World War Ii Tanks And Fighting Vehicles (1.pdf

AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO

WORLD WAR II

AND FIGHTING VEHICLES 39 formidable tanks and many variants described in 160 fact-packed pages in colour

More than 170 superb illustrations, including action photographs and highly detailed colour drawings

c a u e a oy

Christopher F. Foss

AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO

WORLD WAR II

AND FIGHTING VEHICLES

Published by Salamander Books Limited LONDON

AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO

WORLD WAR II

A Salamander Book © 1981 Salamander Books Ltd, Salamander House, 27 Old Gloucester Street, London WC1 N 3AF, United Kingdom.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, w ithou t the prior permission of Salamander Books Ltd.

ISB N 0 86101 083 3 Distributed in the United Kingdom by New English Library Ltd.

Contents Tanks are arranged chronologically within national groups

INTRODUCTION

6

FRANCE Renault AMC 35 Light Tank Hotchkiss H-35 and H-39 Light Tank Char B1 Heavy Tank Renault R-35 Light Tank Char Somua S-35 Medium Tank

8

GERMANY PzKpfw I Light Tank PzKpfw II Light Tank PzKpfw III Battle Tank PzKpfw IV Medium Tank PzKpfw VI Tiger I Heavy Battle Tank

PzKpfw V Panther Battle Tank PzKpfw VI Tiger II Heavy Battle Tank

10

12 16

20 24 30 32 36 38 44 48

GREAT BRITA IN A l l M atilda I Infantry Tank Cruiser Tank M ark IV A9 Mark I Cruiser Tank A12 M atilda II Infantry Tank Crusader Cruiser Tank Valentine Infantry Tank M ark III A22 Churchill Infantry Tank A27M Cromwell Cruiser Tank A24 Comet Cruiser Tank

!

Credits C olo ur draw ings: © Salamander Books Ltd., and © Profile Publications Ltd. Photographs: The publishers wish to thank all the official international governmental archives, weapons systems manufacturers and private collections w ho have supplied photographs for this book.

E ditorial c o n su lta n t: Christopher F. Foss, author of and contributor to many technical reference books concerned w ith armored fighting vehicles. E ditor: Ray Bonds D esigner: Lloyd Martin

P rin ted : in Belgium by Henri Proost et Cie.

SOVIET UNION T-28 Medium Tank BT-7 Fast Tank KV-1 Heavy Tank T-60 Light Tank T-34 Medium Tank T-70 Light Tank IS-2 Heavy Tank

96 98 100 104 108 110 114 116

UNITED STATES M3 Grant/Lee Medium Tank M4 Sherman Medium Tank

118 124 128

134 M24 Chaffee Light Tank M26 Pershing Heavy Tank 138 OTHER N ATIO NS Ram 1 and II Cruiser Tanks Carro Armato M 13/40 Medium Tank Type 95 HA-GO Light Tank Type 97 CHI-HA Medium Tank

142 144 148 152 156

INTRODUCTION When tanks first appeared on the battlefield during W orld War I their primary role was th a t o f supporting the infantry and often the gains achieved by the tanks w e re lost as insufficient infantry could be brought up to consolidate the advances made. Betw een the w ars, tank developm ent continued on varying scales in many countries but tactics (and therefore specifications and designs) tended to be rooted generally in the W orld W ar I concept. A notable exception, of course, w e re the German designers and visionary commanders, such as Guderian. Germany began to re-arm in the early 1930s and her Panzer divisions struck terror throughout W estern Europe. The B litzkrieg tactics w ere the result of uniting in filtra tio n tactics w ith the tank and substituting dive-bom bers for slo w -m ovin g artillery. In particular, the spearhead of the German attack on France in M ay 1940 was the eight out of ten specially trained Panzer divisions. W orld W ar II became the w a r o f mechanisation, and the the tank the symbol o f mobile w a rfare . The Germans used tanks en masse and in conjunction w ith infan try, artillery, engineers and air power. But the B litzkrieg could only really w ork against poorly trained and badly led troops whose morale was at a low ebb, so th a t w hen Panzers came

6

up against determ ined and disciplined resistance they could be contained and mauled by a rtille ry and Allied tanks. Though they played a relatively insignificant part in W orld W ar II, ligh t tanks w e re the most numerous types in service at the start. The tank was proved to be a decisive b attlefie ld w eapon, but the w a r saw a natural and in­ evitable g ro w th in counterw eapons. As an ti-ta n k capability increased, so did the adoption of heavier arm our and size and w e ig h t of tanks —to ridiculous proportions in some cases (the German Maus and Elefant, fo r exam ple). Standardisation and reliability w e re also of fundam ental im portance in tank w a r f a r e -t h e Americans fou g ht almost the entire w a r w ith just tw o basic models. The Allies learned to build tanks w ith thicker and b etter arm our and more p o w erfu l guns, and how to use guns w ith more e ffec t, so th a t the Panzers, w h ile remaining form idable, ceased to be unbeatable. Nor could the Germans hope to match the tank pro­ duction capabilities of the Allies, and the real strength of the Alliance lay in the Am erican genius for realising technological ideals in term s of engineering, and then mass-producing the re s u lt: by the end of the w ar, the USA, Britain and Russia had built 200,000 tanks.

FRANCE During W orld W ar I France built three tanks in q u a n tity : the tw o -m an Renault FT-17 (over 4,000) and the Saint Chamond and Schneider assault tanks (400 o f each). In 1920, though tank developm ent did continue both fo r the cavalry and the in fan try, tanks w e re assigned to the infantry as they w ere in other countries. The French continued to see land w a rfa re in term s o f long lines of forces spread out along a fro n t, instead of in pow erfu l and mobile concentrations on narro w fro n ts : and it was forces such as the la tte r w hich w e re to d efeat the over­ stretched French defences some 20 years later. By M ay 1940 the French A rm y had some 2,800 ligh t tanks (R -35/R -40, H -3 5/H -3 9 and F C M -3 6 ), 384 B1 and B1 -bis heavy tanks, 416 S-35 mediums, 864 cavalry tanks and some 2,000 modernised FT-17s. M any of these tanks w e re superior to German tanks at this tim e and had good arm our protection and a good gun, but many of them lacked radios and had a one-gun tu rre t in w hich the com m ander also had to load, aim and fire the main gun, a clearly impossible task. In the late 1930s there had been many changes in the organisation o f French arm oured units and these w e re still

coming into e ffec t at the tim e of the German invasion. French arm oured units w e re never given the chance to prove th e ir p otential as they w e re usually employed w it h ­ out adequate a rtille ry and in fan try support, had poor com m unications, not only fro m tank to tank but also at higher levels, and w e re given fe w opportunities to carry out training before the w ar. W ith proper tactical training and good command and control the French tanks could have been very effec tive in 1940. As it w as they w e re fritte re d aw ay in small local actions as the B litzkrieg rolled over the country. If the French Division Legere M echanique had been allow ed to operate on its o w n, if it had had a proper system o f supply, and if many other things too . . . then the French armoured troops could have shown th e ir true ability, but they never had an opportunity. W ith the fall o f France many of the French tanks w ere taken over intact by the Germans; some w e re used in the tank role on the Eastern Front but many w e re converted into self-propelled guns th a t served w ith the German A rm y through to 1944/45.

9

Renault AMC 35 Light Tank A M C 35 (A C G 1 ), plus B elgian and G e rm a n v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o r ig in : France. C re w : 3. A rm a m e n t: One 47mm gun; one 7.5mm m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament. A rm o u r: 25mm (1 in) maximum. D im ensions: Length 15ft (4.572m ); w id th 7 ft 4in (2.235m ); height 7ft 8in (2.336m). W e ig h t: 31,967lbs (1 4,500kg). Engine: Renault fo u r-cylin d e r petrol engine developing 1 80hp. P e rfo rm a n c e : M axim um road speed 25mph (4 0 k m /h ); range 100 miles (161km ); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.609m ); trench 6ft (1.828m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the French A rm y from 1935 to 1 940. Also used by the Belgian and German Armies (see te xt). As well as building a light tank to meet the A M R requirement (the Renault AM R 33 V M ), Renault also b u ilt a tank to meet the A M C (A u to -M itra ille u se de Reconnaissance) requirement. The first prototype, w h ich was com pleted in 1933, had a turret from the Renault lig h t tank, featuring a 37mm gun. Trials w ith this prototype were not satisfactory so a further prototype was built, under the designation A M C Renault 34 YR. This was the first French light tank to have a tw o -m a n turret, at last enabling the tank commander to carry out his proper role, that is to command the tank, and not operate the armament. A M C 34 YR armament consisted of a 25mm gun and a co-axial 7.5mm m achine-gun. It was powered by a Renault fo u r-cylin d e r petrol engine w h ich developed 1 20hp, giving the tank a maximum road speed of 25mph (4 0 k m /h ). Com bat w e ig h t was 10.63 tons (10,800kg). This tank was fo llo w e d by the Renault A M C 35 or A C G 1, of w h ich early models were bu ilt by Renault, but then the m ajority by A M X . The tank had a crew of three, w ith the driver at the front of the hull and the other tw o crew members in the turret. Arm am ent consisted o f a 47mm gun and a co-axial 7.5mm m achine-gun, although some tanks had the 47mm gun replaced by a long barrelled 25mm an ti-ta n k gun. The suspension was o f the scissors type w ith horizontal springing. There were five road wheels on each side, w ith the drive sprocket at the front and the idler at the rear, and five track-return rollers. Production of the A M C 35 amounted to about 100 tanks, of w h ich 12 were purchased by the Belgians in 1 937. The tanks were re-designated A u to Mitrailleuses de Corps de Cavalerie. and had a turret of Belgian design and construction armed w ith a 47mm a n ti-ta n k gun and a co-axial 13.2mm m achine-gun. After the fall of France some A M C 35s were taken over by the Germans, w h o called them the P zK p fw A M C 738 (f ). A b ove rig h t: T he t h r e e -c r e w A M C 35 w a s a s ig n ific a n t d e p a rtu re fro m p reviou s French d e ­ signed tan ks in th a t it had a t w o - m a n -t u r r e t . C e n tre rig h t: A M C 35 w ith its o rig in a l s h o rtb arre lle d 47 m m gun rep laced by a lo n g b arre lle d 25 m m H o tch kiss a n ti-ta n k gun. b u t re ta in in g c o -a x ia l m a c h in e gun. R ig h t: T h e A M C 35 w a s d esigned by R e n a u lt b u t la te r p ro d u c tio n w a s u n d e rta k e n by A M X . This is th e 4 7 m m -g u n n e d version w h ic h had a cast tu r re t. 10

I

11

Hotchkiss H-35 and H-39 Light Tank H -35, H -39 and G erm an v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o rig in : France. C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: One 37mm SA 38 gun; one 7.5mm M odel 1 931 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament. A rm o u r: 40mm (1 ,57in) m aximum: 1 2mm (0.47in) minimum . Dim ensions: Length 13ft 10in (4.22m ): w id th 6ft 1 in (1.85m ); height 6ft 7in (2.14m). W e ig h t: Combat 26,456lbs (1 2,000kg). G round Pressure: 1 2 .8 lb /in 2 (0 .9 0 k g /c m 2). Engine: Hotchkiss six-cylinder w ate r-co o le d petrol engine developing 1 20bhp at 2,800rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 22.5m ph (3 6 k m /h ); range 93 miles (150km ); vertical obstacle 1 ft 8in (0.5m ); trench 5ft 11 in (1 .8m); gradient 60 per cent. H isto ry ( H -3 5 ): Entered service w ith the French A rm y in 1936 and used until fall of France. Also used by Free French. Germany and Israel (after W o rld W a rll). (Note: data relate to the H -39.) When the first D L M (D ivision Leg'ere M eca n iq u e ) was form ed in 1 934, the French Arm y w anted a lig h t tank to operate w ith the S O M U A S-35 medium tank. In 1933 the French infantry ordered a light tank, the prototype of w h ich ► B e lo w : Side v ie w o f H o tc h k is s H -3 9 lig h t ta n k w ith a near h o riz o n ta l re a r e n g in e d ec k as c o m p a re d to th e d o w n w a rd -s lo p in g d eck o f th e e a rlie r H o tc h kis s H -35. By th e b eg in n in g o f th e w a r 821 H -3 5 /H - 3 9 tanks w e re in s e rvice w ith th e F ren ch A rm y .

12

A b o v e : H o tc h k is s H -3 5 lig h t ta n k a rm e d w ith th e s h o rt b a rre lle d S A 18 3 7 m m gun w h ic h had a m u zzle v e lo c ity o f 1 ,2 7 3 fp s (3 8 8 m /s ) c o m p a re d to th e m o re c o m m o n SA 38 (33 c a lib re ) long b a rre l w e a p o n w it h a m u zzle v e lo c ity o f 2 ,3 0 0 fp s (701 m /s ). S o m e 100 rounds o f 3 7 m m and 2,4 00 ro u nd s o f 7 .5 m m m a c h in e g un a m m u n itio n w e re c a rrie d , w ith th e e m p ty c a rtrid g e cases fo r th e la tte r being d e p o s ite d o u ts id e via a c h u te .

13

was completed by Hotchkiss in 1934. This was rejected by the infantry in favour of the sim ilar Renault 35 tank. The cavalry, however, accepted the tank for service as the Char Leger Hotchkiss m odule 35H, and in the end the infantry also accepted the tank for its DCs (D ivisions Cuirassees) form ed shortly before w ar broke out. The H -35 weighed 11.22 tons (11,400 kg) and was powered by a sixcylinder petrol engine w h ich developed 75bhp at 2,700rpm and gave the tank a top road speed of 17m ph (2 8 km /h ). The H -3 5's m aximum armour thickness was 34mm (1 ,34in). The H -35 was fo llo w e d by the H-38 and the H-39, w h ich had a number of m odifications, in cluding thicker armour and more pow erful engines w h ic h increased their speed. Production o f the H -3 5 /H -3 9 fam ily amounted to about 1,000 tanks, of w h ich some 821 were in front-line service w hen W orld War U broke out. The hull of the H -39 was of cast sections bolted together. The driver was seated at the fron t of the hull, slig h tly offset to the right, and was provided w ith a tw o -p ie ce hatch cover, one part o f w h ich opened upwards and the other part forwards. A hull escape hatch was provided in the flo o r of the tank. The turret was also of cast construction and this was b u ilt by APX and was identical to that fitted to the Renault R-35 and R-40 tanks. The turret was provided w ith a cupola, w h ich could be traversed, and the comm ander entered via a hatch in the turret rear, w h ich also folded d o w n horizontally to form a seat, this being used w hen the tank was not in action. The engine was at the rear of the hull on the left, w ith the fuel tank on the right, these being separated from the fig h tin g com partm ent by a firep ro o f bulkhead. Compared w ith the earlier H-35, the deck o f the H -39 was alm ost horizontal, the earlier model's deck having been more sloped. An external fuel tank could be fitted if required, as could a detachable skid tail, the latter being designed to increase the tank's cross-country performance. Power was transm itted to the gearbox and transmission at the fro n t of the hull by a shaft. The suspension on each side comprised three bogies, each w ith tw o wheels. These were mounted on bellcranks w ith double springs between the upper arms. The drive sprocket was at the front and the idler at the rear; there were tw o trackreturn rollers. Main armament consisted of a 37mm gun w ith a 7.5mm machine-gun mounted co-axially to the right. T w o different models of 37mm gun were fitted: the SA 38 w ith a long (33 calibre) barrel, giving a muzzle velocity of 2,300fps (701 m /s), or the shorter SA 18 gun (21 calibre) w ith a muzzle velocity of 1.273fps (38 8 m /s). The form er w as the more com m on weapon for the H-39. Some 100 rounds of 37mm and 2,400 rounds o f 7.5mm 14

A b o v e : F ro n t and to p v ie w s o f H -3 9 lig h t ta n k w h ic h , to g e th e r w it h th e H -3 5 , w a s used in th e c a v alry ro le, o r in a d ire c t s u p p o rt ro le w ith th e in fa n try . R ig h t: T h e H -3 5 ta n k , lik e m an y o th e r French tan k s , had th e d r a w ­ back o f h avin g a o n e m an t u r r e t . m achine-gun am m unition were carried. The em pty cartridge cases for the latter w e n t into a chute w h ich deposited them outside o f the tank. Like most French tanks of this period, the Hotchkiss H -3 B /H -3 9 had one major draw back, and this was that the com m ander also had to aim and load the gun. When France fell the Germans to o k over many H -35 and H-39 tanks, some being used on the Russian Front w ith o u t m odification apart from the installation of a German radio and a new cupola. This had a fla t roof and was provided w ith a tw o -p ie c e hatch cover w h ich opened to the left and right. Some were also provided w ith a searchlight over the main armament. The Germans also developed tw o self-propelled guns based on the Hotchkiss H -35 and H-39 chassis. The a n ti-ta n k model was know n as the 7.5cm PakAO L/4 8 a u fG w 39H (f ), and had its turret removed and replaced by an opentopped armoured superstructure m ounted at the rear of the hull. In the front of this superstructure was m ounted a 7.5cm a n ti-ta n k gun. T w en ty-fo ur such conversions were produced from 1 942. This version weighed 12.3 tons (12,500kg) and had a crew o f five. The second model was the 10.5cm Panzer- feldhaubitze 18 a u fS fh 39 H (f) or 10.5cm le FH 18 G W 39 H (f). 48 of these being b u ilt from 1 942. This m odel was armed w ith a 10.5cm howitzer and was provided w ith a sim ilar superstructure to the a n ti-ta n k model. When the state of Israel was form ed after the end of W orld War II, it could not obtain any modern tanks at all and had to rely on w h a t equipm ent was left in the area after the war. These included some French H -39 tanks and a number o f these were rearmed w ith British 6pounder an ti-ta n k guns. 15

Char B1 Heavy Tank C h ar B1, B1 -bis, B 1 -fe r a n d G e rm a n v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o r ig in : France. C re w : 4 A rm a m e n t: One 75mm gun in hull; one 7.5mm m achine-gun in hull; one 47mm turret-m ounted gun; one 7.5mm m achine-gun co-axial w ith 47mm gun (see text). A rm o u r: 60mm (2.36in) maximum. D im ensions: Length 21ft 5in (6.52m ); w id th 8ft 2in (2.5m ); height 9ft 2in (2.79m). W e ig h t: Combat 70,548lbs (32,000kg). G round Pressure: 1 9 .7 lb /in 2 (1 ,3 9 k g /c m 2). Engine: S ix-cylinder inline w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 307bhp at 1,900rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 17m ph (2 8 k m /h ); range 93 miles (150km ); vertical obstacle 3ft 1 in (0.93m ); trench 9ft (2.75m ); gradient 50 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith the French Arm y in 1936 and used until fall of France in 1 940. Also used by the German Arm y (see te x t). In 1921 the Section Technique des Chars de Com bat, under the leadership of the famous French exponent of armour. General Estienne, requested five companies to draw up a design for a tank w e ig h in g 14.75 tons (1 5,000kg), to be armed w ith a hull-m o u n te d 47mm or 75mm gun. In 1924 four different mockups were presented at Rueil and three years later orders were given for the construction of three tanks, one each from FAM H (Forges et Acieries de ia M arine et d 'H o m b co u rt). FCM (Forges et Chantiers de la M editerranśe) and Renault/Schneider. These were com pleted between 1 929 and 1 931 and were known as the Char B. These w eighed 24.6 tons (25,000kg) and were armed w ith a hull-m o u n te d 75mm gun, tw o fixed m achine-guns in the fron t of the hull, and tw o turre t-m o u n te d m achine-guns. They had a crew o f four. W ith m odifications the type entered production as the C har B1. but only 35 of these had been bu ilt before it was decided to place in production an im proved model w ith heavier armour and a more pow erful engine, to be know n as the Char B1 -bis. Some 365 were b u ilt by the fall o f France in 1940. Of these there were 66 C har B1 -bis tanks in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th DCRs

16

(.D ivision Cuirassees de Reserve), and a further 57 in independent companies. The Char B1 -bis had excellent armour w h ich could w ithstand attack from any German a n ti-ta n k gun except the fam ous 88mm. The hull of the tank was of cast sections bolted together. The driver was seated at the fron t of the hull on the left and steered the tank w ith a conventional steering w heel w h ich was connected in turn to a hydrostatic system. M ounted to the driver's right was the 75mm SA 35 gun. w h ich had a very short barrel (17.1 calibres), elevation being + 2 5 ° and depression —1 5°. The gun was fixed in traverse and was aimed by the driver, w h o sw ung the tank until the gun was lined up w ith the target. An unusual feature of this gun was that an air compressor was provided to b lo w fumes o u t o f the barrel. A 7.5mm Chatellerault m achine-gun ► R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t and to p v ie w s o f th e C h ar B1 -bis. T h e m ain 7 5 m m g un , to th e rig h t and b e lo w th e d riv e r, w a s o p e ra te d by th e d riv e r. It w a s fix e d and th e d riv e r had to aim it by p o in tin g th e e n tire ta n k a t th e ta r g e t. E le v a tio n w a s +25" and d e ­ pression - 1 5 ° . A m m u n itio n fo r th e w e a p o n s w a s s to re d on th e w a lls and u n d er th e flo o r o f th e fig h tin g c o m p a rtm e n t o f th e ta n k .

17

was fixed in the front o f the hull on the right, low er than the 75mm gun. This machine-gun could be aimed by the driver or commander. The APX turret was identical to that installed on the S O M U A S-35 tank and was armed w ith a 37mm gun w ith an elevation of + 1 8 ” and a depression o f - 1 8 ° . A 7.5mm m achine-gun was also m ounted in the turret, and this had an independent traverse of 1 0 ” left and 1 0 ” right. Some 74 rounds of 75mm (HE), 50 rounds of 47mm (AP and HE) and 5,100 rounds of m achine-gun ammunition were carried. The tank had a crew of four, the driver/gunner, wireless operator, loader and commander. The last had to aim, load and fire the turret guns as w e ll as command the tank. The loader was ju st as busy, as he had to pass am m unition to the commander as w ell as load the hull-m o u n te d 75mm gun. The wireless operator was seated near the turret. Normal means o f entry and exit was via a large door in the right of the hull. The driver had a hatch over his position, and there was also a hatch in the turret rear on the right. There were tw o emergency exits, one in the flo o r o f the tank and another hatch in the roof of the engine compartment. The engine, transm ission and fuel tanks were at the

A b o v e : The G e r­ man A rm y re ­ moved th e h u llm o u nted 75m m gun fro m a sm all num ber o f C har B1 tan ks and fitte d a fla m e ­ th ro w e r. These becam e k n o w n as P zK p fw B1 (f) F ah rschulew agen. R ig h t: A C har B1 knocked o ut in th e sum m er o f 1940. A t th a t tim e th e C h ar B1 w a s one o f th e m ost fo rm id a b le tanks in service. 18

rear of the hull, and a compressed air starting system was fitted in addition to the normal electric starting system. A no th e r interesting feature o f the tank was the installation of a gyroscopic direction indicator, also driven by the compressor. The suspension on each side consisted of 16 double steel bogie wheels. Of these, three assemblies had fo u r wheels each and these were controlled by vertically m ounted coil springs and sem i-elliptical leaf springs. There were also three independent bogie wheels forw ard and one to the rear, w ith q u a rte r-e llip tic leaf springs. The drive sprocket was at the rear and the idler at the front, the latter being coil sprung to act as the tensioner. Further developm ent of the Char B1 -bis resulted in the Char B1 -ter. This had additional armour, a fifth crew m em ber (a m echanic) and the 75mm hull gun had a traverse o f 5° left and 5° right. O nly five of these were bu ilt and none was used in action. The tank was also used by the German Arm y for a variety o f roles. The driver training model had the turret and hull-m ounted gun removed, the latter being replaced by a m achine-gun. The type was then know n as the P zK pfw B1 (f ) Fahrschuiewagen. The Germans also m odified 24 tanks in 1 9 4 2 -4 3 for use in the fla m e th ro w e r role. These had flameguns fitted in place o f the hull guns and the type w as know n as the P zK pfw B1 -bis (Flam m ). The gun turret w as retained to give the vehicle some anti-tank capability. Finally there was a self-propelled gun model. This had the hull gun and turret removed, and on top of the tank was m ounted a standard German 105mm howitzer. The conversion w o rk was carried out by RheinmetallBorsig. Very fe w such conversions were effected and most of these served in France. A fe w Char B1 -bis tanks were used by the French w hen they liberated the port of Royan in 1944. The Char B1 -bis w o u ld have probably been follow ed in production by the AR L 40 but this was still at the design stage w hen France fell. The type was eventually placed in production as the A R L 44 in 1 946. The main other French infantry tanks (m edium /heavy) were the Char D1 and Char D2. The Char D1 was developed in the early 1930s and 160 were b u ilt for the infantry between 1 932 and 1 935. These w eighed 1 2.8 tons (13,000kg) and were armed w ith a turre t-m o u n te d 47mm gun and a fixed m achine-gun in the fro n t of the hull, fired by the driver. Later production models had thicker armour, a more p o w erful engine and a m achine-gun m ounted co -a xia lly w ith the main armament. Before production of the D1 was even com pleted, w o rk started on a more pow erful and heavier armoured tank called the Char D2. This w eighed 15.75 tons (16,000kg) and was powered by a six-cylin d e r petrol engine developing 1 50hp. By 1940 about 100 had been built.

Renault R-35 Light Tank R -35 and G erm an v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o r ig in : France. C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: One 37mm gun; one 7.5mm m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament. A rm o u r: 45mm (1 ,77in) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 1 3ft 10in (4.2m ); w id th 6ft 1 in (1 ,85m); height 7ft 9in (2.37m ). W e ig h t: 22.046lbs (10,000kg). G round Pressure: 9 .5 2 lb /in 2 (0 .6 7 k g /c m 2). Engine: Renault fo u r-c y lin d e r petrol engine developing 82bhp at 2,200rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 1 2.42m ph (2 0 k m /h ); range 87 miles (140km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 10in (0.5m ); trench 5ft 3in (1 ,6m) or 6ft 7 in (2m ) w ith tail; gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith the French Arm y in 1936 and used until fall of France. Also used by Germany, Italy (tanks received from Germany), Poland, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia. In 1934 the French infantry issued a requirem ent for a new light tank to replace the large number of W orld War I Renault FT-1 7 tw o -m a n tanks w h ich were still in service (these in fact remained in service w ith French Arm y until 1940, and w ith the German Arm y for some years later still). This new light tank was to weigh 7.87 tons (8,0 0 0 kg ), have a crew of tw o , a maximum road speed of 1 2.42m ph (2 0 k m /h ), be armed w ith tw in 7.5mm m achine-guns or a single 37mm gun, and have a m aximum armour thickness of 40mm (1 ,57in). Four companies subm itted designs: C om pagnie G śnśral de C onstruction des Locom otives, D elaunay-Belleville, FCM and Renault. The Renault model, called the Renault ZM (or R -35) was selected for production and the first 300 were ordered in May 1 935. The prototype was B e lo w : S id e v ie w o f R e n a u lt R -3 5 lig h t ta n k c le a rly s h o w in g th e s c iss o r-typ e suspension, c o m m o n to m an y French tan ks o f th is p erio d , tra ilin g id le r w h e e l and th e special ta il t h a t w a s f itt e d to enab le th e ta n k to cross w id e tre n c h e s . It w a s one o f th e b e tte r French lig h t tan ks o f th e period.

20

armed w ith tw in turre t-m o u n te d 7.5mm m achine-guns and differed in many details to the production models. The suspension was based on that used in the Renault A u to -M itra ille u se de Reconnaissance 1935 Type ZT (A M R ) w h ich had already been accepted for service. Production of the Renault R-35 amounted to between 1.600 and 1,900 tanks, and when w ar was declared this was the most numerous of all of the French tanks, and many were also exported. In M ay 1940 there were some 945 R -3 5 /R -4 0 tanks in fro n t line use, and o f these 810 were organic to armies and another 135 were w ith the 4th DCR (D ivision Cuirassee de Reserve). Their role was the support of the infantry and their slo w road speed gave them little strategic m obility. The FCM entry in the original com p e titio n was also adopted for service as the Char Leger M odele 1936 FCM, but only 100 were bu ilt by 1940 and these were s u fficie n t to equip a mere tw o battalions. The FCM tank was faster than the R-35 and had a m uch larger radius of action. It was powered ►

A b o v e : R epairs had o fte n to be a c c o m p lis h e d in th e field to a llo w th e d am a g e d A F V s to be re tu rn e d to fr o n t line se rvice as q u ic k ly as p ossible. H e re , in a te m p o ra ry fie ld w o rk s h o p , th e f r o n t a rm o u r o f a R e n a u lt R -35 lig h t ta n k has been lifte d o f f to a llo w re p a ir w o r k to be c a rried o u t on th e d iffe re n tia l and fin a l d riv e assem blies. T he R -3 5 w a s th e m o s t n u m ero u s o f all French in fa n tr y tanks, b u t had a o n e -m a n t u r r e t and w a s v e ry s lo w .

21

by a 90hp diesel and its suspension was sim ilar to that used on the Char B1. Its hull was of welded construction and in this respect was quite advanced. Combat w e ig h t was about 10.33 tons (10 ,5 0 0 kg ). Some of these FCMs were converted to self-propelled guns after the German invasion. Like most French tanks, the hull of the R-35 was o f cast sections w h ich were then bolted together. The driver was seated at the fro n t of the hull, slightly offset to the left, and was provided w ith tw o hatch covers, one of w h ic h opened forw ards and the other upwards, the operation of the latter being assisted by a hydraulic ram. The APX turret was in the centre of the hull and was identical to that installed on the Hotchkiss FI-35 and H 39 tanks. This was provided w ith a cupola but the com m ander entered the turret via a hatch in the rear of the turret, and this hatch also acted as a seat for the commander when the tank was not in action. M ain armament consisted of a 37mm SA 18 gun w ith a 7.5mm m achine-gun m ounted co -axially. Some 100 rounds of 37mm and 2,400 rounds o f 7.5mm am m unition were carried. The empty cartridge cases from the m achine-gun were deposited into a chute which carried them out through a hole in the flo o r of the tank. Late production tanks were armed w ith the long-barrelled SA 38 37mm gun. The engine was at the rear of the hull on the right, w ith the fuel tank (this being of the self­ sealing type) on the left. A firep ro o f bulkhead separated the engine and fig h tin g compartments. The suspension on each side consisted of five rubber-tired wheels, the first being m ounted independently and the others on tw o bogies. These were m ounted on bellcranks w ith springs. The drive sprocket was at the fron t and the idler at the rear, and there were three trackreturn rollers. M ost tanks had a tail fitte d to increase th e ir trench-crossing capabilities. When first developed the tank was not provided w ith a radio, although these were fitted to late production tanks. This addition m eant even more w ork for the commander, w h o already had to comm and the tank as w ell as aim, load and fire the armament. Another developm ent of the R-35 was the A M X -4 0 . This had a new suspension designed by A M X , consisting o f 12 small road wheels, w ith the drive sprocket at the front and the idler at the rear, and there were fo u r trackreturn rollers. This suspension was an im provem ent over the Renault suspension. Tw o battalions were equipped w ith the A M X -4 0 , or R -40 as the type was sometimes called. The R-35 was also used as a fascine carrier. This model had a frame running from the fro n t o f the hull over the turret to the rear, on top of w hich was carried a fascine for dropping into trenches. Some tanks were also provided w ith FCM turrets of cast or w elded construction. 22

L e f t : T he G erm an s f itt e d a b o u t 100 R e n a u lt R -35 ta n k s w ith a C zech 4 7 m m a n ti-ta n k g un in p lace o f th e t u r r e t. These w e re k n o w n as th e 4 .7 c m P a k (t) a u f G W R35 ( f ) , b u t w e r e a lre a d y o b s o le te by th e tim e th e y e n te re d service. O th e rs w e re used as c a r­ riers fo r a m m u n i­ tio n and a f e w w e re even fitt e d w ith a 1 0 5 m m h o w itz e r and d es ig n a te d ieFH 18 a u f G W 35R ( f) . A b o v e and le ft: F ro n t and rear v ie w s o f an R-35 ta n k . P laying card insig nia w e re o fte n p a in te d on th e t u r r e t fo r id e n tific a tio n o f s u b -u n its . W h en o pen, th e d o o r in th e t u r r e t rear p ro vid e d a seat fo r th e tan k com m ander w ho also had to a im , load and fir e th e 3 7 m m S A 18 gun and th e c o -a x ial m a c h in e -g u n . T u r re t w a s th e sam e as th a t f itt e d to th e H - 3 5 /H - 3 9 tanks. although these were not adopted fo r service. Other trials versions included a m ine-detection tank and a rem ote-controlled tank. The Germans used the R-35 for various roles. The basic tank was used for the reconnaissance role on the Eastern Front from 1941 onwards under the designation P zK pfw R-35 (4.7cm ). M any had their turrets removed and were used for to w in g artillery ( Traktor) or for carrying am m unition, the latter version being know n as the M u n itio n p a n ze r 35R (f). The a n ti-ta n k variant was know n as the 4.7cm Pak (?) a u f G W R35 (f ), this consisting of an R-35 w ith its turret removed and replaced by a new open topped superstructure in the fron t of w h ich was m ounted a Czech 47mm a n ti-ta n k gun. A b o u t 100 of these were converted, but they were already obsolete by the tim e conversion w o rk was com pleted. Alfred Becker fitte d some w ith a 105mm how itzer and these w ere know n as the 10.5cm IeFH 18 a u f G W 35R (f ). Some examples, know n as the M órsertrager 35R ( f). were also fitte d w ith an 80mm mortar. 23

Char Somua S-35 Medium Tank S-35 and S -40. C o u n try o f o rig in : France. C re w : 3. A rm a m e n t: One 47mm gun; one 7.5mm M odel 31 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament. A rm o u r: 56mm (2.2in) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 17ft 11 in (5.46m ); w id th 6ft 11 in (2.108m ); height 8ft 10in (2.692m ). W e ig h t: Combat 44.200lbs (20,048kg). G round Pressure: 1 3 .0 8 lb /in 2 (0 .9 2 k g /c m 2). Engine: SO M U A e ig h t-c y lin d e r w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 1 90hp at 2,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : M axim um road speed 23mph (3 7 k m /h ); road range 160 miles (257km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 8in (0.5 0 8 m ); trench 7ft 8in (2.336m ); gradient 65 percent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith the French A rm y in 1 936 and used until fall of France in 1940. Also used by Germany and Italy (see te xt). In the early 1930s the French cavalry issued a requirem ent for a tank to be called the AM C , or Autom itrailleuse de Combat. A vehicle to this specification was built by S O M U A (Society d 'O u tillag e M ecanique e t d'U sinage d A rtille rie ) at Saint Ouen. After trials this was accepted for service w ith the cavalry under the designation A M C S O M U A A C -3 . Soon afterwards it was decided that the type w o u ld be adopted as the standard m edium tank o f the French Army, and it was redesignated the Char S-35, the 'S' standing f o r ^ B e lo w : S id e v ie w o f Som ua S -3 5 s h o w in g access d o o rs in le ft side o f hull. A h ull escape h atc h w a s also p ro vid e d . T he hull c on sisted o f cast sectio ns b o lted to g e th e r.

24

A b o v e : T h e C h a r S o m u a S -3 5 m e d iu m ta n k w a s m o re th a n a m a tc h fo r any G e rm a n ta n k s d u rin g th e B a ttle o f F ran ce in 1940, by w h ic h tim e som e 5 00 had been b u ilt. T h e S -3 5 w a s w e ll arm e d , had good m o b ility and f ir e p o w e r b u t, like m o s t o th e r French ta n k s o f th is p erio d , th e c o m m a n d e r had to load, aim and f ir e th e guns as w e ll as c o m m a n d th e ta n k . T h e t u r r e t o f th e S -35 w a s id e n tic a l to th a t f itt e d to th e C h ar B 1 -b is and D2 tan k s and m o u n te d a 4 7 m m S A 35 gun and a 7 .5 m m M o d e l 31 M G coaxial.

25

Ab ove: A fte r th e fa ll o f France in th e s u m m e r o f 1940, th e o ccupying G erm an fo rce s to o k o ver all a v a ila b le French ta n k s and o th e r w ea p o n s . This p h o to g ra p h s h o w s a S o m u a S -3 5 m e d iu m ta n k leading H o tch kiss lig h t ta n k s th ro u g h Paris w it h th e ir G erm an c re w s . T h e G e rm ans called th e S -3 5 th e P z K p fw 35C 7 3 9 (f) and these w e re used on th e Russian fro n t. S o m e o f th e s e tan k s w e re also supplied to th e Italia n s.

SO M UA and the '35' for the year o f in tro d u ctio n , 1 935. A b o u t 500 had been built by the fall of France. Tank for tank, the S-35 w as more than a match for any of the German tanks of that time, but bad tactics gave them little chance to prove their w orth apart from a few isolated actions. The S-35 had good armour, m obility and firepow er, but it also had the usual French weakness in that the com m ander was also the gunner and loader. The hull was of three cast sections bolted together. These sections were the hull floor, front superstructure and rear superstructure, w h ich were joined by bolts just above the tops o f the tracks, w ith the vertical jo in between 26

R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t, to p and re a r v ie w s o f th e S o m u a S -3 5 m e d iu m ta n k . T he h ull w a s c a s t in th re e s e c tio n s and th e n b o lte d to g e th e r ju s t a b o ve th e to p s o f th e tra c k s . T h is p ro ve d one o f th e w e a k p o in ts as a h it on o n e o f th e s e jo in ts g e n e ra lly s p lit th e ta n k w id e open. T h e d riv e r and rad io o p e ra to r, seated a t th e fr o n t, e n te re d th e ta n k th ro u g h th e d o o r in th e le ft side o f th e hull. T h e ta n k w a s w e ll laid o u t, w it h a m p le vision d evices p ro v id e d . N o te in p a rtic u la r th e w id e area o f en g in e a ir-in ta k e g rille s a t th e re a r, th e s hrou ded t u r r e t m a c h in e gun, and th e t w in e x h a u st pipes ru n n in g d o w n th e c e n tre o f th e re a r deck.

the fron t and rear parts near the rear of the turret. These joints were one of the w eak points of the tank as a hit on one of these was likely to split the tank w id e open. The hull had a m aximum thickness of 1.6in (41m m ). The driver was seated at the fro n t of the hull on the left, and was provided w ith a hatch to his front. This hatch was norm ally left open as the tank moved up to the front. The radio operator was located to the rig ht of the driver. Normal means of entry and exit for the driver and radio operator were through a door in the left side of the hull; a flo o r escape hatch was also provided for use in an emergency. The turret was also of cast construction and had a maximum ► 27

thickness of 2.2in (56m m ). It was identical w ith that fitted to the Char B1 -bis and D2. Main armament consisted of a 47mm SA 35 gun w ith an elevation of + 1 8 ° and a depression o f —18°, the turret being traversible through 360° by an electric motor. The 47mm gun could fire both HE and AP rounds w ith a maximum m uzzle-velocity of 2,200fps (6 7 0 m /s). A 7.5mm M odel 31 machine-gun was m ounted co -a xia lly to the right of the main armament. This m achine-gun was unusual in that it had a lim ited traverse of 1 0 ” left and 10° right of the main armament. Some 118 rounds of 47mm and 1,250 rounds of m achine-gun am m unition were norm ally carried. Provision was also made for m ounting another 7.5mm m achine-gun on the commander's cupola for use in.the anti-aircraft role. This last does not appear to have been fitted in action as no doubt the com m ander already had enough to do w ith o u t having to cope w ith this w eapon as w e ll! The engine and transmission were at the rear of the hull, w ith the engine on the left and the self-sealing petrol tank on the right. The engine com part­ ment was separated from the fig h tin g com partm ent by a firep ro o f bulkhead. The suspension on each side consisted of tw o assemblies, each of w h ich had four bogie wheels m ounted in pairs on articulated arms, these being controlled by sem i-elliptic springs. The ninth bogie wheel at the rear was provided w ith its ow n spring. The idler was at the fron t and the drive sprocket at the rear, and there were tw o small track-return rollers. The low er part of the suspension was provided w ith an armoured cover w h ich could be hinged up to allow access to the bogie assemblies. In 1940 production of an im proved m odel, the S-40 started. This had a more pow erful 220hp engine and m odified suspension, but fe w of these had been completed by the fall of France. Another interesting vehicle was the SAu 40 self-propelled gun, although this existed only in prototype form . This

A b o ve: The fin a l version o f th e S o m u a m e d iu m tan k , considered by m any to be th e best French tan k b u ilt, w a s th e S -4 0 . T his had a m o re p o w e rfu l 220hp e n g in e and m o d ifie d suspension, b u t f e w w e re b u ilt by th e fa ll o f France in 1940. This S -4 0 w a s c a p tu re d by th e R esistance to w a rd s th e end o f th e w a r. R ig h t: A n e w S -4 0 on a lo w lo a d e r a w a its d e liv e ry to th e French A rm y . A t o ne t im e it w a s th o u g h t th a t p ro d u c tio n fo r th e French A rm y w o u ld be u n d e rta k e n in th e USA . 28

A b o v e : A c a p tu re d S -3 5 m e d iu m ta n k is used to p a tro l an a irfie ld in o cc u p ie d F rance. T his p h o to g ra p h s h o w s th e use o f th e s ta n d a rd G e rm a n w ire le s s a e ria l base to t u r r e t rear. had a h u ll-m o u n te d 75mm gun to the right of the driver, and a different turret was fitted. The S -35 was also used by the Germans for a variety of roles including crew training and internal security; some were even used on the Russian front. The Germans called the type the P zK pfw 35C 739 (f). Some were also fitted as com m and vehicles, and a fe w were handed over to the Italians.

29

GERMANY The remarkable thing about the German use of tanks is th a t they ever managed to do it at all. During W orld W ar I, they did not produce a successful tank, unlike the French and British w ho employed tanks on a w id e scale. And the Versailles Treaty of 1919 forbade the Germans from possessing any tanks, so any ideas th e ir m ilitary thinkers did have suffered from not being put into practice (although some tanks w e re produced in Russia during the 1920s and tactics tried out w ith the Soviet Arm y, under great secrecy and to the advantage of both countries). But the Germans had studied Liddell H art and, w hen they defied the Treaty and started rearm am ent in 1933, tanks w ere high on the priority list. W h ile Britain, France and other armies still tended to see the role of the tank as th a t o f supporting infantry, Germ any created the most success­ ful form ations of the tim e, based on the tank. The 1 st Panzer Division was form ed in 1935, w ith tw o battalions of tanks, tw o of infantry, tw o of a rtille ry and one o f m o to r­ cycles, plus supporting units. By 1939 eight Panzer divisions had been form ed, and these played a decisive role in the Blitzkrieg campaigns against Poland and France. These and subsequent campaigns dem onstrated th a t armoured divisions had both greater striking pow er and greater m obility than infantry divisions on w hich armies had been based during and im m ediately a fte r W orld W ar I. When laying plans fo r production o f his main battle tanks. Panzer virtuoso General Heinz Guderian foresaw

30

th a t the m ajor battles w ould be fou gh t w ith tw o ty p e s : the more numerous one carrying a high-velocity gun fo r a n ti­ tank w o rk, and a second acting as a support tank fo r the firs t, carrying a large-calibre gun capable firing a good high explosive (H E ) shell. Panzer divisions saw action in all fro nts from N orth A frica to Russia (but th e ir tanks w ere not designed w ith the vast frozen wastes in m ind). During the B litzkrieg through France, many French tanks proved more than a m atch fo r the German counterparts, but the Germans used th e ir arm our m ore boldly, and thus more successfully. Having knocked out huge numbers o f Soviet tanks during th e ir advance into Russia, the German tanks (P zK p fw III and IV ) once again m et th e ir betters in th e T -3 4 , w hich in e ffe c t changed all previous German tank specifi­ cations. It became obvious th a t w h a t was needed was more speed, more arm our (and sloped as much as possible) and a bigger gun. The result w as the superb P zK pfw V Panther w ith its 75mm gun, and the tw o classic German "heavies", the Tiger I and Tiger II w ith 88mm guns. One o f the best advantages the Germans had over their enemies was th a t the Panzer m asterm inds never bothered w ith producing " in fa n try " tanks to co-operate w ith the footsloggers. One o f the surprising disadvantages it experienced was th a t H itler's w a r machine took such a long tim e to get organised, so th a t the Panther and Tiger w ere not ready in tim e, and the heavy tank losses generally could not be replaced quickly enough.

31

PzKpfw I Light Tank S d K fz 101. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: T w o 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-guns. A rm o u r: 0.28in (7m m ) m inimum ; 0.51 in (1 3m m ) maximum. D im ensions: Length 1 3ft 3in (4.03m ); w id th 6ft 9in (2.05m ); height 5ft 8in (1.72m). W e ig h t: 11,905lbs (5,400kg). G round Pressure: 5.71 lb /in 2 (0 .4 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 11 3 2 h p/to n . Engine: Krupp M 305 fo u r-cylin d e r horizontally-opposed air-cooled petrol engine developing 60hp at 2,500rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 23m ph (3 7 k m /h ); range 125 miles (200km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 2in (0.355m ); trench 4 ft 7 in (1 ,4m); gradient 58 per cent. H is to ry : Served w ith the German A rm y from 1934 to 1941 as a tank, and to 1945 in other roles. Also used by Spain. (Note: Data relate to P zK pfw I A.) In 1933, w hen Germany began openly to rearm, it w as realised that the developm ent of a full fam ily of armoured vehicles w o u ld take several years. In the meantime it was decided to build lig h t vehicles w h ich the new armoured form ations could use for training and experience. Contracts were therefore laid for a series of armoured vehicles between 3.9 and 6.9 tons (4,000 and 7,000kg) overall w e ig h t, and Krupp's design was the one chosen. The P zK p fw I A was a small tw o -m a n tank w h ich was inadequate in most respects even by the m odest standards of the day. The hull was lig h tly armoured and had many openings, crevices and joints, all o f w h ich generally weakened it and made it vulnerable to attack. The engine was lo w powered and as a result performance was poor. The gearbox was a standard comm ercial crash type, w ith five forw ard speeds and one reverse. Fittings were minimal, and there was little evidence of designing for crew com fort. The suspension B e lo w : T h e P z K p fw M o d e l B d iffe re d fro m th e M o d e l A in having a m o re p o w e rfu l e ng ine. This n e c e s s ita te d a lo n g e r h u ll. To co m p e n s ate f o r th e e x tra le n g th an a d d itio n a l road w h e e l w a s f itte d , th e id le r w a s raised o f f th e g ro u n d and an e x tra re tu rn ro lle r added.

showed evidence o f plagiarisation of some of the features o f the CardenLoyd lig h t tanks of the 1 920s, in that an external beam carried the outer ends of the bogie axles and the rear idler. The drive-sprocket was at the front, w h ich meant that the transm ission train ran along the flo o r of the hull to a differential beside the driver's feet. Both driver and comm ander shared the same com partm ent, the driver clim bing in through a hull door on the side, the comm ander using a large hatch in the turret roof. Since his vision was very restricted w hen the vehicle was closed dow n, the comm ander generally spent his tim e standing up w ith the upper half o f his body w e ll exposed. The ►

A b o v e : A P z K p fw M o d e l B lig h t ta n k in France in su m ­ m e r 1940. T h e f ir s t m odel w a s p o w e re d by a K rup p 60hp p e tro l e n g in e b u t th e M o d e l B had th e 1 0 0 h p M a y b a c h en g in e . T his w a s a g re a t im p ro v e m e n t b u t th e ta n k w a s s till u n d e r-a rm e d .

33

little turret was traversed by hand, and the com m ander fired the tw o m achine-guns, for w h ich there were 1,525 rounds of am m unition. The inadequacies of the Krupp engine became q u ickly apparent, and it was superseded by a more pow erful one of 10Obhp. This was a six-cylin d e r w atercooled inline Maybach, and to fit it in the chassis an extra 1ft 5in (43cm ) of length had to be added to the hull. This brought about changes in the suspen­ sion, and an extra wheel station was added. In turn this lengthened the track in contact w ith the ground, and so the rear idler was lifted up. This was designated the PzK pfw 1 B, w h ich was altogether a better vehicle, although it suffered from the same failings in armour and armament as did the 1A. Over 2,000 IBs were built, reflecting the greater use that could be made of the more pow erful model, and although on ly meant as interim vehicles until the proper battle tanks could be introduced, they were in action as early as 1936 in the Spanish Civil War, and after th a t in Poland, the Low Countries in 1 940, Africa, Greece, the Balkans and even in Russia during 1 941, though by then they were w ell out-dated and inadequate for anything except very m inor tasks. In their early days these little tanks had survived very largely by virtue of the fact that there was no effective a n ti-ta n k armament in service w ith any army, and tanks were virtually im mune to infantry weapons. However, as soon as any light guns could be brought to bear the P zK pfw I 34

A b o v e : T h e P z K p fw M o d e l A lig h t ta n k w a s used in a c tio n fo r th e f ir s t tim e d u rin g th e Spanish C ivil W a r, and la te r in Poland, L ow C o u n trie s in 1940, A fric a , G re e c e , Balkans and even d uring th e e a rly p a rt o f th e Russian c a m p a ig n . It w as soon phased o u t o f fr o n t line service as it lacked b o th a rm o u r and fir e p o w e r and m an y w e re k no cked o u t by th e sm all B ritis h 2 p o u n d e r a n ti-ta n k gun d u rin g th e re tre a t to D u n k irk . L e ft and ab o v e le ft : T o p and fr o n t v ie w s o f th e P z K p fw I lig h t ta n k w h ic h e n te re d service w ith th e G e rm a n A rm y in 1934. Its tw o -m a n c re w con sisted o f th e d riv e r and c o m m a n d e r/g u n n e r. A rm a m e n t w a s o f tw o 7 .9 2m m M G 34 m achine guns in a tu r r e t , o ffs e t to th e rig h t o f th e hull. V a ria n ts o f th e ta n k inclu ded a c o m m a n d v e h ic le and an a m m u n itio n c a rrie r. A f e w w e re f itt e d w ith a 4 .7 c m a n ti-ta n k gun o r a 15cm g un , b u t th e s e c on version s w e re n o t a g re a t success as th e chassis w a s o ve rlo a d ed . was doom ed, and many were destroyed by British 2pounder fire in the retreat to Dunkirk. Several experim ents were tried on the type, one such being the introduction of radio. This was only fitte d to the IB version, and judging from photographs there was a sizeable proportion of each unit w h ich could com m unicate by this means. The other vehicles w atched for hand signals from their sub-unit leader. A successful variant to the basic tank was the conversion to a small comm and vehicle, an idea w h ich started in 1936. By 1938 200 had been com pleted. The turret was replaced by a square fu ll-w id th superstructure w ith a low square cupola on top. A single m achine-gun was fitted for selfdefence, and could be removed and set up on its ground mount. The crew was increased to three, and tw o radio sets were fitted. These vehicles were allotted to armoured units of all kinds, and altogether 96 of them saw action in France. M any others w e n t to Russia in the fo llo w in g year, though they m ust have been terribly vulnerable to any form of effective fire. A very small number of redundant P zK pfw Is were converted to other roles. A fe w were made into repair tractors, and others became am m unition carriers. A b o u t 200 were fitted w ith a 4.7cm gun and became lig h t SP anti-tank guns; a very fe w others were fitte d w ith 1 5cm guns, but in both cases the chassis was overloaded and the idea was dropped after lim ited use. 35

PzKpfw II Light Tank P z K p f w II, or S d K fz 121 A u s t A to F. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany. C re w : 3. A rm a m e n t: One 2cm K w K 30 or 38 gun; one 7.92mm MG 34 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament. A rm o u r: 0.39in (1 Omm) m inimum ; 1.1 8in (30m m ) m aximum in the A u s fA . B and C ;0.57in (14.5m m ) m inim um ; 1 ,38in (35m m ) m aximum in th e /4 u s /F . W e ig h t: 20,944lbs (9.500kg). G round Pressure: 11.3Ib /in 2 (0 .8 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 13.9 hp /to n . Engine: Maybach HL 62 TR six-cylin d e r w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 130hp at 2,600rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 25m ph (4 0 k m /h ); range 120 miles (192km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 5in (0.43m ); trench 5ft 8in (1.72m ); fo rd in g depth 3ft (0.91 m); gradient 50 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the German A rm y from 1936 to 1943. Also used by Spain. From a 1934 specification, a P zK p fw II design by M AN was fin a lly selected. A number of prototypes was built, and some o f them were sent to Spain for full-scale trials in action. The first production models appeared in 1935, but deliveries were slo w for the next 18 m onths as changes were made in the design. The armour was increased in thickness, particularly in the front, and some changes were made in the suspension. The w e ig h t increased by nearly 1.95 tons (2,000kg), and experim ents were made to im prove the engine horsepower. An extra 10hp was found by boring out the cylinders of the M aybach engine, though the low er pow er m otor appears to have continued to be fitted to some versions. The three variants of the P zK pfw II, the A u s f A, B and C, were all very similar, w ith only m inor dim ensional differences. The A u s f A had the original low power engine and w eighed 16,105lbs (7,3 0 5 kg ). A b o u t 100 were built in 1935 and 1936. The A u s f B featured the higher pow er engine, new reduction gears and tracks, and again the w e ig h t increased. The A u s f C

36

appeared in 1 937 and carried thicker fro n t armour, bringing the w e ig h t up to the final figure of 20.944lbs (9,5 0 0 kg ). Issues to units began in earnest in 1937, and by 1939 there were sufficie n t for over 1,000 to take part in the Polish campaign. M anufacture o f the general type continued up to late 1942 or early 1943, by w h ich tim e the basic tank was w ell outdated. The hull was b u ilt up from welded heat-treated steel, 1.18in (30m m ) thick on the fro n t and 0.39in (1 0m m ) on the sides and rear. The turret was made in a similar w ay, again 1.18in (30m m ) th ick on the fro n t and 0.63in (1 6mm) around the sides and back. The engine was in the rear com partm ent, driving forw ard th rough the fig h tin g com partm ent to a gearbox and final drive in front. The gearbox was a ZF crash-type w ith six forw ard speeds and one reverse, the steering being by clutches and brakes. The driver sat off-centre to the left side. The fig h tin g com partm ent had the turret above it, again offset slightly to the left. The armament was an im provem ent on that of the P zK pfw I, but still not very effective: the 2cm gun had a m aximum range of 656 yards (60 0 m ), and only fired arm our-piercing am m unition, but it had a reasonably rapid rate o f fire. Some 180 2cm and 1,425 7.92m m rounds were carried. Flowever. arm our penetration of these 2cm rounds was not impressive. Once again, vision w as poor from the turret, and fire -co n tro l d iffic u lt w hen fu lly closed-dow n. M ost vehicles seem to have had radio. The suspension was distinctive. There were five road wheels hung on qu a rte r-e llip tic leaf springs, w ith the rear idler and fron t drive sprocket both clear of the ground. This suspension w as quite effective, and w ith in the lim its of its engine power the P zK pfw II was quite m anoeuvrable and agile. The tracks were narrow, but apparently quite strong. Despite the lim itations of the design, the P zK p fw II form ed the backbone of the armoured divisions o f the German Arm y, and as late as April 1942 860 were still on strength. An attem pt to im prove the performance was made in late 1 940 w ith the F variant. Thicker armour was fitte d to the fro n t and sides and a higher ve lo city gun installed, though its calibre was still only 2cm. However these changes did little to increase the battlefield value o f the tank, and the extra 2,204lbs (1,0 0 0 kg ) of w e ig h t that they entailed put an extra strain on the engine. The basic chassis was used for several different specialpurpose vehicles, and also as a test-bed for a variety o f ideas, including the use of to rsio n -b a r suspension systems. Some were turned into flam ethrower vehicles, capable of about 80 shots of 2 to 3 seconds duration. L e f t : P z K p fw II A u sf F lig h t ta n k o f a re g im e n ta l H .Q . (in d ic a te d by th e le tte r R on th e t u r r e t s id e ). T h e fig u re s 06 id e n tify th e ta n k as p a rt o f a reco nn aissan ce Zug. This a c tu a l ta n k w a s c a p tu re d in N o rth A fric a and is n o w d is ­ played a t th e Royal A rm o u red Corps T an k M u s e u m a t B o v in g to n C am p , D o rs e t, England. T he s p e c ific a tio n fo r th e ta n k w a s issued in 1934 and p ro to ty p e s w e re b u ilt by H enschel, Krupp and M A N . T h e la tte r w a s selected fo r p ro d u c tio n and fir s t m o d els w e re c o m ­ p le te d th e fo llo w in g year. By M a y 1940 th e G erm an A rm y had 955 P z K p fw II ta n k s and th is had risen to 1,0 67 v eh icles by th e fo llo w in g year. 37

PzKpfw III Battle Tank P z K p fw III, or S d K fz '\Ą '\, A u s f A to N. C o un try o f o r ig in : Germany C re w : 5. A r m a m e n t\A u s f A, B, C and D one 3.7cm K w K L/45 gun, tw o 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-guns co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m MG 34 machine-gun in hull. AusfE . F, G and H one 5cm K w K 39 L/42 gun; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achinegun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92mm MG 34 m achine-gun in hull. A u s f J and L one 5cm K w K 39 L /6 0 gun: one 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-gun in hull. A u s fM and N one 7.5cm K w K L /2 4 gun; one 7.92mm MG 34 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92mm MG 34 m achine-gun in hull. A rm o u r: A u s f A, B and C 0.57in (14.5m m ) m inim um ; 3.54in (90m m ) maximum. A u s f D to G 1.18 (30m m ) m inim um ; 3.54in (90m m ) maximum. A u s f H to N 1.1 8in (30m m ) m inim um ; 3.1 5in (80m m ) m aximum, but often seen w ith additional plate and spaced armour. D im en sion s: Length A u s f A and B 18 ft 6in (5.7m ); A u s f D to G 17 ft 8in (5.4 m );/l(vsf FI 18ft 1 in (5.52m ); A u s f J to N 21 ft 1 in (6.4m ). W idth A u s f A to C 9ft 2in (2.8m ); A u s f D to G 9ft 6in (2.9m ); A u s f FI to N 9ft 8in (2.95m ). Height A u s f A 7ft 7in (2.35m ); A u s f B and C 8ft 4in (2.55m ); A u s f D to G 8ft (2.4m ); A u s f H to N 9ft 8in (2.95m ). W e ig h t: A u s f A to C 33,069lbs (15 ,0 0 0 kg ); A u s f D and E 42,769lbs (19,400kg); A u s f F and G 44.753lbs (20 ,3 0 0 kg ); A u s f H 4 7 ,61 9lbs (21 ,6 0 0 kg );/4 u sfJ to N 49,1 63lbs (22,300kg). G ro un d Pressure: A u s f A to C 1 5 .3 lb /in 2 (0 .9 7 3 k g /c m 2); A u s f D 1 3 .2 lb /in 2 (0 .9 3 k g /c m 2); A u s f E and H to N 1 3 .5 lb /in 2 (0 .9 5 k g /c m 2); A u s f F and G 14.1 lb /in 2 (0 .9 9 kg /cm 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : A u s f A to C 1 5.5 8h p /to n ; A u s f D 1 6.75hp/ton; A u s f E and H to N 1 5.71 h p /to n ; A u s f F and G 1 5 h p /to n . E n g in e : A u s f A to C Maybach HL 108 TR V -1 2 w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 230hp at 2 ,6 0 0 rp m ;/t/s /D M aybach HL 1 20 TR develop­ ing 320hp at 3,000rpm; A u s f E to N Maybach HL 120 TRM developing 300hp at 3.000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed A u s f A to C 20mph (3 2 k m /h ); A u s f E to N 25mph (4 0 k m /h ). C ross-country speed all models 11 mph (1 8 k m /h ). Range A u s f A to C 94 miles (1 50km ); A u s f D 103 miles (1 65km ); A u s f E to N 109 miles (175km ). Vertical obstacle all m odels 2ft (0.6m ). Trench A u s f A to G 7ft 6in (2.3m ). Fording depth A u s f A to J 2ft 7in (0.8m ); A u s f L to N 4 ft 3in (1 ,3m). Gradient 30 degrees.

A b o v e : A P z K p fw III c re w m e m b e r s u rre n d e rs to B ritis h in fa n try on 29 O c to b e r 1942, d u rin g th e N o rth A fric a n c a m p a ig n . H is to ry : In service w ith the German Arm y from 1 939 to 1 945. Also used by Spain and Turkey. In 1935. having gained some experience w ith the small tanks of that time, the Germans began to draw up specifications for their main battle tanks. The intention, as stated by General Guderian, was to have tw o basic types, the first carrying a high velocity gun for a n ti-ta n k w ork, backed up by m achine- ► R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t, re a r and side v ie w s o f a P z K p fw III A u sf J o f 3rd Pan zer D ivisio n on th e Russian F ro n t in 1941. T h e ta n k is a rm e d w ith a 50m m K w K L /42 lo w v e lo c ity gun fo r w h ic h 78 rounds o f a m m u n itio n w e re ca rrie d . On to p o f th e hull re a r are tw o sets o f re p la c e m e n t road w h e e ls .

guns, and the second, a support tank fo r the first, carrying a large-calibre gun capable of firing a destructive HE shell. The intention was to equip the tank battalions w ith these in the ratio o f three companies of the first type to one company o f the support vehicles. The P zK pfw III was the first o f these tw o vehicles, and o rigina lly a highvelocity 5cm gun was called for. But the infantry were being equipped w ith the 3.7cm an ti-ta n k gun, and it was fe lt that in the interest o f standardisation the tanks should carry the same. However, a large turret ring was retained so that the vehicle could be up-gunned later w ith o u t much d ifficu lty. This was an im portant consideration and it u n d ou b te d ly enabled the P zK p fw III to remain in service for at least tw o years longer than w o u ld otherw ise have been the case. The specification called for a w e ig h t of 14.76 tons (15,000kg), w hich was never achieved, and the upper lim it had to be set at 23.62 tons (24,000kg) in deference to German road bridges. The first prototypes appeared in 1936, and Daim ler-Benz was chosen to be the main contractor. The A u s f A, B, C and D all appeared during the developm ent phase, and were o n ly produced in com paratively small numbers, and all were used to try out the diffe re n t aspects of the design. The A u s f E became the production version, and was accepted in September 1939 as the Panzerkampfwagen III (3.7cm ) (SdKfz 141). Production was spread among ► R ig h t: A fe a tu re o f th e P z K p fw III w a s th e p ro m in e n t c u p o la a t th e rear o f th e t u r r e t w h ic h g av e th e c o m m a n d e r v e ry good a ll­ round o b s e rv a tio n . This p a rtic u la r ta n k has spaced a rm o u r added across th e fr o n t o f th e s u p e rs tru c tu re and across th e m a n tle t fro n t. N o te th e spare tra c k links fix e d u n d er th e nose. B e lo w : T he P z K p fw III w a s o rig in a lly arm ed w ith a 3 7 m m gun b ut it w a s p ro gressively upgunned to 50m m and fin a lly to 7 5 m m .

several firms, none of w hom had had any previous experience o f massproducing vehicles — a fact w h ich was to cause some trouble later on. The P zK pfw III A u s f E no w form ed the basis of the armoured divisions o f the Wehrmacht. Some 98 were available for the invasion of Poland, and 350 took part in the Battle for France in M ay 1 940. These tanks were m ainly A u s f E, but there was still a number of earlier marks in service. All versions featured a good crew layout. There was room for every man to do his job, and the prom inent 'd ustb in ' cupola at the rear o f the turret gave the commander an excellent view . The driver was assisted by a pre-selector gearbox giving him ten forw ard speeds and one reverse. The gearbox was rather complicated, and m aintenance was d ifficu lt, but gear changing was easy and driving far less tirin g than in many contem porary tanks at that time. The 320hp from the M aybach engine was adequate, if not exactly generous, and cross-country performance reasonably good. However, the tank was not entirely successful in action. The 3.7cm gun was not good enough to penetrate the armour of the British infantry tanks in France, and the 1.1 8in (30m m ) of frontal armour could not keep out 2pounder shot. The same happened in the Western Desert w hen the P zK pfw III first w e n t o u t w ith the A frika Korps. but a new Krupp 5cm gun was rushed into production in late 1939 and was fitted to VneAusfE to H. This gun was n o t entirely satisfactory either as it was a lo w -v e lo c ity w eapon, but it fired a useful HE shell and could outrange the British 2pounder. Some 99 rounds of 5cm am m unition and 2,000 of 7.92mm am m unition were carried. A steady programme of im provem ent and developm ent was n o w applied to the P zK pfw III. The A u s f H introduced extra armour bolted on to the hull and turret, and the tracks were w idened to carry the extra w e ig h t. The complicated ten-speed gearbox was replaced by a sim ple six-speed manual change, and some of these features were retrofitted to earlier marks. By 1941 there were nearly 1,500 P zK pfw Ills in service, and the type was very successful in the first stages of the invasion of Russia. But the T -3 4 and KV tanks were im pervious to the 5cm lo w -v e lo c ity gun, and in a crash programme a h ig h -ve lo city version was introduced, though even this soon proved to be inadequate on the Eastern Front. However, it did w e ll in the desert. Improved versions were now being designed fast. Production o f the P zKpfw III had never reached the intended numbers (indeed it never did) and the J versibn. w h ich carried 78 5cm rounds, was meant to be easier to produce and at the same time to provide better protection. The M w e n t a bit further and also cut out many m inor items such as hatches and vision ports. Some 2,600 were b u ilt in 1942, but already the tank was being outm oded and the N version carried a lo w -ve lo city 7.5cm gun to provide HE support to the heavy tank battalions. Some 64 7.5cm and 3,450 7.92m m rounds of am m unition were carried. B e lo w : A P z K p fw III w ith a d d itio n a l a rm o u r to h ull f r o n t and m a n tle t, arm e d w ith a s h o rt-b a rre lle d 7 .5 c m L /2 4 gun. F la m e ­ th r o w e r versions o f th e ta n k w e re in s e rv ic e by 1943.

A b o v e : S u p p o rtin g in fa n try , a P z K p fw III A u s f J a c ts as p ro te c ­ tio n a g a in s t e n e m y f ir e d u rin g th e a d v a n ce on M o s c o w in 1942. The P z K p fw III w a s th e b ac k b o n e o f th e Pan zer D ivision s in th e e a rly stages o f th e Russian c a m p a ig n b u t could n o t serio usly tro u b le th e S o v ie t T -3 4 and K V tan k s . It w a s re p la ce d by la te r m o d els o f th e P z K p fw IV. B e lo w : A p p a re n tly in th e h ea t o f b a ttle , a P z K p fw III, again w ith a d d itio n a l a rm o u r t o h ull fr o n t and m a n tle t and th e s h o rtb a rre lle d 7 .5 c m L /2 4 gun.

PzKpfw IV Medium Tank S d K fz -iM . C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 7.5cm K w K L /2 4 gun; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-gun in hull. A rm o u r: 0.79in (20m m ) m inim um ; 3.54in (90m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 1 9ft 5in (5.91 m ); w id th 9ft 7in (2.92m ); height 8ft 6in (2.59m ). W e ig h t: 43,431 lbs (1 9,700kg). G round Pressure: 1 0 .6 lb /in 2 (0 .7 5 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 5 .5hp/ton. Engine: Maybach HL 120 TRM V-12 inline diesel developing 300hp at 3,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 25m ph (4 0 k m /h ); cross-country speed 12.5mph (2 0 k m /h ); range 125 miles (20 0 km ); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.6m ); trench 7ft 6in (2.3m ); fo rd in g depth 2 ft 7in (0.8m ); gradient 30 degrees. H is to ry : In service w ith the German A rm y from 1936 to 1945. Also used by Italy, Spain and Turkey. Last used by Syria in 1967. (N ote: Data relate to the PzK pfw N A u s fD .) The PzK pfw IV was the only German tank to stay in continuous production throughout W orld War II, and it was probably in production longer than any other tank from that war, w ith the exception of the T -34. It began w ith the German specifications of 1935 in w h ich it was foreseen that the main battle w o u ld be fo u gh t w ith tw o types, the more numerous one carrying a highvelocity gun (the P zK pfw III) and a support tank carrying a large-calibre gun firing a good HE shell. This was the P zK pfw IV. The gun chosen from the beginning was the 7.5cm short-barrelled KwK, and the tank was not to ► B e lo w : F ro n t v ie w o f a P z K p fw IV A u sf F2 o f th e A frik a Korps arm ed w ith th e long b a rre lle d 7 5 m m K w K L /43 gun. This w a s e n ­ c o u n te re d by th e B ritis h in th e W e s te rn D e s e rt and ca lled th e 'Pz IV S p e c ial'. T he fitt in g o f th is gun c han ged th e ro le o f th e tan k fro m th a t o f a close s u p p o rt v e h ic le t o a ta n k t h a t c ou ld engage and d e fe a t o th e r tan ks. R ig h t: F ro n t v ie w o f P z K p fw IV A u sf A o f 1st P an zer D iv is io n .

44

A b o v e : P z K p fw IV A u s f H w ith lo n g -b a rre lle d L /48 g un , apron a rm o u r 5 m m th ic k fo r th e h ull and 8 m m th ic k on th e tu r re t. 'Z im m e rit' a n ti-m a g n e tic p aste w a s u su ally app lie d to these v eh icles to p re v e n t m a g n e tic charges fro m being a tta c h e d .

45

R ig h t: Disabled P z K p fw IV A u sf H tanks on th e V o ro nezh F ro n t in 1943. N o te th e skirt a rm o u r plates on th e fro n t ta n k ; called S churzen, th e y w e re 5m m th ic k and w e re intend ed to d e to n a te H EA T p ro je c tiles p re m a tu re ly. T h e d eta c h a b le hull plates w e re o fte n lost in th e h eat o f b a ttle b ut th e tu r re t plates w e re a p e rm a n e n t fix tu re . By th e end o f W o rld W a r II 8,000 IVs had been b u ilt and it w a s th e only G erm an tan k to rem ain in p ro d u c tio n all th ro u g h th e w a r. S o m e w e re even used as re c e n tly as 1967 by th e Syrian A rm y in th e s ta tic a n t i­ ta n k role. exceed 23.62 tons (24,000kg) in overall w e ig h t. In fact the specification called for a very sim ilar vehicle to the P zK p fw III, and the layout of both was much the same, as were their tasks. Contracts were laid w ith a variety o f firms, and there was the same fairly extended developm ent tim e w h ile the different designs were refined. It was 1939 before deliveries could be made in any quantity, and by that tim e the models had progressed to the Type D. This was the model w h ich took part in the Polish and French campaigns, fin a lly advancing into Russia in 1941, w hen its deficiencies became too apparent to be ignored further. The Type D was slig h tly larger than the P zK pfw III, but had the same thin hull form and general shape. There were three com partm ents for the crew, the driver and radio operator o ccupying the front, w ith the hull m achine-gun on the right side and set slig h tly back from the driver. In the fig h tin g compartment the turret contained the comm ander, gunner and loader. The turret itself was traversed by an electric motor, whereas that of the P zK pfw III was hand-operated. The com m ander had a prom inent cupola at the rear of the turret, and good a ll-round vision. There were escape hatches in the turret sides. The engine was in the rear com partm ent, and was the same as that ot the P zK pfw III, although the layout of the ancillaries was slig h tly different. The drive ran forw ard to a fro n t gearbox and sprocket. Suspension was by four coupled bogies on each side, sprung by leaf springs. There was a large idler wheel at the back and fo u r small return rollers. There was room enough in the hull for 80 rounds of am m unition for the gun, and 2,800 rounds in belts for the m achine-guns. Battle experience soon showed th a t in this form the tank was a sound design and well laid out, but the armour was to o thin for it to be able to 46

perform its proper task o f supporting the P zK pfw Ills as it had scarcely any advantage over any other tank. There fo llo w e d a steady programme of im provem ent w h ich was to continue until the end of the war. The next model, the E, was given thicker armour on the nose and turret, and a new cupola. Older models were retrofitted, w h ich confuses precise identification of many photographs today. The F model was intended to be the main production version, though it too was soon overtaken, and a long-barrelled version of the 7,5cm gun was fitted. This long gun com pletely changed the role of the vehicle as it n o w became a fig h tin g tank and began to take over that duty from the P zK pfw III from about mid-1 941 onwards. The F was made in large numbers and fo u g h t on all fronts, as did the G w h ich came soon after it, differing ou tw a rd ly only in respect o f its thicker armour and side skirting plates. In 1943 another lease of life was injected by fittin g the more powerful 7.5cm K w K 40 L/4 8 w h ich enabled the P zK pfw IV to take on almost any tank in the w orld, and to give a good account o f itself against the T-34. These larger guns had of course changed the turret, w h ich from the G onwards was protected w ith extra plates, m aking it appear much longer at the rear. Large 0.2in (5m m ) skirting plates hung over the sides and radically altered the look of the tank, m aking it appear deep and rather clum sy. The last model was the J, w h ich came out in 1 944. By this time many raw materials were scarce and the design had to be sim plified, but it was still basically the tank w h ich had started the w ar five years before. By 1945 over 8,000 had been delivered and many more were built for specialist purposes. A fe w were still in service w ith the Syrian Arm y in the Arab-Israeli War of 1967, and apparently w e n t well. 47

PzKpfw VI Tiger I Heavy Battle Tank P z K p fw V I T ig e r I, or S d K fz 181. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 8.8cm K w K 36 L /5 6 gun; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achinegun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m MG 34 m achine-gun in hull. A rm o u r: 1 ,02in (26m m ) m inim um ; 4.33in (1 10mm ) m aximum. D im en sion s: Length 27ft (8.25m ); w id th 12ft 3 in (3.73m ); height 9ft 4in (2.85m ). W e ig h t: 121.253lbs (55.000kg). G round Pressure: 14 .8 lb /in 2 (1 ,0 4 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t i o : 12 .9 3h p /to n . Engine: M aybach HL 230 P 45 V -12 w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 700bhp at 3,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 24mph (3 8 k m /h ); cross-country speed 12mph (2 0 k m /h ); range 62 miles (100km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 7in (0.8m ); trench 5ft 11 in (1 ,8m); fo rd in g depth 4 ft (1 ,2m); gradient 35 degrees. H is to ry : In service w ith the German Arm y from 1942 to 1 945. (Note; Data relate to the Tiger I A u s f E.) B e lo w and r ig h t : Fou r v ie w s o f th e P z K p fw V I T ig e r ( M o d e l H ) o f th e 1st SS Panzer D iv is io n , 'L e ib s ta n d a rte A d o lf H itle r ', as used on th e Russian F ro n t. T h e bands a ro u n d th e b a rre l o f th e 8 8 m m K w K L /5 6 gun in d ic a te th e n u m b e r o f e n e m y ta n k s k illed .

48

Despite the decision to mass produce the P zK pfw III and IV, and the fair certainty at the tim e that these tw o m odels w o u ld be adequate for the expected battles of the future, the German general staff also called for an even heavier tank in 1937. This was to be of 29.53 tons (30,000kg) or more and was to be a heavy 'breakthrough' tank to lead the armoured assaults. The design lapsed until 1 941, by when it was realised that the P zK pfw Ills and IVs had been less successful than had been expected against the heavily armoured French and British tanks in 1940. This vie w was fu lly endorsed w hen the Soviet T-34s and KV-ls were met later in 1 941, and resulted in a specification for a heavy tank capable o f m ounting the highly successful 8.8cm highvelocity gun in a turret w ith fu ll traverse and carrying sufficient armour to defeat all present and future a n ti-ta n k weapons. T w o firms subm itted prototypes, using some of the developm ents from the 1937 ideas. These were Porsche and Henschel. The turret was comm on to both and came from Krupp. The Porsche design was unconventional and was not accepted, although it became a self-propelled gun. The Henschel design was relatively conventional, was o b vio u sly easier to make, and was thus accepted. This was given the designation P zK p fw VI and the name Tiger. Production began slo w ly in A u g u st 1942. A t the tim e of its in tro d u ctio n , and for some tim e afterwards, the Tiger was the most pow erful tank in the w o rld . The 8.8cm gun, w h ich had 92 rounds of am m unition, w as enorm ously form idable, and the arm our ensured that any frontal shot could not penetrate. So effective was it that the Allies had t o ^

49

evolve special tactics to cope w ith it, th o ug h there were occasions w hen the tank was used so ineffectively that it never realised its potential. The Tiger was intended to be deployed in special battalions of 30 vehicles under the control of an army or corps headquarters. In general, this was done, th o ug h some armoured divisions were given their ow n Tiger battalions, particularly those of the W affen-SS. Hitler had taken a personal interest in the Tiger, and he pressed for its use at the earliest opp ortu n ity. They were th ro w n into battle near Leningrad in the late summer o f 1942, w e ll spread out and in small numbers on poor ground. The result was a fiasco, as was the Kursk battle next year. But w hen used in ambush, w here its gun could in flic t the most damage, and where the heavy armour allow ed a phased w ith d ra w a l, the Tiger was supreme. Indeed, in 1944 one solitary Tiger held up an entire division in France, and knocked out 25 Allied tanks before being stalked and destroyed. The hull of the Tiger was a com paratively simple w elded unit w ith a onepiece superstructure w elded on top. The arm our was not w e ll sloped, but was thick. A t the fron t it was 3.94in (100m m ), around the sides 3.1 5in (80m m ) and 1.02in (26m m ) on the decks. To assist production all shapes were kept simple, and a long bo x-like side pannier ran along the top o f the tracks. The turret was also simple, and the sides were alm ost upright. The m antlet was very heavy, w ith 4.33in (1 10mm) of armour, and carried the long and heavy gun. The turret traverse was very low -geared and driven by a hydraulic m otor w hich took its power from the gearbox. Thus w hen the main engine was stopped, the turret had to be traversed by hand. The engine w as changed in late 1943 to one of slightly greater power, but in general it w as reliable and pow erful enough. The d ifficu lty was that the tank's range was always to o lim ited for operations, and top speed was lo w because of the need to gear do w n the transmission. The w e ig h t was too great for the usual German clutch and brake steering and Henschel adapted the British M e rritt-B ro w n regenerative unit and coupled it to a pre-selector M aybach gearbox w ith eight forward speeds. The result was a set of controls w h ich were very lig h t fo r the driver,

but by no means easy to m aintain or repair. The suspension was form ed by overlapping road wheels; it was the first German tank to carry this disdistinctive feature, w h ich gave a soft and stable ride. There were no less than eight torsion-bars on each side, and the flo o r was tig h tly packed w ith them. The d iffic u lty w ith the overlapping wheels was that in the Russian w in te r nights they froze together and jammed the tracks, and the Russians often tim ed their attacks for dawn, w hen they could be sure of the Tigers being im mobilised. The tracks were too w id e for rail transport, and narrower ones were fitted for normal road and railway transport, w hen the outer set o f road wheels was also removed. The crew were housed in four com partm ents in the hull, the driver and hull gunner being separated in front, w ith the gearbox between them. The turret was fairly normal, though there was little room to spare w hen 92 rounds of 8.8cm am m unition were fu lly stowed. The gun was balanced by a heavy spring in a tube on the left of the turret. The 8.8cm shell could penetrate 4.4in (112m m ) of armour at 492 yards (450m ), w h ich was more than enough for the armoured vehicles o f the day. It was much feared by the crews of the com paratively vulnerable Shermans, the main A llied tank. The Tiger was reasonably com pact, but it was very heavy. It could not cross German bridges, and the first 400 models were capable of w ading through deep rivers w hen they came to them. The necessity of fittin g and re­ fittin g special tracks for rail travel was tedious, and the road wheels gave trouble from overloading. More nim ble Allied tanks found that they could outmanoeuvre the Tiger and attack it from the rear, and these, together w ith the other lim itations, caused it to be phased out in 1944. By A ugust of that year 1,300 had been made, not many in view of their reputation and effect on Allied morale. B e lo w : T ig e r (M o d e l E) c a p tu re d by th e B ritis h in T u n is ia . T he B ritis h firs t e n c o u n te re d th e T ig e r in F eb ru a ry 1943 n ear P o nt du Fahs in T u n is ia , w h e n 6 -p o u n d e rs en g a g e d t w o T ig e rs and nine P z K p fw Ills and IVs. B o th T ig e rs w e re knocked o u t a t 500 yards.

PzKpfw V Panther Battle Tank P a n z e rk a m p fw a g e n V , or S d K fz 171. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 7.5cm Kw K 42 L /7 0 gun; tw o 7.92m m MG 34 m achineguns. A rm o u r: 0.6in (20m m ) m inim um ; 4.72in (1 20mm ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 22ft 6in (6.68m ); w id th 10ft 10in (3.3m ); height 9ft 8in (2.95m ). (Dim ensional data relate to th e /li/s ^ G .) W e ig h t: 98.766lbs (44,800kg). G round Pressure: 1 2 .5 lb /in 2 (0 .8 8 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 5.9hp/ton. Engine: Maybach HL 230 P 30 V -1 2 w ater-cooled petrol engine developing 700bhp at 3,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 29mph (4 6 k m /h ); cross-country speed 1 5mph (24 km /h ); range 110 miles (177km ); vertical obstacle 3ft (0.9m ); trench 6ft 3in (1 ,9m); fording depth 4ft 7in (1 ,4m); gradient 35 degrees. H is to ry : In service w ith the German Arm y from 1943 to 1 945. Also used by the Soviet Union and France after the war.

L e ft and b e lo w : F ro n t, re a r and side v ie w s o f th e P z K p fw V P a n th e r, one o f th e best ta n k s o f W o rld W a r II. It w a s d e ­ signed aro u n d th e g en e ra l c o n c e p t o f th e S o v ie t T -3 4 ta n k , firs t seen in 1941.

52

A b o v e : T h e P z K p fw V P a n th e r fe a tu re d w e ll slop ed a rm o u r, lo w tu r r e t-m o u n te d 7.5 cm K w K 42 L /7 0 gun, t w o 7 .9 2 m m M G 34 M G s and in te rle a v e d suspension t h a t caused p ro b le m s in th e w in te r.

U ntil the invasion of Soviet Russia, the PzKpfw IV had been the heaviest tank in the German Army, and had proved quite adequate. In early October 1941 the new Soviet T -3 4 appeared and proved the PzKpfw IV to be com pletely out o f date. The sloped armour, speed and m anoeuvrability of the T-34 brought about a profound change of heart on the part of the Germans, and a new requirement was hurriedly drawn up. A t first, to save time, it was even considered that the T -3 4 should be copied directly, but national pride forbade this approach and the specification issued in January 1942 merely in corpo­ rated all the T -3 4 features. Designs were subm itted in April 1 942, and the first trial models appeared in September, the M AN design being chosen for production. There were the usual m ultitude of m odifications called for as a result of the prototype's ►

53

A b ove: T he P a n th e r ta n k w a s firs t c o m m itte d to a c tio n d u rin g th e B a ttle o f Kursk in July 1943 and p ro ved to be very u n re lia b le . M a n y tanks bro ke d o w n b e fo re th e y reach ed th e fr o n t. T h e re w e re p ro blem s w ith th e e ng ine, tra n s m is sio n and susp ension , b u t o nce these w e re o ve rc o m e th e P a n th e r b ec a m e very p o p u la r w ith crew s and w a s equal to th e d re a d e d S o v ie t T -3 4 ta n k . A bove rig h t: P an th ers w e re b u ilt by M A N and D a im le r-B e n z , and by th e end o f th e w a r o ve r 5,0 00 had been b u ilt. B u t p ro d u c tio n never reached th e 600 tan k s a m o n th d em a n d e d by H itle r in 1943. performance, and spurred on by H itler himself, M AN brought out the first production tank in January 1 943, but Daim ler-Benz had to be b rought in to help. From then on production forged ahead, but never reached the am bitious target of 600 vehicles a month set by Hitler. There were many d ifficu ltie s. The engine and transmission were overstressed to cope w ith the increase in w eight, cooling was inadequate, engines caught fire, and the wheel rims gave trouble. When the Panther first w e n t into action at Kursk in Ju ly 1943, it was at Hitler's insistence, and it was a failure. M ost broke dow n on the journey from the railhead, and fe w survived the first day. A ll that were salvaged had to be sent back to the factory to be rebuilt. Later models corrected the faults, and the Panther soon became a fine tank w h ich was superior to the T -3 4 /7 6 and very popular w ith its crews. The hull was fairly conventional in the German fashion, w ith a large onepiece glacis plate in w h ich were originally tw o holes, one fo r the gunner and one for the driver. The G model had o n ly the gun hole, the driver using a periscope. The turret was well sloped, although rather cramped inside, but 54

the comm ander was given a good cupola. The m antlet was massive, w ith tiny holes for the m achine-gun and the gunner's binocular sight. From the fron t the protection was excellent. The suspension was by inter-leaved bogies sprung on torsion bars and it gave the Panther the best arrangement of any German tank o f the war. The trouble was that the bogies could freeze up w hen clogged w ith snow in Russian winters, and so im m obilise the vehicle. M aintenance was also d iffic u lt since the outer wheels had to be removed to a llo w access to the inner ones. Steering was by hydraulically operated disc brakes and e picyclic gears to each track, w h ich allowed the tracks to be stopped separately w hen required w ith o u t loss of power. It was an adaption of the M e rritt-B ro w n system, b u t rather more com plicated in design. The long 75mm gun (w ith 79 rounds) could penetrate 4.72in (120m m ) of sloped plate at 1,094 yards (1000m ) and this, together w ith the protection of the thick frontal armour, meant that the Panther could stand off from Allied tanks and knock them out w ith o u t being harmed itself. The US Arm y reckoned that it took five Shermans to knock out one Panther and over 5,000 Panthers had been bu ilt by the end of the war. A fter 1943 the Germans needed numbers of tanks rather than im proved designs, and the Panther was sim plified to ease production. The hull sides were sloped more, the mantlet was thickened to prevent shot being deflected into the decking, and the gearbox was im proved to cope w ith the w e ig h t problem. Despite its com plexity and high m anufacturing cost, the Panther was a successful design and many consider it to have been one of the best tanks produced during the war. Towards the end of the w a r its petrol engine and com plications were d istin ct disadvantages, but it was a pow erful supplement to the PzKpfw IVs of the armoured form ations, and it was really only defeated by the overw helm ing Allied air strength. 55

PzKpfwVI Tiger II Heavy Battle Tank PzKpfwM\ T ig e r II. or SdKfz 182. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Germany. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 8.8cm KwK 43 L/71 gun; tw o 7.92m m MG 34 m achineguns. A rm o u r: 1,57in (40m m ) m inim um ; 7.28in (1 85m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 23ft 9in (7.25m ); w id th 12ft 3in (4.27m ); height 10ft 1 in (3.27m ). W e ig h t: 153.000lbs (69,400kg). G round Pressure: 1 5 .2 lb /in 2 (1 ,0 7 kg /cm 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 8 78h p/to n . Engine: Maybach HL 230 P 30 V-12 w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 600bhp at 3,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 24mph (3 8 k m /h ); cross-country speed 11mph (1 7 km /h ); range 68 miles (11 0km ); vertical obstacle 2 ft 9in (0.85m ); trench 8ft 2in (2.5m ); fording depth 5ft 3in (1 ,6m); gradient 35 degrees. H is to ry : In service w ith the German Arm y from 1944 to 1 945. The Tiger I had hardly entered service before the German general staff requested a bigger and better successor, superior in arm our and hitting pow er to anything that the Soviet Arm y was likely to produce. Once again Porsche and Henschel were asked for designs w h ich were to incorporate the latest sloped armour and the longer 71 -calibre 8.8cm gun. Porsche updated its Tiger I design and this time was so sure of an order that it started w o rk on the turret and actually put casting in hand. U nfortunately the Porsche ideas of electric transmission were once more rejected, supplies of copper being too small, and the contract w e n t to Henschel for the second tim e. However, 50 Porsche turrets were made and fitted to the first models. Henschel then fitted its ow n turret, w h ich was simpler and had better protection. Another requirement of the specification was to liaise w ith M A N in order to standardise as many parts as possible w ith the Panther II, w h ich never appeared, and the B e lo w : The P z K p fw T ig e r II w ith H enschel t u r re t w h ic h w a s easier to build and also o ffe re d b e tte r p ro te c tio n th a n th e Porsche tu r re t fitte d to th e firs t 50 T ig e r II tan k s .

56

I

subsequent delays meant that production did not get under w a y until December 1 943. The Tiger II, known to its own side as the Kónigstiger and to the Allies as the Royal Tiger, was a massive and form idable vehicle. It was intended to dom inate the battlefield, and that it could do, providing that its crew used it sensibly. It was the heaviest, best protected and most p o w e rfu lly armed tank to go into production during W orld War II, and its armour and gun w o u ld do justice to a main battle tank today. The price paid for all this superiority was size, w e ig h t and low performance. M anoeuvrability, ground pressure and that subtle thing 'a g ility' all suffered, and inevitably the reliability of the over­ stressed engine and transmission decreased. The hull was w elded, as was that of the Tiger I, but the armour was better sloped, using the experience of th e T -3 4 . Hull layout was similar to that of the Panther, and the large turret was roomy although the gun came right back to the rear w a ll and made a com plete partition longitudinally. Some 80 rounds of am m unition were stow ed round the turret sides and flo o r and there were plenty of racks and shelves for the m inor equipm ent. The commander's cupola allowed an excellent view , though he usually chose to have his head out of the top. The long and pow erful 8.8cm gun could outrange and outshoot the main armament of nearly all Allied tanks, and this allow ed the Tiger II to stand off and engage targets as it chose. Barrel wear was a d ifficu lty w ith this h ig h -ve lo city gun, and the later models had a tw o -p ie c e barrel w hich allowed the faster-w earing part to be changed easily. Only one model was built, and altogether no more than 485 examples were completed. Production never suffered despite the heaviest Allied bombing, and Henschel always had at least 60 vehicles in construction on its shop floors at any one time. A t the peak it was taking only 14 days to complete a Tiger II. Severe fuel shortages forced the factory to use bottled gas for testing, though petrol was supplied for operations. The Tiger II was introduced into service in the autum n o f 1944, on the same distribution as the Tiger I, and again in small units o f fo u r or five. Its enormous size and w e ig h t made it a ponderous vehicle, often d iffic u lt to conceal; in a fast m oving battle it was q u ickly left behind, and this fate did occur to several in Russia. But w hen used properly it was enorm ously effective and could engage many times its own numbers of enemy, and knock them all out w ith o u t damage to itself. B e lo w : T h e P z K p fw T ig e r II, o r R oyal T ig e r as it w a s o fte n ca lled , f itt e d w ith P o rs c h e -b u ilt

57

GREAT BRITAIN Having started the w hole idea o f arm oured w a rfare , Britain proved to be rem arkably slow to develop it to its logical conclusion. B etw een the tw o W orld W ars Britain did carry out trials w ith a form atio n known as the Experi­ mental M echanised Force in w hich arm our, in fan try, artillery, engineers and even a irc ra ft w e re used to g eth er for the firs t tim e, but these ideas w e re not carried through. Generally, conservatism in tactical thin king , reflecting the trench w a rfare a ttitu d e , was probably more evident in Britain at this tim e than in any other country. The conclusions draw n from these trials, and the w e llfounded advice of Liddell H art, failed to be heeded so th a t, like the French, the British Arm y w ere suprem ely equipped in 1939 to fig h t the battles o f 1919. The British entered W orld W ar II m aintaining th e ir insistence on three d iffe re n t types of tank, as if there was to be some curious social class in armoured w a rfare . Light tanks w ere used fo r recon­ naissance, th e ir arm our and weapons too light fo r anything else, and w e re soon shown up to be little b etter than cannon fodder. The next, the cruiser, was intended as a fast, w ide-ranging arm oured cavalry horse, but arm our had to be sacrificed to keep the w e ig h t dow n in order to achieve the required speed and perform ance. As w ith all British tanks the cruisers w e re under-engined and under-gunned, and this told heavily against them in the long-range desert battles w here the German tanks could outshoot them w ith ease. The cruisers w e re m eant to engage o th er tanks, and

58

th a t was r ig h t: th e trag edy was th a t they w ere never given the equipm ent w ith w hich to do it properly. The third class o f tan k was the in fan try tank, a slow -m oving, heavily arm oured vehicle armed m ainly, or often even solely, w ith m achine-guns: a th ro w -b a c k to W orld W ar I w ith a vengeance. It was intended to move w ith a w alking infantry advance and engage enem y m achine-gun nests or strongpoints. The heavy arm our was to give protection against light a n ti-ta n k fire and the vehicle was never intended to get into actual com bat w ith another tank. The result was a series o f tanks th a t w e re more or less invulnerable to small guns, but w hich w e re so p itifu lly armed as to be all but incapable o f in flic tin g dam age on th e ir opponent's tanks, and w ith gross u n d er-pow ering and alm ost to ta l inability to m anouevre against the more agile German vehicles. The exception was the A12 M atild a II, w hich had greatly increased arm our, a three-m an tu rre t and 2pounder gun, and this tank gave a good account o f itself in the early battles in the W estern Desert. Despite the lessons o f p re -w a r experim ents, the British Arm y never learned to use th e ir arm oured form ations as separate shock troops. Luckily fo r the British, large numbers o f Am erican tanks became available from 1941; firs t Grants and later Shermans, w hich equipped many British arm oured regim ents fro m then on. W ith o u t these (despite the d eterm ination of the men) the North African battles w ould have had quite a d iffe re n t outcom e.

59

All Matilda I Infantry Tank C o un try o f o rig in : Great Britain. C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: One ,3in or ,5in Vickers m achine-gun. A rm o u r: 60mm (2.36in) m aximum; 10mm (0.39in) m inim um . D im en sion s: Length 15ft 11 in (4.85m ); w id th 7ft 6 in (2.28m ); height 6ft 1Jin (1 ,86m). W e ig h t: Combat 2 4 ,640lbs (11 .1 6 1 kg ). Engine: Ford e ig h t-cylin d e r petrol engine developing 70bhp at 3,500rpm, P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 8mph (1 2 .8 km /h ); range 80 miles (128km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 1 in (0,635m ); trench 7ft (2.133m ). H is to ry : Served w ith the British Arm y o n ly between 1 938 and 1 940. The origin of the M atilda I lay in a request from General Sir Hugh Elies to Vickers for a tank to be b u ilt do w n to a price. Sir Jo h n Carden led the design team and the result was probably the most unfortunate one of his career. The concept of the infantry tank called for good protection, low speed to keep pace w ith infantry assaulting on fo o t, and only lim ited offensive power. It was th o u g h t to be sufficient to give the tank an arma­ ment of m achine-guns and no more. These lim its were bad enough, but the price lim it was equally daunting at £6,000 for the com plete vehicle. Not surprisingly the M atilda I was reduced to the barest essentials, and perpetuated a number of mistakes w h ich had already been w e ll aired. The first was the crew. T w o-m an tanks had been show n to be scarcely workable in the 1920s and early 30s, but Carden was forced to return to a one-m an turret because he could not afford the space for tw o . One m achinegun made a m ock of the w h o le idea o f fire-p o w e r, and to have a complete tank to carry one gun was a great waste of m anufacturing effo rt and money. Finally, to give the vehicle a top speed scarcely better than that of a running man was quite ludicrous. Those were the lim itations, however, and the General Staff accepted the design and the first production order was placed in April 1937. The first models were delivered in 1938 and issued to the 1st Arm y Tank Brigade, w h o to o k them to France in 1939. By 1940 139 had been bu ilt and they formed the greater part of the vehicle strength of the 1st Brigade. Their severe lim itations showed up w ith frigh te n in g clarity

60

in the blitzkrieg, and all were fin a lly lost on the w ay to. or at, Dunkirk. Their crews fo u g h t valiantly, and they had one small success, but the tank was hopeless in battle. Carden had b u ilt the smallest vehicle that he reasonably could and used as many existing com ponents as possible. Since protection was im portant he put th ick armour on the fron t and used a cast turret. The arm our was more than satisfactory and was com fortably invulnerable to the German a n ti-ta n k guns in France. The suspension was a less happy story, It was the same as had been fitted to the Vickers 6ton (6,096kg) tank of 1928, and it could only cope w ith lo w speeds and moderate pow er outputs w hen carrying tw ice the w e ig h t it was designed for. The final drawback lay in the engine, w h ich was the w e ll-p ro ve d but lo w -p ow ere d Ford V-8. In order to drive the M atilda it had to be w ell geared do w n and the power was taken through a simple transm ission to a rear sprocket. When the armament lim itations became clear the turret was up-gunned by fittin g the Vickers 0.5in m achine-gun. This was some im provem ent, but it took more space in the small turret, and was tirin g to use.

A b o v e : A n A11 M a tild a I in fa n tr y ta n k . C le a rly seen is th e sin g le s m o k e -b o m b d is c h a rg e r m o u n te d on th e side o f th e tu r r e t . T h e fro n ta l a rm o u r w a s a lm o s t im p e n e tra b le by an y a n ti-ta n k gun o f th e tim e , b ut th e v e h ic le had m an y fa u lts w h ic h m ad e it in e ffe c ­ tiv e and expe n siv e . A to ta l o f 139 w e re c o m p le te d by A u g u s t 1 940 a ft e r w h ic h tim e th e ta n k w as re le g a te d to tra in in g . L e ft: M a in d ra w b a c k o f th e M a tild a I w a s t h a t it w a s arm e d o n ly w it h a .303 V ic k e rs m ac h in e gun o p e ra te d by th e c o m m a n d e r/g u n n e r. T his w a s la te r re p la ce d by a .50 m a c h in e gun, b u t w h e n th is w a s in s ta lle d th e t u r r e t b ec a m e even m o re cram ped . 61

Cruiser Tank Mark IV M ks IV, IV A and V C ; A 1 3 M k ll C o u n try o f o rig in : Great Britain. C re w : 4. A rm a m e n t: One 2pounder gun and one Vickers 0.303 m achine-gun (M ark IVA m ounted a 7.92m m BESA). A rm o u r: 6mm (0.24in) m inim um ; 38mm (1 .5 in ) m aximum. D im en sion s: Length 19ft 9in (6.02m ); w id th 8ft 4in (2.54m ); height 8ft 6in (2.59m ). W e ig h t: 33,040lbs (14,987kg). Engine: Nuffield Liberty V -1 2 w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 340bhp. P e rfo rm a n c e : Speed 30mph (4 8 k m /h ); range 90 miles (14 4 km ); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.61m ); trench 7 ft 6in (2.29m ); gradient 60 p e rce n t.

B e lo w : A C ru is e r M k IV , o ffic ia lly d es ig n a te d th e A 1 3 M k II. T his ta n k w a s d evelo ped fro m an A m e ric a n C h ris tie ta n k p urch ased in 1936 and e n te re d p ro d u c tio n in 1938. It w a s issued to th e 1st and 7 th A rm o u re d D ivisio n s by 1940.

H is to ry : Deliveries began in December 1938 and were com pleted in late 1 939. Some 335 tanks were made and were issued to units of 1st Armoured Division in France in 1 9 3 9/4 0 . Some also w e n t to the Western Desert w here they were used by the 7th Arm oured Division, W ithdraw n from service during 1 942.

p

The Cruiser Mark IV derived directly from a Christie tank bought in the USA in 1936. Morris M otors were given the task of redesigning the Christie to make it b a ttle -w o rth y, and to do this they had to build a new hull and a better turret. The Christie could reach 50mph (8 0 km /h ) on roads, and very high speeds across country, but these had to be reduced since it was quickly found that the crew were injured by being th ro w n about. The only engine available w h ich gave the necessary power was the American Liberty aero-engine of W orld War I, and this was de-rated to 340hp to improve torque and reliability. The later M ark IVA had a Wilson com bined speed change and steering gearbox and a BESA rather than Vickers coaxial m achine-gun. The M k IV CS was the close support model. The Christie suspension was a great success and gave the Cruiser a very good performance in the desert. It was retained on all British cruiser tanks for the rest of the war. The turret had undercut sides and sloped upper plates, but the hull was still much of a box and had many sharp angles in w h ich shot could lodge. Some extra plates were added to the desert Cruisers, but they were always under-arm oured and after a short w h ile in service various mechanical weaknesses became apparent and reliability was not as good as it should have been. Despite the shortcom ings o f the Cruiser it was a step forward for British tank design and it set the pattern for the later wartim e cruisers. L e ft: C ru is e r T an k M k IV o f 1st A rm o u re d D ivision in 1940. T his p a rtic u la r ta n k has been f itte d w ith a d d itio n a l a rm o u r p la te o v e r th e m a n tle t. A to ta l o f 655 w e re b u ilt by N u ffie ld , L M S , Leyland and English E le c tric . T h e ta n k w a s e s s en tia lly an u p -a rm o u re d ve rs io n o f th e e a rlie r M a r k II. S o m e w e re f itte d w ith a 3.7in m o rta r fo r use in th e close s u p p o rt role. B e lo w : C ru is e r M k IV A w a s th e d e s ig n a tio n g iven to la te r p ro ­ d u c tio n v e h ic le s w h ic h had th e V ic k e rs .303 c o -a x ia l m ach ine gun rep laced by th e 7 .9 2 m m BESA w e a p o n , and a d d itio n a l arm o u r.

A9 Mark I Cruiser Tank C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C re w : 6. A rm a m e n t: One 2pounder gun; three .303 Vickers m achine-guns. (CS version had one 3.7in how itzer in place of the 2pounder.) A rm o u r: 14mm (0 .5 5in) m aximum; 6mm (0 .2 5in) m inim um . D im en sion s: Length 19ft (5.79m ); w id th 8 ft 2in (2.49m ); height 8 ft 8in (2.64m ). W e ig h t: C om bat28,728lbs (1 3 ,0 1 3kg). Engine: AEC Type 179 s ix-cylin d e r w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 1 50bhp. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 25mph (4 0 k m /h ); cross-country speed 1 5mph (2 4 k m /h ); range 150 miles (24 0 km ); vertical obstacle 3ft (0.92m ); trench 8ft (2.43m ). H is to ry : Used by the British Arm y between 1 938 and 1 941. The main British tank strength th ro u g h o u t the 1 920s and the first half of the 1930s was made from the Vickers M edium M ark II, w ith the scouting (or reconnaissance) role being undertaken by lig h t tanks o f various kinds, ultim ately types com ing after the Carden-Loyd models. This com bination was becoming out o f date by 1934, quite plainly, and new designs were needed. In particular, it was becom ing apparent to the General Staff that better m edium tanks were required for the ta n k -to -ta n k confrontations w h ich it was foreseen m ight occur on future battlefields. 1 934 was not a good time to be planning major expenditure on m ilitary equipm ent, however; the depression was at its height, and m oney was alm ost unobtainable. Sir John Carden set to w o rk in 1 934 to design a tank to meet a General Staff specification for a successor to the Vickers m ediums, but w ith a slig h tly R ig h t: The A9 M a rk I c ru is er ta n k w a s designed by S ir Joh n C arden fro m 1934, th e firs t p ro to ty p e being b u ilt in 1936. In 1 9 3 7 1 2 5 w e re o rd e re d , 50 fro m V ic k e rs and 75 fro m H a rla n d and W o lff .

64

different role to fu lfil. The d iffic u lty w ith the tank specifications o f the 1930s was that nobody had any clear idea w h a t they w anted the vehicles to do in the next war. The old ideas o f crossing trenches had not entirely died out, yet it was realised th a t tanks w o u ld be needed to act on their ow n, much in the w a y th a t cavalry had done, and also there was a need for armoured recon­ naissance. The result o f this som ew hat baffled thinking was to stipulate a fam ily o f three types: cruisers, w h ich were meant to be the cavalry type of machine, yet able to fig h t it o u t w ith other tanks if called upon to do so; infantry tanks w h ic h moved at slo w speed w ith the assaulting infantry, and only had to knock out m achine-gun nests (a th ro w b a ck to 1918); and light tanks fo r the reconnaissance role. N obody th o u g h t out the armament require- ►

A b o v e : M a in a rm a m e n t o f th e A9 w as a t u r r e t m o u n te d 2 p o u n d e r gun w ith a .303 V ic k e rs M G coaxial to th e rig h t. Each side o f th e d riv e r w a s a tu r re t arm e d w ith a sing le .303 M G . A f e w A9s w e re b u ilt fo r th e close s u p p o rt role; th e s e had th e ir 2po u n d e rs rep laced by a 3.7 inch h o w itz e r. T he A -9 w a s th e firs t B ritish ta n k to have a p o w e ro p e ra te d t u r r e t and an a u x ilia ry eng ine.

65

A b ove: A9 M a r k I fro m fr o n t c le a rly s h o w in g position o f .303 hull m a c h in e gun tu rre ts . R ig h t: T h e A 9 w a s fo llo w e d by th e A 10 M a rk II c ru is e r w ith increased a rm o u r b u t no hull m a c h in e gun tu r re ts . A to ta l o f 175 A 10 cru isers w e re c o m p le te d by la te 1940. ment to cope w ith these different tasks, and the cruisers were particularly badly served since they were given either the 3pounder. w h ich was feeble, or the later 2pounder, w h ich had good arm our penetration fo r its day, but could not fire HE shells. All medium tanks were w e ll supplied w ith m achineguns, w h ich were quite useless against other armoured vehicles. W ith these crippling restrictions around him Sir John Carden produced the first A9 early in 1936. It epitom ised all that had served to restrict the design. It was lighter than the medium s so that it could be powered by a commercial engine. A t the same tim e it tried to incorporate all the best features of the M edium M ark III, and to a great extent succeeded, but only by making everything so much lighter that the arm our protection was largely negated. The overall w e ig h t was only tw o -th ird s th a t of the M edium M ark III, and the design w e ig h t was even less than this. The general layout was reasonable for its day, w ith a central turret, engine at the rear and acceptable cross-country performance from the suspension. One o f the features w h ich spoiled the A9 was the vertical armour, all of it to o thin, and the m ultitude of angles and corners in w h ic h arm our-piercing shot could lodge, instead of being glanced off. A point in the A9's favour, however, was the fact that it was the first British tank to have pow er (hydraulic) traverse for the turret. This was a substantial step forward, and was to be fo llo w e d on all succeeding designs. Another notable first was the carriage of an auxiliary engine fo r starting, battery charging, and driving a fan fo r the fig h tin g com partm ent. These were sensible innovations, and w e n t some w a y to o ffsetting the failings o f the A9 as a fighting tank. The crew was a generous allow ance of six men, split into a commander, gunner, loader, driver and tw o hull m achine-gunners. The driving and fig h tin g com partm ents were com bined into one, hence the need for a fan to clear the fumes from three m achine-guns and a 3pounder. The tw o hull m achine-guns were m ounted in small sub-turrets in front, one on each side of the driver. The gunners were cramped, and so was the driver, and the w hole concept was strongly rem iniscent o f W orld War I. The arcs of 66

fire of the m achine-guns were lim ited, and their use was therefore doubtful. The engine was o rigina lly meant to be the R olls-R oyce car engine from the Phantom series. The p ilo t model, however, showed that the vehicle was under-pow ered and an AEC bus engine was substituted. This just managed to give the tank a speed of 25mph (4 0 k m /h ) on the road, but had to be geared do w n considerably to do it. The suspension could manage the cross­ country speed of 1 5mph (2 4 km /h ) but the pilo t model at first shed its tracks at these speeds. Trials started in 1936 and at the same tim e the War Office was changing its policy on tanks generally. The A9 had begun as a m edium tank replacement, but now the cruiser idea was born, and the vehicle became the Cruiser Tank Mark I. The first contract for a lim ited number was placed in A ugust 1937 w ith Vickers, w h ich was to build 50. A no th e r contract w ith Harland and W o lff of Belfast specified a further 75, and these constituted the total production. The lim itations of the design were soon obvious and the A 13 was put in hand as the next model. The intrinsic lim itations o f the 2pounder meant that tanks could not deal w ith strongpoints or pillboxes, and this brought about the concept o f the Close Support tank. CS tanks carried large-calibre guns for firin g HE and other types of am m unition, and a fe w CS m odels of the A9, m ounting a shortbarrelled 3.7in howitzer, were built. The three m achine-guns remained. The suspension was a Vickers refinem ent of the popular m ulti-b o g ie system, and it was successful enough to be incorporated into the later Valentine almost w ith o u t alteration. The steering brakes were m ounted externally on the rear sprockets, w here they cooled easily, but were perhaps a little exposed to damage. The tracks were narrow, and none too strong, but the lo w power o u tpu t of the engine and the relatively gentle gearbox gave them a reasonably long life. A9s were issued to 1 st Arm oured D ivision, w h ich took them to France in 1939 and 1 940, and left practically all of them at Dunkirk. The 2nd and 7th Arm oured D ivisions took the type to Egypt and used it until 1941, by when it was clearly w e ll out of date and out-gunned. 67

A12 Matilda II Infantry Tank M a tild a II M a rk s I to V. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C re w : 4. A rm a m e n t: One 2pounder gun; one .303in Vickers m achine-gun (M ark I); one 2pounder gun; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun (M a rk II); one 3in howitzer; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun (M ark II CS). A rm o u r: 0.§5in (1 4m m ) m inim um ; 3in (78m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 1 8ft 5in (5.61 m ); w id th 8 ft 6in (2.59m ); height 8 ft 3in (2.51m ). W e ig h t: 59.360lbs (26,926kg). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 7.1 7 h p /to n (M ark III). Engine: T w o AEC six-cylin d e r inline diesels developing a total o f 174bhp (Marks I and II); tw o Leyland six-cylin d e r inline diesels developing a total of 190bhp (M ark III). P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 1 5mph (2 4 k m /h ); cross-country speed 8mph (1 2.8 km /h ); range 1 60 miles (256km ); vertical obstacle 2 ft (0.61 m ); trench 7ft (2.13m ); fording depth 3ft (0.91 m ). H is to ry : Served w ith the British A rm y from 1939 to 1945. A lso used by Australia and Russia. When the M atilda I was still in the prototype stage the W ar O ffice was already debating w hether it could be up-arm oured and up-gunned to meet a revised General Staff specification w h ich said in effect that if tanks were to survive w h ile supporting infantry on fo o t they m ust be able to w ith sta n d the fire of a nti-tank guns, yet carry su fficie n tly heavy arm am ent to cope w ith enemy infantry, gun positions and tanks. This brought about a fundam ental change in approach to the design of infantry tanks. Previously it had been considered that m achine-guns were sufficie n t armament, but the new specification required some sort o f sh e ll-firin g gun, and a large enough turret in w h ich to put it. A t first it was th o u g h t th a t M atilda I (A 1 1) could be given a tw o -m a n turret and a 2pounder gun, but it was soon apparent that there was no hope of this w ith in the narrow hull limits, and in any case the w e ig h t o f the turret w o u ld have defeated the already overloaded Ford engine and another w o u ld

68

have to be fitte d . The w e ig h t o f the tank was intended to be kept do w n to 14 tons (14.225kg), and the A 1 1 could not possibly meet it w ith the changes already m entioned, so a new design was called for. This new tank was entrusted to the Design Departm ent at W oo lw ich Arsenal and was largely based on the prototype A7 o f 1932. The same suspension was used, suitably strengthened, and the same pow erplant of tw in com m ercial diesels was put in. The requirement for th ick arm our meant that a cast turret and b o w plate w o u ld be the most satisfactory solution, but British industry in the m id -1 9 8 0 s had on ly a very lim ited capacity fo r large castings, and this severely restricted the firm s w h o could be given contracts fo r this w ork. It also meant that riveted and w elded hulls and turrets were retained on British tanks long after other countries had gone over to castings. However, the co n tra ct fo r M atilda II was given to the Vulcan Foundry of W arrington in November 1936 and they produced a w ooden m ock-up b y K R ig h t and b e lo w : A 1 2 M a tild a II in fa n tr y ta n k w h ic h e n te re d serv ic e in 1939 and w a s f ir s t used by th e 7 th R oyal T an k R e g im e n t d u rin g th e re tre a t to D u n k irk . J u s t u n d er 3 .0 00 M a tild a Ms w e re b u ilt b e fo re p ro d u c tio n sto p ped in A u g u s t 1943. T h e M a tild a fo rm e d a m a jo r p a rt o f th e B ritis h a rm o u re d fo rc e s d u rin g th e 8 th A rm y 's b a ttle s in th e W e s te rn D e s e rt. L e ft: T h e M a tild a II w a s la s t used as a gun ta n k in N o rth A fric a d u rin g th e b a ttle o f A la m e in in J u ly 1942. A f te r th is d a te it w a s used fo r special roles such as c le a rin g m in es. T h e A u s tra lia n A rm y c o n tin u e d t o use th e M a tild a in th e F ar East and also d ev e lo p e d m o re specialised m o d els f o r th e ir o w n use in c lu d in g a 'd o z e r and a fla m e th ro w e r. T h e la tte r w a s c a lled th e Frog a nd w a s fo llo w e d by th e M a tild a M u rra y . 69

A b ove: T h e M a tild a III w a s th e close s u p p o rt m o d el and had th e 2p o u n d e r gun rep laced by a 3 in c h h o w itz e r . It w a s p o w e re d by tw o Leyland 95hp diesels ins te a d o f t w o 8 7 h p AEC diesels. R ig h t: M a tild a B aron III m in e c le a rin g v e h ic le . T h e fla il w a s p o w e re d by tw o B e d fo rd e ng ines m o u n te d in boxes a t th e hull rear. April 1937. A nother year elapsed before the p ilo t m odel (made in m ild steel) was ready, the delay m ainly being occasioned by d ifficu ltie s in the supply of the W ilson gearbox. Trials w ith this m odel were carried o u t during 1938. but an initial order for 65 tanks was given even before the p ilo t m odel appeared, and shortly afterwards this was increased by a fu rth e r 100. Luckily the trials showed the design to be satisfactory, the o n ly changes being m inor ones to the suspension and engine cooling. Re-arm ament started in earnest during 1938 and tanks were in desperately short supply, so further orders were given, w h ich were more than Vulcan could manage. Other firm s w ere called in, and contracts were let to Fowler, Ruston & Flornsby, LM S Railway Works, Harland & W o lff and North British Locom otive Works. Vulcan were the main contractor, and undertook most of the casting w ork. The M atilda was not easy to p u t into mass production, mainly because o f the castings, and certain features o f the design were quite d ifficu lt. For some reason the side skirts were in one piece, involving another large casting, and an im mediate easement to production was to reduce the number of mud chutes from six to five. By September 1939 on ly tw o M atildas were in service, but by the spring o f 1940 at least one battalion (7th Royal Tank Regiment) was equipped and the tank gave a good account o f itself in the retreat to D unkirk and the subsequent fig h tin g around the port. A t the same time several units in Egypt had received it. and used it in the early campaigns against the Italians. After D unkirk the M atilda I was dropped altogether and the M atilda II became the M atilda, by w h ic h name it was know n for the rest o f the war. In Libya in 1940 and 1941 the M atilda was virtu a lly im m une to any an ti-ta n k gun or tank that the Italians could deploy. This happy state o f affairs continued until about m id-1941 w hen the first units of the Afrika Korps appeared and brought their 8.8cm Flak guns into action in the ground role against tanks. This gun could knock o u t the M atilda at ranges far beyond the 2pounder's ability to reply, and the M atilda began to fade from the battle. Attem pts to u p -g u n it to carry a 6pounder were failures because the turret ring was to o small to take a larger gun. and the last action w hen M atilda was used as a gun tank was the first battle of El Alam ein in J u ly 1942. The M atilda was a conventional British tank w ith the usual three co m ­ partments in the hull, the driver sittin g centrally behind the nose plate. There was no hull gun. an unusual departure fo r the tim e, b u t sensible, fo r they were rarely effective in battle. The heavy cast turret was small, and the three men in it were cramped. In the CS version w ith a 3in how itzer, space was even scarcer. The comm ander had a circular cupola, but it gave him only limited vision and this lack of good vision was the w o rst feature of the vehicle, though it was no worse than many other designs o f that time, The 70

turret was rotated by hydraulic power, and was one of the first to use this system developed by the Frazer Nash Company, w h o also developed the turret controls for aircraft. Some 67 rounds o f 2pounder and 4,000 of .303in am m unition were carried. The tw in AEC diesels were coupled together and drove to a W ilson e p icyclic gearbox and a rear sprocket. The suspension was derived from the A7 and was either know n as the 'scissors' or 'Japanese' type. It originated w ith the Vickers M edium C, though a similar type also appeared on the French tanks o f the 1920s and 1930s. It consisted of sets of bogies linked together and w o rkin g against horizontal compression springs. Each bogie had fo u r rollers, arranged in pairs so that to each suspension p oint there were fo u r pairs o f rollers, tw o link units, and tw o springs: the w h o le was supported by one vertical bracket attached to the hull. On each side there were tw o of these com plete units, one fo u r-ro ller u nit and one large road w heel at the front. The track ran back along return rollers at the top of the side skirt. This apparently com plicated arrangement w orked w ell, though it inevitably lim ited the top speed. M ark III M atildas, and later marks, were fitted w ith Leyland diesels w h ich gave slightly more pow er and were made in larger numbers than the AECs. The M ark V fitted an air servo on top of the gearbox to ease gear changing, but apart from these m inor m odifications, the M atilda stayed very much as it had been designed. Up to the first battle o f El Alam ein the M atilda had gained the somewhat h ig h -b lo w n title o f 'Queen o f the Battlefield', or at least some people called it that. A fte r El Alam ein it was apparent that the type was w ell past its best, and it was replaced by the increasing quantities of Grants and Shermans. The problem was to kn o w w h a t to do w ith the M atildas, most of w h ich were still in good running order. The th ic k arm our and reasonable protection made it an attractive vehicle for special applications, and it was the first British tank to be equipped as a flail m ine-clearer, some of w h ich were used at El Alam ein. The fla il was fo llo w e d by a host of other devices, including a n ti­ mine rollers, large d em olition charges, bridge-layers, dozer blades, Canal Defence Lights (C D L) to illum inate the battlefield at night, gap-crossing devices and flam ethrow ers. One was even used as an experimental radiocontrolled vehicle. M atildas were supplied to the Australian Arm y, w hich used them in the Pacific campaign and still had it in service for driver training as late as 1953, The Australians paid particular attention to developing fla m e th ro w in g variants w h ich were useful against Japanese infantry positions in the jungle, and a dozer version was also frequently used in that theatre, m ainly to im prove tracks for wheeled vehicles to fo llo w the tanks. Some M atildas w e n t to Russia, w here the thickness of armour was admired, but as in the C hurchill later on, the 2pounder gun was politely dismissed as near useless. There are also some reports that the suspension clogged in the w in te r snow, though the Russians were not particularly com m unicative about the equipm ent provided to them. A fte r fo u r or five years continuous use the M atildas were w orn out, and it was not w o rth rebuilding them. A fe w were still in service at the end of the war, though not as gun tanks. However, the M atilda can claim to be the only British tank w h ic h served right through W orld War II and there are very few others w h ic h can approach that record, whatever their nationality. 71

Crusader Cruiser Tank Crusaders I to III C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C re w : 5 in the Mark I: 4 or 5 in the Mark II; 3 in the M ark III. A rm a m e n t: Crusader I one 2pounder gun and tw o 7.92m m BESA m achineguns; Crusader II one 2pounder gun and one or tw o 7.92m m BESA m achineguns; Crusader III one 6pounder gun and one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun. A rm o u r: Crusader I 40mm (1 .57in) m aximum and 7mm (0.28in) m inim um ; Crusader II 49mm (1 .93in) m aximum and 7mm (0.2 8 in ) m inim um ; Crusader III 51 mm (2in) m aximum and 7mm (0.28in) m inim um . D im en sion s: Length 19ft 8in (5.99m ); w id th 8ft 8in (2.64m ); height 7 ft 4in (2.23m ). W e ig h t: Combat Crusader I and II 42,560lbs (19 ,2 7 9 kg ); Crusader III 44,240lbs (20,040kg). G round P ressu re: 14 .7 Ib /in 2 (1 ,0 4 k g /c m 2). Engine: Nuffield Liberty 1 2 -cylind e r w a te r-co o le d inline petrol engine developing 340bhp. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 27mph (4 3 .2 km /h ); range 100 miles (160km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 3in (0.685m ); trench 8 ft 6in (2.59m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the British Arm y from 1939 to 1943. The Crusader was to a great extent developed from the Covenanter, w h ich it ou tw a rd ly resembled. The Covenanter was a p re-w ar design w h ich started in 1937 and was similar to the Cruiser M ark IV, or A1 3. The Crusader fo llo w e d in the design pattern of these cruisers, but was designated to be a heavy cruiser, w h ich was a d iffic u lt specification to fu lfil w ith in the w e ig h t and size lim itations. It was equally d iffic u lt to fu lfil w hen the main armament was only a 2pounder gun. The specification did show , however, that the lim ita tio ns of the previous models had been appreciated. They were to o lig h tly armoured, but were also too lig h tly armed, and nothing could be done about this in 1 939. The Crusader was b u ilt by a consortium o f firms under the leadership of N uffield M echanisations Ltd, and 5,300 were made before production ceased. The hull was similar to that o f the Covenanter, w ith a long fla t deck and a w ell raked glacis plate. The Christie suspension was very similar, except for an extra wheel station and the spring units, w h ich were contained inside the hull. This suspension was the strong p o in t of the Crusader and enabled

72

it to move much faster than the o fficial top speed of 27mph (4 3 .2 km /h). In the Western Desert Crusader drivers and fitters opened up the engine governors to let the Liberty engine go as fast as it could, and the result was sometimes a speed as high as 40m ph (6 4 k m /h ). The Christie wheels could cope w ith this quite w ell and still give the crew a tolerable ride, the casualty usually being the engine. The hull was divided into the usual three compartments, w ith the driver sharing the fro n t one w ith a hull m achine-gunner in the first tw o marks. The Crusaders I and II had a 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun m ounted in a small auxiliary turret on the left fro n t deck. This turret was subsequently removed, and om itted from later marks, thus a llo w in g more space for storage, particularly of am m unition. The fig h tin g com partm ent had the turret above it, and was none too large. It was not ideal for the com m ander either since he had to com bine the tasks of com m anding, gun loading, and often wireless operating as w ell: the usual drawbacks to a tw o -m a n turret. The engine was the elderly but w e ll tried N uffield Liberty, basically an aero-engine from W orld W ar I de-rated from 400 to 340hp. The early Crusaders had con­ siderable trouble w ith their engines, m ainly from the cooling arrangements. The large fan often broke its drive shafts, and the aircleaners were d iffic u lt to ► R ig h t and b e lo w :The C ru s a d e r I (C ru is e r M k V I) as it app eared in N o rth A fric a w ith th e 9 th (Q u e e n 's R o yal) Lancers, 1st A rm o u re d D iv is io n . Plagued by m e c h a n i­ cal fa ilu re and w e a k a rm o u r. C rusaders n e v e rth e le s s served in all th e m a jo r N o rth A fric a n c am p aig n s. T h e re w e re 5,300 b u ilt b u t th e y w e re o u t-d a te d and w e re g e n e ra lly w ith d r a w n by 1943. A f e w v e rs io n s served on in Ita ly .

73

keep clean, but after some experience and m odification the engine w ent very well. Undoubtedly the tank was rushed into service before all its developm ent troubles had been ironed out, and in its first engagem ent in June 1941, Operation Battleaxe', more Crusaders fell into enemy hands through mechanical failure than through battle damage. Nevertheless the tank w e n t on to fig h t in all the major actions th ro u g h o u t the Desert Campaign, and by Alamein the Crusader III w ith a 6pounder gun had arrived. The 6pounder required a larger m antlet, w h ich was fla tte r than th a t for the 2pounder and rather ugly. The same m antlet could also be fitted w ith a 3in Close S upport howitzer, though not many were so m odified. The Crusader was outdated by the end of the North African cam paign. A fe w w e n t to Italy and some hulls fo u gh t in N orth-W est Europe adapted to such uses as A A vehicles and guntowers. In the desert the Crusader became popular, and its speed was liked, but the armour was too thin, and the armament always to o weak. R ig h t: C ru sad er (C ru is e r T an k M k V I) a d v a n ce d u rin g th e N o rth A fric a n c a m p a ig n . T h e d riv e r's h a tc h e s are in th e open p ositio n and th e 7 .6 2m m tu r re t-m o u n te d BESA M G has been re m o v e d . B e lo w : T h e fin a l p ro d u c tio n version o f th e C ru s a d e r w a s th e M k Ml o f w h ic h 144 w e re b u ilt b e tw e e n M a y and J u ly 1942. This m odel has a 6 p o u n d e r in place o f th e s ta n d a rd 2 p o u n d e r gun and increased a rm o u r p ro te c tio n . V a ria n ts o f th e C ru s a d e r inclu ded c om m a n d tan ks, gun tra c to rs , 'd o ze rs , A R V s, m in e c le arin g tan ks and vario us a n t i- a ir c r a f t tan k s . T h e la tte r w e re a rm e d w ith a 4 0 m m gun, t w in 2 0 m m o r tr ip le 2 0 m m O e rlik o n cann on .

74

75

Valentine Infantry Tank Mark III M ark s I—XI. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain C re w : 3 (4 in M ks III and IV). A rm a m e n t: One 2pdr and one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun (M ks I—V II); one 6pdr and one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun (M ks V III—X); and one 75mm gun and one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun (M k XI). A rm o u r: 8mm (0.31 in) m inim um ; 65mm (2.56in) maximum. D im e n s io n s : Length (overall) 17ft 9in (5.41m ); w id th 8 ft 7 Jin (2.63m ); height 7ft 5Jin (2.27m ). W e ig h t: 35.840lb (16,257kg). Engine: AEC petrol engine developing 135hp (M k I); AEC diesel developing 131 hp (M ks II, III, V III); GM diesel developing 138hp (M ks IV, IX); and GM diesel developing 165hp (M ks X, XI). P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 1 5mph (2 4 k m /h ); range 90 miles (144km ); vertical obstacle 3ft (0.91m ); trench 7 ft 9in (2.36m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith the British Arm y in M ay 1940; obsolete by May. 1945. Also used by Canada, France and the Soviet Union. Also bu ilt in Canada. The Valentine tank was a private venture by V ickers-Arm strong Ltd and built to the prewar concept of the British A rm y th a t there should be tw o types of tank, a cruiser for the open warfare as practised by cavalry, and a heavy support tank for the infantry. These latter were required to be heavily armoured and performance was a secondary consideration. In designing the Valentine, however, Vickers to o k several m echanical com ponents from existing cruisers w h ich they were b u ilding for the War Office, and so saved both tim e and effort in trials and production. In fact, the Valentine was more o f a w ell armoured cruiser than a pure infantry tank, but its lo w speed was always a handicap to its use in open warfare. The name o f Valentine derived from the date w hen the design was subm itted to the War Office, 14 February 1938. An order was not placed until J u ly 1939, w hen 275 w ere demanded in the shortest possible tim e. The

76

first ones were issued to service in M ay 1940 and several were given to the cavalry to make up fo r the losses o f the Dunkirk evacuation and only later found their w a y to the tank brigades fo r their proper role o f infantry support. By the tim e production ceased in early 1944 8,275 Valentines o f all marks had been built. Some 1,420 were made in Canada and 1,390 of these, together w ith 1,300 from UK, were sent to Soviet Russia. The Russians put them into action straight aw ay and admired the sim p licity and reliability of the engine and transm ission, b u t they disliked the small gun w h ich was of little use on the Eastern Front. In some cases they replaced it w ith their own 76.2mm tank gun. In British service the Valentine first saw action in the Western Desert in 1941 and successive marks o f it continued in the desert right through until the end o f the campaign. Some were also landed w ith the 1st Arm y in Tunisia. These desert Valentines gained a great reputation for reliability and it is reported that after El Alam ein some m otored over 3,000 miles (4,830km ) on their ow n tracks fo llo w in g the 8th Arm y. A squadron was landed w ith the assault force on M adagascar in 1942 and the 3rd N ew Zealand Division had Valentines in the Pacific campaign. Some of these tanks had their 2pdr guns replaced by 3in howitzers for close support w ork. A very small number w ent to Burma and were used in the Arakan, and a fe w were put into Gibraltar. By 1944, w hen the invasion ot N o rth -W e st Europe was m ounted, the Valentine had been superseded as a gun tank, but the hull and chassis had already been utilised in a w id e variety o f different roles, and in these guises many Valentines were taken to France. Probably no other tank has had so m any changes b u ilt on to the basic structure. In addition to going through 11 marks as a gun tank, the Valentine was converted for DD drive (am phibious), bridgelaying, fla m e th ro w in g and more than one type o f m inefield clearing. It was an invaluable experimental vehicle fo r all manner of strange ideas: in one case a stripped chassis was fitted w ith rockets in an attem pt to create that Jules Verne concept - the flyin g tank. It failed spectacularly. As w ith most tanks the hull was divided into three compartments, driving, fig h tin g and engine. The driver sat on the centre line o f the vehicle and was rather cramped. He g o t in and o u t by a hatch above his head, and when closed d o w n his vision was restricted to a small visor and tw o episcopes. The fig h tin g com partm ent had the turret m ounted on it, and the turret was the w o rst feature of the w hole tank. It was always too small, no matter w h ich ►

L e f t : V a le n tin e I o f A S q u a d ro n , 1 7 /2 1 s t Lancers, 6 th A r m ­ o u red D iv is io n , in 1941. A to ta l o f 8,2 75 w e re b u ilt in B rita in . A n o th e r 1,4 20 w e re b u ilt in C anad a, all b u t 30 o f w h ic h w e re sup plied to Russia u n d er Lend-Lease. L e ft: V a le n tin e ta n k c a p tu re d by th e G e rm ans in N o rth A fric a and s u b s e q u e n tly used by th e A frik a Corps, o nly to be knocked o u t by its o rig in a l o w n e rs in a la tt e r b a ttle . B o th th e G erm ans and th e B ritis h m ad e c o n s id e ra b le use o f c a p tu re d vehicles in ca m p a ig n s in N o rth A fric a to s u p p le m e n t th e ir o w n vehicles. 77

L e ft: V a le n tin e II o f 5 0 th R oyal T an k R e g im e n t. T his ta n k w a s s im ila r to th e M k I b u t had an AEC 131 hp diesel in p lace o f th e AEC 1 35h p p e tro l e ng ine. V a le n tin e lls used in N o rth A fric a w e re f it t e d w ith sand shields each side and a je ttis o n a b le long ra n g e fu e l ta n k a t th e rear. L e f t : V a le n tin e XI used as a co m m a n d v e h ic le in 30 Corps A n ti-ta n k R e g im e n t, Royal A r tille ry , in N o rth -W e s t E urope d u rin g 1 9 4 4 /4 5 . T he V a le n tin e XI had im p ro v e d (b u t s till p o o r) a rm o u r p ro te c tio n and a 7 5 m m gun in place o f th e 6 p o u n d e r o f th e V a le n tin e X, and a 1 65h p G en eral M o to r s diesel eng ine. mark is considered, and no am ount of redesign ever cured this trouble. In the marks w h ic h had a three-m an crew the tw o in the turret were overworked, or at least the comm ander was. He had to load the main armament, comm and the vehicle, select targets for the gunner, and operate the wireless. His vision was extremely restricted because there was no cupola for him and he had to rely on a single episcope w hen closed dow n. This naturally meant that he rarely did close do w n properly, and left his hatch open so that he could bob up to get a view. This led to casualties as soon as the fig h tin g started. In the back of the turret was the No 1 9 radio set, w h ich also had a short range set built into it for infantry co-operation. The com m ander operated these tw o sets, and also gave instructions to his crew th rough an RT set. Not surprisingly the Marks III and V, w ith a four-m an crew, were popular w ith commanders, though the space in the turret was no better and the vision ju st as bad. The gun was as poor as the turret. The 2pdr was an accurate little weapon but it was already outdated in 1938 th o ug h it survived in the early desert battles because it could ju st defeat the Italian and lighter German tanks at its maximum range. However, 1,000 yards (91 5m) was the most th a t it could do and another draw back was the lack of an HE shell fo r general targets. Some 79 rounds were carried, and about 2,000 rounds for the coaxial BESA. The Marks VIII, IX and X were fitte d w ith a 6pdr th o ug h even that was nearly out of date by the tim e it appeared and, incredibly, the Marks VIII and IX had no coaxial m achine-gun w ith their 6pdr, so the crew were quite incapable of engaging infantry except w ith the main armament. The M ark X had the BESA installed, but this cut do w n the space left for the crew. M ost marks carried a Bren LMG inside the turret and this gun could be m ounted on the roof, though of course it could only be fired by the com m ander fu lly exposing himself through his hatch. The C a nadian-built Valentines were equipped 78

w ith B ro w n in g 0.3in m achine-guns in place of the BESA and some, but not all. of the later marks were fitte d w ith smoke dischargers on the turret sides. The turret was traversed w ith a hydraulic m otor controlled by a spade grip. This gave a good lay, b u t the final touches were done by handwheel. W ith the 2pdr the gun's elevation was laid by the gunner's shoulder-piece, there being no gearing involved at all. The later guns were laid in elevation by a hand gearwheel. In contrast w ith the fig h tin g com partm ent, the engine was w e ll housed and easy to get at. M aintenance was easy for a tank, and the entire unit was most reliable. The Mark I had the AEC petrol engine, but all successive marks used diesels, w h ic h appear to have given little trouble. The pow er w ent through a five-speed M eadow s gearbox to steering clutches and steering brakes, the latter being prom inently m ounted on the outside o f the drive sprockets. A ll the marks were b u ilt w ith riveted plate arm our and virtually no curves anywhere. Canadian Valentines and some of the B ritish -b u ilt Marks X and XI were given cast nose plates w h ich were both stronger and cheaper than the b u ilt-u p versions, but in general the arm our layout was uninspired. The maximum thickness of 65mm (2.56in) was naturally in front, but at the rear and on to p it was do w n to 8mm (0.31 in) and by 1944 this was too thin. The suspension w as typical o f its period and is usually described as being a s lo w -m o tio n type. It consisted o f tw o three-w heeled bogies on each side, the wheels being sprung by horizontal coils in linked bogies. The fro n t and rear wheels were bigger than the others, giving a d istinctive appearance to the side view , and the h u ll.w a s carried w e ll above ground level. The track was returned on three top rollers and was b u ilt up from cast track links. These w orked very w e ll in all co n d itio ns except the Russian w inter, w hen apparently they collected packed snow and stopped the tank altogether. The Valentine DD version was used m ainly for training, but a fe w were landed during the Italian cam paign. None w e n t to Normandy. The basic Valentine was carefully w aterproofed and fitted w ith a collapsible screen w h ich suspended the hull below water level. An external screw was fitted and this had to be hinged up w hen the vehicle beached. B e lo w : Bishop w a s a V a le n tin e II ta n k f itt e d w ith n e w o pento p p e d t u r r e t arm e d w ith 2 5 p o u n d e r gun. T h e f ir s t 100 w e re o rd ere d in 1941 fro m B irm in g h a m C a rria g e and W a g o n C om pany.

79

A22 Churchill Infantry Tank C h u rch ills I to V III. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: Churchill I one 2 p o u n d e rg u n , one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun and one 3in how itzer in the hull; C hurchill II one 2pounder gun and tw o 7.92mm BESA m achine-guns; Churchill III—IV one 6pounder gun and tw o 7.92mm BESA m achine-guns; C hurchill IV NA 75 one 75mm gun, one ,3in Brow ning m achine-gun and one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun; Churchill V and VIII one 95mm how itzer and tw o 7.92m m BESA m achine-guns; Churchill VI and VII one 75mm gun and tw o 7.92m m BESA m achine-guns; Churchill I CS tw o 3in how itzers and one 7,92m m BESA m achine-gun. A rm o u r: Churchill I—VI 102mm (4in) m aximum and 16mm (0.63in) minimum; Churchill VII and VIII 152mm (6in) m aximum and 25mm (1 in) minimum. D im e n s io n s : Length 24ft 5in (7.44m ); w id th 10 ft 8in (3.25m ); height 8 ft 2in (2.49m ). W e ig h t: Com bat Churchill III 87,360lbs (39,574kg). Engine: T w o 6-cylin de r Bedford w a te r-co o le d inline developing 350bhp. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 15.5m ph (2 4 .8 k m /h ); cross-country speed 8mph (12 .8 k m /h ); range 90 miles (144km ); vertical obstacle 2 ft 6in (0.812m ); trench 10ft (3.048m ). H is to ry : In service w ith the British A rm y from 1941 to 1952. A lso used by Eire. India and Jordan. The Churchill was the replacement for the M atilda II, the specification having been draw n up w ith that in mind. It was to the project number A 20 that the new tank was first assigned, and design w o rk started in September 1939 by Harland and W o lff o f Belfast. The A 2 0 w e n t as far as fo u r prototypes in June 1 940, but no farther. It was to have been rather like a W orld War I rhom boidal, w ith side sponsons m ounting 2pounder guns. Vauxhall M otors to o k over the contract for the next infantry tank, the A22, and were able to use the A 2 0 as a starting base. The beginnings were not auspicious w ith Dunkirk ju st over, and virtually no armour force in the UK at all. Vauxhall were given one year in w h ich to design, test and produce the tank, the stipulation being that the production lines had to be assembling the type w ith in 1 2 m onths. W ith this extraordinary tim e lim it to constrain them, the design team set to w o rk and the first p ilo t model was actually running w ith in seven m onths. The first 14

80

r production tanks were o ff the line by June 1941, w ith in 11 m onths o f design starting, and volum e production fo llo w e d on quickly after that. Such a rush was bound to bring its problems, and the early marks of C hurchill had no lack of them. The engine was a p u rp o se -bu ilt 'tw in six', not unlike tw o Bedford lorry engines laid on their sides and joined to a comm on crankcase. The idea was to make an engine that was both com pact and accessible. Com pact it certainly was, but it was scarcely accessible. The petrol pump was driven by a fle xib le shaft underneath the engine, and had an unfortunate habit o f snapping. The hydraulic tappets, copied from Am erican engines, were meant to run w ith o u t adjustm ent, but frequently broke, necessitating a change o f engine. The carburettor controls were also hydraulic, and also g o t o u t o f adjustm ent. The pow er o u tp u t was lo w for the w e ig h t o f the hull, and the overall response sluggish. In fact the tank was rushed into service before it was ready. A fte r a year o f use most of the troubles were ironed o u t and it became quite reliable, but the first 1 2 months saw it gain a reputation for fra g ility and u n re liability w h ich it never com pletely lived dow n. The A 22 specification was more modern than any that had gone before, and it called fo r a lo w silhouette and th ick armour, both requirements for survival on the battlefield. U nfortunately the first Vauxhall design perpetuated the w o rst features of the armament stagnation that had blighted British tanks since 1918. T h e ^ R ig h t and b e lo w : A C h u rc h ill III a rm e d w it h a 6 p o u n d e r g un. c o -a x ia l 7 .9 2 m m B ES A M G and a n o th e r 7 .9 2 m m BESA m o u n te d in th e h u ll. T h e C h u rc h ill w a s used in a c tio n fo r th e fir s t tim e d u rin g th e D ie p p e la n d in g in A ugust 1942 w h en a n u m b e r o f M k I and II ta n k s w e r e used f itt e d w it h w a d in g e q u ip m e n t. 5 ,6 00 C h u rc h ills w e re b u ilt.

J.

i

81

A b o v e : C h u rc h ill a rm e d w ith 6 p o u n d e r gun. T h e ta n k g ave a very good a c c o u n t o f its e lf in th e m o u n ta in o u s te rra in o f T un isia. A b ove r i g h t : A p o s t-w a r v ie w o f a C h u rc h ill A V R E M k V II (F V 3 9 0 3) w h ic h w a s a rm e d w ith a 1 6 5 m m b reech load ed lo w v e lo c ity gun and is s h o w n h ere c a rry in g a 1 0 -to n fa s c in e w h ic h it w o u ld d ro p in to a n ti-ta n k d itc h e s and o th e r o b stacles. R ig h t.'C h u rc h ill A V R E w ith d ee p w a d in g e q u ip m e n t and S ta n d a rd Box G ird e r b rid g e a tta c h m e n t a t th e f r o n t o f th e h u ll d urin g th e D -D a y landings, in th e b a c k g ro u n d is a S h e rm a n fla il ta n k . turret carried only a 2pounder gun, and by 1940 it was becom ing clear that this size was a com plete anachronism . The d iffic u lty was th a t there was none other. The 6pounder design was in being, but the Ordnance Factories were tooled up for 2pounders. and in the desperate days after Dunkirk there was no tim e to change over, so 2pounders it had to be for another year or more. A 3in Close Support how itzer was m ounted lo w do w n in the fro n t of the hull, alongside the driver. This was m uch like the arrangement in the French Char B, and there was little enough faith in that idea; but again, the designers had little option but to use the weapons available to them. A very fe w Close Support Churchills I were built, and these had the unusual arm am ent of tw o 3in howitzers, the second one replacing the 2pounder gun in the turret, but the idea was not pursued further. The C hurchill II and later marks dropped the hull gun in favour of a BESA m achine-gun. By March 1942 the 6pounder was available and was fitted to the turret o f the C hurchill III in that m onth. Im provement fo llo w e d and the M ark VII had a 75mm gun, the M ark VIII a 95mm Close S upport howitzer, and some North African M ark IVs were re-worked in Egypt to accom m odate a 75m m gun and 0.3in B row ning m achine-gun in the turret, both these weapons being taken from Shermans and perhaps Grants. The armour of the Churchill was probably the best part of the vehicle, and was very heavy for the time. The thickness o f the frontal plates w e n t up w ith successive marks, and most of the earlier marks were re-w orked, as tim e and 82

supplies perm itted, to be given extra 'a pp liqu ś' plates w elded on. Turrets increased in size and com plexity and the M ark VII was given the first comm ander's cupola in a British tank to have a ll-round vision w hen closed do w n —a great step forw ard, th o ug h it was com m on enough in German tanks by that tim e. The hull was roomy, w h ich was fortunate in vie w of the amount of developm ent w h ich was done on it, and the am m unition stowage was particularly generous. The M ark I was able to carry 1 50 rounds of 2pounder and 58 of 3in how itzer am m unition, still leaving room for five men. The hull was sufficie n tly w id e to a llo w the Mark Ill's 6pounder turret to be fitted w ith o u t too much trouble, th o ug h the 75mm and 95mm weapons caused a little d iffic u lty and had a rather smaller tu rre t-rin g than was ideal. These latter turrets looked a little slab-sided, as a result of the fact that some were bu ilt up w ith w e ld in g , rather than cast as com plete units. The C hurchill was the first British tank w ith the M e rritt-B ro w n regenerative steering, w h ich had been tried o u t in the A6 10 years before. This system not only saved a great deal o f pow er w hen turning, but also enabled the driver to make much sharper turns, until in neutral he could turn the tank on its own axis. This system: or some variant of it, is n o w universally used by all tank de­ signers. Ano th e r innovation, fo r British AFVs at least, was the use of hydraulics in the steering and clutch controls, so that driving was far less tiring than it had been on previous designs, and the driver could exercise finer judgem ent in his use of the controls. The suspension was by 11 small road w heels on each side. ► 83

Each of these wheels, or more properly bogies, was sprung separately on vertical coil springs, and the am ount o f m ovem ent was lim ited so that the ride was fairly harsh. However, such a system had the merits of sim plicity, cheapness, and relative in vulnerability to damage; each side could tolerate the loss of several bogies and still support the chassis, and the m anufacture and fittin g of bogies was not too d ifficu lt. Churchills were used on most o f the European battlefronts. The first tim e they were in action was the Dieppe raid of A u g u st 1942, in w h ich several Mark Is and I Is to o k part, together w ith a fe w M ark Ills. Few got over the harbour w all, and most w ere either drow ned w hen disembarking, or captured. A number o f M ark I, II and III examples were sent to Russia, and a few Mark Ills were tried at Alam ein. Thereafter they were used in Tunisia and Italy in ever-increasing numbers until the end of the war. Several brigades of Churchills were deployed in N orth-W est Europe, w here th e ir th ick armour proved very useful, b u t th ro u g h o u t the campaign the C hurchill was hampered by being outgunned by German armour. There were many variants on the C hurchill chassis as it was q u ickly found that it was w e ll suited to such tasks as bridging, mineclearing, armoured recovery, and (probably best of all) flam ethrow ing. The C hurchill was also a

particularly successful Arm oured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) and fu lfille d several d ifferent RE roles until replaced by the Centurion AVRE in the early 1960s. A ltogether 5,460 Churchills were produced, and they remained in service in varying numbers until the 1 950s. The lack o f adequate gun pow er was realised quite early in the C hurchill's life, however, and in 1 943 Vauxhall developed an im proved version carrying a 17 pounder in the turret. The tu rre t-rin g had to be enlarged, and so the hull was widened. The armour remained the same thickness, and w e ig h t w e n t up to 50 tons — 112,000lbs (50 ,7 3 6 kg ). To support this extra load the tracks were widened, new bogies fitted, and the Bedford engine geared down. Top speed was only 11 mph (1 7 .6 k m /h ) and although the prototypes were still being tried in 1 945, the idea came to nothing, and the Black Prince, as it was to have been called, was scrapped. B e lo w : F o llo w in g tria ls w ith a fla m e th r o w e r in s ta lled in a V a le n tin e ta n k in 1 942 it w a s d ec id e d th e fo llo w in g y e a r to instal th e sy s te m in a C h u rc h ill, w it h th e fu e l b eing c a rrie d in a tra ile r to w e d b eh in d th e ta n k . T his b ec a m e k n o w n as th e C h u rch ill C ro c o d ile and e n te re d v e ry su ccessfu l s e rv ic e in 1944.

A27M Cromwell Infantry Tank C ro m w e ll M a rk s I to V III. C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 6pounder gun; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun in hull (M arks I to III); one 75mm QF Mark V or VA gun; tw o 7.92mm m achine-guns (M arks IV. V and V II); one 95mm how itzer; tw o 7.92m m BESA m achine-guns (Marks VI and V III). A rm o u r: 0.31 in (8m m ) m inim um ; 3in (76m m ) m aximum ; 0.4in (10m m ) m inimum; 3in (76m m ) m aximum in w elded variants; 4in (102m m ) applique armour. D im en sion s: Length 20ft 10in (6.35m ); w id th 10 ft (3.04m ); height 9ft 3 |in (2.84m ). W e ig h t: 61,600lbs (27.942kg). G round Pressure: 14 .7 lb /in 2 (1 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t i o : 21 8 h p /to n Engine: Rolls-Royce M eteor V-1 2 w ate r-co o le d petrol engine developing 600bhp at 2,250rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 40m ph (6 4 k m /h ); cross-country speed 1 8mph (2 9 k m /h ); range 173 miles (27 7 km ); vertical obstacle 3 ft (0.92m ); trench 7ft 6in (2.28m ). H is to ry : Served w ith the British Arm y from 1942 to 1950. The Crom w ell emerged from a General Staff specification drawn up in late 1 940 and early 1941 for a 'heavy cruiser'. The cruisers b u ilt to the traditional ideas of a lig h t fast vehicle capable of fu lfillin g the cavalry role o f pursuit and exploitation had proved to be unequal to the modern battlefield in tw o vital areas, protection and gun power. The 1941 specification called for cruiser tanks w ith an all-u p w e ig h t o f around 25 tons (25 ,4 0 1 kg ), fron t armour of 2.75in (70m m ) thickness, and a 6pounder gun on a 60in (1 ,52m ) turret ring. Nuffield produced the first model, designated the A 24 and originally called the Crom well. This was an im proved Crusader and used several of its com ponents, among w h ich was the Liberty engine w h ich q u ickly proved itself incapable of perform ing satisfactorily in a tank w e ig h in g nearly 60,000lbs (27,216kg). The name was soon changed to Cavalier, and the unsuccessful vehicle was used only for training and a fe w specialist roles. Early in 1941 Leyland had collaborated w ith Rolls-R oyce in looking for a satisfactory tank engine, and hit upon the Meteor, a de-rated M erlin aircraft engine. W ith 600hp this gave more than enough pow er fo r the heavy cruiser tanks, and since the main com ponents were already w e ll developed it seemed likely that it w o u ld be both robust and reliable. Leyland therefore began w o rk

on a tank w h ic h came to be called the Centaur, but this was really a Cromwell w ith a Liberty engine. There were no M eteors to be had w hen the Centaur was first produced, so it was fitted w ith the available Liberty engines, and was a bit more successful than the unfortunate Cavalier. A particular feature was the fa ct that the engine com partm ent could accept the M eteor when it became available, and many of the pro d u ctio n run were so converted after 1943. M eanw hile the Birm ingham R ailw ay Carriage and W agon Company had taken on the design of the final version of Crom well and produced the first p ilo t version in January 1942. A t this date the name was still causing confusion, and it was variously know n as the A 27M (M for M eteor), Crom well M, or C rom w ell III. The nom enclature was only finally cleared up w hen Cavalier and Centaur were confirm ed as names. Because of the failures from too fe w trials, the C rom w ell was exhaustively tested, a luxury at that tim e o f the war, and the first pro d u ctio n m odels did not appear until January 1943; w h ich was far too long. The M eteor engine gave little trouble, and am ply demonstrated that pow er was a necessary feature of tank design. The first engines were bu ilt by R olls-R oyce themselves in order to get the design right, but production was sw itched away from them as soon as possible, to leave them free to concentrate on aircraft engines, and the Meteor was put out to contract. Ju st as the first C rom wells appeared, the General Staff changed its policy tow ards tank armament. Up till then the main arm am ent gun had been required to be used in an a n ti-ta n k role, but experience in the desert and North Africa showed that after a breakthrough the main targets were not tanks at all, but d u g -in infantry and a n ti-ta n k guns. W hat was needed was ► R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t and rear v ie w s o f C ro m w e ll IV c ru is er. F ro n ta l insig nia are, fro m le ft to rig h t, th e u n it n u m b e r, th e s qu adron n u m b e r, and sign o f th e G uards A rm o u re d D iv is io n . B e lo w le ft : C u t­ a w a y side v ie w o f C ro m w e ll IV w ith 75 m m Q F M k V gun and c o -a x ia l 7 .9 2m m BESA M G .

87

not an A P -firin g gun but one th a t could fire a substantial HE shell against these softer targets. The Shermans and Grants carried a 75mm gun w ith such a performance and there was a demand for these to be m ounted on British vehicles. The new General Staff specification reflected this approach, though it was also agreed that the need fo r a Close S upport (CS) tank had not yet vanished. The fittin g o f a 75mm gun inserted some further delay into the programme, and there was also a need to retro fit 75mm guns into tanks that had been produced w ith the 6pounder. The first 75mm guns were delivered in late 1943, and by this tim e they were probably already close to the end of their time, though they had to be used until the end o f the war. The 75mm was a new gun, developed from the 6pounder and using several com ponents from that gun. The barrel was the same, bored out and shortened and fitted w ith a muzzle brake. The breech mechanism was also sim ilar, and not surprisingly there were several initial defects, not fu lly overcom e un til May R ig h t: A C ro m w e ll M k III, fo rm e rly k n o w n as C e n ta u r o r C ro m w e ll X, p o w e re d by R ollsRoyce M e te o r eng ine. A to ta l o f 64 rounds o f a m m u n itio n w e re c a rried fo r th e 6 p o u n d e r gun. To increase th e o p e ra tio n a l ran ge an a u x ilia ry fu e l ta n k w a s fitt e d a t th e rear. 1944. The am m unition was Am erican, taken from Lease-Lend supplies w ith o u t m odification, and gave no trouble. The Am erican gun was interesting in that it had been directly derived from the French 75mm ( soixante-quinze) of W orld War I. In 1933 these 75s were adapted fo r tank use by fittin g a sliding breech and different buffer and recuperator, b u t the am m unition was still the same original French design, and indeed French am m unition could be fired. A fter Syria was taken from the V ichy French in late 1941, a quantity of French field gun am m unition was shipped to the W estern Desert and used in Grant tanks. The gunner used a normal telescope for sighting the 75mm, but he could also use a range drum and clinom eter for long range shooting. The tw o BESA m achine-guns were m ounted in the turret and hull, the latter displaying the last surviving rem nant o f the idea o f m ounting m achine-guns all round the hull, w h ich w e n t back to the first tanks o f W orld War I. Later on in the w ar many Crom w ell crews were sceptical of the value of the hull gun, and it was frequently left o u t on the variants. The hull conform ed to the standard British design o f three com partm ents, and was b u ilt of single arm our plate, either w elded or riveted. In the fro n t compartment were the driver and hull gunner, separated from the turret by a bulkhead w ith an access hole in it. The comm ander, gunner and loader were in the turret in the centre com partm ent, contained in a rotating basket, the gunner on the left w ith the com m ander behind him and the loader on the right. The turret traversed by hydraulic pow er and w as extrem ely accurate in fine laying. The turret could be fu lly rotated through 360 degrees in 15 seconds. The com m ander had a cupola, the early models having o n ly tw o episcopes, the later ones w ith eight, thereby providing a ll-ro u n d vision. Tw enty-three rounds of 75mm am m unition were stow ed ready fo r use in the turret and the balance of a fu ll load o f 64 rounds was stow ed around the walls of the com partm ent. Some 4,950 rounds o f BESA am m unition were carried. The No 19 wireless set was in the back of the turret behind the 88

A b o v e : C a n a d ia n -c re w e d C ro m w e ll ta n k s in a c tio n in France in 1944. In th e a rm o u re d re g im e n ts th e C ro m w e lls w e re usually e m p lo y e d w it h S h e rm a n F ire flie s (S h e rm a n a rm e d w ith th e p o te n t 1 7 p o u n d e r g u n ), in th e tro o p ra tio o f th r e e C ro m w e lls to o ne F ire ­ fly . C lose s u p p o rt m o d els had a 9 5 m m h o w itz e r . G e n e ra lly o u t­ g un ned by th e h e a v ie r G e rm a n ta n k s , th e C ro m w e ll squ adron s n e v e rth e le s s succeeded w it h speed and m a n o e v ra b ility .

I

i

loader, w h o listened in on the net. In the rear com partm ent the engine was placed between tw o fuel tanks and tw o large air cleaners. The radiators were right at the back, m ounted upright. Transmission was through a M errittBrow n regenerative gearbox, w h ich had proved successful in the Churchill tank in 1941. It was used in a cruiser for the first tim e in the Crom well, but the com bination o f M eteor and M e rritt-B ro w n was to be the mainstay of British tank designers fo r years to come. The suspension was Christie-type, adapted from the A1 3 and strengthened. Even so it could not tolerate the top speed o f 40m ph (6 4 k m /h ) and after the M ark IV the m aximum speed was reduced to 32mph (5 2 k m /h ) by gearing d o w n the final drive. The track was w ider than that of the A1 3, and the ride that it gave was remarkably good. The Crom w ell proved itself to be both fast and agile, and was popular w ith its crews. M aintenance was not too d iffic u lt, and the reliability o f the Meteor was a blessing to those w h o had had to cope w ith the vagaries of overstrained Liberty engines in other designs. A possible draw back for the crew was the d iffic u lty o f getting out in a hurry, especially for the driver and hull gunner. Later marks were given side doors to the fro n t com partm ent so that the tw o men could clim b out w hatever the position o f the turret and gun. In allow ing for these doors some stow age space was lost on the track guards, and there was only a small bin behind the turret. Local enterprise often fitted extra bins, fo r space was tig h t for five men. Crom wells were used for training thro u g h o u t ► 89

1 943 and early 1944, and the o p p o rtu n ity fo r action did not come until the Normandy invasion. It was then the main equipm ent o f the 7th Arm oured Division and a number of armoured reconnaissance regiments. A fte r the breakout from Caen, the C rom w ell was able to do the jo b it was designed for, and exploit the assault. Supported by 95mm H ow itzer CS versions the Cromwell squadrons out-m anoeuvred and outran the heavier German tanks, but they were always outgunned, even by the com paratively lig h t Panthers. Attem pts to fit the 17pounder gun were a failure, and the Crom well crews relied for their success on superior training and m anoeuvrability w hen in action. The attem pt to fit the 17pounder gun resulted in a tank called the Challenger, built to the specification A30. The first m odel appeared in August 1942, based on a lengthened C rom w ell w ith an extra w heel station. Performance was poor because the hull was too narrow fo r the large turret, and the extra w e ig h t and longer track base reduced speed and agility. Nevertheless it was approved for service early in 1943 and 260 were built. A 90

A b o v e : C ro m w e ll V II a rm e d w ith 7 5 m m g u n ; th is w a s a C ro m w e ll re -w o rk e d w ith a p p liq u e a rm o u r w e ld e d o n to th e hull fro n t, w id e r tra c k s , s tro n g e r suspension and red uced fin a l d riv e ra tio . later attem pt to im prove on the Challenger produced the Avenger, a Challenger w ith a better turret, but only thin sheet steel on the roof. The final step in trying to make C rom w ell into an SP gun was in 1950, w hen the Centurion 2 0pounder was put into a tw o -m a n turret on the normal C rom w ell hull. This just about w orked, and it was issued to the Territorial Arm y and sold in small numbers to Austria and Jordan. As a gun tank Crom w ell was num erically the most im portant British cruiser o f the war, and though never the main battle tank o f the army, it supplemented the Shermans in all British tank form ations by 1 945. Its speed and pow er were the best ever seen in British tanks till that time, and there was plenty of scope for develop­ ment in the basic design. 91

A34 Comet Cruiser Tank C o u n try o f o r ig in : Great Britain. C r e w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 77mm gun; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 7.92m m BESA m achine-gun. A rm o u r: 102mm (4in) m aximum; 14mm (0.55in) minimum . D im e n s io n s : Length 2 5 ft 1 iin (7.66m ); w id th 10 ft (3.04m ); height 8ft 9Jin (2.98m ). W e ig h t: Com bat 78.800lbs (35 ,6 9 6 kg ). G ro un d p re s s u re: 1 3 .8 5 lb /in 2 (0 .8 8 k g /c m 2). E n gin e: R olls-Royce M eteor M ark 3 V -12 w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 600bhp at 2,550rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 32mph (51 k m /h ); range 123 miles (196km ); vertical obstacle 3ft (0.92m ); trench 8ft (2.43m ); gradient 35 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the British Arm y from 1 944 to 1958. Still used by Burma and South Africa. The requirement for the Comet w as first seen during the tank battles in the Western Desert in late 1 941 and early 1 942, w hen it was apparent that British tanks had no gun capable of defeating the Germans. The C rom well, w h ilst an excellent tank, had been given too small a gun, w h ich could not fire HE. Nor was its 6pounder very pow erful against armour. An attem pt to upgun it to carry the 17pounder met w ith little success (the Challenger), and by late 1943 there was an urgent need for a fast cruiser w ith reasonable protection and a gun capable of taking on the later marks of German tank. Leyland was given the task of developing the new tank early in 1 943, the first priority being to decide upon a suitable gun. The criterion chosen was to look for the most pow erful gun that could be m ounted on C rom well, and then a tank w o u ld be b u ilt using as m any Crom well com ponents as possible. A fter much searching and deliberation Vickers-Arm strong designed a lighter and more com pact version of the 1 7pounder, the Vickers HV 75mm. This gun fired the same shell as the 1 7pounder but used a shorter and w id e r cartridge case w h ich was easier to handle in a turret. It was slig h tly less pow erful, and had a shorter barrel and low er muzzle velocity, but it was still far ahead of any gun carried on A llie d AFVs at that tim e, except the SP tank destroyers. To

R ig h t : C o m e t ta n k o f c o m m a n d in g o ffic e r , 1 st RTR, 7 th A rm o u re d D iv is io n , B e rlin , 1945. T he C o m e t w a s d e ­ velop ed fro m th e C ro m w e ll and w e n t in to p ro d u c tio n in 1944 b ut by th e end o f th e w a r o nly one c o m p le te d ivision had been re -e q u ip p e d . By M a y 1945 1,200 C o m e ts had been b u ilt. 92

avoid confusion in names and am m unition supply, the new gun was called the 77mm. The first m ock-up of the Com et was ready in late September 1943, and production was planned to be under w a y in m id-1944. The need fo r the Comet had become pressing. The first prototypes were delivered early in 1944. but there was a good deal o f redesign to be done, and w h a t had started as an up-gunned C rom w ell soon reached the p o in t w here 60 per cent of the vehicle was a com plete redesign, albeit a sim ilar design. The hull was largely un ­ touched, and there was criticism of the retention o f the hull gun and the ►

A b ove: F ro n t v ie w o f a C o m e t c ru is er ta n k sh o w in g p o s itio n o f th e h u ll-m o u n te d 7.9 2m m BESA m a c h in e gun. R ig h t: T h e C o m e t w a s desig ned u n d er th e p a re n ta g e o f Leyland M o to rs L im ite d as th e A 34 c ru is er ta n k . M a in a rm a m e n t con s is te d o f an O rd n a n c e Q u ick F irin g 7 7 m m M k 2 w h ic h in fa c t had a c a lib re o f 7 6 .2 m m b u t w a s ca lled th e 77 m m to avoid c o n fu s io n w ith th e 1 7 p o u n d e r gun. This fire d an A P C B C p ro je c tile w e ig h in g 7.7kg w h ic h w o u ld p e n e tra te 10 9 m m o f a rm o u r a t a ran ge o f 457 m e tre s , it c ou ld also fir e a high explo s iv e ro und. T h e C o m e t ta n k is still in o p e ra tio n a l service w ith b o th B u rm a and S o u th A fric a in 1981 ! vertical fron t plate it required. The C rom w ell's belly arm our was also kept, although this had been show n to be too light. But there was no tim e to do more, and despite fro n t line pressures continual changes and m odifications meant that the first production models were not delivered until September 1944, and did not reach the first units until ju st before Christmas. The 11th Arm oured Division was re-equipped w ith Comets in the first m onths of 1 945, and was the only division to have a com plete stock by the end o f the war. Other divisions were issued w ith Comets as the year w e n t by, though more slow ly. In early 1949 the C enturion replaced the Comet, although Comets were still in Berlin and Hong Kong until the late 1 950s. A lthough practically a new tank, the Com et was easily recognisable as a Cromwell successor, and it was in essence an up-g u n n e d and up-armoured version. The hull was w elded, w ith side doors at the fro n t for the driver and hull gunner. The turret was also w elded, w ith a cast m antlet and fro n t armour. The space inside was good, and access w as fairly easy. The comm ander was given all-round vision w ith the same cupola as the Crom w ell, and am m unition was stow ed in armoured bins, a d istin ct step forw ard. The turret was electrically traversed, a developm ent o f the excellent system tried o u t in the Churchill, and to provide adequate e lectricity a generator was driven by the main engine. As w ith the later marks o f the Crom w ell, there were only tw o stowage bins over the tracks, and there was a prom inent bin at the back o f the turret. This to some extent counter-balanced the overhang o f the gun. The suspension was meant to be identical w ith that of the Crom well, but it was quickly found that this was not adequate for the extra w e ig h t and so it was 94

T

strengthened and given return rollers. W ith this suspension the Com et was remarkably agile and tough, and its cross-country speed could often be more than the crew could tolerate w ith com fort. The M eteor engine had adequate pow er fo r all needs and on a cross-country training course a good driver could handle a Comet like a sports ca r—and frequently did. It was sufficiently strong to stand up im pressively to high jum ps at full speed. The Com et o n ly w e n t to one variant on its solitary mark, surely a record for any British tank: the main feature of the variant was a change in the exhaust cow ls, a m od ifica tio n found necessary after the Normandy fighting. These helped to hide the tank at night, and as also at that tim e it was usual to lift infantry into battle on the decks and track guards, the cow ls protected them from the exhaust. The Com et was the last of the cruisers, and also the last properly developed British tank to take part in the war. It was not universally popular, and met strong criticism at first, m ainly because its detractors believed that it per­ petuated the faults of the C rom well, w h ich in some m inor respects it did. This was particularly so in the case of the nose plates and the hull gun. However, to remove them w o u ld have involved an extensive redesign and the building o f new jigs fo r the factory. This was o u t o f the question in 1 943. The disappointm ent at the lack of effective belly arm our is less easy to refute, since it should have been foreseen, but it was o n ly appreciated too late. Perhaps m ost o f the exasperation of the users sprang from the fact that it was such a good tank and came so late that it was never given a chance to prove itself properly. 95

SOVIET UNION Although Russia took an early interest in arm oured cars it was not until the capture in 1919 o f tw o Renault FT light tanks th a t they became interested in tanks. A m odified version o f the Renault was put into production as the KS in 1920. From then on tan k design, developm ent and produc­ tion proceeded rapidly in the Soviet Union, and it is estim ated th a t betw een 1928 and 1937 some 21,000 o f all types had been built. Tactics had not been neglected eith er and, quite naturally, since French influence had alw ays been strong in Russia, the firs t arm oured units w e re modelled on the French ones, being thereby tied to in fan try form ations in a purely supporting role. H ow ever, some o f the thinking o f the Germans probably filtere d through w ith the m utual cooperation arrangem ents o f the 1920s and 1930s. The firs t mechanised brigade w as form ed in 1929/30 w ith the firs t mechanised corps fo llo w in g in 1932. But betw een then and the German invasion o f Russia in 1941 there w e re many reorganisations, most of the tanks being attached to the in fan try rather than being used in th e ir designed role o f breakthrough and exp lo itatio n .M an y arm y officers w ere removed from th e ir posts and executed, to be replaced by new officers w ith little experience in arm our. H ow ever, the experim ents w ith the mechanised corps w ere used as the basis fo r the arm oured form ations w hich fought through W orld W a r II, and from them also was deduced th e prim ary lesson o f all arm oured w a rfa re , th a t

96

fire p o w e r counts above all other considerations. As w ith most other armies, the Russians had three types of t a n k -lig h t , medium and heavy. Losses in the firs t fe w months o f the w a r w e re enorm ous, but even at this tim e the Russians had already designed and put into production tw o n ew tanks th a t w e re to turn the tid e from the fo llo w ­ ing year —the T -34 m edium and the K V -1 , both of which w e re accepted fo r service on Decem ber 19,1939; w ith in tw o years, German tanks w e re to m eet th e ir match in these. The T -34, in its various guises, form ed the backbone of Soviet tank units. O w ing much to the American M l 931 C hristie design, it had the right com bination o f armour, m obility and fire p o w e r. It was, and still is, and object lesson in good design, and its appearance was a revelation to the German Arm y. A t firs t its effectiveness w as to some extent reduced by the then current Soviet habit o f using tanks in cavalry charges. A mass of arm oured vehicles was made to rush a position in the same w ay as a cavalry squadron, and it was some tim e before it was discovered th a t it was often more pro fitab le to deploy bigger-gunned tanks, stand o ff and shell the opposition into submission. W hen the Germans invaded, many o f the tank manu­ facturing plants w e re moved eastwards to the Urals, but production w as m aintained and was soon increased. In 1941 the Russians built 6,500 tanks; in 1942 25,000 armoured fig h tin g vehicles w e re built and by the end of the w a r over 100,000 tanks and self-propelled guns had been produced.

97

T-28 Medium Tank T -28, T -2 8 06 1938, T -2 8 06 1940, T-28/W , IT -2 8 and T -2 9 -5 . C o u n try o f o rig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 6 . A rm a m e n t: One 76.2mm gun; three DT m achine-guns. A rm o u r: 20mm to 80mm (0.79in to 3.1 5in) depending on model. D im en sion s: Length 24ft 5in (7.44m ); w id th 9ft 3in (2.82m ); height 9ft 3in (2.82m ). W e ig h t: 6 1 ,729lbs (28,000kg) to 70,547lbs (32,000kg) depending on model. G round p re s s u re : 10 .2 5 lb /in 2 (0 .7 3 k g /c m 2) to 1 0 .95 1b/in2 (0 .7 8 kg / cm 2) depending on model. P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 18 .1 h p /to n to 1 5 .9 hp /to n depending on model. Engine: One M -1 7 L 1 2 -cylind e r w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 500hp at 1,450rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 23m ph (3 7 k m /h ); range 140 miles (220km ); vertical obstacle 3ft 5in (1 .04m ); trench 9ft 6in (2.9m ); gradient 80 per cent. H is to ry : Served w ith the Russian A rm y from 1 933 to 1 941. W ork on building a suitable type of m edium tank was undertaken during the early 1930s. A fte r trials w ith numerous prototypes in this tank class (in c lu d ­ ing the T12, T24 and TG ), w h ich fo r a m u ltip licity o f reasons proved unsuitable for mass production, in 1932 the Leningrad Kirov plant b u ilt a new prototype m edium tank based on the general design of the British A6E1 16 ton (16,257kg) tank. A specimen of this vehicle was not purchased (being still secret at the tim e), but it is believed that m uch inform ation was obtained on it through espionage. The first Soviet specification for a m ulti-turreted 16 ton m edium tank, intended fo r breaking through strongly fortified defensive zones and for exploitation by mechanised brigades, was issued to the Kirov plant in 1931. The specification demanded a crew o f five men, 20mm to 30mm (0.79in to 1.18in) armour, a 500hp engine and a maximum speed of 37mph (6 0 k m /h ). The armament was to comprise one 45mm gun and a m achinegun in the main turret, and one m achine-gun in each of the tw o forw ard subsidiary turrets. Some 7,938 rounds of m achine-gun am m unition were to be carried. A prototype, w h ich w eighed 17.3 tons (17,575kg), was completed during 1932. A fte r trials w ith the prototype vehicle, it was

98

requested that heavier armour be applied and that the main armament be increased to 76.2mm (w ith 70 rounds). A specification was then laid d o w n for a 27.56 ton (28.000kg) medium tank, designated T-28. The final model was accepted for adoption by the Red Arm y on 11 A ugust 1933. A ll tanks of this type were provided w ith tw o -w a y radio equipm ent, having the characteristic frame aerial around the top of the main turret. They were also fitte d w ith smoke-emitters. In later production vehicles a device was employed to stabilise the main turret. Designed by A. A. Prokofiev, this greatly im proved accuracy of fire w hile on the move. The T -2 8 was noted for its quiet, sm ooth m otion and abnormal capability fo r crossing trenches and other terrain obstacles. During 1938 this tank was subjected to extreme m odification (no w called T-28 06 1938). The existing arm am ent (16.5 calibres long) was replaced by the 76.2mm L-10 gun of 26 calibres length. T -2 8 tanks were employed against the Japanese in 1939 and also during the Russo-Finnish War. In the course of this war. it was discovered that the arm our w as inadequate and. as the result, m odification of the armour was carried out. This was achieved by 'screening' ( yekpanirovki) suitable parts of the existing armour. The turret and hull frontal plates were increased from 50mm to 80mm (1.97in to 3.15 in ), the sides and rear to 40mm. Conse­ quently, the w e ig h t of this new model (called T -28 06 1940 or T -2 8 M) rose to 31.5 tons (32,000kg). Despite the increase in w e ig h t the speed was not sig n ifica n tly im paired. This up-arm oured tank gained much acclaim during the break-through of the M annerheim Line in 1940. Its mass production was term inated soon after the conclusion of hostilities between the USSR and Finland, when the type was replaced in production by the new T -3 4 medium tank. The chassis of the T-28 was used for several types of experimental selfpropelled gun as w e ll as special-purpose tanks (eg bridgelayer IT-28 and a m ine-clearing tank). During 1934 the design bureau at the Kirov Factory developed a w h e e l/tra c k variant of the T-28, called the T -2 9 -5 . A lthough this never passed beyond the prototype stage, it form ed the first link in the eventual developm ent of the T -34. T o p o f p a g e : T h e T -2 8 w a s th e firs t m e d iu m tan k to e n te r se rvice w ith th e S o v ie t A rm y in 1933. Its design o w e d a lo t to th e B ritis h A6E1 16 to n ta n k w h ic h w a s desig ned by V ic k e rs A rm s tro n g s in th e la te 1920s b u t did n o t e n te r s e rv ic e w it h B ritis h A rm y . L e f t : P ro to ty p e o f th e T -2 8 w a s c o m p le te d in 1932 and fo llo w in g tria ls it w a s d ecid ed to increase b oth a rm o u r and fire p o w e r. T he T -2 8 w a s used d u rin g th e w a r a g a in s t F in la n d , w h e n again it w a s fo u n d to be u n d e r-a rm o u re d . It w a s im p ro v e d w ith special p la tin g and th e ta n k th e n g ave a good a c c o u n t o f its e lf, d e s p ite th e e x tra w e ig h t. T h e T -2 8 also served a g a in s t Ja p a n in 1939. 99

BT-7 Fast Tank BT-7. BT-7 A, B T -7M . BT - 7U , S7--7TU and v a ria n ts , plus B T A . B T - S and BT-5. C o u n try o f o rig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 3. A rm a m e n t: One 45mm M 1935 gun; one co-axial 7.62m m DT m achinegun. (Some vehicles had an additional 7.62m m DT m achine-gun in turret rear and a P.40 m achine-gun). A rm o u r: 22mm (0.87in) m aximum; 10mm (0.39in) m inim um . D im en sion s: Length 18 ft 7in (5.66m ); w id th 7ft 6in (2.29m ); h eight 7ft 11 in (2.42m). W e ig h t: 30,644lbs (13,900kg). G round Pressure: 1 1 .2 5 lb /in 2 (0 .7 9 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 3 6 h p/to n . Engine: One M odel M 17T 1 2 -cylind e r w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 500hp at 1,650rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed on wheels 46m ph (7 3 k m /h ); road speed on tracks 33mph (5 3 k m /h ); range on wheels 450 miles (73 0 km ); range on tracks 270 miles (430km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 10in (0.5 5 m ); trench 6 ft 7in (2m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the Russian A rm y from 1935 to 1 945. Next to the T -26 light infantry-accom panying tank, the BT fast tank was the most prolific AFV in the Red Arm y during the 1930s. The initials BT form an acronym for Bistrokhodny Tank, or Fast Tank. It was kn ow n among Soviet tankmen as the Betka (Beetle) or as the Tri-Tankista (Three T an ke ras the result of its three-man crew ). As distinct from most of the other Soviet vehicles at that tim e, w h ich were based on British Vickers models, the BT tank was derived from an Am erican design by J. W. Christie. This design was also later taken up by the British to develop their famous Cruiser tank range, the m ost fam ous member being the

Crusader. The basic Christie vehicle was purchased by Soviet officials in America during 1930 and one vehicle was shipped back to Russia during that year and delivered to the Kharkhov Locom otive Works. After extensive tests of the Christie vehicle, on 23 M ay 1931 the Revolutionary M ilitary Council of the USSR authorised the tank for Red Arm y use and requested its mass production. The draw ings fo r the BT tank prototype were delivered to the Komintern Factory in Kharkhov during A ugust 1931. On 3 September 1931, the first tw o prototypes, designated fl7"-1, left the factory gates and were delivered to the Red Arm y for trials. This first vehicle was provided w ith m achine-gun armament only, and the Red Arm y test comm ission w h ich investigated the tank requested that the production model ► R ig h t : F ro n t v ie w o f la te m o d el o f B T -7 w ith con ical t u r r e t and t w in horn p eriscopes. T h e gun is a m o d ific a tio n o f th e s ta n d a rd M -1 9 3 5 firin g an a rm o u r p ie rc in g ro u nd w ith a m u zzle v e lo c ity o f 820 m e tre s a second. O ne o f th e fe a tu re s o f th e B T -7 w a s th a t its tra c k s could be re m o v e d , so e n a b lin g it to run a t high speed on roads.

L e ft: A B T -7 - l(V ), th e c o m m a n d version o f th e e a rly B T -7. It has th e c y lin d ric a l t u r r e t o f th e B T -5 c o m m a n d ta n k w ith a ll-ro u n d fra m e ra d io a e ria l. These w e re used to c o n tro l B T -7 u n its.

be armed w ith an artillery weapon. In the meantim e the BT-2 model, still w ith m achine-gun armament, was developed in lim ited quantities. A fte r the production of a small number of vehicles, however, the BT-2 tank received a 37mm M odel 1930 tank gun m ounted in the original m achine-gun turret. During 1932 the Red Arm y requested th a t the BT tank be armed w ith a more powerful weapon, in the form of the 45mm gun. A fter various prototypes had been tested, the BT-S model was accepted. This m ounted a 45mm gun in a turret almost identical to that fitted to the T -26 lig h t tank. A co-axial 7.62mm DT m achine-gun was also installed. Commanders' vehicles, w h ich received the suffix U or TU ( BT-bU or BT-bTU). were provided w ith tw o -w a y radio equipment, w h ich was m ounted in the turret overhang, thereby displacing some of the 45mm am m unition. As in the case of the T -2 6 comm ander's model, the turret was fitted w ith the characteristic frame aerial. The BT tank was intended for large, independent long-range armoured and mechanised units (called DD groups). These were to act in the rear of enemy positions and take out nerve centres such as headquarters, supply bases, airfields, etc. Under such circum stances high speed was a great advantage. One of the basic attributes of the Christie design was the ability of the tank to run on either tracks or the road wheels. Track drive was used when m oving across country or along poor roads, w h ils t wheel drive was used for long strategic road drives. The tim e taken to change from one mode to the other was put at between 10 and 15 minutes. This a b ility to run on wheels, however, was never actually exploited by the Red A rm y in m ilitary operations. When the tank was operated in the wheeled mode, the tracks were attached along the track guards, and engine pow er was transm itted to the rear pair of wheels. The tw o fron t road wheels could be turned to provide steering. In contrast to most other tanks, w here tw o steering levers were employed, the BT was controlled by a steering wheel. As the result of large-scale exercises carried o u t by the Red Arm y during the early 1930s, it was realised that the long-range DD groups required some form of accompanying artillery to provide artillery fire -su p p o rt during the attack. For this reason, special artillery support tanks, w h ich received the suffix A, were developed. The first of these, the BT-5A, was introduced in 1935. It mounted a short-barrelled 76.2mm gun in a turret very sim ilar to that used as the main one on the T -28 m edium tank. As a result of com bat experience, the Red Arm y requested that the BT be redesigned w ith w elded armour and that the armour be sloped to increase its im m unity. Thus there

102

emerged the BT-1 model, a vast im provem ent over the previous models. A m m unition stowage comprised 188 45mm rounds and 2,142 7.62mm rounds. As in the case of the BT-b. a comm ander's model was developed, designated BT-1U or BT-1TU. The first series of this vehicle still retained the original cylindrical turret of the T -2 6 tank, however. In 1938, fo llo w in g experience against the Japanese in M anchuria, the new turret w h ich had been designed for the T -26 lig h t tank was also fitted to the BT-1. A co m ­ mander's version of this model was also produced. To provide artillery firesupport the BT-1 A version was developed. This had the same turret as the BT-bA. Other alterations to the BT-1 were the use of a more powerful engine and an im proved transmission system. During 1938 the new V-2 diesel engine had been developed specifically for tank use, and this was installed in all subsequent BT-1 tanks. To distinguish it from previous models, the vehicle was designated B T-1M ; it has, however, also been referred to as the BT-8. This new engine developed 500hp at 1,800rpm, and being a diesel powerplant allowed the DD groups a much greater range of operation than had been possible previously. It also reduced the fire risk, since diesel fuel is not so volatile as petrol. Several specialised and experimental vehicles were developed from the f i r tank. During 1936 the experimental BT-/S (investigator tank) was developed. This had heavily sloped armour that shrouded the tracks. This vehicle co n ­ tributed greatly to the eventual developm ent of the T -3 4 tank. During 1937 several BT tanks were equipped w ith schnorkels, enabling them to deepford w ater obstacles. Such vehicles were designated BT-bPH. As the BT-b and BT-1 models gained numerical significance in the Red Arm y, the older BT models were used to develop special-purpose vehicles such as the BT bridgelayer, smoke tank and chemical tank. B e lo w le ft : B T -7 ta n k s a c c o m p a n y in fa n tr y in an a tta c k on Japan ese u n its in th e K h a lk in -G o l area o f M a n c h u ria /M o n g o lia in 1939. T h e Russians d ep lo y e d 3 d ivision s and 5 a rm o u re d b rig ad es, c o m m a n d e d by th e G e n e ral Z h u ko v (o f W W II fa m e ). B e lo w : Late p ro d u c tio n B T -7 ta n k s m o ve th ro u g h G o rky S tre e t, M o s c o w , in N o v e m b e r 1941. T h e B T -7 chassis w a s also used fo r specialised version s such as b rid g e la y e r and sm o ke ta n k .

103

KV-I Heavy Tank K V-1, KV-1 s, K V -2 , K V -3 and K V -8 5 . C o u n try o f o r ig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 76.2mm gun (various types); three 7.62m m DT m achineguns. (Some vehicles had an additional m achine-gun in the turret rear and a P-40 AA m achine-gun.) A rm o u r: 100mm (3.94in) to 75mm (2.9 5 in ), varying w ith model. D im en sion s: Length 20ft 7in (6.273m ); w id th 10ft 2 in (3.098m ); height 7ft 11 in (2.41 3m). (Dim ensions varied slightly according to m odels.) W e ig h t: 104,71 9 1bs (47,500kg), varying slightly w ith model. G round Pressure: 1 0 .6 8 lb /in 2 (0 .7 5 kg /cm 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 2 .6 hp /to n , varying w ith model. Engine: One M odel V -2 -K 1 2 -cylind e r w a te r-co o le d diesel developing 600hp at 2,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 22mph (3 5 k m /h ); range 156 miles (250km ), vertical obstacle 3ft 8in (1 .2m ); trench 8 ft 6in (2.8m ); gradient 70 per cent H is to ry : Served w ith the Russian Arm y from 1940 to 1945. A t the outbreak of W orld War II, the Russian Arm y was practically the only armed force in the w o rld to be equipped w ith production heavy tanks. The first of these, the KV-1 (Klim V oroshilov) was designed by a group of engineers at the Kirov Factory in Leningrad, under the direction of Zh. Kotin. W ork began in February 1939 and the State Defence Com m ittee approved a m ock-up in April. The completed tank was demonstrated to the Red Arm y staff in September. It was accepted as standard at the same tim e as the T -3 4 medium, on 19 December 1939. Production began in February 1940 and in that year 243 vehicles o f the type were produced. A platoon of these, m eanwhile, was sent to Finland for com bat tests, and in February 1 940 the tanks took part in the breakthrough of the Finnish main position. Not one of them was destroyed, although com panion m ulti-turreted models were knocked out. Subsequent production was undertaken at the Chelyabinsk Tractor Factory to w here in September 1941, as a result of the im m inent German threat to Leningrad, the Kirov Factory was evacuated. By June 1 941, however, when the Germans attacked, 636 had been built. In Chelyabinsk the Kirov Factory was am algam ated w ith the Chelyabinsk Tractor Factory, and other industry transferred there, to form the immense complex called 'Tankograd'. This became the sole Soviet industrial establishment producing heavy tanks and heavy self-propelled guns for the remainder of the war. By the tim e of the Battle o f M osco w , 1,364 KVs had been built; of course, many of these had been destroyed or captured ►

104

A b o v e : KV-1 heavy ta n k p ro d u c tio n lin e a t th e L en ing rad d efe n c e p la n t in O c to b e r 1942. This p la n t w o rk e d th ro u g h o u t th e 900 day siege. T he KV-1 w a s desig ned a t th e K iro v fa c to r y u n d er th e d ire c tio n o f K o tin in F eb ru a ry 1939 and w a s a c c e p te d fo r service in D e c e m b e r 1939 w ith p ro d u c tio n c o m m e n c in g in 1940. R ig h t and b e lo w : A KV-1 A heavy ta n k s h o w in g 7 6 2 m m DT m a c h in e gun in th e t u r r e t rear. T h e K V -1 w a s f ir s t used in a c tio n a g a in s t F in land in 1940 and a q u itte d its e lf w e ll. T he 7 6 -2 m m gun o f th e K V-1 w a s th e sam e as th a t f itt e d to th e T -3 4 /7 6 .

105

mm-am

A b ove: K V -1 s b u ilt w ith fu n d s d o n a te d by fa rm e rs in th e M o s c o w area a re p resented to re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e Red A rm y by a g ro u p o f p a trio tic d onars. Such p re s e n ta tio n s w e re co m m o n am ong m any c o u n trie s d u rin g W o rld W a r II. A b ove r ig h t: A K V -2 heavy ta n k a rm e d w ith a 1 5 2 m m h o w itz e r. It w a s firs t used by th e Red A rm y a g a in s t th e M a n n e rh e im line d e fe n c e in 1 940 d u rin g th e R u ss o -F in n is h W a r, b u t it had such poo r p e rfo rm a n c e t h a t p ro d u c tio n w a s s to p p e d . R ig h t: K V -1s, a rm e d w ith th e sam e 7 6 m m gun as in s ta lle d in th e T -3 4 /7 6 ta n k , on th e ir w a y to th e fr o n t a t Len ing rad in 1942. in the meantime. Throughout the war, Tankograd supplied the Red Arm y w ith some 13,500 heavy tanks and self-propelled guns on this chassis. Alongside the KV-1 tank, w h ich was armed w ith the same gun as the T -3 4 (76m m ), a special artillery fire-su p p o rt version, the KV-2, was adopted. This had a massive box-shaped turret m ounting a 152mm howitzer. Im mediately after the start of production of the KV-1 and KV-2, the Kirov Factory received orders to design an even heavier tank w ith more pow erful arm am ent (1 07mm gun) and thicker armour. A prototype, designated KV-3, was b u ilt at the beginning of 1941 but the German attack interrupted plans fo r its mass production. During the period 1 9 4 1 -4 2 , therefore, production o f the KV-1 continued. The KV-2 was dropped as the result of its poor performance. Successive models o f the KV-1 received thicker arm our and some had castings in place of welded components. A new longer-barrelled gun was also introduced. Experience at the fron t showed that the KV was n o w becom ing to o slow, so a lighter, faster version, the KV-1s, was introduced during the second half of 1942. As the need arose for more pow erful armament, an 85mm gun was adopted in autumn 1943 for a model designated KV-85. In subsequent attempts to improve the KV tank a w h o le range o f experim ental vehicles was produced, but eventually the tank was replaced by the new IS (losef Stalin) series w hich was equipped w ith much better armament and also represented a radical approach to arm our protection. 106

107

T-60 Light Tank T -6 0 and T -6 0 A C o u n try o f o rig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: One 20mm ShVAK cannon; one 7.62m m DT m achine-gun. A rm o u r: 7mm to 20mm (0.28in to 0 .7 9in). D im en sion s: Length (overall) 14ft 1 in (4.3m ); w id th 8ft 1 in (2.46m ); height 6 tt 2 in (1 ,89m). W e ig h t: 1 1,354lbs (5,150kg). G round p ressure: 6 .5 5 lb /in 2 (0 .4 6 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 3 .8h p /to n . Engine: G AZ-202 six-cylin d e r w a te r-co o le d petrol engine developing 70hp at 2,800rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 28mph (4 5 k m /h ); range 382 miles (615km ); vertical obstacle 1ft 9in (0.54m ); trench 6ft 1 in (1.85m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the Russian A rm y from 1941 to 1945. In 1941 the T -6 0 light tank appeared as a replacem ent fo r the T -4 0 light am phibious tank. In this case, however, because of the need for much heavier armour, the tank was a purely land-based vehicle. Experience gained during the first m onths o f the Russo-German War had show n that high m obility and an am phibious ca p a bility were not all that were needed in battle. Designers in Soviet tank factories therefore to o k steps to increase the armour and firepow er on the lig h t tank. As the result they developed the T-60 lig h t tank w ith 20mm (0.79in) armour on the front. The greatest stum bling block, however, was the provision of more pow erful armament. Soviet engineers attempted to m ount a 37mm gun but, even w ith a reduced charge round, the turret ring was incapable o f absorbing the recoil o f this weapon. The Soviet armament designer B. Shpital'n was therefore given the task of developing a special hig h -p o w e red w eapon for the tank. He developed the rap id -firin g 20mm S hV A K -20 gun. Despite the reduced calibre, the arm our-piercing incendiary round of this gun possessed the same arm our-penetration qualities as the original 37mm gun. It fired a heavy soft-core round incorporating a sub-calibre slug. In comparison w ith previous Iig h t-ta n k models, the hull fro n t and turret had im proved protection against heavy-calibre m achine-gun rounds, and although cast

108

arm our had been adopted for the m edium and heavy tank classes and for the turret of the T -5 0 light tank, both hull and turret of the T -60 were w elded throu g h o u t. The T -6 0 entered production during November 1941 and over 6,000 were produced before the type was supplanted by the successor T -70 light tank. The vehicle was issued to reconnaissance units and also to infantry units for direct infantry support. The turret was offset to the left, w ith the engine m ounted alongside it on the right and the driver was placed centrally in the front. An im proved model of the T -6 0 was produced in late 1941 /early 1942, and this was designated T -60A . It had increased armour, but the main external difference lay in the wheels. The T -6 0 had spoked road-wheels and rollers w h ils t those on the T -6 0 A were pressed solid. When eventually replaced by the more pow erful T -7 0 lig h t tank, the T -6 0 chassis were employed as m ountings for M -8 and M -1 3 (Katyusha) rocket-launchers, and also as artillery tractors for 57mm a n ti-ta n k guns.

A b o v e : T h e T -6 0 A w a s an im p ro v e d m o d el o f th e T -6 0 and w a s p ro d u ce d in la te 1 9 4 1 /e a rly 1942. T his had increased a rm o u r p ro te c tio n and w a s reco g n isab le by its road w h e e ls w h ic h w e re s p o k e d ; th o s e on th e o rig in a l T -6 0 w e re pressed solid. T h e T -6 0 series w e re re p la ce d in p ro d u c tio n by th e T -7 0 and th e o ld e r chassis w e r e th e n used as m o u n tin g s fo r M -8 and M -1 3 (K a ty u s h a ) ro c k e t laun c h e rs as w e ll as a c tin g as p rim e m o v e rs fo r 5 7 m m a n ti-ta n k guns. L e ft: T h e T -6 0 e n te re d p ro d u c tio n in N o ve m b e r 1941 as th e re p la c e m e n t fo r th e T -4 0 lig h t am p hib iou s ta n k and o v e r 6 ,0 00 w e r e e v e n tu a lly b u ilt. T he T -6 0 w a s n o t a m p h ib io u s , as e x p e rie n c e d u rin g th e firs t f e w m o n th s o f th e R u ss o -G e rm a n W a r had sho w n t h a t high m o b ility and an a m p h ib io u s c a p a b ility w e re n o t all t h a t w e r e needed in b a ttle . T he T -6 0 w a s a rm e d w it h a 2 0 m m S h V A K -2 0 gun w h ic h fire d an a rm o u r p ie rc in g ro u nd w ith th e sam e p e n e tra tio n q u a litie s as a 3 7 m m gun - w h ic h w a s q u ite an a c h ie v e m e n t. 109

T-34 Medium Tank A -2 0, T -3 2 , T -3 4 , T -3 4 /7 6 and T -3 4 /8 5 . C o u n try o f o r ig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 85mm M 1944 Z1S S53 L/51 gun; tw o 7.62m m DT m achine-guns. A rm o u r: 1 8mm to 60mm (0.71 in to 2.36in). D im en sion s: Length (including gun) 24ft 7in (7.5m ); w id th 9ft 7in (2.92m ); height 7ft 10in (2.39m ). W e ig h t: 7 0 ,547lbs (32,000kg). G round Pressure: 11.21 b /in 2 (0 .8 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t i o : 1 5 .9 hp /to n , Engine: One V -2 -3 4 1 2 -cylinder w ater-cooled diesel developing 500hp at 1,800rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 31 mph (5 0 k m /h ); range 186 miles (300km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 7 in (0.79m ); trench 8 ft 2in (2.49m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the Russian A rm y from 1940. Still used by many countries today. During 1936 the young engineer M. I. Koshkin was transferred to the Komintern Factory in Kharkov as chief'designer. The design bureau of the factory had been concerned w ith the continued m odernisation of the BT w h e e l/tra ck tank. A t the beginning of 1937 this fa cto ry was assigned the task of designing a new m edium tank, also a w h e e l/tra ck design, designated A -2 0 . The design of this tank was com pleted in Novem ber o f that year. The 17.7 ton (18,000kg) A -2 0 , armed w ith a 45mm gun, was the first o f the socalled ‘Shellproof Tanks', having greatly inclined armour, a characteristic feature of the later T -34 tank. The chassis was similar to that used on the BT tank but w ith certain autom otive changes. A further version, m ounting a 76.2mm gun, was developed and designated A-30. In the meantime, Koshkin had come to the conclusion that to produce the new m edium tank as a w h e e l/tra ck vehicle was erroneous. The Red Arm y had seldom if ever used the BT tank in the wheeled mode, and to incorporate this fa cility required com plication of design and severe w e ig h t penalties. Fie therefore proposed the developm ent of a purely tracked variant, designated

110

A -3 2 (later T -3 2 ). The Main M ilitary Council of the USSR accepted this proposal and authorised the construction of a prototype. They had not, however, yet dismissed the w h e e l/tra ck project and awaited comparison trials at a later date. Prototypes of the A -2 0 and T -32 tanks were completed at Kharkov at the beginning of 1 939, and during that year were exhibited to the Arm oured Directorate. The Directorate recommended an increase in arm our on the T -32 and the adoption of more pow erful armament. The group under Koshkin achieved this, the final variant being called T-34. ► R ig h t and b e lo w : A T -3 4 /7 6 B w h ic h ap p e a re d in 1941. It w a s b asically a c o m m a n d e r's T -3 4 /7 6 A w ith a ro lled p la te t u r ­ re t a rm e d w ith a m o re p o w e rfu l M o d e l 1 940 7 6 .2 m m L /4 1 .5 gun f o r w h ic h a to ta l o f 77 rounds o f a m m u n itio n w e re c a rrie d . A 7 .6 2 m m D T m a c h in e gun w a s m o u n te d c o -a x ia l w ith th e m ain a rm a m e n t and a second 7 .6 2m m m o u n te d in hull to rig h t o f th e d riv e r. T h e c o m ­ m a n d e r's ta n k w a s o fte n th e o n ly o n e in a c o m ­ p an y w ith a rad io.

A b o v e : A co lu m n o f T -3 4 /7 6 s on th e w a y to th e f r o n t line. By th e end o f 1940 o n ly 1 15 T -3 4 s had been c o m p le te d b u t by Jun e 1941 w h e n Russia w a s a tta c k e d by G e r­ m any a to ta l o f 1,2 25 had been b u ilt. R ig h t: T h e T -3 4 /8 5 had a la rg e r t u r r e t and w a s a rm e d w ith th e p o te n t 8 5 m m D -5 T gun. It e n te re d p ro d u c tio n in 1944. Due to the serious international situation, on 19 December 1939, before the com pletion of a prototype, the Main M ilita ry C ouncil accepted the T -34 project for equipping the armoured units o f the Red Arm y. Tow ards the end of January 1940, the first production models o f the T -34, designated T -3 4 06 1940, were released from the Komintern Factory. A t the beginning of February tw o of these underw ent a trial march, under the personal super­ vision of Koshkin. During June 1940, the m anufacturing draw ings were completed and the tank entered mass production. Since Koshkin had been taken ill, his assistant A. A. M orozov had taken over the final design. The T -34 (called Prinadlezhit-Chetverki or T h irty -F o u r' by the troops) was noted for its excellently shaped armour, w h ic h considerably increased its resistance to shell penetration. The armament, a 76.2m m long-barrelled h ig h-velocity gun, was also an innovation for tanks of this class. The use of the new 500hp V -2 diesel engine (already in service on the B T -7M tank) reduced the fire risk and greatly increased the operational range o f the tank. The m odified Christie suspension perm itted high speeds, even on rough terrain, and the w id e tracks reduced the ground pressure to a m inim um . The overall design of the tank facilitated rapid mass production and lent itself to simple maintenance and repair in the field. By the end of 1940 115 T-34s had been produced. Some were dispatched to Finland for combat tests but arrived too late to participate in operations. By June 1941, when the Germans attacked, a total of 1,225 had been produced. By the Battle of M oscow , 1,853 had been delivered to units, but of 112

course many of these had since been destroyed. The T -3 4 made its combat debut on 22 June 1941. in the vic in ity of G rodno (Belorussia). It was a com plete surprise to the German Army, w h o learned to treat this tank w ith the greatest respect. The question was raised of m anufacturing a copy of it in Germany, but this proved impracticable. As the result, the Germans developed their famous Panther tank, whose general design was greatly influenced by that o f the T-34. W ith the evacuation of the Soviet tank industry to the east, subsequent production of the T -34 was carried out at the Uralmashzavod (Ural M ach in e -B u ild in g Plant) in the Urals, as w e ll as a number of subsidiary plants generally safe from German bom bing. The T -3 4 tank was originally armed w ith the 76.2m m M odel 1939 L -1 1 gun m ounted in a w elded turret of rolled plate. In order to accelerate produc­ tion, a new cast turret was soon introduced. During m id -1 941 a new Model 40 F-34 gun was adopted. This had a longer barrel and higher muzzle velocity. A m u ltip lic ity of m inor and m ajor changes were made to the T-34 during production, but the most significant to o k place in autum n 1943, when the 85mm 215 S-53 or D -5T gun, w ith 55 rounds, was adopted. Some 2,394 rounds of 7.62m m am m unition were also carried. This new tank was called T -3 4 /8 5 and was approved for mass production on 15 December 1943. By the end of the year 283 had been built, and in the fo llo w in g year a further 11,000 were produced. The T -3 4 /8 5 remained in production until the mid1950s, w hen the T -54 was adopted. It served w ith other armies as late as the m id-1960s. In the 1 970s China used the T -34 chassis for an SPAA weapon. 113

T-70 Light Tank T -7 0 and T -7 0 A . C o u n try o f o r ig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 2. A rm a m e n t: One 45mm L/46 gun; one 7.62mm DT m achine-gun. A rm o u r: 0.39in (10m m ) m inim um ; 2.36in (60m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 15ft 3in (5m ); w id th 7ft 8in (2.52m ); height 6ft 9in (2.22m ). W e ig h t: 21,958lbs (9,960kg). G ro un d Pressure: 9 .5 3 lb /in 2 (0 .6 7 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 4.29hp/ton. Engine: Tw o Z1S -202 six-cylinder w a te r-co o le d petrol engines each developing 70hp at 2,800rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 32mph (51 km /h ); range 279 miles (446km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 2in (0.71 m ); trench 9ft 6in (3.1 2m ); gradient 70 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the Red Arm y from 1 942 to 1 948. During late January 1942 the T -7 0 lig h t tank began to replace the T -60 model in Russian service. Despite the fact that it had been show n th a t the light tank was not an effective vehicle, it was cheaper and easier to mass produce and this meant that units could receive tanks w here they w ould otherwise have none. W ith the trem endous losses suffered by the Soviet tank parks during the first six m onths of the w a r (pu t at over 18,000 vehicles) and the fact that most of the Soviet tank industry had to be transferred to the central regions of the USSR, thereby delaying production, any tank production was imperative. As the w ar progressed, however, the production of medium and heavy tanks soon reached' the desired level and the final lig h t tank model to enter service remained the T-70. The T -7 0 lig h t tank was mass produced at the Gorki A utom obile Works. It replaced the T -6 0 in light tank units. The T -7 0 had the same chassis as the T -60 (w ith the drive taken to the front, instead of the rear), slig h tly reinforced to take the extra w eight, but mounted a 45mm gun (w ith 70 rounds) and co-axial 7.62m m DT m achinegun (w ith 945 rounds) in a new w elded turret. The hull arm our was also m odified to give a cleaner outline and better protection, and the driver was provided w ith an armoured visor. The engine pow er was doubled by providing tw o engines of the type used in the T-60. During m id -1 943 the T -7 0 A was produced. This was an im proved version w ith increased armour and slightly more pow erful engines. The turret, w hich was more heavily armoured, had a squared-off rear, as d istin ct from the rounded type of the T-70. Production of the T -7 0 and T -7 0 A lig h t tanks was discontinued in the autumn of 1 943 as the result of increased m edium tank output. Altogether, 8,226 of the T -7 0 lig h t tank were turned out. In 1 944 the surviving chassis were m odified (an extra bogie w heel on each side) and converted to self-propelled gun m ountings. R ig h t: T h e T -7 0 w a s in tro d u c e d as th e successor to th e T -6 0 lig h t ta n k and had th e sam e chassis b u t w ith d riv e s p ro c k e t a t th e f r o n t instead o f th e rear. It w a s a rm e d w it h a 4 5 m m gun in p la c e o f a 20m m cann on . T o cop e w ith th e increased w e ig h t th e T -7 0 w a s p o w e re d by t w o Z IS -2 0 2 p e tro l e ng ines d e ­ ve lo p in g 70hp each. By th e t im e it w a s in tro d u c e d th e S o v ie ts had realised t h a t th e v a lu e o f th e lig h t ta n k w a s lim ite d c o m p a re d to t h a t o f th e m ed iu m ta n k such as th e T -3 4 b u t as th e re w e re in s u ffic ie n t o f th e s e to e q u ip all ta n k u n its p ro ­ d u c tio n o f th e T -7 0 w a s a llo w e d to c o n tin u e fo r a f e w years. M a n y o f th e s u rv ivin g T -7 0 s w e re s ub s e q u e n tly c o n v e rte d in to S U -7 6 SPG s. 114

A b o v e : T h e T -7 0 A w a s in tro d u c e d in 1942 and d iffe re d fro m th e T -7 0 in h avin g a m o re h ea v ily a rm o u re d t u r r e t w ith squared o f f rear, as d is tin c t fro m th e ro u nd ed ty p e o f th e o rig in a l m o d el, and m o re p o w e rfu l eng ines. P ro d u c tio n o f th e T -7 0 w a s c o m p le te d in 1944 a ft e r som e 8 .2 26 had been b u ilt.

115

IS-2 Heavy Tank IS-1, IS -2 and IS-3. C o u n try o f o rig in : Soviet Union. C re w : 4. A rm a m e n t: One 122mm M 1943 (D -2 5 ) L /4 3 tank gun; one 12.7mm M 1 938 DShK m achine-gun; one 7.62m m DT or DTM m achine-gun. A rm o u r: 132mm (5.2in) maximum; 19mm (0.75in) m inim um . D im en sion s: Length (in clu ding gun) 3 2 ft 9 in (10.74m ); w id th 10ft 6in (3.44m ); height 8ft 11 in (2.93m ). W e ig h t: 101.963lbs (46,250kg). G ro un d Pressure: 11 2 5 lb /in 2 (0 .7 9 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 11 3hp /to n . Engine: One M odel V -2 IS 1 2 -cylinder w a te r-co o le d diesel developing 520hp at 2,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 23mph (3 7 k m /h ); range 94 miles (150km ); vertical obstacle 3ft 3in (1m ); trench 8ft 2 in (2.86m ); gradient 70 per cent. H is to ry : In service w ith the Russian Arm y from 1 943 to late 1 970s. In August 1942 the Soviet high comm and was w ell aware o f the fact that Germany was developing new heavy tanks w ith more p ow erful armament and thicker armour. W ork on a new heavy tank was therefore begun. Based on the experience gained so far in the design o f experim ental KV models (KV-3 and KV-13). in 1943 the design bureau investigated a new project designated IS (losef Stalin). Early in autum n 1 943 the first three prototypes of the IS-1 (also called IS-85 because of its 85mm gun) were com pleted. A fter demonstration before the special com m ission from the M ain Defence Commissariat and the com pletion of general fa c to r/ trials, the IS design was approved. Directions were given to begin m ass-production in O ctober 1943. The new tank, w e ighing little more than the KV (and fo r that matter, the German Panther m edium tank) had thicker, better shaped armour w h ich provided excellent protection. In addition, the w e ig h t was kept lo w by the use of more com pact com ponent design. The tank had a new cast turret

m ounting an 85mm gun specially designed by General F. Petrov (the same turret as fitted to the KV-85 as an expedient). Soon after the start of p ro d u c­ tion o f the IS-1 tank, the need arose for a more pow erfully armed vehicle. A t that time the 85mm gun was being used in the T -34 medium (T -3 4 /8 5 ) and it was considered inappropriate that a heavy tank should have the same armament. A few prototypes were therefore fitted w ith a new 100mm gun (IS -1 00), but were not accepted for production. This was because another group, under General Petrov, had w ith in tw o weeks conceived a scheme for m ounting a 122mm gun (w ith 28 rounds). Towards the end of October 1943 factory and proving ground tests were concluded for the IS tank fitted w ith this w eapon. On 31 O ctober the tank was accepted as standard and desig­ nated IS-2. By the end of the year the Kirov Factory had produced 102 IS-2 tanks. The IS tank was used for the first tim e during February 1944 at Korsun Shevkenskovsky. During this battle General Kotin personally observed the performance of the IS-2 tank and gained vital inform ation as to its performance and short-com ings. A fter producing several other experim ental vehicles of this type, w o rk on a further im provem ent to the armour layout led, towards the end o f 1 944, to the new IS-3 model. The design of this tank, carried out by a group under N. Dukhov, was conceived around the armour philosophy of the T-34. Arm our plate of even greater thickness and better ballistic shape was heavily inclined to give m aximum protection. In contrast to its pre­ decessors, the IS-3 hull was made of rolled plate and the turret was carapace­ shaped. Despite all these improvements, the overall w e ig h t of the new tank still did not exceed that of the contem porary German m edium tank. The final model o f this heavy tank, T -1 0 , was the tenth model to be produced. The prefix 'IS' was discontinued as a result of the general de-S talinisation policy adopted in the Soviet Union during the m id-1950s. B e lo w : IS -2 h eavy ta n k on th e L en ing rad fr o n t. T he IS -2 w a s a c c ep ted fo r s e rv ic e on 31 O c to b e r 1943 and by th e end o f th a t y e a r th e K iro v fa c to r y had b u ilt 102. By th e end o f 1944 a to ta l o f 2 .2 50 had been c o m p le te d . F u rth e r d e v e lo p m e n t resu lted in th e IS -3 w h ic h e n te re d s e rv ic e in J a n u a ry 1945.

UNITED STATES The United States Tank Corps was established in France in early 1918 and was equipped w ith British and French tanks. Thus, as the USA had no tank design experience, the American army follo w e d very much the same approach to armoured w a rfare in the early 1920s as did the French and the B ritis h : light tanks fo r reconnaissance and heavy, slow moving tanks fo r im m ediate in fan try support in the assault. In fact, the Tank Corps was disbanded in 1920, and all tanks w ere assigned to the in fan try w h ere they w e re to remain until the form ation o f the Arm ored Force in 1940. Between 1920 and 1935 fe w e r than 40 tanks w ere built in the United States. The urgent need for rearm am ent was only clearly seen in 1940 and, w ith o u t fu rth e r revision, some unsuitable designs w e re put into production. Even then the full im pact of the German use o f arm our was not appreciated, until General C haffee began to point it out in clear and positive term s. It was he w h o put the US Armored Force on the right footing to go to w ar, and the lesson he rammed home was th a t o f the combined arms team . He was justified in Tunisia and later in Sicily, w here the value of fire p o w e r and m obility w ere also amply dem onstrated. The firs t US tank to be built in quantity was the M 2A 2 light tank, of w hich 170 w ere produced by 1937. Further developm ent resulted in the M 2A 4 (329 ordered in O ctober 1939), but it was not until medium tank developm ent had

118

gathered pace th a t really significant numbers w ere coming o ff the production lines. By M ay 1940 just 18 M 2 medium tanks had been c o m p leted ; then it was realised th a t a m edium tank w ith a 75mm gun w ould be needed, so an M 2 prototype chassis was fitte d w ith a sponson-mounted 75mm gun as there w as no tim e in w hich to design a turret. It soon became apparent th a t one advantage the USA had over most Allies (and enemies) was th a t it could gear up its m anufacturing capabilities to suit the need of the m o m e n t: betw een 1940 and 1942 there w e re 6,000 75mm gunned M 2 mediums (standardised as the M 3 G rant) built, and no sooner had this entered production than w ork had started on a tank armed w ith a 75mm tu rret-m o u n ted gun. This was standardised as the Sherman, and no fe w e r than 48,000 w e re produced betw een 1942 and 1945. By the end o f the w ar, the US built 88,000 tanks com pared to 24,000 built by Britain and Germ any, ow ing much of course to the safety o f its industry from enemy air attack. The great lesson th a t Am erican arm our taught the w orld during the w a r, how ever, was th a t successful tanks are those th a t are easy to m aintain and reliable in action. The M 4 Sherman may have lacked many b attle qualities, but it was very s tra ig h tfo rw a rd and relatively simple for its crew to manage, and w h a t it lacked in effectiveness was more than made up in sheer numbers.

1 i

119

M3 Light Tank

t

M 3 , M 3 A 1 , M 3 A 2 and M 3 A 3 . C o u n try o f o rig in : United States. C r e w : 4. A rm a m e n t: One 37mm M 5 or M 6 gun; one ,3in M 19 1 9 A 4 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; tw o ,3in m achine-guns in hull sponsons; one .3in m achine-gun on turret roof. A rm o u r: 44.5m m (1.75in) m aximum; 10mm (0.375in) m inim um . D im e n s io n s : Length 14ft 10Jin (4.53m ); w id th 7 ft 4in (2.23m ); height 8 ft 3in (2.51 m ). W e ig h t: Com bat 27.400lbs (12 ,4 2 8 kg ). G ro un d p ressure: 1 0 .5 lb /in 2 (0 .7 4 k g /c m 2), P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 2 0 .4 h p /to n . Engine: Continental W -6 7 0 seven-cylinder air-cooled radial petrol engine developing 250hp at 2,400rpm . P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 36m ph (5 8 k m /h ); cross-country speed 20mph (3 2 k m /h ); road range 70 miles (11 2km ); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.6m ); trench 6ft (1 .8m); fording depth 3ft (0.9m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith US A rm y in 1941. A lso w id e ly used by British and other Allied armies during W orld War II. continued ►

,

B e lo w : S tu a r t M a r k I lig h t ta n k o f th e 8th (K in g 's R oyal Iris h ) Hussars, a t th e B a ttle o f S idi R ezegh in N o v e m b e r 1941. T h e M 3 w a s th e f ir s t A m e r ic a n -b u ilt ta n k to be used in a c tio n by th e B ritis h A rm y d u rin g th e w a r. T h e 8 th A rm y in N o rth A fric a received its f ir s t s h ip m e n t o f 84 Lend-Lease M 3s in J u ly 1941 and by N o v e m b e r th e sam e y e a r 163 w e re read y fo r O p e ra tio n C rusader. T h e M 3 w a s o ffic ia lly called th e G e n e ral S tu a r t in B ritis h A rm y s e rv ic e b u t w a s c o m m o n ly k n o w n as th e S tu a r t o r H o ney. S o m e la te r had th e ir tu r re ts rem oved fo r use in c o m m a n d role.

120

A b o v e : M 3A 1 lig h t ta n k o f th e U S M a r in e Corps on G u a d a lca n a l Island in th e S o lo m o n s , S e p te m b e r 1942. C le a rly s h o w n in th is d ra w in g is th e ,3in M 1 9 1 9 A 4 m a c h in e gun on th e t u r r e t ro o f and one o f th e tw o s p o n s o n -m o u n te d M 1 9 1 9 A 4 m a c h in e guns. The la tte r w e re o fte n re m o v e d to a llo w fo r m o re in te rn a l s to w a g e space, a lw a y s a t a p re m iu m in any A F V . P ro d u c tio n o f th e M 3 w a s fin a lly c o m p le te d in O c to b e r 1943 a ft e r 1 3 ,8 5 9 tan k s had been b u ilt.

121

The standard US light tank in June 1940 was the M 2A 4, standardised in 1939 and the culm ination of a developm ent w h ich began w ith the M2A1 in 1935. The M 2A 4 weighed some 12 tons (1 2.1 9 3kg), had a 37mm turretm ounted gun and was constructed from riveted armour plate. Increasing the thickness of the armour of the M 2A 4 called for the use of a trailing idler in the suspension system. This, w ith im proved protection from aircraft attack, led to the standardisation of the type as the M 3 lig h t tank in Ju ly 1940. The Continental seven-cylinder radial engine of 250hp had been inherited from the M 2A 4, but in 1941 shortages o f this engine meant that the Guiberson T -1 020 diesel engine was authorised fo r 500 M3 lig h t tanks. A d ditional fuel capacity in the form of tw o external fuel tanks, w h ich could be jettisoned, was provided as a result o f battle experience in British hands in North Africa. The M3 was produced in q u a ntity by the Am erican Car and Foundry Company, 5,811 having been b u ilt by A ugust 1942. The M3A1 lig h t tank incorporated an im proved turret of w elded hom ogeneous plate (as opposed to the earlier brittle, face-hardened armour) w ith pow er traverse, a gyrostabiliser to permit more accurate firin g of the 37mm gun on the move, and a turret basket. The M3A1 was standardised in A ugust 1941 and used the hull of the M3, w h ich was still constructed from riveted plate. A p ilo t w ith both hull and turret formed of w elded armour, the M3A1 E1, led eventually

T

to the M 5 lig h t tank. The next model, the M 3A2, was also to be of welded construction but similar to the M3A1 in all other respects. The M 3A 2 was not built, but American Car and Foundry produced 4,621 of the M 3A1, of w h ic h 211 were diesel-engined. The M 3A 3 was a much more com pre­ hensive redesign and included changes in the turret, hull and sponsons, and it was considered w o rth w h ile to continue producing the M 3A3 even after the production line for its successor, the M5, was established. Some 3,427 M 3A3s were built. There were several experimental models of the M3 series, m ostly involving d ifferent autom otive installations. In British service the M3 provided a m uch-needed addition to the tank strength in the Western Desert in 1941 and 1942. It subsequently appeared in all theatres of W orld War II, but is chiefly remembered for its service in the desert, w ith the empire forces in Burma, in the capture of Antwerp, and w ith the Am erican forces in the Pacific. It was under-gunned and poorly armoured but m obile and reliable, and was a ffectionately known as the 'Floney' by British cavalry regiments. Indeed, many units preferred it to the Daimler armoured car in the reconnaissance role. The M3 was the most w id e ly used light tank of W orld War II and was bu ilt in larger numbers than its tw o successors, the M5 and M 24. A total of 1 3,859 had been produced by O ctober 1943, even though the type had been declared obsolete in J u ly of that year. A lthough it was fast and had good ground-crossing ability fo r the 'cavalry' scouting role for w h ich it was intended, the M3 had little scope fo r developm ent or adaptation. The hull was too narrow, effectively lim iting the size of the main armament to b elow the required 75mm, and it was too high and angular, offering a high silhouette and many shot trap s.lt did lead directly to the M 5 lig h t tank, however, and its history continued under that heading. B e lo w : T h e M 3 lig h t ta n k w a s d ev e lo p e d fro m th e e a rlie r M 2 s h o w n here w ith its h ig h e r re a r id le r w h e e l. T he M 2 w a s designed and b u ilt a t R ock Island A rsen al w ith th e f ir s t m o d el, th e M 2A 1, b eing s ta n d a rd is e d in la te 1935. In a d d itio n to th e p ro to ty p e , ju s t 19 p ro d u c tio n M 2 A 1 s w e re b u ilt.

123

M3 Grant/Lee Medium Tank M 3 . M 3 A 1 , M 3 A 2 . M 3 A 3 , M 3 A 4 , M 3 A 5 , and v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o rig in : United States. C rew : 6 . A rm a m e n t: One 75mm M 2 or M 3 gun in hull sponson; one 37mm M 5 or M 6 gun in turret; one ,3in M 1 9 1 9 A 4 m achine-gun co-axial w ith turret gun; one ,3in m achine-gun in cupola on turret; tw o ,3in m achine-guns in bow. A rm o u r: 12mm to 37mm. D im en sion s: Length 18ft 6in (5.64m ); w id th 8ft 11 in (2.72m ); height 10ft 3in (3.12m ). W e ig h t: Com bat 60,000lbs (27,216kg). G ro un d Pressure: 1 3 .4 lb /in 2 (0 .9 4 kg /cm 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t r a t io : 12 .7hp/ton. Engine: W right Continental R -975-EC 2 n in e -cylind e r a ir-cooled radial petrol engine developing 340hp at 2,400rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 26mph (4 2 k m /h ); cross-country speed 16mph (26 km /h ); road range 120 miles (193km ); vertical obstacle 2 ft (0.6m ); trench 6ft 3in (1 ,9m); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith US A rm y and British A rm y in 1 941. Also used by Canadian and Russian armies. Battlefield experience reported from Europe in 1 939 showed th a t the 37mm gun of the American M2 m edium tank was not pow erful enough for modern warfare, and accordingly the 75mm pack how itzer was experim entally m ounted in the right-hand sponson of the M edium Tank T5 Phase III, a vehicle closely related to the M2. Such a vehicle w o u ld previously have been classed as a how itzer m otor carriage. M eanw hile, in the United States rearmament programme W illiam S. Knudsen, president of the General M otors Corporation, had been co-opted to the National Defense A dvisory C om ­ mittee to co-ordinate the capabilities of industry to the needs of defence. The existing contract for 329 M 2A 4 light tanks was clearly in su fficie n t and industry did not seem able to cope w ith the order for 1,500 M 2 m edium tanks w h ich was then envisaged. In 1940 it was suggested th a t the M 2 be ► L e f t : W h ile th e 7 5 m m gun o f th e G ra n t w a s a g re a t im p ro v e m e n t o ve r t h a t in s ta l­ led in o th e r tanks used by th e B ri­ tis h A rm y it w a s spo nso nm o u n te d on th e rig h t side and th e re fo r e o nly had a to ta l tra v e rs e o f 3 0 '. T h e ta n k had tr a c to r - t y p e ('s c is s o rs ') sus­ p en sion , in c o m ­ m on w ith m o st US ta n k s u n til la te in th e w a r. A to ta l o f 6,258 M 3 s w e re b u ilt fo r th e A llie d A rm ies. 124

A b o v e : M 3 G ra n t m e d iu m ta n k n e g o tia tin g ro u gh te rra in . In O c to b e r 1 940 th e B ritis h T a n k C o m m is s io n p laced o rd ers w ith B a ld w in and P u llm a n in th e U n ite d S ta te s fo r 200 M 3 G ra n t tan k s . These w e re all ship ped to th e 8 th A rm y in N o rth A fric a w ith f ir s t ta n k s a rriv in g in e a rly 1942. D u rin g th e b a ttle o f G azala in M a y 1942, 167 G ra n ts fo rm e d th e m ain e q u ip m e n t o f th e 4 th A rm o u re d B rig a d e and a t last g ave th e B ritis h A rm y a ta n k t h a t c ou ld o u tra n g e th o s e used by th e G e rm a n A fric a K orps, b u t th e ta n k had s e veral w e a k fe a tu re s . T h e M 3 w a s also used by C anad a and th e S o v ie t U n io n . L e ft: G ra n t tan k f itt e d w ith a d u m m y lo rry body as a disguise in N o rth A fric a . In a d d itio n to being used as a ta n k , m any M 3s w e re m o d ifie d fo r special roles in c lu d in g tan k re c o v ery vehicle, fu ll-tr a c k p rim e m o v e r fo r 155m m g un , m in e e x ­ p lo d e r (tria ls ), 3 inch gun m o to r c a rria g e (tria ls ), 4 0 m m gun m o to r c a rria g e (tria ls ), heavy tra c to r (tria ls ) and also as th e basis fo r th e 10 5 m m M 7 P riest. 125

R ig h t: T o p v ie w o f M 3 G ra n t m e d iu m ta n k c le a rly s h o w in g th e m u ltip lic ity o f w e a p o n s w ith w h ic h th e v e h ic le w a s a rm e d , a rrang ed in th r e e tie rs . T h e ta n k c o m m a n d e r c ou ld o p e ra te th e .30 B ro w n in g m a c h in e gun in th e in d e p e n d e n tly -ro ta tin g cast cupola, w h ile th e t u r r e t g u n n e r c ou ld en g a g e a rm o u r w it h th e 37m m a n ti-ta n k gun o r in fa n tr y w ith th e c o -a x ia l B ro w n in g m ach ine gun, and th e 7 5 m m M 2 o r M 3 h u ll-m o u n te d gun could fire e ith e r A P o r HE a m m u n itio n . T his M 3 is o f a ll-r iv e te d c o n s tru c tio n b u t o th e rs (e g , th e M 3 A 1 ) had a cast hull. T h e re w e re v e ry m an y e x p e rim e n ta l n o n -ta n k v a ria n ts o f th e M 3 . improved by increasing its armour and adapting the 75mm M 1897 gun (as the T7) to a sponson m ounting in the hull. This new tank was designated the M3 medium tank by the Ordnance Com mittee on 11 J u ly 1940, and on 28 August 1940 the contract for 1,000 M2A1 m edium tanks, signed only 15 days previously, was changed in favour of the M3. Up to this point, Am erica's tank needs had been met largely by the heavy engineering industry. Knudsen, now a lieutenant-general, to o k the vie w that apart from the m anufacturing and casting of armour, there was little difference between m anufacturing a car and a tank. He therefore arranged w ith K. T. Keller, president of the Chrysler Corporation, for Chrysler to lease a 113-acre (45.73-hectare) site fo ra new tank factory. The site at Warren, M ichigan, was to become the governm ent-ow ned, Chrysler-operated arsenal responsible for the production o f some 25,000 armoured vehicles during W orld War II. The M3 was ordered into production from the draw ing board and Chrysler, the American Locom otive Com pany (A lco) and the B aldw in Locom otive Works all produced pilot models by April 1941. Production began in A ugust 1941 and continued until December 1942, by w h ich tim e 6,258 vehicles of the M3 series had been built. Of this total Chrysler bu ilt 3,352, A lco 685, Baldwin 1,220, Pressed Steel 501 and Pullman 500. These figures are quoted to illustrate w h a t was basically the first application o f m otorcar massproduction techniques to tank production. During production it became necessary to make various m odifications to overcome shortages and to improve the tank. The M3A1 used a cast hull produced by Alco, this hull having no side doors for reasons of strength. A welded hull, stronger than the riveted hull of the M3, was used to save w e ig h t in the M 3A 2, of w h ich Baldw in b u ilt 12. B aldw in also b u ilt 322 of the M 3A 3 w h ich used tw o General M otors 6-71 diesel bus engines coupled together as an alternative to the W right radial engine. O therwise the M 3A 3 was identical to the M 3A2. The M3, M3A1 and M 3A 2 could also be fitted w ith a Guiberson diesel engine, in w h ich case the designation became, for example, M3A1 (Diesel). To overcome a critical shortage o f the W right engine in 1941, Chrysler combined five standard car engines to provide a tank powerpack. This 'Eggbeater' engine required m od ifica tio n s to the hull and suspension, resulting in the M 3A4. The hull was riveted as in the M3, and 109 were built. The M 3A5 resulted from the installation o f the tw in GM diesels of the M 3A 3 in the riveted hull o f the M 3, and Baldw in b u ilt 591. In British service the M 3 was known as the Grant (after General Ulysses S. Grant) and the Lee (after General Robert E. Lee). A British Tank C om ­ mission had arrived in June 1940 w ith the intention of ordering Britishdesigned tanks from Am erican firms. But as at that tim e the defeat of the British appeared im m inent, the National Defense A dvisory Com mittee refused to allow tanks to be produced to British designs. As a result of this refusal the M 3 was chosen as being the next best choice. Those purchased by the British Tank Commission from Pullman and Pressed Steel had a Britishdesigned turret and were know n as Grant I. The name Lee was given to the standard M3 (Lee I), M3A1 (Lee II), M 3A 3 (Lee IV), M 3A 3 (Diesel) (Lee V), and M 3A 4 (Lee V I), w h ile the M 3A 5 was know n as the Grant II, these tanks being supplied under the terms of the 1941 Lend-Lease Act. The Grant I had its first im pact at the battle o f Gazala on 27 M ay 1 942, the first time the 8th Arm y had managed to achieve any degree of parity w ith the 126

75mm gun o f the PzKpfw IV, although it was some tim e before problems associated w ith fuses for the HE shell could be resolved. By October 1942 a further 350 M3s had been supplied and these tanks made a significant contribution to the success at El Alam ein in November of that year. Some M3s were shipped to the UK for training units, but the m ajority were used in North Africa and the M iddle East. By A pril 1943 the M 4 was in fu ll production, and the M 3 was finally declared obsolete on 16 March 1 944. Despite this the M3 lived on in the form of variants such as the M7 'Priest' and the M31 Tank Recovery Vehicle. The chassis was also used for many experimental variations, including: M ine Exploder T1, Tank Recovery Vehicle T2 (M 3 1 ), 1 55mm Gun M otor Carriage T6 (M 1 2 ), Shop Tractor T10 (Canal Defense Light, or searchlight tank), Cargo Carrier T14, Heavy Tractor T1 6, 3in Gun M oto r Carriage T24, 105mm Howitzer M oto r Carriage T25, 75mm Gun M oto r Carriage T26, 105mm Howitzer M oto r Carriage T32 (M 7 'Priest'), 40mm Gun M otor Carriage T36, 3in Gun M oto r Carriage T40 (M 9 ), 25pounder Gun M oto r Carriage T51, Flam ethrower Vehicles (several were made, using the E3 and M 5R2 flame guns). Vehicles of the M 3 series supplied to the British Arm y were also m odified for various purposes, for example as recovery vehicles, command vehicles, mineclearing vehicles, and as a canal defence light.

127

M4 Sherman Medium Tank C o u n try o f o rig in : United States. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 75mm M 3 gun; one ,3in M 19 1 9 A 4 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one .3in M 1 919A4 m achine-gun in ball m ount in bow; one .5in M 2 m achine-gun on turret roof; one 2in M 3 smoke m ortar in turret roof. A rm o u r: 0.6in (1 5mm) minimum ; 3.94in (100m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 20ft 7in (6.27m ); w id th 8ft 11 in (2.67m ); height 11 ft 1 in (3.37m ). W e ig h t: Combat 69.565lbs (31,554kg). G round Pressure: 1 4 .3 lb /in 2 (1 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 6.9hp/ton. Engine: Ford G AA V-8 w ater-cooled inline petrol engine developing 500hp at 2.600rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 26mph (4 2 k m /h ); road range 100 miles (1 60km); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.61 m); trench 7ft 6in (2.29m ); fo rd in g depth 3ft (0.91 m); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service in 1 942, and saw extensive service w ith US Arm y and most Allied armies during and after W orld W ar II. The most prolific medium tank of W orld War II, and w id e ly adapted to other uses. A lso used in action in Korea and M iddle East and still in service w ith some armies. (Note: Data relate to a typical M 4A 3.) On 29 August 1940, the day fo llo w in g the decision to produce the M3 m edium tank in place of the M 2 A 1 , w o rk began on a new m edium tank w h ich w o u ld m ount the 75mm gun in a turret w ith a full 360° traverse. The new tank was designated the T6 m edium tank, and its design was based on the use of com ponents of the M 3 as far as possible. Elim ination o f the sponson m ount w o u ld reduce the hull space enclosed by armour, and thus reduce w e ig h t o r ^ B e lo w : S id e v ie w o f M 4 A 3 E 8 , k n o w n as to th e A m eric a n s as th e "E asy E ig h t" because o f its H V S S suspension w h ic h g ave a goo d rid e across c o u n try . T h e v ehicle is s h o w n as it a p p e a re d on c e re m o n ia l p arade w ith th e U n ite d S ta te s O c c u p a tio n Forces in M u n ic h , S o u th G e rm a n y , in J u n e 1945.

128

A b o v e : A posed p h o to g ra p h o f a U S A rm y M 4 S h e rm a n w ith in ­ f a n tr y " f ig h t in g " fro m th e rear o f th e ta n k . T his w a s a w id e p ra c tic e in th e S o v ie t A rm y b u t in o th e r a rm ie s th e in fa n tr y n o rm a lly fo llo w e d b eh ind th e ta n k on fo o t. T h e w h it e band aro u n d th e tu r re t o f th is S h e rm a n in d ic a te s th a t it is a c o m m a n d tan k .

129

permit a greater thickness of armour. The T6 was standardised in September 1941 as the M 4 medium tank, but in all its many models it was more w id e ly and popularly know n as the 'Sherman'. As adopted, the Sherman weighed about 30 tons (30 ,4 8 2 kg ) and was armed w ith the 75mm M2 gun. The turret was a one-piece rounded casting, 3in (76.2m m ) thick at the front, and pow er operated. A gyrostabiliser controlled the gun in elevation. The low er hull was w elded, w h ile the construction of the upper hull provided a certain degree of id entification of the various models. The M 4 had a welded upper hull, w h ile the M4A1 had a cast, rounded upper hull. Both were approxim ately 2in (50.8m m ) thick. Variations between the major models in the M 4 series were m ainly due to different engine installations, apart from the difference in hull construction in the case of the M 4 and M 4 A 1 . Production of the Sherman was authorised to replace the M 3 as soon as possible. Facilities involved included the Chrysler-operated D etroit Arsenal, the Fisher Body Division of GMC, the Ford M o to r Company, Pacific Car and Foundry, Federal M achine and W elder Company, Lima Locom otive Works and the M ontreal Locom otive Works, and 49,230 Shermans of all variants were produced. Product im provem ent was a continuous process throu g h o u t, and indeed after production had ceased. The most sig n ifica n t im provem ents centred on armament, stowage of am m unition and suspension. The gun conceived for the T6 m edium tank prototype was the un ­ satisfactory 75mm T6 gun. The next model, the T7, was better and became the 75mm M 2 gun in May 1941, but was still relatively short-barrelled and had a muzzle velocity of only 1,850fps (5 6 4 m /s). Early models o f the Sherman had the M2 gun, but even in September 1940 the Arm oured Force had requested a higher muzzle velocity, and this request was met in the 75mm T8 gun, adopted in June 1941 as the M3. This gun fired arm our-piercing shot at a muzzle ve lo city of 2,030tps (6 1 9 m /s) and was also more suited to tank use. The longer barrel was better balanced for installation in a gyrostabiliser m ount and rotation of the breech to a llow the block to open horizontally perm itted greater depression of the gun in a turret mount. Although the 75mm gun was accepted as the standard weapon, the Ordnance Department felt that more penetrating pow er w o u ld be required.

130

The 3in gun of the M 6 heavy tank was not ideal, but adapting the 75mm breech to the 3in barrel produced a most satisfactory w eapon. A t first known as the 3in T 13 gun but later as the 76mm T1 gun, this w eapon was m ounted on the Sherman in a project w h ich began in A ugust 1942. The project, although prom ising, found no support and was dropped in November of the same year. Later the T23 m edium tank turret, w ith the 76mm gun, was m ounted on the Sherman. The im provem ent was so marked that the Arm ored Board adm itted to a requirem ent for 76mm guns to supplant 75mm guns w hen the extra firepow er was needed. This was a face-saving gesture to a llo w production to begin after the earlier refusal. The fact that by Ju ly 1 944 over 2,000 76mm gun tanks had been produced illustrates just how much the extra firepow er was needed — and this after vehicles armed w ith the 76mm gun had been declared obsolete in M ay 1 9 4 3 1 Another innovation in armament concerned the 105mm howitzer. In April 1941 the Aberdeen Proving Ground had suggested that the Sherman w o u ld conveniently m ount the 105mm howitzer, but it was not until late 1942 that tw o M 4A 4s were m odified for this purpose. Further tests were carried out on a sim ilarly m odified vehicle, the M4E5, and the howitzer in the M 52 m ount »R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t and rear v ie w s o f M 4 A 3 E 8 w it h in s ig n ia : fro m le ft to rig h t, d e ­ n o tin g 7 th A rm y , 19 1 st T a n k B a tt., A C o m p an y , T an k N o . 12. T o p v ie w s h o w s g un t r a v e l­ ling lock on g lacis p la te . L o w e r v ie w s h o w s ,5in M 2 M G s to w e d to t u r r e t rear. L e ft: T h e M 4 A 3 E 8 S h e rm a n m o u n tin g a 1 0 5 m m h o w itz e r w ith w h ic h it gave close s u p p o rt to th e m e d iu m ta n k fo rm a tio n s o f th e U S A rm y , re p la c ­ ing th e o ld e r M 8 7 5 m m SP h o w itz e r. This S h e rm a n has a w e ld e d hull, cast t u r r e t w it h c o m ­ m a n d e r's cup ola and H V S S sus­ pension. O v e r 4 ,6 00 1 0 5 m m a rm e d M 4 S h e rm a n s w e re b u ilt fro m 1943. T he 1 0 5 m m M 4 h o w itz e r had an e le v a tio n o f +35" and a d ep ression o f - 1 0 ’ , 66 rounds o f 1 0 5 m m a m m u n i­ tio n b eing c a rried . 131

A b o v e : R ear v ie w o f Red A rm y S h e rm a n s b e fo re K h ark o v in 1943. N o te th e a p p liq u e a rm o u r on th e h u ll side b e lo w t u r r e t and th e fu e l d ru m s a t th e h ull re a r to increase o p e ra tin g ran ge. was adopted as a standard item. These vehicles were used in headquarter companies to provide fire support and some 4,680 were b u ilt on the M 4 and M 4A 3 hulls. Early models of the Sherman had a som ew hat unfortunate reputation for 'b re w in g -u p ' when hit by an ti-ta n k fire. To overcom e this fa u lt attem pts were made to protect the am m unition stowed in the tank. Stow age racks were provided in the lower hull and those for 75m m and 76mm am m unition were surrounded by w ater jackets, w h ile the sem i-fixed how itzer am m unition was protected by armour plate. The suffix w e t' was added to nom enclature in May 1945 to distinguish those tanks w ith w ater jacket stowage. To improve the ride and stability, and at the same tim e reduce the specific ground pressure of the Sherman, experiments were made w ith different suspensions and tracks. The original and highly characteristic vertical volute spring suspension of the Sherman series originated w ith the M2 m edium tank, as did the 16in (0.41m ) track, but both were more suited to a 20 ton (20,321 kg) vehicle than the 30-plus tons o f the M4. Eventually a new horizontal volute spring suspension and 23in (0.58m ) track were perfected and incorporated in production. The suffix 'HVSS' was often added to designations to indicate the newer suspension. The type lent itself to the production of many variants and m ost authorities list over 50 significant Am erican experimental models. A t least one of these is apparently still classified after 30 years. Tanks and other vehicles of the M 4 series w ere'supplied to many countries during and after W orld W ar II, and more Shermans were m anufactured than any other single tank. Critics pointed out its deficiencies compared w ith the Panther, for example, but it made up for these shortcom ings in reliability, endurance and sheer w e ig h t of numbers. Thirty-six years after its introduction the Sherman lives on in many armies and has appeared in almost every armoured c o n flic t since 1945. 132

A b o v e : th e S h e rm a n D D (D u p le x D riv e ) w a s f itte d w ith a flo ta tio n screen and p ro p e lle d in th e w a te r by t w o p ro p e lle rs a t th e rear o f th e h u ll, th e s e being d riv e n by a PTO fro m th e engine. B e lo w : T h e S h e rm a n F ire fly V C w a s a M 4 A 4 re -a rm e d in B ritain w ith th e 1 7 -p o u n d e r gun, bussle f itt e d to t u r r e t and hull M G and g u n n e r le ft o u t fo r increased a m m u n itio n s to w a g e .

133

M24 Chaffee Light Tank T1 7, M 8 , M 8 A 1 , T24, M 2 4 . M 3 7 , M l 9, M 4 1 , T77, T9, T13, T22, T23, T33, T42, T9, T6E1 and T 3 1 . C o u n try o f o rig in : United States. C re w 5, sometimes reduced to 4. A rm a m e n t: One 75mm M 6 gun; one ,3in M1 91 9A4 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one .3in M 1919A 4 m achine-gun; one ,5in M2 m achine-gun; one 2in M 3 smoke mortar. A rm o u r: 0.375in (10m m ) m inim um ; 1 ,5in (38m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 18ft (5.49m ); w id th 9ft 8in (2.95m ); height 8ft 2in (2.77m). W e ig h t: Com bat 40,500lbs (1 8,370kg). G round Pressure: 11 ,3 lb /in 2 (0 .7 9 k g /c m 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 1 2.2hp/ton.

134

E ngines: Two Cadillac 44T24 V -8 w ater-cooled petrol engines each developing 110hp at 3,400rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 34mph (5 4 km /h ); road range 100 miles (160km ): vertical obstacle 3ft (0.91m ); trench 8ft (2.44m ); fording depth 3ft 4in (1.02m ) unprepared and 6ft 6in (1.98m ) prepared; gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered US Arm y service in 1 944. Supplied to many other countries including (in small numbers) UK, and still in w ide use in 1981. Basis of o rig in a l'L ig h tw e ig h t Combat Team ’. continued ► B e lo w : Fou r v ie w s o f th e M 2 4 C h a ffe e lig h t ta n k used by th e US A rm y in E u ro pe fro m la te 1944. D e v e lo p m e n t o f a n e w lig h t tan k to re p la ce th e M 3 and M 5 c o m m e n c ed in M a rc h 1943 and th e M 2 4 w a s in fa c t s ta n d a rd is e d in m id -1 9 4 4 a fte r it had already been in p ro d u c tio n fo r several m o n th s. By 1945 4 ,0 7 0 had been b u ilt. T h e French used th e C h a ffe e in V ie tn a m in th e 1950s.

135

Compared w ith the M5 light tank w h ich it replaced, the M 24 was a quantum advance. In tw o of the three attributes of a rm o u r- firep o w e r and protection — the M 24 surpassed all other lig h t tanks of W orld War II, w h ile its m ob ility was comparable w ith the exceptionally agile M5. Its 75mm gun was alm ost the equal of that of the Sherman and more p ow erful than the armament of most medium tanks in 1939. The vastly im proved hull and turret shape increased protection by the elim ination of shot traps, reduction of the silhouette and better sloping o f the armour. Today, it is normal to consider ease of maintenance as another attribute of the tank and the M 24 was designed w ith accessibility of major assemblies in mind. M ilitary characteristics defined for the new lig h t tank were th a t the power train of the M5A1 should be retained: the suspension should be im proved; the gross w e ig h t should not exceed 16 long tons (1 6.257kg); and that the armour should reach a m aximum of 1 in (25.4m m ) thickness and be acutely angled to the horizontal. The M5A1 light tank was lim ited in the space available w ith in the turret, a fact w h ich precluded the installation of the 75mm gun. A T21 light tank was considered, but at 21.5 tons (2 1 ,845kg) this w o u ld have been too heavy. The T7 light tank was examined exhaustively by the Armored Force. It had been designed around the 57mm gun at the request of the British Arm y and when the Arm ored Force asked for a 75mm gun, the resultant w e ig h t increase moved the T7 into the m edium tank category. In fact standardisation as the M 7 medium tank, w ith the 75mm gun, was approved but later cancelled to avoid the logistic disadvantages of having tw o standard medium tank types. The Cadillac M otor Division of the General M otors Corporation delivered p ilo t models of a vehicle to meet the stated requirements in O ctober 1943. The T24, as it was designated, was found satisfactory and 1,000 were ordered before service tests had begun. In addition, pilots o f the T24E1 w ith the power train o f the M 18 tank destroyer were also ordered, but this developm ent was later cancelled. The T24 m ounted the T13E1 75mm gun in a Concentric Recoil M echanism T33 w ith a .3in m achine-gun in the Com bination Gun M ou n t T90. The gun was a lig h tw e ig h t w eapon developed from the M5 aircraft gun, and although the standardised nom enclature M6 was assigned, this merely indicated tank use as opposed to airborne use. The tw in Cadillac engines of the T24 were m ounted on rails fo r ease of m aintenance - a feature of the T7 lig h t tank - and were identical w ith those 136

A b o v e : M 2 4 C h a ffe e w ith w id e r tra c k s fo r use in m uddy te rra in a t firin g p ra c tic e . T h e M 2 4 w a s rep laced in th e US A rm y in th e 1950s by th e M 41 W a lk e r B ulldog. L e ft: A lth o u g h th e M 2 4 C h a ffe e lig h t ta n k entered s e rvice as long ago as 1944, it is s till, in 1981, used by m an y c o u n trie s aro u n d th e w o r ld , espe c ia lly in the Far East and S o u th A m e ric a . of the M 5 A 1 . Indeed, it was because the T24 shared the same power plant as the M5A1 that Cadillac was chosen to produce the T24 in quantity, although later American Car & Foundry and Massey-FHarris were to be included in production. The ,torsion-bar suspension of the M 18 tank destroyer was used in the T24. A lthough the invention of this suspension is often ascribed to German tank designers, the Am erican patent on torsion bar suspension was granted in December 1935 to G. M. Barnes and W. E. Preston. Five pairs of stamped disc wheels, 25in (63.5cm ) in diameter and rubber-tired, were mounted on each side and a sprocket at the fron t drove the 1 6in (40.6cm ) tracks. The hull of the T24 was of all w elded construction, reaching a maximum thickness on frontal surfaces of 2.5in (63.5m m ) although in less critical places the armour was thinner to conform to the concept of the light tank. A large cover in the glacis plate could be removed for access to the controlled differential steering, and dual controls were provided for the driver and assistant driver. In J u ly 1944 the T24 was standardised as the M 24 Light Tank, popularly know n as the 'Chaffee', and by June 1945 a total of 4,070 had been produced. In keeping w ith the idea of a L ig h tw e ig ht Com bat Team, other vehicles using the M 24 chassis were designed for specialist applications. A variety of gun and mortar carriages was developed, of w h ich the T77 M ultiple Gun M otor Carriage is one of the more interesting. A new turret m ounting six ,5in m achine-guns was m ounted on a basically standard M 24 chassis and in a w ay this vehicle foreshadowed the modern six-barrelled Vulcan A ir Defense System. T w o armored u tility vehicles, the T9 and T13, were designed and three cargo carriers also developed. The T22E1 and T23E1 were adaptations of the T22 and T23 w h ich were based on the M5 lig h t tank. The T33 Cargo Carrier was a later developm ent w h ich , w ith the substitution o f the medium tank engine and torque converter transm ission o f the Hellcat, became the T42 Cargo Tractor. The T43 Cargo Tractor was a lighter version of the T42. A bulldozer kit, the T9, was developed and adopted as the M 4 but was not w id e ly used. Various aids to flo ta tion were tried, as in the case of the Hellcat, but none was adopted fo r widespread use. Each of the Combat Team families was provided w ith a recovery vehicle, and the T6E1 Tank Recovery Vehicle was the model com patible w ith the M 24 series. Although pilots were built, developm ent was not pursued. 137

M26 Pershing Heavy Tank T25, T26, T26E1, T26E2, T26E 3, M 2 6 , M 4 5 , M 4 6 and m an y v a ria n ts . C o u n try o f o r ig in : United States. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 90mm M 3 gun; one ,3in M1 91 9A4 m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one .3in M1 919A4 m achine-gun in hull front; one ,5in M 2 m achine-gun on turret roof. A rm o u r: 0.51 in (1 3mm) minimum; 4in (102m m ) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 28ft 5in (8.65m ); w id th 11ft 6 in (3.51m ); height 9ft 1 in (2.78m ). W e ig h t: Combat 92,355lbs (41.891 kg). G round Pressure: 1 3.1 lb /in 2 (0 .9 2 kg /cm 2). P o w e r to w e ig h t ra tio : 10.9hp/ton. Engine: Ford GAF V-8 w ater-cooled petrol engine developing 500hp at 2,600rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 30mph (4 8 k m /h ); road range 100 miles (160km ); vertical obstacle 3ft 10in (1.17m ); trench 8ft (2.44m ); fording depth 4ft (1 ,22m); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : A lthough doubts existed as to the need for such a tank, the Pershing entered US service in 1945. Saw service in Korea and in the 1950s w ith many foreign armies. D evelopm ent of the M 60 main battle tank can be traced to the M26. When the M 26 heavy tank was introduced into service w ith the US Arm y in 1945, it marked the end of a line of developm ent w h ich began in 1 938 w ith the M2 medium tank. By the same token it marked the birth o f a line cu lm in at­ ing in the M 60 series, the main battle tank of the 1960s.

A b o v e and rig h t: F ro n t and side v ie w s o f M 2 6 ta n k s h o w in g th e cast h ull and t u r r e t and th e long b arre lle d 9 0 m m M 3 gun w ith its d o u b le b a ffle m u zzle brake. Pershings w e re p ro d u ce d by th e C h ry s le r o p e ra te d D e tro it ta n k p la n t w h o b u ilt 246 b e tw e e n M a rc h and M a y 1945, w h ile th e F isher B ody D iv is io n o f G e n e ral M o to rs C o rp o ra tio n 's G ra n d B lanc ta n k arsen al b u ilt 1,190 b e tw e e n N o v e m b e r 1944 and J u n e 1945. P o s t­ w a r, th e M 2 6 , and its im p ro v e d v e rs io n , th e M 4 6 , s a w c o m b a t w ith U N fo rc e s on S o u th K orea. 138

The story of t-he M 26 begins in 1942 w hen the Ordnance Department received the approval of the Services of Supply for its proposed developm ent of the T20 medium tank. This tank was intended to be an im provem ent on the M 4 series, but Ordnance hoped to be able to use the vehicle for comparative tests of armaments, transmissions and suspensions. Thirteen different models of the T20, T22 and T23 m edium tanks were developed and these variously tried different weapons —for example the 76mm gun; different transmissions — for example the 'gas-electric' transm ission, also used in the M 6 heavy ► A b o v e : M 2 6 Pershing heavy ta n k fro m th e rear. T w e n ty T26E 3 p ro to ty p e s w e re s e n t to E urope as th e Zebra M is s io n e a rly in 1 945 and w e re used by th e 3rd and 9 th A rm o re d Divisions. T h e T 26E 3 w a s s ta n d a rd is e d as th e M 2 6 P ershin g heavy ta n k ea rly in 1945 and p ro d u c tio n c o n tin u e d p o s t­ w a r. In M a y 1946 th e M 2 6 w a s re ­ c la ss ifie d as th e M 4 6 m e d iu m tan k.

139

tank; and different suspensions - for example the early form of horizontal volute spring suspension of the Sherman. Developm ent of tw o heavy tanks follow ed and these were designated T25 and T26. Both m ounted the new T7 90mm gun and used the Ford GAF engine w ith electric transmissions. The T26 was given a higher priority, and in the T26E1 the Ford GAF engine drove the vehicle through a hydraulic torque converter in series w ith planetary reduction gearing. This transmission gave three forw a rd ratios and one reverse and was known as the 'torquem atic' transm ission. T orsion-bar suspension w ith a 24in (61cm ) track was fitted. The turret was cast, w h ile the hull was fabricated from a com bination of castings and rolled plate. A t this point the feelings of the various interested parties began to emerge, and opinions differed w idely. Early in 1943 the Arm ored Command had expressed the view that the w ar w o u ld be w o n or lost w ith the M 4 m edium tank, and as a result of this Ordnance embarked on several im provem ents to crew safety, mechanical reliability and com bat efficiency in the Sherman. The Armored Command also objected to heavy tanks in general on the grounds of w e ig h t and size. Arm y Ground Forces, however, w anted 1,000 of the T26 and 7,000 of the lighter T25, the T26 to be armed w ith the 76mm gun and the T25 w ith the 75mm gun. On the other hand the Arm ored Command wanted neither the T25 nor the T26 but did require the 90mm gun. The T26E2 m ounted the 105mm how itzer in a m ount w h ich was interchangeable w ith the 90mm mount, and in the T26E3 Ordnance believed that the best compromise had been reached. Arm y Ground Forces preferred to delay any standardisation action until the Armored Board had indicated its satisfaction and approved the vehicle's battlew orthiness, so the Secretary of War provided the necessary im petus by B e lo w : D u rin g th e 1945 ad v a n ce in to G e rm a n y , o ne Pershing d es tro y e d a T ig e r and t w o P z K p fw M k IV ta n k s in a sing le a c tio n . T h e c u rre n t U S M a in B a ttle T an k, th e M 6 0 series, is a d ire c t d es c e n d e n t o f th e M 2 6 via th e M 4 6 , M 4 7 and M 4 8 tan ks.

sending 20 tanks to the European Theatre of Operations. This 'Zebra M ission' proved the battlew orthiness of the T26E3 in the hands o f the 3rd and 9th Arm ored Divisions and standardisation and production then proceeded. It is interesting to note that in June 1 944, the European Theatre had reported to W ashington that there was no requirement for either the 75mm or 76mm guns but that a mix of 90mm guns and 105mm howitzers in the ratio 1:3 was preferable. This was consistent w ith the perceived role of the tank in 1944 b ut conflicts w ith today's concept of the tank primarily as an anti-tank weapon. The T26E3 was adopted as standard in January 1945 under the designation M 26 Heavy Tank, and the name 'Pershing' was given, after General John J. Pershing. A t the same time the T26E2 w ith the 105mm how itzer was adopted as the M 45 for the close-support role. The Pershing, although introduced as a heavy tank, was soon reclassified as a m edium tank and production continued w ell past the end of W orld War II. A lth o u g h too late to make any real co n trib u tio n to that war, the M 26 was w id e ly used in the Korean W ar and later supplied to many armies in the Free W orld. As was usually the case, the Pershing led to a fam ily of specialist vehicles. The 'H eavyw eight Com bat Team' was intended to consist of the T84 8in How itzer M oto r Carriage, the T92 240mm H ow itzer M oto r Carriage, the T93 8in Gun M o to r Carriage, the T31 Cargo Carrier and the T12 Recovery Vehicle. A flam ethrow er tank, cargo tractor and com bat engineer vehicle were also produced and consideration was also given to a mine resistant vehicle, based on the M 26 chassis, to breach a n ti-ta n k minefields. Improve­ ments to the engine and gun resulted in the M 46 M edium Tank, the first 'P atton', although the poor turret and cupola shape were retained. From the T26 series, further heavy tanks resulted under the designations T29, T30, T32 and T34. The T30 was equipped w ith a 1 55mm gun w h ich fired semi-fixed am m unition, but developm ent was dropped w hen it became apparent that such a vehicle w o u ld not be su fficie n tly effective relative to its weight. The same fate befell the T29, T32 and T34 for similar reasons.

OTHER NATIONS W hile France, Germany, Great Britain, the Soviet Union and the United States are w ell known fo r th e ir tank building activities during W orld W ar II, it is often not realised th a t other countries such as A ustralia, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Japan and Poland also built tanks in this period. For example, Canada built some 1,420 V alentine tanks betw een 1941 and 1943 and most o f these w e re sent to Russia. Canada also designed the Ram I and II cruiser tan k s ; these w e re not used in com bat but w ere invaluable fo r training. The chassis of the Ram was also used as a command and observation post vehicle, recovery vehicle and an APC. Italy, short of funds as usual, concentrated its e ffo rts on tankettes and light tanks w hich w ere w ell suited to com bat against lightly armed troops in the colonies but proved fatal to their crew s w hen used in the N orth A frican cam ­ paigns from 1940 onwards. The standard medium tank of the Italian Army was the Carro A rm ato M 13/39 w hich entered service in 1939 but was soon phased out of pro­ duction in favour o f the M 13/40 w hich had a 47m m instead of 37mm gun. This was follow ed by the M 14/41 (1,103 built) and the M 15/42 (less than 100 b u ilt), but this design was obsolete as soon as it entered production. In 1943 the long-aw aited P40, armed w ith a 75mm gun, entered p ro­ duction but none had entered service by the tim e the

142

Italian Arm y surrendered to the Allies on 8 September 1943. Japan took an interest in tanks in the early 1920s and by the late 1930s had developed a fairly com plete range of tanks to meet its ow n specific requirem ents. The m ajority of these w e re powered by diesel engine instead of the more com mon petrol engine; not only did this give them increased operational range but also reduced the chances of fire. In most of the Japanese campaigns, the lightly armed and arm oured Japanese tanks w ere sufficient, as th e ir main role was th a t o f supporting infantry since the Allies had fe w tanks deployed in the Far East at this tim e. Once the Japanese advance had been halted, the Allies started to use tanks in the in fan try support role. In Burma the British used Grants, w h ile in the island campaigns the Americans used Shermans and these proved capable of easily defeating the Japanese tanks, w hich in any case w e re norm ally used in the static defence role. There were fe w tank-versus-tank battles in the Philippines tow ards the end o f the w ar. In addition to tanks, Japan did develop a number of selfpropelled guns and some interesting amphibious tanks. These w ere originally developed fo r the Arm y but develop­ m ent was subsequently taken over by the Navy since they w ere to be used by the Japanese M arines. Some of these vehicles carried a naval torpedoe on the hull sides.

143

Ram I and II Cruiser Tanks C o u n try o f o rig in : Canada. C re w : 5. A rm a m e n t: One 2pounder gun: one ,3in m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one ,3in m achine-gun in cupola on hull top; one ,3in m achinegun for a n ti-aircraft use. A rm o u r: 90mm (3.56in) maximum. D im en sion s: Length 19ft (5.791m ); w id th 9ft 5in (2.87m ); height 8ft 9 in (2.667m ). W e ig h t: Com bat 64,000lbs (29 ,0 3 0 kg ). G ro un d pressure: 1 3 .3 lb /in 2 (0 .9 4 k g /c m 2). Engine: Continental R975-EC2 nin e -cylind e r radial developing 400bhp at 2.400rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 25mph (4 0 .2 km /h ); road range 144 miles (232km ); vertical obstacle 2ft (0.609m ); trench 7ft 5in (2.26m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Used only for training. In 1940 the Canadian armoured forces consisted of tw o Vickers tanks, 12 C arden-Loyd carriers and 14 new M k VI light tanks. Further tanks were not available as Britain did not have enough tanks to meet even her ow n requirements. The Canadians were able to purchase 219 Am erican M 1917 tw o -m a n tanks and a fe w M k VIII tanks from the United States as scrap. These fu lfille d a valuable training role until further and more modern tanks were available. Canada's first venture into tank construction was to build the British Valentine tank, 1,420 being b irilt between 1941 and 1943. Of B e lo w : T h e R A M I ta n k w a s d esig n ed and b u ilt by th e M o n tr e a l L o c o m o tiv e W o rk s in 1941 and w a s based on M 3 G ra n t chassis.

these 30 were kept in Canada for training and the rem aining 1.390 were supplied to the Russians. M anufacture of the Valentine was undertaken at the Canadian Pacific Railway workshops at Angus, Montreal, and was a result o f a British rather than a Canadian order. In 1940 the Canadians started looking for a cruiser tank to meet the requirements of the Canadian Arm oured Corps, and finally decided to take the chassis o f the Am erican M 3 Grant tank and redesign the hull to accept a turret w ith a traverse of 360°, rather than have a gun mounted in the side of the hull w ith lim ited traverse. The first prototype was completed by the M ontreal Locom otive W orks in June 1 941, production starting late in 1941. The first vehicles were know n as the Ram I, but only 50 of these were built before production sw itched to the Ram II, w hich had a 6pounder gun. Some 1,899 Ram I Is had been b u ilt by the tim e production was completed in J u ly 1943. The Ram I had a hull o f all-cast construction. The driver was seated at the fron t of the hull on the right w ith the small m achine-gun turret to his left. T his'la tte r was armed w ith a ,3in m achine-gun and had a traverse of 120° left and 50° right. The other three crew members were in the turret in the centre o f the hull, the turret being a casting w ith the front part bolted into position. The main armament consisted of a 2pounder gun w ith an elevation o f + 2 0 ° and a depression o f —10° and a .3in M 1 9 1 9A4 machinegun was m ounted co-axially w ith the main armament. A similar weapon could be m ounted on the com m ander's cupola fo r use in the anti-aircraft role. Some 171 rounds of 2pounder and 4,275 rounds of .3in machine-gun am m unition were carried. The Ram II was armed w ith a 6pounder gun, and the small turret on the hull was replaced by a more conventional b a ll-type m ounting. A total of 92 rounds of 6pounder and 4,000 rounds of ,3in m achine-gun ammunition was carried. Other m odifications of the Ram II over the earlier vehicle included the elim ination of the side doors in the hull, a m odified suspension, a m odified clutch, new air cleaners and so on. M ost Rams were shipped t o ^

Britain where they were used by the 4th and 5th Canadian Arm oured Divisions, although these form ations were re-equipped w ith Shermans before the invasion of Europe in June 1944, so the Ram did not see combat. There were a number o f variants of the Ram tank, and some of these did see combat. The Ram Command and Observation Post Vehicle had a crew of six, and in appearance was alm ost identical to the normal tank, although it had only a dum m y gun and the turret could be traversed through a mere 90° by hand wheel. Internally, additional com m unication equipm ent was provided. Eighty-four Ram COPVs were built. A Ram Arm oured Vehicle Royal Engineers was developed, but this did not enter service. The Ram was also used as an am m unition carrier and as a to w in g vehicle for the 1 7pounder a nti-tank gun. Perhaps the most fam ous version of the vehicle was the Ram Kangaroo. In 1944 the Canadian II Corps had to carry out an assault in Falaise in Normandy, and as there were not su fficie n t half-tracks available. 146

A b o v e : T h e Ram II w a s a rm e d w it h a 6 p o u n d e r in place o f the 2 p o u n d e r o f th e Ram I. N e ith e r ve rs io n w a s ever used in com bat. they used as APCs some Am erican M7 105mm Priest SPGs w ith their guns removed. Later it was decided to do the same w ith the Rams, as there were plenty of these in England. By the end of 1944 special battalions, equipped w ith Kangaroos, had been formed by both the British and Canadians. The conversion of the Ram was simple, and carried out at REME w orkshops. Basically, the turret was removed and benches were provided for 10 to 12 troops. The Kangaroo remained in service w ith the British and Canadian Armies for some years after the war. There was also a Ram Arm oured Recovery Vehicle. Finally there was the Ram flam ethrower, know n as the Badger, w h ich was used operationally in Holland early in 1 945. The flam e-gun was m ounted in place of the b o w m achine-gun.

147

Carro Armato M 13/40 Medium Tank M 1 3 /4 0 . M 1 4 /4 1 , M 1 5 /4 2 , P40 (P 2 6 ), and S e m o v e n te M 4 2 M , M 4 2 T . C o u n try o f o rig in : Italy. C r e w : 4. A rm a m e n t: One 47mm gun; one 8mm m achine-gun co-axial w ith main armament; one 8mm a nti-aircraft m achine-gun; tw in 8mm m achine-guns in hull front. A r m o u r : 42mm (1 ,65in) m aximum; 6mm (0.24in) m inimum . D im e n s io n s : Length 1 6ft 2in (4.92m ); w id th 7ft 3 in (2.2m ); height 7ft 10in (2.38m ). W e ig h t: Combat 30.865lbs (1 4,000kg). G ro un d Pressure: 1 3 .2 lb /in 2 (0 .9 2 k g /c m 2). Engine: SPA 8 T M 4 0 e ig h t-cylin d e r diesel developing 125hp. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 20mph (3 2 k m /h ); road range 125 miles (200km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 8in (0.8m ); trench 6ft 11 in (2.1m ); gradient 70 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith Italian Arm y in 1940 and phased out of service in 1942. The Carro Arm ato M 1 1 /39 was designed in 1936 w ith the first prototype being completed the fo llo w in g year. This used some suspension com ponents of the L3 tankette. Arm am ent consisted of tw in turre t-m o u n te d Breda 8mm m achine-guns and a 37mm gun m ounted in the right side of the hull. The 37mm gun could be traversed through 30° and had an elevation o f +1 2° and B e lo w : A C a rro A rm a to M 1 3 /4 0 m e d iu m ta n k (N o . 1, 3 P tn , 2 C oy, XI B n) n o w preserved as a m e m o ria l t o Ita lia n s k illed a t El A la m e in . T h e ta n k w a s a rm e d w it h an e ffe c tiv e h ig h -v e lo c ity 4 7 m m gun b u t its th in a rm o u r m ad e it v u ln e ra b le to m any a n ti-ta n k w e a p o n s on th e b a ttle fie ld . A t least t w o A llie d u n its, th e B ritis h 6 th R oyal T an k R e g im e n t and th e A u s tra lia n 6 th C a v a lry , w e re equ ipp ed w ith c a p tu re d M 13/40s in 1941.

148

a depression o f —8°, and 84 rounds of 37mm and 2,808 rounds o f 8mm am m unition were carried. The M 11/39, of w h ich only 100 were built, w eighed 10.83 tons (11 ,000kg) and had a crew o f three, and saw action in North Africa in 1 9 4 0 41. It soon became apparent that the main armament w o u ld have to be m ounted in a turret rather than in the hull front w ith a lim ited traverse. The chassis of the M 11/39 was retained, but the hull was redesigned, to form the first prototype of the M 1 3/40, completed in 1940, w ith first production tanks being com pleted in the same year. Main armament consisted o f a turret-m ounted 47mm gun w ith an elevation of + 2 0 ° and a depression of —1 0 ”. An 8mm m achine-gun was m ounted co-axial w ith the main armament and there was a similar w eapon for the anti-aircraft role. Two 8mm machineguns were m ounted in the hull front on the right. Some 104 rounds of 47mm and 3,048 rounds of 8mm am m unition were carried. The hull was of bolted construction w ith a m inim um thickness of 0.24in (6mm) and a maximum thickness o f 1.65in (42m m ). The driver and bow m achine-gunner were seated in the fro n t of the hull, and the loader and commander in the turret. The comm ander had to aim and fire the main armament in addition to his other duties. The suspension on each side consisted of four double-wheeled articulated bogies, m ounted in tw o assemblies, each of the latter being carried on se m i-e llip tic springs. The drive sprocket was at the front and the idler at the rear, and there were three track-return rollers. The M 1 3 /4 0 was used in North Africa in 1941 and was found to be very prone to breakdowns as it was not designed to operate in desert conditions. The M 1 3 /4 0 was fo llo w e d in production by the M 14/41 w h ich had a more pow erful engine developing 145hp and fitted w ith filters to allow it to operate in the desert. The last model in the series was the M 1 5/42, which entered service in 1 943. This had a slig h tly longer hull than the earlier models ►

149

A b o ve: U S A rm y person nel in s p e c t a c a p tu re d M 1 3 /4 0 ta n k . T he ty p e s a w s e rvice in N o rth A fric a . G re e c e and Y u g o s la via . T he chassis w a s also used fo r a n u m b e r o f s e lf-p ro p e lle d guns. and was powered by an eig h t-cylin d e r petrol engine w h ich developed 192hp. this giving the tank a top road speed o f 25m ph (4 0 k m /h ). O ther m odifications included the re-siting of the hull escape door on the right o f the hull, a longer gun barrel, power-operated turret traverse and heavier armour. Production of the tanks was undertaken by A nsaldo-Fossati and the fo llo w in g quantities were built: M 1 3 /4 0 799, M 14/41 1,103 and M 1 5/4 2 between 82 and 90. The M 1 3 /4 0 and M 14/41 were the m ost im portant Italian tanks of W orld War II and were used in North Africa, Greece and Yugoslavia. M any were captured w hen they ran out of fuel and at least tw o Allied units, the British 6th Royal Tank Regim ent and the Australian 6th Cavalry, were equipped w ith these tanks for a brief tim e w h e n British tanks were in short supply in 1941. The Italians developed a variety of self-propelled artillery based on these chassis. The Semovente M 40, M41 and M 42 were based respectively on the M 1 3, M 14 and M 1 5 chassis. Arm am ent consisted o f a M odel 35 75mm g u n / howitzer w ith an elevation of + 2 2 ° and a depression o f —12°, traverse being 20° left and 18° right. There was also a com m and m odel w ith the main 150

armament removed. This was armed w ith a hu ll-m o u n te d 1 3.2mm machinegun and an 8mm anti-aircraft m achine-gun. The Semovente M 42M (75/14) self-propelled gun was to have been based on the P40 tank chassis but as a result of delays less than 100 were built, and these were based on the M 1 5/4 2 chassis. Arm am ent consisted of a 75mm gun w ith 42 rounds of am m unition. This was fo llo w e d by the M 42 L w h ich had a 105mm gun. When the Germans took over the Ansaldo w orks they built a model known as the M 42T w h ich had a 75mm gun. The M 1 3/4 0, M 14/41 and M 1 5/4 2 were to have been replaced by a new tank designated the P40 (or P26). A lth o u g h design w ork on this tank started as early as 1940, it was not until 1942 that the first prototype was ready for trials. The delays were caused by changes in the main armament and the d iffic u lty in finding a suitable engine for the tank. The tank entered production in 1943 but did not enter service w ith the Italian Army, although a few appear to have been used in the static defence role by the Germans in Italy. The P40 w eighed 25.59 tons (26,000kg) and was armed w ith a 75mm gun and an 8mm co-axial m achine-gun. The P40 was itself to have been follow ed by the P43, but this latter only reached the m ock-up stage. The Italians also designed a tank called the Cano Armato Celere Sahariano. w hich had a Christie suspension and resembled the Crusader w h ich the Italians en ­ countered in North Africa, but this never entered production. 151

Type 95 HA-GO Light Tank C o u n try o f o r ig in : Japan. C r e w : 3. A rm a m e n t: One Type 94 37mm gun; Type 91 6.5mm m achine-gun in hull front (see text). A rm o u r: 12mm (0.47in) maximum; 6mm (0.25in) m inimum . D im en sion s: Length 14ft 4in (4.38m ); w id th 6ft 9in (2.057m ); height 7ft 2in (2.184m ). W e ig h t: Combat 16,314lbs (7,400kg). G round Pressure: 8 .7 lb /in 2 (0.61 k g /c m 2). Engine: M itsubishi M odel NVD 6120 six-cylin d e r air-cooled diesel developing 1 20hp at 1 ,800rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 28mph (4 5 km /h ); range 156 miles (250km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 8in (0.81 2m); trench 6ft 7in (2m ); gradient 60 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith Japanese Arm y in 1935 and remained in service until 1945. In 1934 M itsubishi Heavy Industries bu ilt the prototype of a new lig h t tank, w h ich was tested in both China and Japan, and fo llo w e d by a second prototype the fo llo w in g year. This was standardised as the Type 95 light tank but was also known as the HA-CO (this being the M itsubishi name) or the KE-GO (this being its official Japanese Arm y name). A lth o u g h most sources state that M itsubishi b u ilt the prototype, others claim that these were b u ilt at the Sagami Arsenal. The Type 95 was used by the cavalry and the infantry, and saw action in both China and thro u g h o u t the W orld W ar II (or the Great East Asia W ar as the Japanese call it). Production amounted to about 1,250 tanks, most of w h ich were bu ilt by M itsubishi although numerous other companies and arsenals were also involved in com ponent m anufacture. W hen it was originally b u ilt the Type 95 compared w e ll w ith other lig h t tanks o f that period, but by the early part of W orld War II it had become outdated, as indeed had most Japanese armoured vehicles. The Japanese used the Type 95 in small units or wasted them in the static defence role in many o f the islands that they overran in the Pacific area. The hull o f the tank was of riveted and w elded construction varying in thickness from 0.35in (9mm) to 0.55in (1 4m m ). The driver was seated at the front of the hull on the right, w ith the bo w m achine-gunner to his left. The

152

commander, w h o also had to load, aim and fire the gun, was seated in the turret, w h ich was offset to the left of the hull. The engine and transmission were at the rear of the hull, and the crew could reach the engine from w ith in the hull. The inside of the tank was provided w ith a layer of asbestos padding in an effort to keep the temperature as low as possible, and this also gave the crew some protection against personal injury w hen the tank was travelling across very rough country. There was a space between the asbestos and the hull to a llo w air to circulate. The suspension was of the w e ll-trie d bellcrank type and consisted of four road wheels (tw o per bogie), w ith the drive sprocket at the front and the idler at the rear. There were tw o track-return rollers. Some o f the Type 95s used in Manchuria had their suspensions m odified as it was found that severe pitching occurred w hen the tank was crossing the local terrain, and these were redesignated the Type 35 (Special). Arm am ent consisted of a turret-m ounted 37mm tank gun w h ich could fire both HE and AP rounds, and a Type 61 6.5mm m achine-gun m ounted ►

I

R ig h t and b e lo w : F ro n t, re a r and to p v ie w s o f Type 95 H A -G O lig h t ta n k . T his e n te re d serv ic e w ith th e Japan ese A rm y in 1935 and re m a in ­ ed in serv ic e u n til 1945, a lth o u g h by th is tim e it w a s h o p elessly o u t o f d a te by any s ta n d a rd . O ne o f th e m an y d is a d ­ v a n ta g e s o f th e ta n k w a s t h a t th e c o m m a n d e r had to load, aim and f ir e th e 3 7 m m gun. S o m e 1,250 H A -G O tan k s w e re b u ilt.

153

in the front of the hull w ith a traverse of 35° left and right. Later the Type 61 gun was replaced by a Type 97 7.7mm m achine-gun and a sim ilar w eapon was mounted in the turret in the 5 o 'clo ck position, this being operated by the com m ander/gunner. Later in the w ar the 37mm Type 94 ta n k gun was replaced by a Type 98 tank gun, w h ich had a higher muzzle velocity. Some 119 rounds of 37mm and 2,970 rounds of m achine-gun am m unition were carried. A number of tanks were also fitte d w ith smoke dischargers on the sides of the hull, tow ards the rear. There were a number o f variants of the Type 95 lig h t tank, including an amphibious version. In 1943 some Type 95s had their 37mm guns replaced by a 57mm gun as fitted to the Type 97 m edium tank, and these vehicles then became the Type 3 lig h t tank. The Type 3 was fo llo w e d by the Type 4 lig h t tank in 1 944: this was a Type 95 w ith the standard turret removed and replaced by the com plete Type 97 m edium tank turret w ith its 47mm gun. The Type 95 was to have been replaced by the Type 98 light tank, and prototypes of this were com pleted as early as 1938 by both Hino M otors and M itsubishi Heavy Industries, This did not enter production until 1942, and only 100 seem to have been b u ilt (some sources state that 200 were built) before production was stopped in 1943. This model had a more pow erful engine, w h ich gave it a higher road speed, and thicker armour. Its suspension consisted of six road wheels w ith the drive sprocket at the fron t and the idler at the rear, there being three return rollers. The driver was seated at the fron t of the hull in the centre. Arm am ent consisted of a 37mm Type 100 tank gun and tw o Type 97 7.7mm m achine-guns. Other light tanks developed by Japan included the Im proved M odel 98 w h ich had four road wheels, idler at the fron t and drive sprocket at the rear. No return rollers were fitted as the top of the track rested on the road wheels. Finally, there were the Type 2 (less than 30 built) and the Type 5, only one of w h ich was bu ilt by Hino M otors before the end of the war. B e lo w : T yp e 95 H A -G O ta n k in ty p ic a l o p e ra tin g e n v iro n m e n t. T he inside o f th e ta n k w a s p ro vid e d w ith a la y er o f asbestos padding in an e f f o r t to keep th e te m p e r a tu re as lo w as possible, as w e ll as g iv in g th e c re w som e p ro te c tio n a g a in s t personal in ju ry w h e n th e ta n k w a s crossing v e ry ro u gh c o u n try . A ir w a s a llo w e d to c irc u la te b e tw e e n th is and th e hull.

1 54

A b o v e : A c o lu m n o f T yp e 95 H A -G O lig h t tan k s w ith th e ir main and s e c o n d a ry a rm a m e n t re m o v e d . T h ese w e re p ro b a b ly being used fo r c a rry in g a m m u n itio n o r o th e r supplies. B e lo w : A c o lu m n o f T y p e 95 lig h t ta n k s m oves fo r w a r d d urin g th e Jap a n es e invasion o f Luzon in th e P h ilip p in e s in 1 9 4 1 /4 2 .

155

Type 97 CHI-HA Medium Tank C o u n try o f o r ig in : Japan. C re w : 4 A rm a m e n t: One Type 90 57mm gun; one 7.7mm Type 97 m achine-gun in turret rear; one 7.7mm Type 97 m achine-gun in bow. A rm o u r: 25mm (0.98in) maximum; 8mm (0.3in) m inimum . D im en sion s: Length 18ft Tin (5.516m ); w id th 7ft 8in (2.33m ); height 7ft 4in (2.23m ). W e ig h t: Combat 33,069lbs (1 5,000kg). Engine: M itsubishi 1 2 -cylinder air-cooled diesel developing 170hp at 2,000rpm. P e rfo rm a n c e : Road speed 24mph (3 8 km /h ); range 130 miles (210km ); vertical obstacle 2ft 6in (0.812m ); trench 8ft 3in (2.514m ); gradient 57 per cent. H is to ry : Entered service w ith the Japanese Arm y in 1938 and continued in service until 1 945. Also used by China after W orld War II. The standard Japanese m edium tank in the 1 930s was the Type 89, but by 1936 it had become apparent that this w o u ld have to be replaced by a more modern vehicle. The General Staff O ffice and the Engineering Departm ent could not agree on the best design, so tw o d ifferent prototypes were built. Osaka Arsenal b u ilt a prototype to the design of the General Staff, called the CHI-NI. w h ils t M itsubishi built the model of the Engineering Department, called the CHI-HA. The C H I-N I w eighed just under 9.84 tons (10,000kg) and w as powered by a six-cylinder air-cooled diesel developing 1 35hp, w h ich gave the tank a top speed of 1 8.5mph (3 0 k m /h ). The CHI-NI had a three-m an crew, and was armed w ith a 57mm Type 90 tank gun and a 6.5mm Type 91 m achine-gun.

The M itsubishi design was much heavier and weighed 1 5 tons (1 5,241 kg). It was powered by a M itsubishi 1 2 -cylind e r air-cooled diesel w h ich developed 170hp and gave the tank a top road speed o f 24mph (3 8 km /h ). Arm am ent consisted of a 57mm gun and tw o 7.7mm m achine-guns. The CHI-HA had a crew of four, of w hom tw o were in the turret. Both o f these prototypes were completed in 1937 and were subjected to com parative trials. Both tanks had good and bad points, however, and it was not until w ar broke o ut in China that it was decided to place the M itsubishi tank in production as the Type 97 ( C H I-H A) m edium tank. Even today, many feel that the CHI-NI could have been developed into a first-class light tank. M ost Type 97s were b u ilt by M itsubishi, although other companies, including Hitachi, also bu ilt the tank. The hull was of riveted and welded construction. The driver was seated at the fro n t of the hull on the right, w ith the bow m achine-gunner to his left. The tw o -m a n turret was in the centre of the hull and offset to the right. The engine was at the rear of the hull, and power was transm itted to the gearbox in the front of the hull by a propellershaft w h ich ran dow n the centreline of the hull. The suspension consisted o f six dual rubber-tired road wheels, w ith the drive sprocket at the fro n t and the idler at the rear. There were three track-return rollers, although the centre one ► L e ft and b e lo w : F ro n t and rear v ie w s o f th e T yp e 97 m e d iu m ta n k c le a rly sh o w in g th e t u r r e t o ffs e t to th e rig h t of th e h ull and th e 7 .7 m m T yp e 97 m ac h in e gun in th e re a r o f th e tu r r e t. M a in a rm a m e n t w a s a 57 m m T yp e 90 gun w ith a n o th e r 7 .7 m m T yp e 97 m ach ine gun in th e b o w to le ft o f th e d riv e r's p ositio n. L e ft: A T y p e 97 ta n k o f 3rd C o m ­ pany, 7 th T an k R e g im e n t, a d ­ vances th ro u g h th e ju n g le on th e B ataan peninsula d u rin g th e in v a ­ sion o f th e P h ilip ­ pines in 1942. N o te th e sm oke d is c h a rg ers above th e 5 7 m m gun and th e rad io fra m e a e ria l c ir ­ cu m s c rib in g th e t u r r e t w h ic h w a s a c h a ra c te ris tic fe a tu re o f Japan ese tanks. 157

supported the inside of the track only. The four central bogie w heels were paired and m ounted on bellcranks resisted by armoured compression springs. Each end road wheel was independently bellcrank-m ounted to the hull in a sim ilarfashion. Arm am ent consisted of a short-barrelled 57mm M odel 97 tank gun, firing HE and AP rounds, a 7.7mm M odel 97 m achine-gun in the rear o f the turret and a m achine-gun of the same type in the b o w o f the tank. The main armament had an elevation of +11 ° and a depression of - 9 ° , tu rre t traverse being 360°. T w o sets of trunnions allow ed the gun to be traversed in d e ­ pendently of the turret. The inner vertical trunnions, set in a heavy steel bracket fitted to the cradle, perm itted a 5° left and rig ht traverse. Some 120 rounds (80 HE and 40 AP) of 57mm and 2,350 rounds o f m achine-gun am m unition were carried. The large provision of HE am m unition compared to other tanks of this period was because the Japanese believed that the role of the tank was to support the infantry rather than to destroy enemy armour. Compared w ith those of earlier Japanese tanks, the turret o f the Type 97 was a great improvement: at last the tank com m ander could comm and the tank rather than operate the main armament. In later years, the large-diam eter turret-ring fitted enabled the tank to be up-arm ed as more p ow erful weapons became available. As a result of com bat experience gained against Soviet forces during the Nomonhan incident of 1939, it was decided that a gun w ith a higher muzzle velocity was required. A new turret was designed by M its u ­ bishi and w hen installed on the Type 97 it raised the tank's w e ig h t to 15.75 tons (1 6,000kg). These tanks were known as the Type 97 (Special). The gun fitted was the 47mm Type 1 (1941), w h ich had a long barrel by Japanese standards and could fire both HE and AP rounds. The latter had a muzzle velocity of 2,700fps (823m /s) and w o u ld penetrate 2.76in (70m m ) of armour at a range of 500 yards (457m ). The breech-block was of the sem i­ autom atic vertical sliding type. Some 104 rounds of 47m m and 2,575 rounds of m achine-gun am m unition were carried. There were many variants of the Type 97 m edium tank: flail type m ineclearing tank, bulldozer tank, a variety of self-propelled guns, an a n ti-aircraft tank w ith a 20mm gun, bridge laying tank and a number of d ifferent engineer and recovery models, to name a few . One of the most unusual models was the ram tank ( HO -K ), w h ich had its turret removed and a steel p ro w m ounted 158

A b ove le ft : Japan ese T yp e 97 ta n k s d riv e d o w n a road a t B u kit T im a h , S in g a p o re . T h e m ain role o f th e s e w a s in fa n try s u p p o rt. A b o v e : T yp e 97 C H I-H A m e d iu m tan k s in S in gap ore. O ne o f th e m a jo r im p ro v e m e n ts o f th is ta n k o ver e a rlie r Japanese tan k s w a s th e p ro visio n o f a tw o -m a n t u r r e t w h ic h enabled th e c o m m a n d e r to com m a n d th e ta n k ra th e r th a n o p e ra tin g th e main a rm a m e n t. at the fron t of the hull, developed for clearing a path through forests in M anchuria. The Type 97 m edium tank was fo llo w e d by the Type 1 medium tank, or CHI-NE. This weighed 17.2 tons (1 7,476kg) and its armour was increased to a m aximum of 2in (50m m ). It was powered by a M itsubishi Type 100 12cylinder air-cooled diesel w h ich developed 240hp at 2,000rpm. Arm am ent consisted of a Type 1 47mm gun and tw o Type 97 7.7mm m achine-guns, one in the turret rear and one in the hull front. This was follow ed by the Type 3 (iC H I-N U) medium tank in 1 943. This had the same hull as the Type 1, but a new turret was fitted, increasing w e ight to 18.8 tons (19,100kg), w h ich reduced top speed to 24mph (38 km /h ). Armament consisted of a 75mm Type 3 tank gun w ith a 7.7mm m achine-gun in the hull front, there being no m achine-gun in the turret rear. Production of the Type 3 commenced in 1944 but only some 50 or 60 examples were built. The Type 4 ( CHI-TO) had a longer chassis and w eighed 30 tons (30,480kg). This was armed w ith a turret-m ounted 75mm gun and a bow -m ounted 7.7mm m achine-gun, and only a few of these were built. The final Japanese m edium tank was the Type 5 (CHI-RI). This w eighed 37 tons (37,594kg) and was armed w ith a turret-m ounted 75mm gun and a bow -m o u n ted 37mm gun. Its armour had a maximum thickness o f 3in (75m m ) and it was powered by a B M W aircraft engine developing 550hp at 1,500rpm. This gave the tank a top road speed of 28mph (4 5 km /h ). The suspension consisted of eight road wheels w ith the drive sprocket at the fro n t and the idler at the rear, and there were three track-return rollers. This tank did not reach the production stage, however. If it had. it w o u ld have been a d iffic u lt tank for the Am ericans to destroy, although by the end o f the war, the superior M26 Pershing had been deployed to the Pacific area. 159

GUIDES IN THIS SERIES

* Each has 160 fact-filled pages * Each is colourfully illustrated with more than one hundred dramatic photographs, and often with superb technical drawings % Each contains concisely presented data and accurate descriptions of major international weapons Each represents tremendous value

Further titles in this series are in preparation Your military library will be incomplete without them 160

A magnificently illustrated directory of all the mąjor battle tanks used by the world’s armies in World War II

More than 40,000 words ISBN D - f i b l D l - D f l 3 - 3 of authoritative te x t a featuring full data on over 39 armored fighting vehicles of the most ferocious war in h is t ° r y

9

780 86 1 0 1 0 8 3 7