapons 34
Chemical Pollution
29
Human Cloning
21
Animal Vivisection
16
Voluntary Euthanasia
11
Population Control Genetic Engineering
8
Stem Cell Research
8 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes”
II-K. Efficacy of Traditional Therapies and Technologies Among traditional or alternative curative and diagnostic techniques, two clearly stand out. About half of these scientists think homeopathy (50%) and prayer (49%) are efficacious. Less than 20% endorse faith healing, Vaastu and astrology. The least favored therapies, endorsed by only a few scientists, are amulets and dowsing.
Do you think that there is any efficacy in the following? Homeopathy
50
Prayer
49
Faith Healing
16
Vaastu
14
Astrology
14
Magnetic Therapy
13
Pranic Therapy
13
Predictions Based on Horoscopes
12
Electrotherapy
10
Reflexology
10
Palmistry
10
Predictions Based on Panchangam
8
Reiki
8
Urine Therapy
7
Gem and Stone Therapy
7
Numerology 6 Power of Amulets
3
Dowsing
2 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
10
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-L. Degrees in Vedic Astrology and Ayurvedic Medicine The scientists are by far more likely to approve of university degree courses in Ayurvedic medicine (90% “strongly” or “somewhat”) than degree courses in Vedic Astrology (44%).
Do you approve or disapprove of degree courses in Vedic Astrology? Do you approve or disapprove of university degree courses in Ayurvedic medicine? 100 90 80
percent
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
58 31
27 3
Disapprove strongly
13
12
5
32
3
Disapprove Unsure somewhat
Approve somewhat
17 Approve strongly
II-M. The Meaning of Secularism Secularism has a unique meaning What does “secularism” mean to you? in India. We can classify the first two responses as describing Tolerance for various “public secularism.” The vast 93 religions and philosophies majority of the scientists perceives this term as tolerance and a large majority recognizes it as it appears Separation of religion 83 from state/government in the Indian constitution as religion-government separation. When it comes to “private No identification or affiliation 53 with any religious tradition secularism” or secularity, a majority regards it as meaning the absence of religious affiliation. Absence of supernatural 40 or religious beliefs Only a minority of scientists conceives of secularity as meaning atheism. Atheism
20
0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-N. Blessing of Rocket Launching The Indian scientific community is split on the issue of seeking a religious endorsement of a space research project, which occurred in 2005. Approval of this ritual has the support of 41% of the scientists while 46% disapprove. However, the level of disapproval is more intense with a plurality (33%) “disapproving strongly.”
In 2005 space scientists went to Tirupati to seek the blessing of Lord Venkateswara before launching the rocket and satellite. Do you approve or disapprove of the action?
14% Approve strongly 27% Approve somewhat 13% U nsure 13% Disapprove somewhat 33% Disapprove strongly
II-O. Science versus Religion A plurality of the scientists (44%) is willing to criticize and confront religions where they think they contradict accepted scientific theories but a sizeable minority (23%) is opposed.
Do you think that scientific organizations should confront religious practices if they contradict accepted scientific theories?
44% Yes
33% Sometimes
23% No
11
12
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs III-A. Current Religion The majority of the Indian scientists are Hindus and 10% self-identify as atheists or having no religion. Small minorities of the scientists are Christians or Muslims or profess other religions.
What is your current religion, if any? Hindu
66%
Christian
3%
Muslim
3%
Sikh, Buddhist & Other
4%
Atheist/ No religion/ Secular
10%
Did not report their religion
14%
n = 1,100
100%
III-B. Vegetarianism A majority of the scientists surveyed is not vegetarian. The vegetarian population (43%) is motivated by both health and religious reasons.
Are you a vegetarian?
8% Health reasons
3% Religious reasons
57% No
20% Health and religious reasons
43% Yes
12% Other reasons
III-C. Secular/Religious Outlook The scientists are most likely to regard their personal outlook as “secular” or “somewhat secular” (75%). Note that in India, secularism means tolerance (see II-M).
When it comes to your outlook, do you regard yourself as...? 59% Secular 16% Somewhat secular 15% Somewhat religious 7% Religious 3% Don’t know
13
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
III-D. Beliefs about God What do you believe about God?
One-fourth of the scientists take an atheist or agnostic position about belief in the divine while another fourth are firm believers.
I don’t believe in God
12%
I don’t know whether there is a God and I don’t believe there is any way to find out
13%
I don’t believe in a personal God but I do believe in a higher power
30%
I find myself believing in God some of the time but not at others
6%
While I have doubts, I feel that I do believe in God
9%
I know God really exists and I have no doubts about it
26%
No answer
4%
n = 1,100
100%
III-E. Belief in Miracles Most of the scientists reject the idea of divine or human ability to perform miracles. However the level of support for “supernatural” human agency (24%) is noteworthy.
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? God performs miracles
38
Holy people perform miracles
24
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Percent responding “Agree strongly” or “Agree somewhat”
III-F.
Traditional Beliefs Overall, the majority of scientists rejects all these traditional beliefs. However, the level of rejection varies over a considerable range. More than a quarter believe in the doctrine of Karma but only a very small minority endorses the caste system.
Do you believe in...? Karma (sins and deeds of past life)
29 26
Life after death
20
Reincarnation
A relationship between comets and human events
7
Ghosts/Spirits
7
Caste system
6 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
14
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
III-G. Spirituality The majority of scientists think of themselves as “spiritual.” On a scale of 1 to 7, only 11% are “not at all” spiritual (1) while 14% think of themselves as “very much” spiritual (7).
To what extent do you think of yourself as “spiritual?” 100 90 80 70 percent
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
11
7
9
1
2
3
17 4
24
5
19 6
Not at all
14 7 Very much
III-H. Meaning of the Term Spiritual What do they mean by the term “spiritual”? Among five different conceptions of spirituality, two-thirds opted for either “commitment to higher human ideals, such as peace, harmony, or wellbeing” (34%), or “a higher level of human consciousness or awareness” (31%).
What does “spiritual” mean? Commitment to higher human ideals, such as peace, harmony, or well-being
34%
A higher level of human consciousness or awareness
31%
Sensitivity to a force that connects all (living) things
16%
Contact with forces or entities that exist beyond nature
10%
A purely emotional or psychological sense of connection with others and/or nature
9%
n = 1,100
100%
The Authors Dr. Ariela Keysar, a demographer, is Associate Research Professor of Public Policy and Law and the Associate Director of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC) at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. She is a principal investigator of the ISSSC web survey of Indian scientists, which is the first in a series of studies of worldviews and opinions of scientists around the world. She is also a principal investigator of the American Religious Identification Survey 2008, a representative national survey of religion in the U.S., covering over 50,000 respondents. Dr. Keysar is the co-editor of Secularism and Science in the 21st Century and Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives as well as co-author of Religion in a Free Market.
Dr. Barry A. Kosmin is the Founding Director of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture and Research Professor, Public Policy & Law Program at Trinity College. A sociologist, Dr. Kosmin has been a principal investigator of many large national social surveys and opinion polls in Europe, Africa, Asia and the U.S. including the CUNY 1990 National Survey of Religious Identification and the American Religious Identification Surveys of 2001 and 2008. A former joint editor of the journal Patterns of Prejudice, he is co-author of One Nation under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society, Religion in a Free Market and co-editor of the following volumes in the ISSSC series: Secularism and Science in the 21st Century and Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives.
The ISSSC research team would like to express their appreciation to all the Indian scientists who agreed to participate in the survey and share their worldviews and opinions. The Indian project is the first in a series of international surveys of scientists in various countries representing a variety of cultures. We would also like to acknowledge David Tatem and the IT Department of Trinity College for their assistance with the administration of the web survey.
This project is a work in progress. Further findings and additional statistics are available and will be updated periodically at www.trincoll.edu/secularisminstitute.
Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Punjab
Uttaranchal
Haryana Arunachal Pradesh Delhi
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh
Rajasthan
Nagaland
Assam
Meghalaya Bihar
Manipur
Tripura Madhya Pradesh
Mizoram
Jharkhand West Bengal
India India
Gujarat
Chhattisgarh
Daman and Diu
Orissa
Maharashtra
India 2007-08
Andhra Pradesh
Goa
Karnataka
Pondicherry
Kerala
Tamil Nadu
SUMMARY REPORT
Ariela Keysar and Barry A. Kosmin June 2008
International Survey
Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists India
2007-08 SUMMARY REPORT
Principal Investigators Professor Ariela Keysar and Professor Barry A. Kosmin In Cooperation with the Center for Inquiry India Chairman, Dr. N. Innaiah Scientific Advisory Board Dr. Meera Nanda Professor Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi Dr. Frank L. Pasquale Research Analyst Steven Schmidt
Contents Part I The Profile of the Scientists.......................................2 I-A. I-B. I-C. I-D. I-E. I-F. I-G.
Gender................................................................... 2 Age Profile............................................................. 2 Year Doctorate Received......................................... 2 Current Position..................................................... 2 Scientific Disciplines............................................... 3 Scientific Publications............................................ 3 Current Institutional Affiliations............................... 4
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues....5 II-A. Reasons for Becoming a Scientist........................... 5 II-B. Status of Science and Scientists in India................. 5 II-C. Scientific Temper -- India’s Constitutional Duty................................................. 6 II-D. Funding Science..................................................... 6 II-E. Preferred Economic Model...................................... 7 II-F. Status of Women.................................................... 7 II-G. Scientific Literacy in India....................................... 7 II-H. Opinions Regarding Evolution.................................. 8 II-I. Animal Research..................................................... 8 II-J. Ethical Constraints on Science................................ 9 II-K. Efficacy of Traditional Therapies and Technologies.......................................................... 9 II-L. Degrees in Vedic Astrology and Ayurvedic Medicine.............................................. 10 II-M. The Meaning of Secularism................................... 10 II-N. Blessing of Rocket Launching............................... 11 II-O. Science versus Religion........................................ 11
Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture Program on Public Values Trinity College 300 Summit Street Hartford, Connecticut 06106 USA Phone: (860) 297-2381 E-mail: [email protected] www.trincoll.edu/secularisminstitute
The establishment of ISSSC has been made possible by a grant from the Posen Foundation of Lucerne, Switzerland.
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs............................................12 III-A. Current Religion................................................... 12 III-B. Vegetarianism....................................................... 12 III-C. Secular/Religious Outlook.................................... 12 III-D. Beliefs about God................................................. 13 III-E. Belief in Miracles.................................................. 13 III-F. Traditional Beliefs................................................. 13 III-G. Spirituality............................................................ 14 III-H. Meaning of the Term Spiritual................................ 14
© Copyright ISSSC 2008
Design by Jo Lynn Alcorn
1
Introduction
T
he Worldviews and Opinions of Scientists in India Summary Report gives the highlights of an international, academic web survey conducted by the nonpartisan Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC) of Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. The survey was conducted between August 2007 and January 2008 in cooperation with the Center for Inquiry India. The large national sample of Indian scientists, the first of its kind, included 1,100 participants from 130 universities and research institutes. The intent is to conduct a series of surveys in various countries with differing cultures, in order to learn who today’s scientists are and what they think about contemporary moral and ethical issues. The criteria for inclusion in the survey were possession of a personal e-mail address at a scientific institution that was in the public domain and having a doctorate or equivalent qualification. The scientists were approached individually to participate via an e-mail contact letter, which was followed up by an electronic web-based survey questionnaire. The survey was administered directly from ISSSC in Connecticut and replies were transmitted directly to a dedicated website. The Center for Inquiry India helped design the questionnaire. All the respondents were assured that participation was completely voluntary. No incentives of any kind were offered and no support or encouragement was sought from the scientists’ own institutions. The 130 institutions with which the participants are affiliated are listed in Part I-G. The institutions with the largest number of respondents were the Indian Institutes of Technology in Kanpur (58), Kharagpur (53), Madras (51) and Bombay, Powai (50). Other institutions with large numbers of participating scientists were the Indian Institute of Science (41), the Indian Statistical Institute (33), the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (24) and the National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro Science (21). The median average time spent online completing the questionnaire, including answering questions and adding comments, was 21 minutes. The survey instrument invited the respondents to participate “in an international research project designed to explore the beliefs and values of scientific professionals.” The self-identified “scientific professionals” were assured in the instructions: The information gathered in this study will be kept confidential, of course. The data will be reported only in the aggregate and you will not be identified in any way in any reports. Many of the questions deal with personal beliefs and worldviews. If you find any questions intrusive or insensitive, feel free to skip them. You have the right to change your mind about participation in this study at any point. At the end of the questionnaire you can offer additional comments and express your feelings. In fact, many hundreds of respondents took the opportunity to offer a rich array of comments, explanations and expansions upon their answers to the questionnaire. This rich material will be reported separately on the ISSSC website, along with detailed multivariate analyses, a full description of the methodology and the text of the questionnaire. In this report, the exact wording of the survey question appears in the heading of each figure. This summary report contains three sections. The first is a profile of the respondents. The second describes their opinions on political, economic and scientific issues. The third delves into their worldviews and religious beliefs and attitudes.
1A pioneering study of 800 Indian scientists limited to five institutions (India Institute of Science, Bangalore; Delhi University; Indian
Institute of Technology, Delhi; American College, Madurai; and C.M.S. College, Kottayam) was carried out in the early 1970s (David Gosling, Science and Religion in India, The Christian Literature Society, Madras, 1976).
2
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
Part I The Profile of the Scientists I-A.
Gender
Total number of respondents 1,100 Males
919
83%
Females
138
13%
43
4%
Did not report their gender
I-B.
Age Profile Most of the respondents were born in the 1950s and 1960s. The participating Indian scientists are primarily over 40 years of age, yet the sample also captures the views and opinions of young scientists.
Less than 40
22%
40-54
46%
55+
27%
Did not report age n = 1,100
I-C.
5%
100%
Year Doctorate Received Data on the year when their doctoral qualification was obtained, combined with the data on the age profile, shows that most of the scientists received their doctorates after the age of 30.
Before 1969
4%
1970-1979
13%
1980- 1989
27%
1990-1999
29%
2000+
20%
Did not report year n = 1,100
I-D.
100%
7% 100%
Current Position The sample includes both junior and senior scientists. The respondents are overwhelmingly engaged at present in scientific endeavors (93%), mainly at a university (73%)—for institutional affiliations, see 1-G.
Researcher, Scientist
4%
Assistant Professor
21%
Lecturer or Reader
3%
Associate Professor
16%
Professor
44%
Emeritus Fellow/Professor
7%
Did not report their current position
5%
n = 1,100
100%
3
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
I-E.
Scientific Disciplines The Indian scientists were asked in an open-ended question about their scientific discipline or scholarly field. These have been grouped into eight fields. This analysis shows there is a concentration in applied fields.
Engineering
34%
Life Sciences
12%
Behavioral/Social Sciences
11%
Mathematics
11%
Physics
10%
Chemistry
9%
Medicine/Veterinary/Health
8%
Earth Sciences
3%
Did not report their field
2%
n = 1,100
I-F.
100%
Scientific Publications Median number of publications in peer-reviewed international journals by field
The data on the professional publications of the scientists show that this tends to be higher in the natural sciences.
Chemistry
40
Physics
40
Life Science
34
Engineering
16
Earth Science
15
Medicine/Veterinary/ Health
15 12.5
Mathematics Behavioral/ Social Science
4 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Median number of publications
35
40
45
4
I-G.
Part I The Profile of the Scientists
Current Institutional Affiliations Acharya Nagarjuna University Alagappa University Aligarh Muslim University All India Institute of Medical Sciences Andhra University, Visakhapatnam Anna University Banaras Hindu University Barathidasan University, Palkalai Perur Bengal Engineering and Science University Bharathiar University Bhavnagar University Birla Institute of Technology and Science Brugarh University Central Drug Research Institute Centre for Advanced Technology Centre for Advancement of Sustainable Agriculture Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore Ch. Charan Singh University Cochin University of Science & Technology Dangoria Charitable Trust Deccan College of Engineering and Technology Delhi College of Engineering Department of Ocean Development Department of Science and Technology Devi Ahilya Vishwavidyalaya Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information & Communication Technology Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry Fakir Mohan University Fergusson College Forest Research Institute, Dehradun Gandhi Institute of Technology And Management Gandhigram Rural University Ganpat University Garhwal University Gulbarga University Guru Jambheshwar University Guru Nanak Dev University Hamdard University Indian Agricultural Research Institute Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science Indian Institute of Information Technology - Allahabad Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore Indian Institute of Management, Indore Indian Institute of Management, Kozhikode Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow Indian Institute of Mines Indian Institute of Rural Management Indian Institute of Science Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai Indian Institute of Technology Delhi Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Indian Institute of Technology Madras Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology
Indian National Science Academy Indian Statistical Institute Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research Indira Gandhi National University Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai International Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai International Institute of Information Technology - Hyderabad Jadavpur University Jamia Millia Islamia Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education & Research Jawaharlal Nehru University Jaypee Institute of Engineering and Technology Jaypee Institute of Information Technology Kakatiya University Kalasalingam University Karnatak University Kasturba Medical College King George Medical University Lucknow University Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology Maulana Azad Medical College Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Medical College Baroda Mohanlal Sukhadia University Motilal Nehru National Institute Of Technology - Allahabad National Academy of Agricultural Research Management National Geophysical Research Institute North-Eastern Hill University Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India Pandit Ravishankar Shukla University Panjab University Physical Research Laboratory Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Punjab Agricultural University Punjabi University Raman Research Institute Rani Durgavati Vishwavidyalaya Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics Sambalpur University Saurashtra University Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology Sri Venkateswara University St. Stephen’s College Tata Institute of Fundamental Research Tata Institute of Social Sciences Topiwala National Medical College University Institute of Chemical Technology University of Agricultural Sciences University of Calcutta University of Calicut University of Delhi University of Hyderabad University of Madras University of Mumbai University of Mysore University of Pune University of Rajasthan Veermata Jijabai Technological Institute Women’s Christian College
5
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues II-A.
Reasons for Becoming a Scientist Most of the scientists chose this career path because of personal interest and curiosity. Some followed a teacher or a role model and others thought of doing good in the world. Only a very small minority were attracted to science for its financial rewards or social status.
What was the main reason that led you to become a scientist? Personal interest, curiosity
55%
A teacher/role model
20%
Doing good in the world
11%
Job opportunities
6%
Vocation/calling
6%
Social status, international contact, financial reward
2%
n = 1,100
100%
Status of Science and Scientists in India On the scale of 1 to 7, a majority of respondents answered four or more, indicating that in their opinion scientists are generally well respected in India.
In your opinion, how well respected are scientists in India? 100 90 80 70 percent
II-B.
60 50 40 30 20 27
10 0
1
5
1
2
Very badly
29 16
14 3
4
5
6
8 7 Very well
6
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-C. Scientific Temper -- India’s Constitutional Duty To what extent do you think that India today is fulfilling its constitutional duty “to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform?” (Article 51Ah)
In Indian usage, “scientific temper” refers to free inquiry, the application of logic and the avoidance of bias and preconceived notions.
(On a scale from 1 to 7) 100
Overall, the majority of responses to this question on the constitutional duty to develop “scientific temper” are negative and critical.
90 80 70 percent
60 50 40 30 20 24
10
29
23
6
0
1
2
3
4
14
4
5
6 7 Very much
Not at all
Funding Science To what extent should government and public funding of science be based on its technological benefits to the nation?
Most respondents believe that public funding of science should be based on its technological benefits. Furthermore, most approve of private-sector involvement in basic science.
To what extent do you approve of private sector commercial involvement in basic science? 100 90 80 70 percent
II-D.
1
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2
5
1 Very little
6
6 2
10 9 3
16 14 4
25 21
21 24
21 22
5
6
7 Very much
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
7
II-E. Preferred Economic Model The preference for a mixed economy is consistent with the respondents’ support for both government and private funding of science.
Which is your preferred economic model?
56% Mixed economy 21% The free market 9% Socialism 6% Village based/autarchic 8% Unsure
II-F.
Status of Women Three out of four of the scientists believe that the current under-representation of women in the sciences (see Part I-A) is due to nurture, that is, to culture influence and learning, rather than nature, i.e., biological and genetic reasons.
In your opinion, is the under-representation of women in the sciences due to nature (biological, genetic, inheritance) or nurture (learning, cultural influence)?
75% Nurture 9% Nature 6% Unsure 1
II-G.
Scientific Literacy in India Overall the Indian scientists think that scientific literacy in the country is low. They rank school teachers as having the highest rate of scientific literacy while ranking politicians lowest. Interestingly, the media score the third highest, just below young men and above young women. Government officials and business people are also perceived as more scientifically literate than the Indian population as a whole.
How would you rate the scientific literacy today of the following groups in India? (Mean scores) School teachers
3.6
Young men
3.4
Media people
3.1
Young women
3.1
Government officials
2.7
Business people
2.6
The population as a whole Politicians
2.3 1.9 1 2 3 4 5 Very low
6 7 Very high
8
II-H.
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
Opinions Regarding Evolution The vast majority of the scientists endorse the theory of evolution (88% “definitely” or “probably”) but there is a slight tendency towards “human exceptionalism” with a lower degree of definite commitment to the concept that “human beings developed from earlier species of animals.”
Do you think that the process of biological evolution is a fact? Do you think that human beings, as we know them, developed from earlier species of animals? 100 90 80
percent
70 60 50 40 66
30
54
20 10
3
0
2
5
22
3
8
Definitely not Probably not
II-I.
30
9
Unsure
Probably
Definitely
Animal Research Scientists’ responses on using animals in research offer no differentiation between the two species, cows or pigs. Two-thirds of scientists have no problem with this issue.
In your opinion, should researchers in the life sciences refrain from doing research on cows? In your opinion, should researchers in the life sciences refrain from using pigs in research projects?
12
Yes
10
22
Unsure
26
66
No
64 0
10
20
30
40
50 percent
60
70
80
90
100
9
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-J.
Ethical Constraints on Science The levels of opposition to personal engagement in potentially controversial areas of scientific research range widely by issue. Of course, depending on the scientific discipline of the respondent, the individual ethical issue can be either “theoretical” or “practical.” Detailed findings according to scientific fields can be viewed on the survey website.
Would you refuse to work on any of the following because of your moral or religious beliefs? 64
Designing Biological Weapons 54
Designing Nuclear Weapons 34
Chemical Pollution
29
Human Cloning
21
Animal Vivisection
16
Voluntary Euthanasia
11
Population Control Genetic Engineering
8
Stem Cell Research
8 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes”
II-K. Efficacy of Traditional Therapies and Technologies Among traditional or alternative curative and diagnostic techniques, two clearly stand out. About half of these scientists think homeopathy (50%) and prayer (49%) are efficacious. Less than 20% endorse faith healing, Vaastu and astrology. The least favored therapies, endorsed by only a few scientists, are amulets and dowsing.
Do you think that there is any efficacy in the following? Homeopathy
50
Prayer
49
Faith Healing
16
Vaastu
14
Astrology
14
Magnetic Therapy
13
Pranic Therapy
13
Predictions Based on Horoscopes
12
Electrotherapy
10
Reflexology
10
Palmistry
10
Predictions Based on Panchangam
8
Reiki
8
Urine Therapy
7
Gem and Stone Therapy
7
Numerology 6 Power of Amulets
3
Dowsing
2 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
10
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-L. Degrees in Vedic Astrology and Ayurvedic Medicine The scientists are by far more likely to approve of university degree courses in Ayurvedic medicine (90% “strongly” or “somewhat”) than degree courses in Vedic Astrology (44%).
Do you approve or disapprove of degree courses in Vedic Astrology? Do you approve or disapprove of university degree courses in Ayurvedic medicine? 100 90 80
percent
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
58 31
27 3
Disapprove strongly
13
12
5
32
3
Disapprove Unsure somewhat
Approve somewhat
17 Approve strongly
II-M. The Meaning of Secularism Secularism has a unique meaning What does “secularism” mean to you? in India. We can classify the first two responses as describing Tolerance for various “public secularism.” The vast 93 religions and philosophies majority of the scientists perceives this term as tolerance and a large majority recognizes it as it appears Separation of religion 83 from state/government in the Indian constitution as religion-government separation. When it comes to “private No identification or affiliation 53 with any religious tradition secularism” or secularity, a majority regards it as meaning the absence of religious affiliation. Absence of supernatural 40 or religious beliefs Only a minority of scientists conceives of secularity as meaning atheism. Atheism
20
0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
Part II Opinions on Political, Economic and Scientific Issues
II-N. Blessing of Rocket Launching The Indian scientific community is split on the issue of seeking a religious endorsement of a space research project, which occurred in 2005. Approval of this ritual has the support of 41% of the scientists while 46% disapprove. However, the level of disapproval is more intense with a plurality (33%) “disapproving strongly.”
In 2005 space scientists went to Tirupati to seek the blessing of Lord Venkateswara before launching the rocket and satellite. Do you approve or disapprove of the action?
14% Approve strongly 27% Approve somewhat 13% U nsure 13% Disapprove somewhat 33% Disapprove strongly
II-O. Science versus Religion A plurality of the scientists (44%) is willing to criticize and confront religions where they think they contradict accepted scientific theories but a sizeable minority (23%) is opposed.
Do you think that scientific organizations should confront religious practices if they contradict accepted scientific theories?
44% Yes
33% Sometimes
23% No
11
12
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs III-A. Current Religion The majority of the Indian scientists are Hindus and 10% self-identify as atheists or having no religion. Small minorities of the scientists are Christians or Muslims or profess other religions.
What is your current religion, if any? Hindu
66%
Christian
3%
Muslim
3%
Sikh, Buddhist & Other
4%
Atheist/ No religion/ Secular
10%
Did not report their religion
14%
n = 1,100
100%
III-B. Vegetarianism A majority of the scientists surveyed is not vegetarian. The vegetarian population (43%) is motivated by both health and religious reasons.
Are you a vegetarian?
8% Health reasons
3% Religious reasons
57% No
20% Health and religious reasons
43% Yes
12% Other reasons
III-C. Secular/Religious Outlook The scientists are most likely to regard their personal outlook as “secular” or “somewhat secular” (75%). Note that in India, secularism means tolerance (see II-M).
When it comes to your outlook, do you regard yourself as...? 59% Secular 16% Somewhat secular 15% Somewhat religious 7% Religious 3% Don’t know
13
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
III-D. Beliefs about God What do you believe about God?
One-fourth of the scientists take an atheist or agnostic position about belief in the divine while another fourth are firm believers.
I don’t believe in God
12%
I don’t know whether there is a God and I don’t believe there is any way to find out
13%
I don’t believe in a personal God but I do believe in a higher power
30%
I find myself believing in God some of the time but not at others
6%
While I have doubts, I feel that I do believe in God
9%
I know God really exists and I have no doubts about it
26%
No answer
4%
n = 1,100
100%
III-E. Belief in Miracles Most of the scientists reject the idea of divine or human ability to perform miracles. However the level of support for “supernatural” human agency (24%) is noteworthy.
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? God performs miracles
38
Holy people perform miracles
24
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
Percent responding “Agree strongly” or “Agree somewhat”
III-F.
Traditional Beliefs Overall, the majority of scientists rejects all these traditional beliefs. However, the level of rejection varies over a considerable range. More than a quarter believe in the doctrine of Karma but only a very small minority endorses the caste system.
Do you believe in...? Karma (sins and deeds of past life)
29 26
Life after death
20
Reincarnation
A relationship between comets and human events
7
Ghosts/Spirits
7
Caste system
6 0
10 20 30 40
50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent responding “Yes” to each item
14
Part III Worldviews and Beliefs
III-G. Spirituality The majority of scientists think of themselves as “spiritual.” On a scale of 1 to 7, only 11% are “not at all” spiritual (1) while 14% think of themselves as “very much” spiritual (7).
To what extent do you think of yourself as “spiritual?” 100 90 80 70 percent
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
11
7
9
1
2
3
17 4
24
5
19 6
Not at all
14 7 Very much
III-H. Meaning of the Term Spiritual What do they mean by the term “spiritual”? Among five different conceptions of spirituality, two-thirds opted for either “commitment to higher human ideals, such as peace, harmony, or wellbeing” (34%), or “a higher level of human consciousness or awareness” (31%).
What does “spiritual” mean? Commitment to higher human ideals, such as peace, harmony, or well-being
34%
A higher level of human consciousness or awareness
31%
Sensitivity to a force that connects all (living) things
16%
Contact with forces or entities that exist beyond nature
10%
A purely emotional or psychological sense of connection with others and/or nature
9%
n = 1,100
100%
The Authors Dr. Ariela Keysar, a demographer, is Associate Research Professor of Public Policy and Law and the Associate Director of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC) at Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. She is a principal investigator of the ISSSC web survey of Indian scientists, which is the first in a series of studies of worldviews and opinions of scientists around the world. She is also a principal investigator of the American Religious Identification Survey 2008, a representative national survey of religion in the U.S., covering over 50,000 respondents. Dr. Keysar is the co-editor of Secularism and Science in the 21st Century and Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives as well as co-author of Religion in a Free Market.
Dr. Barry A. Kosmin is the Founding Director of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture and Research Professor, Public Policy & Law Program at Trinity College. A sociologist, Dr. Kosmin has been a principal investigator of many large national social surveys and opinion polls in Europe, Africa, Asia and the U.S. including the CUNY 1990 National Survey of Religious Identification and the American Religious Identification Surveys of 2001 and 2008. A former joint editor of the journal Patterns of Prejudice, he is co-author of One Nation under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society, Religion in a Free Market and co-editor of the following volumes in the ISSSC series: Secularism and Science in the 21st Century and Secularism & Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives.
The ISSSC research team would like to express their appreciation to all the Indian scientists who agreed to participate in the survey and share their worldviews and opinions. The Indian project is the first in a series of international surveys of scientists in various countries representing a variety of cultures. We would also like to acknowledge David Tatem and the IT Department of Trinity College for their assistance with the administration of the web survey.
This project is a work in progress. Further findings and additional statistics are available and will be updated periodically at www.trincoll.edu/secularisminstitute.
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