W.10 - Science, Language And Ideology

Languoeeand ldeaLogv Science,

o

Science, Language andIdeology 'fhc analysesof idcologyconsideredin the prcccding chrprcr dcpendon thc opposirionberwccnideologyand sonresorl o[ scieDcc. For rnuchoI mainsrream Anglo-Saxonsocjatscierccis cortinuingthe traditionof dc Tracy'sscieoce of ideas,a lraditioD tlhich brondlygocsundcrrhc Iabclof positivisr. AtlhouShrhcrc arc nnr)ydiffcrcnlsofrsof posi(ivisln, thcreis golreralagrccnrer)r amongpositivists thal the socialsciences shouldmod€lthcnrsclves on thc naluralscieDccs, whosenrodeot procedureis the o ly onc {houghtcapableof producingvalid knowledgc.l his valid sociat science nrust bc stronglycmpificalby appealingro an objecti!c worldof faclsanditsrncthodisonc of rejectingallconceprios that cannot,in principle,bcvcrified(or at leaslfalsitied) by appeating ro Ilowelcr,1l)isassirnilation ofthe socialtorhc naturalworldhas coore under a(tack from those who questioD whether nalural scieDce(let alonc socialscicnce)is quire asobjcctiveand neutralas iswidelybelievcd. Suchpeoptewoutdootwishtodenyrhar thcvast emphasis ol reccntdecades on empir'calsocialscience hasindeed providedus with a lot of poten(ialinformationaboutsociety,bul would claim thal thcre remainsa slill vasterproblem of interpre, tatiolr.It isobviousrhatto equalesocialfactswjrhnaturalfactsis ro iDvcslsocialfactswith rhcsameair of imlnulabiliry iha! arrachcs lo oaturcand thushasdistinctlyconscrvarivc inrplications. Bul somc criticsof posilivism wishto go furtherandsuggest that nor ollly is thereno sharpdistincrion betwcenscience and ideology,but thar muchof nrru.alscience is irselfideotog;cal.'lhis disquieroverrhc stalusol naturalscicnceis promptedby rhc iaitureot sci€nrilic

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lhal rDanyir lbc lasl century advanccto doliver thc blessings cxpected:lhc emcrgenceof the ecologicalaDdarti-nuclcar move_ menlsare only thc ost evidentexamPlesof this disquict 'fhc best-knownadvocatcofthis vicw was llcrbe( Marcuse'but he sharcdthe suspicionof nalural scionceand thc technologythat accompaniesil sith Max l-lorkheimcrand Thcodor Adonro, who logethcr iormed the most prominen! membersot lhe Frankfurt by Marx' lhcy at leastorigimaliy, School.Whilcstronglyi nuenced, orislcd by thc becn subslan1;ally as having Marxisrn of though! conscquenand thc reason in scicntific confidcnce EnlighlenmcD!'s lial v;ew ot thc grorylh ot the productivc torces as inherentlv According1o Horkheimer,with lhe p.estigeof soiprogressivo. 'instrumcnoi reasonhad bccomealmoslexclusivcly rhe usc incc, systcmsol thc Past, however tal'. In the grcal philosoPhical at lcastlhorclvasdcbatcaboutlhc endsoi huoraDlilc orisguidecl, talkaboulmcans' hadbccnreduccd1orechnical reasorr Nowadays, Dcbalcabdut aboulcndsbcitrgthcrcalInofproprganda. discussion by lllc it slrializrriir ol thc Sorlsot solictyl)lldbccn occluclcd of lechnicrldonnurro'r' thc hatrdrnaidoD rcrsoD,by i!s bcconrirrg bul' accordrngro Scienlificmelhod wrs held up HorkhciDrer: rclalionship ol tharcon\nchcnsiv' hasno rcalistic Scicncc SrasP andlhc dircctionof its wofk dcpcnd. upo. whichits osn cxistcnEc and in lhcscopc loo.isdctcdniicd .. trorscicncc, oadely,society.. last ir rhc alonc bll tcndcncics by its own directionof its worknot sell life as bysocial rnalysis, ' This attack on lhe supposedneulrality ot scienccand its Iisc as a rnodcl for rational thought rcached its extremc in I!{arcuse's One-DerrcrrsionrlMdn whosecen!ralthesiswasthtrt best-selliDg industrialcililization thc close.lopcralionalunilerseof ndvanccd pfoduclivlly and opprcssion. of frecdom with its icrriiyingharmony in thisidQol is prc_dcsigncd tcSrcssion aId dcstrucrion, ljnd 8.owth Ilc.sor !s a spccinchisto.ic!l ptojcct. 'lhc lcchnologicalrn'l

!rc-tcchlobgi.al slagc! sharc ccrrah blsic conccPtsot n'n ard t hccont inuit of y t hc Wcst cr nt r adnion Wit l'nl n.l ure w l i ch cxpr css thi s conti nuum,dif f cr entm odcsof t hougblclash\ r ilh cacholher ; chr ngi'r g g, or ganizing' l heybcl ongi odi ffcr entwaysof appr chcn! 1ir connictsr lb lhc soci ctyand natu r c.The slabilizingt cndencies subvcsi vccl ctrcr t sof Reason,t hc powcrof posit ivcsit | I hat ot

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ldeatogy

nc8arivc rIinkinS,unrilrhc achicvcnrcols oi adv|nccdindu(rirl civilizatior lcad_lo lhcrriunrph ofrlc o,re_dnDcnsional !catitlovcratl 'llrus the dcstrucrivcl]arureot instrunrcnlat reaso. callcd for a !uc'.r) bascJ,,D,,rlrcr fjrrr(iptc\ ltroudhM . Lr\cw.,\,ll:rrLr.,i. Iol Ir r' t!^rliL'nru Jc\c'rb( h,,s \dctrJ sucr.r)sJ tJ LU r..rL,JLr andslill lcsshow it wouldoperalc. A sirrrilarqucsrioringof lhc slarusoi Daturatscicnce(lhough without tl)c pessinislicconclusions oi rhc Itankfurt School)h.:rs ionrc tro r Iso AlltsluSr\^n I,hitn\uptrc,{uf \ic cc. Ihornr\ Kulrl,,r lri, intluc r'.rlbook flrlSI/r,ll;,",y'S.i trljctt,vott i,n5 coDlcstcd thc tradirional enrpirical andrationalinrageot sciencc as a stcadt accunrulalion o[ agrecdfacrswhich progrcssivcly un_ €ovcrcdthc rcal arurcof thc wortd.On the conlrary,,rccording ro Kuhn,scicnccprocecdcd by illraginarivc tcal)srrrLlbouDds Irorr onc 'paradiBm'10ar)ot}cr.A p radigDrwasjDslilurcdby.uliversx y rccoSnr:/cd scicnlillcachicvcnrcrrls rhal for a tir)c providenrodcl problemsar)dsolutions to a connnunilyof praclitjoners,.r In rirnc, e,rcryparxdigjilprovedinsufficicrllo ccornnrodarc discrepaDcies a d anonlrlieswhcrcut ncw par.rdignrs wouldbc lroporcr l AlrhoughKuhn c\(r $crr us t-r j,. clirirniI|B tt, ri;erc w!'e fio obJcltivcgrouDdsfor decidingbcrwceDcomperingpara_ dignrs,hc did s(ressthat ir wasnol a sirnplematrerof expeiinren_ talronand appealto evidcnce.A n)orecxtremepropor)or)t oi lhc a'ralionalilyoi scienrific rnerhodis l,rut Fcycrabentt, rvhoclaims (hatlhe idcx lhat nalrralscicDce containsknowlcdgeindcpendcot of idcology,socialprcjudice,clc., is sjn)ptya,iai;y late._ rhcre berngno esscnlial differenccbctwcennaruratsciencc andrhectains of myslicisnor religion. Althoughthc ideasoi Feyerrbelrd do touchthe wildershoresof rclativisni,thefc hasbceDwidcspread criricisrn orer thc lasrlwo dccades oI thc idca l)oththrt oa!uralscicncejs unproblclllatically objectivca d thar rlrc rncl|ods of thc naruratscienccscan be applied(othesocialsciences.i BurduringthcsarDc pefioda method for analysisin thc socialscicnccs has riscnl(Jproninenccwhich cla'rns,o'r quilc differentgruunds.ro bc scicnliticrnd whichhas obvi('Isi rIli.lliol\n)r lhestudyofidcotog\.thisislhcmetlxrdoi Stnrctrftlismhasits originir lhc srud\ oi tjjl,rrrisi;cs. Alrrjosla

s.rcn.eLanguage andtdeolagy

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ccnturi Ngo thc SwissliriguislFcrdina d Saussufcdjslilrguishcil belween /dr8ua8e and rpe€c/,.Languagcis a formrl syslo (of struoturo) of arbitrarysignswhichare relntedto onc anolhcrand which undcrlicall spcech.The lawsof langu gc, i.c. thc lawsol are rot the lawsof evcry(layhurrnr spccch: slrllclurallinguislics, categorics oi theyareralherlhe iawsof uDrnolrvatcd, convcntioral io llter. lt is this whichlhe speakeris unconscious and powcrlcss urderlyingand unchangingsystc|nor s1(uclurc\{hich can be precisionin abstrrclionfrom thc supcrlicirl sludied\lilh scientific speeclrpalterrs which ;ndividualsmay choosc ro xdopt. L]l canbcllbc undc|stood cxtcns;onall socialard intcllectualactivity sysicmol mcaning.It is cxs)'to scc by rcicrringit to an underlying oi l"or;n a manncrrcnriniscenl the parallclwith psychoaralysis. is drawnbetwccnnrrnilcsL Freudianpsychoaralysis, ! distn)c1ion contcnt.lndlatcnl contcnt:the manifestconlcntis thc ordinnry rhc Iatcntcontcnlis rhc hidderr spcechor aclivilicsoi individuals, structurcoi thisspcechor aclivity.And jusl asin Irfcudthc slip rs and iLsrcpfcsscd to be cxplainodby rctcrcnccto tlre urconscious of individuttls !an bc conteots.so the aclualdiscourse or activities idcologici)l slruclurcol vicwcdas a scrccnhidirg the uDdeflying theirwordsor actions. xIrd hashada considerable i pa!t in anthrcpology Struc!uralisIn particularlythc sludyof nrylh,so let us bricllycoosidcfthe nrajor thinkcr ifl this 6eld, ClaudeLcri Strauss,as an example,beiofc considering in more detailthe possiblercl.ttionof hngulrc a d to of basicin[mstruclurc uscstheopposition ideology.Levi-Slrauss to cxaninclhc rolcof ny1h.I:orhir), theconscious useof language in geDeral, arca sortof mythicalthinking,andculluralphenomena th.enrseh'es in diverse Naysbut which socictics cxprcss language 'n hws of the unconscious accordingtothe syslcftatic univcrsal aiway.s and clenral slructure.'l bis undcrlyingstruclurcis boih nccessary poio! As xn is thc startirg for any accounl ol hun]an socicly. and primary likcrs of the nature of slruclufcs, Lcvi-Strauss illuslralion game rulcs of a card'game: evcry of cards is dilicrcrt lhem to thc brallpracticalpurposcs, siDcelhenu)beroitossiblerrrirtn)nsis, i llnite.Bu! eachgaDrcis stricllygovernodb] the underlyingrules rr c, ii,,(l whichncvcrvsryandtrescribeexnctlywhichcombinarions whichrr. IoL,Possible. 'llrr idcr o1 stfuctu|lLld,rl.rnrin;rfirli,!. lccordirg lo j.c!i $idc rtplicrbilit,i.hr LIr Jriodcrrr r!f, rnythL)lL,!j is to hi' Strauss,

i" i.

6a

le\eology

souglr(in politicalideology- he reicrsro rhe Irrcncht{c!oturioo, arrdeveniD scienceitsclf.For thc worjd ol corLcmporary ratural scrcnceard the rlorld of mylh yield rwo .disiincttt)oughequally posjlivesciences'. It is only now that thcsetwo scparatepalhsto knowledgeunile:'thatwhicharrilesar (he physjcatwortd by the detourofconrmuDication, andrharwhich,asweIlavereccnuyconrc lo know,arrivesattheworldofco rorunicaliobythcdetourofrhe physical.'lhe eDtircprocess of humanknowlcdgcrhusassunrcs the charactcr ot a closcdsysrern'.5 The samcinbuilrcutLur lt unjvcrsal, thesamelotsicalsystc'n, underlics bothar)dprovides rhconty nc!ns ot cxplicaling theIn. l hc structuralisr approitch to lhc studyof nrlrh ccrrrintyrevrrts conrccrionsthat haveslimulatedrhe imaginrlio of rnrhro|olog'sls.When il comesto coDsiderirlg ideotogy,the idcrs ot LcviSlrauss seertlloo general,sinceby privileging form ovcrconrcntlrnd logicalchssificalion over praclicalrcsults,il bcconres dilicutr to djstinSuish bc($ccnfactandinllgil].rlion. bcrwccnscicncc, rcligl()n ud ml th- Lc!i Slrauss clairns to show,rot how rncfirtrinkin ryrtB bul how D)ylhsoperarein mcn'snrindswithoutlheif bringr$ lrc ot thc [act'.o l hisis 10rcdDcctheuholcoithe conscious indi!idurtilla nrar)rtcr whichgocsfar bcyondeveDthe psychornattsis ot lrrcud. Morcover,by explicarirrg all inteltccrualaciivjr],irr rcrnrsof I conrmoDslructure,rt is to en\trasize1l)c!onse|suarclcn)cn! r huD)allalfairsat thecxpcnscof rhccoDiiicturl. Ilowever,thc sarneschemaof uDdertyiDg slmcrurcdclcr ririr! surfacephcnomcnahas becn pplicd- wirh rhe sar e wouldbe scicn(ificrigourto thcconneclion betwcc taDgu.rgc rnd ide(n0gi,. I'rcvioudylanguagehad been ralher takcn ior granlcd,tikc tl window(hroughwhichwe look ar rhe wortdoursidc.Ihe rc.cnt presligcof Iinguistics, itsclfrhe productof a hi tech ir)fornntio1l socicly,haslcd to atleorioobeingprid ro tanSuage ilscttjinsrerdof simplylookingthroughthegtass, wc lookat it, siicclhc \trlpc oi tl)c windowor thc arrangernent of thc panesrnry (lelernrinc whrt wc secthroughthcnl.Or thisview,idcologyrDaygo wc beyor)drhc scol)col la,rgulgcas ordinarilyconcc;vcd.Ir(n trrc srudy of (harorherfornrsot hL|nxnlclivitycrn Ii'rguis!ics leadsusto supposc lle construedas languages, ie. as systerns or signs*hich hive r n)crning I rny syslctrot sigDs, :rccodiogro thc srrLrcluntin vicw, rtrorc is. as we hlvc scc , r disrinctionbelwccnr2c../r rod /aagkrgr

Science,LanBuogeond ldealogY

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cr lt ; , S pocchi s the l na| i icsl lcvcl, t ir e oDe t hxt is it Dor ediat cl)apPar is m langu.rgc lalguage is thc lalent level, thc hiddcn structurc. It l bati deol ogyi sl o be f ound. Ths idcologicalm essugcis conr ainedi| thc underl yi ng str uclur c, which is so packagedin spccch as ! o be nxrrc or l essi nacccssiblc1( )bot lr speakc$ and hear er s.O Dc oi t he rost l uci d, i nl l uer t ial ar r dr eadablccxponenlsot ! his vicw, llolaDd B .l ftho!, cxprcsse st lr is 0s a dist i clior r bct wocn wlr al a s( alcnr cDl r./croler lrd whrl it connolcr. A famous cxanlplc of this is thc hunnn' (N s rcportiDg ol r so- caUcd'bluc- blood'cr uisc iD wl) ich nrarryLo1-alpcLso nagcsgalhcf ed on . r yacht ior a t r F r cur r d t he l U edi l efrancan.' l h c pul) licw. t svasll- vom useci.bu1,saysBr r lhcs: bur dcii it su.[ . l ccl i rt,)l nuscnr . r tcr ir icsr h. a! ! f at hological t cI s orc i s rrroscdl )) xr ( r llr &lict ior ,r t is bccr usconcsulPoscs'Ls to b. vcrt frr r|r r t . I d ot hcr *or ds, kilr gshavc a $r Per lt unr an cscrcc, rnd \vhcn t hcy t cr ut ) or r r ilybor ow cer t aiDf or m s ol (l crx)crrti cl i l c, it cr r only l) e r lr loughan inQ r n: , r ion! hlch goes rLrri ,,sri rato' c, n, r ( lc 1) o$iblcr h, ou8hcon( l. m r . snn r I nr c lo r ct r ons* r o r ccognr r c l l nurt l hc hct l hrl kiigs I c cr t ableol PI osalc t o t hct r t hr n ugeh$n t o com nr on i s . o nr or c r r alur al rhrt thrsstrrus r l, r tr hckir ! isst r llkingl) t di\ iic r lght . l i )orl rl s,i t i sr().. kno! vlcdgc l r oLhcr w ords, whc| kings pl! y . r t bcing m co. what is . lelr olr l is thci f hL' rt.l l ]si dc, but t his olr ly scr r 'cslo colr nol?t hcr r sr 'f ur hunr ar r Ir rcccrt ) crrs L hcf chavc bec m any at lcnr Plslo givc. r o Lr ccount oi thc rchl i on otl x guasc1( )idcologyi st r uct ur alis!lcr r ns,which as 'discour sca|aiysis' r nd hlcndcd t o havc rurcgcl l crul l y dcscr iL) ed r cfi ti cl l cdgc to l lr er r r .Elr bor alin! on suchcr ) Pt ic r cnr ar ksof M ar x discour scanallsis Lrs' hrguagc i r plnct ical, r cr l consliousness', 3 l i rkcs rs i l s subj cct t hc languagcof cvcr yday lif c, t hc languageoi ncw spapcrsinrag azincs,classloonr s.f r lnilics, alr d i1 r r allses llr c l i rl tc.ns of scnl cnccs ir r c) ilended picccs ol Pr osc or r r r convcr srl i onal exchafl g es.I t also aLlenr Pt slesssucccssf ullylo slr ow how tbcsc patl cns rcl lcct f elat ioosot power on t hc gr ounds,|lgain,lhr t can bc m r ny t o r t sof Ncr iviLy hngurgc i s a l onn of acr ivily iusl ^s i j rtcrprcted ts h r r guagcs. Tliis lt ocs [ ur lhcr llr ar r t hc cvr dcnt i dcol og;calcontextwhich iof of lns ihc dcscr ipt ioI rot gucr r illx t or ces rs ci thcr ' i rcc(l onr I lSht er s or 'lcr r or isls. lt uinr ! n) ur ) . ( j\ ( l i dcol ogi crl i nrfl i cxt iolls in lhc xppr r e t ly ir r noccDtst n, cr Lr r coI scnl cnccs. S ornc ot lhcso a! ! llscs yicl( l iilt lc nr or c t hr o lit ls of

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ldeotagy

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:::i::,:ill uprcs navccncountcre(l rhrecnraiDdifficutties_.t.trc first, rnrt inosr cviLlcIr.i\ rhrr.rlrc nrcirni,rE,,t.r t\i(Lc ot \ril:r)d i. ||nr ru I,c crccrlrcrcJsr rft) by loul:IE - t,u\\(!cr trrrd ltrc uurLl\ -I(l 5Lfllcrxc\.Anrly:,isrlrJr is slr,.rl! conli c.j 1,, ltrc tcrl t,rrrl. oowD[,],, , rl. j,nJ lhc con.rru.ts |n,,,]cJ. $ hi(L i ( t., llr ,1,.,:l( ovcrsirplilicatioDs rnd otlcDrrbitrrr! tj) I nrodcrnvcrsidrof dd ili, rlistdr)clrincs, (tisc(,rrrc rrr:rtysis si,nr,:rtrrrcs sc.:1,\rtj irnpt.rlt.,lt

Languogeand ldeolagY science,

63

roundof signiliefs cxistxndthatthc uriverscis an endlcss oolysigns witb nolhingsignificd:we canrro!Iook throughthc $indow bul rcnraiflcondcrnedto slarcat the glassBut tltc nrcxningof anysct of words depcndsheavilyon the condilionsundcr which it is produccdand thosc uldef wbich il is fcccivcdby its Icttdcrsor isa iornroiactionand,likc nroslftxnlsof acti.Jn, Language hcarers. dependsvcry heavilyoDthc contcxt Primcexanrplcs ils efilcicncy whcrcbl rhc ol this arc thc so-c.tlled'pcrlonnrti!e'uttcrarrccs, ccrlainlvords lbr cxan'plc, spcakefpcriomrsrn actionby uLlering cefcrnoDy thc spcakcrl)crlornrs b! saying'lprornise'ira |narriage of thc andclfccti!cncss rlrcaclot gcttingnrarried.But lhc nreaning and wordsdcpcn.lson a wholc sel of instilutbnalxrrtrnScnrcnts presupposiliors: it is n()1possiblclor jusl anyoDcto oPen a motoNay by snippingsolncred taPc and saying'I opc , or to co demrrsomconc10dcrlh by pullingon a black I alrdsrl"ing'I scntcnce'."A dirtcrcul wry ot lralioS thc srrrrcgcncrrl porlrl rrc r1rrrr s)rnclhing,1l'cysulrgcs( wouldbc to sr) lhc slatcnrcnls lhcir fc|'liorL thclnis to undcrs!l!nd andto uodcrstarrd solncthing, ship10rvhatllreyuroabout,i.e. 10thc {orld outsidctheslalcDrcDt Irony,[orcra rplc, is vcry ditllcultto disco!efsillrcutk owlcdgc l-huslhc rrrernin!ol r s(rlc oi a stxtcntcrrt. ot tLc circunrslanccs menlis bouDdup lvilhits tunction,wilh whaLi! 1l.,rr,andrclercncc is esscntirlio this:tcrt is dcpcn to thc Norldoutsidcihe slatcnrsDl of on thc irul(rnolny A d;tfercr!sortoldiificull) is thaterrphasis ir)lhF socirl and Iisloficrl it from spccch rcnroves larr3rrage orcr rulcsof oi indcpcnllcnt ior thec).istcnce enccs.Tl)ereisno cyi.lcrrce whal or.rl lcast governing what crn, alrd lyingbehindspccch syrrtax possiblc ir) il is are stalcd as su'ch rules cannot,bo said-Fof ussoon t)l cxanrPlcs to find in theoryal lcasl- and somctines Prallicccircumslancc!. by socialandhistorical theirmodificalion gencralisthrtthev A turthercriticisnrolstfucturalaPproachcsi lstccts tha thc conflictual ralhcr lhc corserrsual tcnd1(renrphasizc frlircr thln to oKlcr thc social oi societyrnd thustend!o lcgitinrate ar)d dclincs objccti!c criticizcit. For a suuclurc is somclhing points rn undcrlling I( to boundsbolor)dwhichwc cannotstcP. isa vefsionof thc cr in \!hich$e areallimplicalcd.'fhis conscnsus thal in cvcrysociclythcrcis I dolninririidc'l()g' ir' Lirl5|i'pcol t! gcrLcfllacccp( rneeting cohcrcn(sctot priDciplcs !xisrir,Ir.lalior)"(if In)wcr.Ibis !icw IrasLrtrrtl,il'rir lcfiLiDrrLc

i

I II

I 60

p1 ail

'1, l. I il r l

tdeolagy

soughtin political ideology- he refcrs ro the Frcnch Iie!olurion _ 3nd cve in scienccitself.For the world of conlemporary naturat scicnceand ihe world of nryrh yield rrvo .clisrinctthougli cqually positjvescicnces'It is only now that thesetwo scpafatepathsro k owledgeuniter'tha(which arrivesal thc physicilwortd by the de(ourolcommunication, andrhar!tich, aswc hrvereccnrty corDc 1()know,arriv€sa( (heworldof cor)rDunicalioo by thc dcrourof lhe physical. Thc cDtircprocess of hunra knowtedgc thLrs assunrcs rhc characlqr of a closedsysrc|n'.5 I hc san)eirrbuitrcutrurrtuni!ersat, lhesamcIogicrlslslenr,uDderlies bothard provides rhconlyn)caDs of explicating them. 'I hc strucluralist approach1()thc studyof nrythcerlaiDly relcals conrcclionsthat havesrinlulated thc i[ragiDation ot anthrotolo_ gisls.When il comes1()corsideringidcotogy,rhc ictcasoi I_oviStraussseenrtoo gencral,sinceby priv'legingfornr ovcr col]rontaDd logicalclassification over practicalrcsulrs,i! bccomesdifticultro distiDguish betwcenfactandirn;rgination, ber$ccnscicr)cc, rctigion ar)dmyrh.Lcv;Srrauss claimsro show.norhow rnetrttr;rrkin nryrhs but how nrythsoperatein meD'srrindswitlrouttheirbciDga$.rrcot thefact'.iI-l)isistorcduccthewholcofrhcconsciousirdividualina rnanllcrwhichgocsfar bcyondcvcn (hc psychoanalrsj:) oi ticud. Moreovcr,by explicalingall inlellccluatacti\ity in tcrnrsot :r cornnon structure,it is to emphrsizethe corrsensual elc rcnl in huma'raffairsat thc expense oI theconf]icrual. Ilowever,the sameschemaof uDderlying srructujedercrrrirring surlacephenomenahas bccn applied \\,ithlhe sa rc would-bc scicnlific rigour-to thccorneclionbetwccD languaSc andidcology. Previouslylarguagchad bc€n rarherlaken for grar)Led, like ! wrDdowthrouShwhichwe look at rhc world outside.I-horecer)r presligeof linguistics, irsclfthe productof a hi,rechjnfofmarion socicty,hasled ro atteDrion beingpaidto languagc ilsclf:instcadof si'nplylook;ngthroughrheglass, we tookat i1,simce thcshapcoitIc windowor the arrargcrnen! of the panosInaydclermincwhal wc scethroughthem.On thisview,ideotogyrnaygo well bcyondthc scopeof Ianguageas ordinarilyconcciv€d.For the srudy of liDguislics Ieadsusto supposc thatolhcrfortnsofhLrnran acli!irycur be construcdas languages, i.e. rs sysrcmsof signs$hich ha\c l In anysystcnof signs,accordiDg lo thc slrucrur.rtisr vie!v,thcrc is, as we havc sccD,a dislincriorbclween.?.c./1and /.rrtrid8.

Languageandldeolagy Science.

6',r

Spccclis lhe manifestlovcl,the oneihat is imncdialelyapparcnl; It is in language languagc is thc lalentlevel,thc hiddc strucrure. iscontairedin nrcssagc thatidcologyisto be tound.Thcideologicnl the undcrlyingstructure,whichis so packagcdin speechas lo bc andlrcarers.Onc ot thc 1(rbolh speakcrs nrorcor lessinacccssiblc cxPonerts of thisvic\t, Rola|d nost hrcid,inflN lial amdreadablo this as a distiDcliorbct$ccnwhat I statenrcnt Ilarthcs,cxprcsscs il .ornrl.r. A tanrouscxanrplcol this is lhe dc oles a l w1rn1 cfuisc in which feportingoi r so-called'bluc-blood' humoroLLs gallrercdon a yaclrtlor a triP round the manyroyal personagc$ M€dilorraean. l'hepublicwas!anly amu$cd,bu1,snysBrrthcsl burdcDr if crricsa hcavypalhological ofamuscn)cnr Sucha iecli,rg itstcnns ii isbccrusconcsupPoscs oDcisanruicdby aconlra(lictior, to trc lery tar atart. ln othcrsofds.kingshavca supcrlrunran boroE ccn:linioriN ot esscncc, irlld {hen thcy lcmporarily Nh,chgocs ar inc.ijraliou liic. it c.i onlybc through dcnrocrrtic .lonc To rglinst trlrurc, nudc possiblcrlrouFb condcsccnsior flauir thef.cl lhatkiDgsa.cc.pablcofprosaicrcrio.srsto rccoEn,zc to cornnon thcmlhanangclisrn thatthissutusis nonrorcrraturalto l ki.Sbydi!inc.i8hl kingissrill n,ort.ls, it isloac,inowlcdselhrtlhc in othefwords,\!hcn kingsplaya! bcirg |ren, whatis lc,.tc.l is theirhunrrnside,but lhisonly senesto crnnolethcir supcrhunarl to givcan accoun{ ln receDtycars thcrchavebeenmanyallenrpts lefms,\rhrclr to ideologyin struclLlralist oi lho rclalionof langurtgc intendcd!o have anrlysis'arrd describcd as'discourse arcgenerally rcilical edgeto thenl.ElaborrlingonsuchcrypticrcrnrrksotN'larr discoufseanalysis rs practical,rcal corl-Sciousncss',! as'larrguage ot ot cvcrydaylite, thc language takesas its subjcclthe langr.ragc tlte frnrilics,and it analyscs ne\rspapcrsi nagazines,classrooms, in extendedpicccsot proseor in convcrpa1tefl)s ol sentcnccs 10sltowhow It alsorltenrplslesssucccsstully salionllexcharges. ihcscprllcrrrsrellectrchlionsot poweron thegrounds,rgain,that lrngu:rgcis r folm of acti!ity- iustasnranyfornrsof tctivilycanbc lhis goes lurlhcf th!n thc e!idcnl inlcrprclcd as larrguagcs. of Suerrilla iorccs cor)text whichintormsthedescriptiolr idcological rs eithcr 'ffccrlonrfighlcrJ or 'lerrcrists'.It ainrs to unco\ei srrucLufo ol idcologicitlinrtlic^lionsin thc atpa.erlly irrnoccnL Somcof thcscanalyscsyield littlc morc rirrn lislsol scnlcnces.

64

Meotagy

(onlellcJ- hr Jrrrhropotog) rtrc opiniur)ot [(trnunJ t(a.1, ll.Jl 'nryllrrnd is a l.r gu.rgcoi.iBns i rcr|nsot $hiLt,flJ.nr\ ro 'ilual r rgl|rsrDJ slrlu\ r'( exr\res,cJ. bUrir i. r laIbu.r8r.ur argurD{Dl, nur r \torus of l"no y ) is obviou\tyrr !a,i.rnc; $ irtr itrc r icrv.,r r.cvr-slrduss. rn nrcdicvat,ocict' rr mrgtrlbr (li,, (d ln;rt rhe uunl|||rn{noljlicu-religiuus ertros,ervednrJre lu rci tor(c rhc (tptrt .t-ccutfs ol rhe groupsthrn to lcBit.nrrt,. lLcIr irr ttre 'ulirrf clcsor thc nrrcsof llre.pcuplc $ho wc,c eiltrcf it urrnl u,, or (nt lu. lhi\ ethos."lrr conrempor.rr rrrdrlle' y \\ crrc,n.ocr.ryrlrerc rrc In.r y stro chiDrttrlr whlr ,lrbitiryir hl. dcpcn,tr n"r rrrr,..rr on ar) u Jc'lyrDgconscsui a, ong ils D)c||rbcr\ "u L,Llfirur( u ilr rragnrentar'on. As wilh the view of nrcdievalsocierymenrioncd aDove,lhc acccprance ot thc valucsand nornrsot ,liberaldcnroc_ rscy rrc \rro Ecslrt|rongrho:cat r trel,,pol rtrc,oriJl \ ir lc: lljo,( ut lhc bolruI|rlrrver)ocotrcje r uf , uhe,itc r.j,jr\ro c\lr(\.\ ,Lrr disatfec{ion. 'Ihis poirl( about consersus and confliclteadson to anothcr Jilftr'ult).iD llr( \lru(rurrlisrattfoJ(h . rtrcJf tjrjc r Lr*rfl.Lrr,,I.c or urc suuJcL( llre \cn,c of a r{ne(rive.rcspu sibtc Jfi,l Lrc"rirc 'n agenl,a process etaboralcd ir)lhe varieties ofpost_strucruralist and posl-n)odcrDisl wri(crsciamincil i the next chaplc..Ir) rcacting ryri st lhec\(es\ivc!ubjecriviry ut cri.rcr,rii,ls, $ irtrilscrrt,trl.i\ oI rc absrJlurcfrccdo,n rnJ rc.pun,ibitir]ot .,cr" per."rr, slruLluraiisrn hasEojrclo lhc othcre\lj (nrc.Il j5orrertrinjru rcr tizc how boundedlhat fr€edomis by rhe structurcsof tanguige and ot so0rely,and i1 is qui!e aDotherto dissolvcrhe subjeir iiro those Mc ruci.rlrclrri,rjl'anJ li tui\rir ruUlls.M"rc specirr.r,. ,, 1 unJcrslJJi g, \^lrclhcrol .rclior)or $ufij\. ,ecnrstu ijr!ol\c ttrc p'uccs\ul inrcrprcrJrron $ hichimptic.u crcrrrvcruL,Jc,lrvirJ.rc $oulii-beobiecrire 3nLlscicnrificJll) Jcrenninlbt(rrrrLre ur rrru.. k rs lif:'.1" ":"" )".."erwlelrDins ro squcczco,,r c,,ri,(lyrl,( suDJcctr!c clentcntjn human3cliuu. In sum.tlerc is Dodoubrlt,rr lhc c rpJr!si, t",rdurg,$ irtrrr. , ",n ur\lrrclror bcl$cc dcflolrliunr J ru Dotrlior, 1,.,.f,"i,.1",1,,." iDsiAhtr. And obviuu\tyrhcrc is !rcur inrt)orl.ur,.cr ltr( t.,rJ uf sorrolrngur\lks \\hi(h dcmonsrrrlc\Iro$ potilicut.soc.JIor sc\u.rt prejULricc r\ rc'ntor(.cLl b) tajrgurgc.Bul the t,opctt,irlthcrccoLU L,c,o t|ullirc(i\irhin lhe collnnc.or ! Scncrrls(ie lit:c lt,cory,,l il'ucluraiistiI\fi'irlion hastror(J unroufldcLt. F,rrrtrcunJcrt)i g slnrcturcs sccmon ;DspcctioD lo bc no ditfcrentf(rn rhcotdcride;

Science,LenBuageand ldealag|

65

ot philosophical wofld-vicws between which Do scierce cln ac1 as In order i o draw loget her t hc t hr cadsoi whal has been r alhcr a disparalc discussion, let us look briefly al Jurger Habermits, probabl y l he nrost inll e t ial cont cm por ar y t hinkcr in t his ar ca H abcrmas has attcm pt ed, by dr aning on t hc lat est discussionsin soci ol ogy,Ii ngui st ics. t nd m any olhcr ar east o conslr uctan analysis of soci ety i n w hich t he conccPt of idcology would pf cser vc ils critical odge. 'lhe bcst way of inlroducing the complex lbought of Habcrrnas is to see $ha! hc boflows fronl lhc accoun!s of idcology qc l ,r!c i l reu,l ) Jr scu\ 'r J C l earl y. Il abefmas is m uch indebled t o M ar x He acccplsnr Lr ch of Ma| x' s mrteri alis! concePlionof hist or y in which t hc hist or icr l II]al eri rl condi ti onsunder which hum an labour h. r soccur r ed havc set tho developing paramclc$ for klrowlcdge. N1an, according 1(r H abennas,sel shis conccpt ionot hislor y in ! hc cont ex!oI a dialcc! ic bctw eeDl he l ool s aDdir t st r unlcnt st hat hum an bc'n8shavc at t hcir di sposl rlal ar)y givclr lim e t hc f or ccs ot Pr oducliur - and lhc i nsl i l ul i onal arrangenenls wilh lhcir cult ur al aDd sym bolic xcIlo! vcver , Habcr m ast hinkst h, r l t hcr c is a lcndency conrpani r]}enl s. i u Marx l L)ovcrctr t it r asizc t hc f or nr er : oi t hc t hc nlnt cf ir lcxchar Sc l hc producti !caclivilywhichr cgulat cs humar spccics\!i!h iis DxturalcnvironDcnt,bcconrcsthc pa diSnl olallthe catcgorics,evcrythingis rcsol!cdirto thc for thc ScrreratioD scll-movcnrcntof production. Bccausc of this; Marx\ brillianl insight into lhe dialcctical rclationslrip bctwccn lbc forccs of produclion and thc rclations of produclion could very quickly bc t| , , ^. l, - r , r . r i.m "nnc' ' r,.i i nl rn,crcL! " ' thi s l cndency lo cm phasizecco or nic dct cr ninisnr and assinr ilate the social 1o lh€ natural scicnces w,]s take mLrch fufthcr by E ngel s, B ukharin and olher s. Haber m as, by cont r as! ' while not si shi D g1()dcny t he im Por t anccof nr at er iallabour and t he t echnical i nnovrtn' rs through wlr ich it s t of i s dcvclop, wanls also lo st r css tl c i nrporl !nce of cult ur al t r adit ion and inst it ulionalr r r r ngcDcnls - w hi ch togcthcr he of t cD r ef cr s t o as 'int cr aclion'. Unlike Nlar { xnd morc parl i c ular lyum likem r ny of M ar x's or t bodox succcsso'sH rbcrmas ctai m st hr l t hcr c is no'aulolnr t ic devclopnlcnt alr chlion trol w ccnl bour a t r d int cr r ct ion"" ' l hi s rl l cnl i on t 1) on ccor r onr icf r ct or s and lhc necd f or r clf usLic

6ndldeotag| Longuage Science, r, forrrulJlior,,f Mrrr i, iu,lit(.Ll.,..,,r,tj g r,. ILt c,r,.s bJ rtr( (,ri,rUc! JdvrlccJ inJu.l' rt .u.r,.1, ,,\u, ll,, .,\r t,,,.1)..,,;1 'r ii; llri|ll\ rl,Jt whcrcr) i Varr. rirncirre j,r(u.oE)q.^ trcvJitirU b,r.cdojr ltrc iLlejot (qurt crchrr i sc thc nrrrk"r, rtr,,,.1,,ir.c or rltk.t\\(nti.rhrcrrt rytlrcri\.n n c r,,:rr,.chrrucr..L.r 'c(r'n(lng\ whicll rcduccsrtrc poliricatro ure tecrrnicar. :1,11*1.1,'"9.. r.irc llr'"."",',i:" rhe :irareiD socialand ccon,r ic aiiai.; i:1.."'::l:,,,8. nas nexnt an cqurlty "f increasing nunbcr ot adnrinistratorc anj crPcrtslo takc dccisionsbascdon thc rccds ol lhc technocfalic systcrt:thisirwolvesa char)gc in thc idcotogyxppropriare lo sucha soc,cl)Nhich nrovcsrronr a considc.irtion nrju.t uuJ cqrrrrry k) justiryilg decisios i terrns "".r,,"g" ot rechnical qulsLions .r.his j.,.l].1l'l,ll'i","ro scic,rcetlrrd iDdustry. processin!otvcs al rr,o san'cI'n)cI dcpoliricjzlrioroi soricry.Whitc bcingiI a scnscless rrc,ir,c.-,r, tn ri,,r ,r .ro,^ ,,,.r,.1,,.*,,, .,;, ',,,ir. ::]cu]l'ri,j'l 'r, r,jcjrtrz:,tr,,I .,r i r,,ir, ,\(r ..S. .r ,(i.t. lit( ,t,:. , | . ||r|. ,( r .IL|. rs at thc snrrrcrinrc,rorc idcokrgicrlifof ir is bortl 'rx'rutcr\r\i!(:,rxll',,r,t,.r1,.,.t,t,.,.,.1,..,rrit.t,r,at(.r..uj, rrtr..rit s||,'frysuIfrc\\cr , tusiibtc rLtr{nrnrivc\ ij

ciri.'"i,"u ,,'.;.j"ll,,;1" ,"i:'l;:i'll';,1:iii "".r :l ",,."niy nrcrnsro a predclcrorincd cnd. t.trus.whil

$hich had hitherlodependodon the idcr of thc nrarkctas a tlir llabcrmrs dislributorot valucs.Su marizinghis corrclusions' thc Econonric uis.s arc sl,iltedintolhc Polilic.lsyslcDtlrrough

su cl r I t!y th r ! r c a c t i l c - al o i d a n cc a cti vi l y o f tl l c g o vcn r n e n t l o r d cl l ci ts r n s u t p l i c s ot l cg i ti r n r l i o r r ca o e o n r p cn sa l c 'r 1 'o r l k) L (rv co r n Pcn srnte cr . fu ti o n a l i ty o f o r tr r r i sa ti o n r l r n d c x l c nsi o n s t h o s c l c Si r i n ,r ti o n d cl i ci L sr l ,l t d o r Pp e a r - Th cr c r r i scs I b u td i c o l c r i s i s t c n d e n ci cs th a t. fr o d a Scn cl i c l ) .i n t o f vi c{, Icl ) r cscfl s i Io n r l ) cl o N l Ju L h i c r r c h y o f cr i si s p h cn o m cn ! sl r i h cd u l * r n k d r fr g cD r cn r , th .s. cr i si s f r o n r t h c p o i n t o l vi .w o f So vcr n m .D Ixl d !tu a l l v su b sr i tu tr b l c b y b ci tg d i sti n g u i sh cd p h c n o n r cn a a r e cr;is w i r h i r c cr t.i D l i n i i L s.Th csc l i tr ,i ts r r c d cl cn n j i cd b ) o n tl 'c o r c h a D d , t h c l i sca l l ya va i h b l c q n r n ti r y o i va l u c r l r cs|o ttr l co l q l r L cl r c a . n o t b c Yr l i d l y p r cd i cl cd * i l h i t cr i si s l [.o r y - u d o i r l h L ]o l l tcl 'L L l ) y s u p p l i cs o t D r o ti va l i o ,, f'o n r th c so .i o co l l r r n L \) \l c s u b s t r l u ti vcr cl .l i o n b ctw cct th c sc!r .c r cso u r ccs !r i r g , i s r l ' cr cfo r c ( l cci si !c i o . l h c Pr cd i cl i o n o l cr i si s "'

'fhis cx|andcdidc.|oi cfisisir|d the rcla!i!izingol (hcctonorrric Iirr_ ol Mrr\'s hislorrcrrl sphcreinvolvcda dfasticrciormul.rtion \!itl' aflirritics slrong idcus hxvc lcrialism.Clcrrly Habcrnras's lhose ot th€ Frankfurt School.flis wholc rclision oi Ntarx is governcdby lhc School'scriticisn ot inslrumcnt.rlIcasorr,thc re.rsonwhichhad cortre1()donrrrrtesocLcly scicniificor tcchDical in thc twcnticth ccrltufy-Dcs;dcsa lcgiLirnatcinlcrcsl in thc reasonwhichscrvedto conlrolobjcctilied instrumcnLal Pfoccsscs' ll.rbenrasclaimcdtha! humanbcir)gshLtdt\ro othcr intcrcsls:a $'ilh ctch othcr in iorrDsoi practicalinlercstiI conrmunicnting socialorgrnizalionand an'iolerestin bcing scit rcllccli!e and inlcrcstin auloIronryAlso' i.c. rIr erlrancipirtory sclt-dclerrnnring, like many mcnrbersof thc FrarrkturtSchool,I Inbcrnlasis inl.r l lc as a nrodcloi crlranclirulion. esledin Irreudianpsycl)oanalYsis bclwccnthc dcvcloi,ncntof llrc lhinksthcrc are strongIraLallcls oi tlrc hrln'arr irdividualrocordillg1o lircud ar(l thc dcvclopmcnt is $.r1. s ill Juslas an individualwhosccgo organization spccies. 1o cefteinlotrr)s,,1intcr rcl)tcstion,!) Iind a ncurolicsolLr(ioD ol ls\rrr_ whi.h arc I.,ridi:ri7rr1!r)rrs socicticsgcnefalci(lcok)sics Inclricri po!vcr'Iclrt!)ns which h:rvcbccn tcl,i!.s.,r, fl'(1((r". disL(trled in hnguagc.Arrd ilrst lls Lhcltcudirn ilrrrlvstli,l\ Ll)c

*,'r, v",."i" i,,i,"..,,,:;,;,;;.; Ji;;"i;lil'i,il1:iii'il,l;:.1:l rssrronglyinspircd by rhistincof thourhr

fhc distirclionbcrwc,cn tatour rnilntc, acrr.,ninvot!cd.r nruch -.cnli|rgcd conccplion of rhcuisisofcrpit.rtisl socicll.Whcrcast\4!rx r,.r\iJcrcd,,trsrs rrJrrti rl c.,,r,or,,i.l r(rjr,. It,b,.rr,.r:,,rt.rrj(Jil N,'or.{y|or,rdvut (nsc\ ijrtr(rcIriI tirl( ,:,t ir...i. r: l crl.'\.ut ri,ri,,tl.rtr(y. ur tesirrrrrr.v. ir r or j ,,rr\:rrru,rr.l :llil\

: ," ,'i .1 ,:.:''" y

tli.- i,,t.,r c( :,r ,,r ,r ..,,,\\- ,,,!.r

r ncvrlrblc,. Bul thc\rct\ rrlcn b! thc\li_llj1o.,\urtit c rji.cLl.,c ri\ ,)l rirLlrorlit). For rh( conflicrof i tcrrsr,ir,hercntiJr1.,tr c.rfil.rli\nr nd rllc contradictorydcmandso statc inrcrlerl1ror) tendcdro nrca'lrhal slaleaid was dysfunctionatly .lhis disrrlDutcd_ in turn rcsir,nrr(),fo,,r.lrc irrrrrvcrrriurr rur,rrrr,,r,.rrir,! :::::'1""1,,' !t 1r,, ,t,, \li,"r LrfL,,ntr,,ti..!t JtrJr,c. r. u.rt, ,.,trrri.,,ri scrc Ir,\l f,i$(rtLt ti, ic. or r.r.(rr,r .n ur J :'t')r'rB,'ll c* 'hc r(flr'r'r'nDg'd(,,toEy.tll rdJrrr,,.r. r..$ ,t rr^r\c. I,ut.tjc ior. rr ' L \ c || ui t lr c \ L"t r L , "

tr

\.rt(

,ffifrc

.\tr.tr

t. i,., i ilorr\ir,,t. . .bourgcoissocicryrnd rher;by a crlsrsin nrorivarion

67

68

'

ldealogy

prlicnr.tosclrrqirrc c\s. .r, jrili..:,trLcur) i.rfi rju tr,c\-|r! ruf :r so\rclyb\ cr.porr'Brtr( rorls ot il\ t(girrnrrl rf iJ(u..,t'. rIe ru\ct etcme t ifi H"t,(rj J,., rlrc,,,\,,t iJcol,,f) i. lr.. emphasrs on tanguagc. Like mos ,"riters inlluenced by t|c fucstern Marxisttradition,Habermas wisheslo stress thc irnportance oi thc supcrilrucluie ro rtrcrJtherriBi,l(co,)u I,,1. ( llir,Fnl -\upp6c.l or (rJrsrcriMrr,\j\rn BLrllor hinrrlrckc) lo th( \uf(r.r,Lrcrurc tics In nngu ge. rn rtra(.loJ3)rhc probte , ot_tJI|guJge tri,srct,t-Jcd thc lraditionalproblcmot consiiousncss..,' Hii co,ccnrrarion o.

bcillE jillgl;,li_1,3i.,.: ic rJrrru,r, ,rr.e,nb.,J,cr. rr i. !'ro.irl Inx.(j lu r \rud] soliet! i lhdt (.

lrcI.clic\ t h..rlrngr_i!e,,ur 'rtpher)orncIla conslilulessocial ",,,;. bul is irscti consritirc
,"lpri(;r rna,ryusc.,rrJ4urEr. Furrr,c,(r) J

lL"joI -(n Llll ' (ci,llllll: n rj rv o l '. v c s l h c \u m o s i l i o ut l t,c l \J\.rL,i ti l y,,t rI i dcJl s l, c c c ns rl u rl ro n i rr $ L i c I l h c t ur(c ur rhu bcrrrr rrsurncrrr rto..c wi l l d c i i L i c (h c rs s u c . l j o r p c o ptc .perki ng r" r erj tr ort,er ri l l r r c a c D rg \o rD c k rn J o i u tj c rs l 3 nd,,U . -t C om ,ufi i ..,ti v,.i r. I i ,. ti u

rlroscc,rsJs,rs iir ir c,,ulJsu,rliDf,,r.rrrles,,r l:::"'Iry)l:'h:,rrrsr..rlrrr $l,JLrtrcy5rv i, Lo )pretrcjr.rbtc: s(.u J, Lll:11y.i",j)), rharir i. tc s , rlr, r( irrrt rc . o r, rt . rr; L s r, I'r1,",rl.,irLi. :lll: ll rr. r nr(r, . r r,crc rc rn rriuonf rrrc . cf ri, , ,"r. i, u llr) l]'jl,i,,''.:,":","', so.ic ryrI rc rI c , rurrr. r, . r, r.ru, . ri.i ll:::,i'l _1,,,i,,",,,9.," ].J, "r

I ' r l c In Il rc d r\L u s s i u : rIl d l h .s i \ol !c( rl re rrori on ot rl .,i rr..nlor n ra tro | o t s o c i c ty i n a d i rccti on that w oul d enabl e such a c o n ' l n u n rc a ri v e c o rn p c l c n c e l o characl cri ze a D rcrD bcrs of ' . ' j i , l y . Iro r t(.c l Iro to ts ,(rt.u c i c ry ca o ty bc I i ,ri r,Ii ,l ri i rs fut.cr(. J r c ,\u L rJ r(Lto l )u b tj . (o n tru l . B Ll . tor l l ri \ tu tr" pp.rj . Jr.(u:su ,' l l " ' .' , I' rv c ro L ,c rrr c rrrl r m" i r ut..ri o,r:n,r .,, ..ri r.,rI n. : ' 1" i rrf u l l ' rr.' tc tu .rl L )fru \ i j t c rrJ , i trri ,.l i \. l l ..rcl or., !rt,Ln.rr r i||r y :rn dc v e ry s p c c c ha c t_ (.r,rl c ,l )U rrj \ s ,\.i ,.rv rtr,.r c\r . .r.,t, . ,,t ..,r.rr.. ..r .i . . ,ll or \.u t\rr c s ttt-,o l ,rl i o l l . I u r

Science,Languoge and ldealo|y

'r9

' I hc !a1i dn)ot lcont cnr por ar $or yl ld- ! i. Nsis s. : cur cd r hc cati onstruclur cr vhichcxclud. sdiscusivcwilllot r 'ahor ' bari er ro cor nnunicalioi! hich nr akca llclion I 'ccisclv ol 1r 'c rcciIfocal inrputationof rccourl.bility, sufpon x! !he srdc linrc rIc bcliei in lcgilima.y tblt suslainslhc fiction and Prclc.ts ils bcrng l i uod our. l hat is t hc pr r adoxicalacl, ic! ccnt olidcologics{li. sc '' i ndi vi d!al pr ot ot ypcis I hc n. ur ot icdislur bancc. ' I' hi s appro ach allows us t o gaugc t he ext cr r ! of it lcoloSyin any soci otyby cou nlcr posingt o lhc aciual st ar eof at t ir i$ Lhequcr t ior l: how w oul d t he sr em bcr soI a socill s) st en, xl a gr vcr rslr lc ') l dcl cl opmcntot pr oducLilclor ccs,hr ! . coll. clir clyadd br r xhr r r Lv i ntcqnetedr heirnceds( u d whichnor n, swoul( lr hcyI iLv. r . ecPr . r l ir t hcycoulda, r d! ould hr vt Llc. id. (tt) t rr l) cor iloi/ r r n) r l asj usti l l ed) of soci rl i nt cr cour sct hr ouSlr( li5. u, si\ . r vil- ii) r inr r il)r . siLl) r ( l equal ckD o$lcdgcot t hc linir inil co. dniois r r t l ir r r 'cLkt r r 'lr r ) 1ir r r ti vcsof thcir socict ll"' Thus l hbernras wishcsLoconcludc lhll l) is. r ilicisr t r , r f iLlr Lr l|1ltt s nol arbi i fary but is'ilr hcr ct r Li lhc ! c1r - st nidr r ic ( ) l ! ) ( iir l ir . lior r and l anguage'int o whiclt , ir r lhcir t ur n, nr ostvnlLr c\iLr cincx{r i'r l) l} nlct r bcr i r ur r ) ion'l r r r d ', Oi l y i n dn cnuncif r t cd socict - \lvhosc conr nr uni. r t nt hr r vc dc No! ld hxd bccn r c! liz. d. rcsfonsi b ilit y vclopcd irno tlrc non authoritarisn and uriv.6.llY lricticcd d'tr cgo const r t ut cd l oguc noDrr vhi. h bolh our nr odclof r ccil) r ocally r r . r lw. ls im ! liciLll! t cr ir . d i dcD l i tyaDdouridcr of t r u. conscn$N To thi s cxt cnl t he t r ut lr ot st at . nr cnlsis bas. d oD unt icit r t ingt hc real i zrti orof lhc goodlif c. : r I1 ;s o( sur pr isir r gt hr t lllbcr r ncs's widc'r angir r g i( lcr s I 'it vc r i scd scvcft r lot r ject ions. lhe par allcl I lal) ef nr r s is kccr r lo df nw betw cen psycho. r r allsis and social libcr r t ion is susl) e'jt boLh bcc,rusci t i n volvesan illcgit inr r lc r llovc ko r lhc iDdivid ll 10 t ho soci al arrd a l$ bcct Luscin f sychoanalysr st hc Pr occssr s ooo 01 w i l l i ng co-opcr alion, t r hcr c4' t his is u likell' t o bc Ll) c cas' in rr l i bcrati on tto nr socir l d! r nr inr t iolr .N1( t c ccr r t r r lll, lhc cqur LLit )ot sir r ce specilic cndr gh is nol i dcol ogy $i tlr dist or lcd cor nm unicr lion 'l'hc co ccn' \ ! bolc is idcological rot al l di stor t cd com I nunicalion LfrLl i ,)rol hngur gc and r onr nNnicir Livc conr pct c! t c \ ccI r s 1o Icgl ccl n)!l r ii: r ldonr inllio'r r r r d cLr ssint . t . ( l' |. c. s: lli t r r r l. ( l. r f 'l

70

Idealogy

conmunica(ion may not be enough 10 secure an emancipated society if accessto wcalth and statusare not silnilarly eaualized. Bul, hotlcrer tornrrlandrbsrractmuchof hisprescnlaiior;mrv be. HabcrnashassucceeLled in uniringthc rtrenrei ot science, lrnguage aDd ideology more i[terestingly than any othcr conlemporary lhinkcr.

Ideologyandthe 'Endof History' Bolb structuralismand thc very diftcrent appioachof I'labernlas have reccnlly conrc under altack from lhe increasinglyinfluential vicw ol the world known as postmodcrnism Poslmodcrnismis - like almostasclusivea conceptasideologyitsclf.tThisis bccausc post's!ructuralism - il post-Chrislian, tcflns lhc Post-Marxist, dennes itselt Dcgalively.Criiical and mockingly dcs!ruclivc' i1 rejects even vcry broad and tentalive altcmpts to IiDd sonre ior our thoughl.It turnsall our 'isms'iDlo'wasDsand tounda(ion rcsolutelyturrs its back on ettorts to give sonc overall accour! of elcvales our nature and desliny: it wishcsto be PosGeverything, evenreasonilselfasthc incoherencelo its definingf€ature,and.sees mere tool of a Niclzscheanwill to pow€r. All this sounds coil_ fusinglyrelativist.However, no thinkers,noteven Poslmodernisls, can b; consistentlyrelativistswithout disappearingcomplclely up tbeir owD backs;des.So the most useful approachwill be to ask whethcrposl odcrnismis nol itsclian idcologywllichwill, in tutn' suggestthat we look at the socialand historicalcoDtextin which it hasarisenand Ilourishes Poslmodenisn is a reactionto, aDdan exteDsiono[, Dodernity' on moJcrnil):il LvcsanJ lccJson its It is in e\ery rcspcclparasilic ils dilcmmas arrJ on rchievemcnts 'zBy moJernity'hereis mc.rrrl (he Enligbtcnment proiect of achievingincleasingnaterial and nroral progrcssior humankind lhrough the aPpUcalionof scicncc and reasoD.This projcct, like thc Christianityit was in maoy ways involvedan accountoI wherewc havecotnc to supcrcede, intcDded wc are wherc froln, 8oing,how )vecanget lhere, aDdwhy we should of thc wholc of lhc go. BuildinS on the subversion to bolhcr

72

kleojagy

Wcstcrr)phitosophical trirdjric,nto bc tound in wrirerssuch as Niclz-sche and Ilcideggcr,posrmodcrrrisr thinkercarc trDica v scepticalof such universalscherncswhich ,f,"y ."fi'1,,,"-, Iarralives':theyprefcrto corccntraleon srlllucFscatc accounls or rrll atrvcsa LIdcnylhalsuchaccounls cdr be unitcd,rnd judgcd,in r(i.nr.of \unrcu!cr.rr.tri g ,rccr,uj,r :'I|JtuJg(rlcnr. PustrnoJcrni,t rhilkersco .cII|Jtc ull thrc, .t- .. lir.r, :r, Lr t,, r tcaJirBc\t,,rrc l .,rchi, Lrc,lu(\D(r r.J r, $c \ l.:, c Lu "ilrirg o"c,r c"LUrlll:r wirrrrcatiryrt UUEtr,(,r.oI, bur nItJ r.rruubtrul rl. Wlr(.nslru(tourrL(uunl,orjcrtil) In$^rLt..t.r:l r\u 'rr.rgcsr'l

:u rc.rrrrl c.,rr.i,r, rr,,rrc$,,rJ,. i,IJ!,, :.llli,i::'1.:lil:,llll,, ",,,,ick,. qc u\cru_J{\cr.bc 1r,trr ,r ur ,rc,"..r.rc'r,s,ir" :llll ll'",:lllll" frc(u('UrJt $( hJvc rrJc of rL.rtrtv

!t( tr1 brrc rt. 1t..ri urr Ir''rs.rtdu. cJtrur(jIrpJc,\ L,J(hn I r,.rtir) qJ), r :1.j,*,1."' rl|.'rInIxc r"J_iDt](pcllllcrrt r J. r. ir !\crc. nr.r. ur (ru,, r_.1ur... ror| or rt t"\,L,lcIrrri(rt(ijr ki J u I(is(Itcrb p Iulrt(,,r,,r,, "

r'll,' b(r\\(cj'I rour(vci,,Lt,r,;,r,ij,ri,{ rr/.*, l,:1i',i: r nir r0n.l:,llfl ,l l y l trc l tr(o't""s ri s l \ u rtc rh c i r

!u i,.c,Ir l l rr l c\r (tu\., l tr.,(rt,c ' r c f c r c $r' rl o l o | g e r c x i s ts ' .{ .t.h e rc i s a w el l _know n story oi rn . r r r r i( r r ' i rt. w h n w r\ l s k (J rt,u t l Ic tL,ur-:,t.,,r ut l l .c $ urt, r r . t r r ' r rrr.rttl rc $ ,,ttl l rr\i c J u .,fi .t,.ptrJ| | l . j r. \! ,.k( Lt$,.,t t,.{ c r . t ' I j' l r{ \l c J ,, . Irc j c p trc L ll l r-r i r rcsrrJ,, r r rurrtr i rj sr.. rr f r ( Ll \ v tr.rt rc tu l ( rc s l c J o l l . trL .r, p l i uJ: .rr.s l u l ,.\ j .t tt,( $.,\

rtrvu gsc trrr r c iI Ltr r gcr urr .^i,rrs,...r ,,1

::,no l l ' l "trrJl llr).r"c,,Irt,tel(.1) '," ," 1 ," 'l ,r .rnJ JcsceJi.rs irr u :pir..t uf rrr,t.t.. nrct.rphor. Sccond,thesclfis held1(lbe ; lo gerureco trdcnr nod sovc'cignbciDgot'nuch roderDisr lhoughl.i|c sclt is no torgcl llr( l\rlcnri:,ilnrd (rt.r ir survcyrrrnJ.r,1.,btc,,r \t,rt,. C hr.rortr.l i( r ' , r dJ lf { s r

r T Il D J DJ i l l r\. I l ,| j { .tfl rJ, LL.(.1,r-,,,.rrucr,.:., c r c . ( Dr r L u , ty l .r(i y i th c $ o rt u f Fuu,.,l l l r $t.use ,l U .tr(, uI ir lr lu\ r L5 ,l u | l rrd c ri l h c h i ,tU ry ,,1 1 ,1 1.gn1;,11.1.f ,c\u:rtrry,t,. cd

i Ji!iJu.rlir) is rrs c trri. r ru jic )" \ ' o rrru rr. J :.:'1. l'"",'1"',,.::, Fy" l,crvri\ c in,r,cr\u rcr.rtiu.r. ur porr,..r ur llll. fl.lf,:.. "r ,,,::l:ll. rsJ,, iM,rriL,'rrrrcr,.ccIr LrJr( i, .",i,:lr,.rhc rrctrr(ot,,6y u .r nr lstr:r,tcrt uf o u r t t r, u"rg t"r",r' , .,., , ,, , , , .".,,i.1 ,,,,"u

wlr r ( lr r \ j j l i ' t\' rl ):rl ^ fJ r rt. c IJ . tt l l r..r( $(rc ro o,..ur r,. ttr! t r c r ( . f it ri r,, r i l c c (l u ri rrru tL r i ,.r, \i )i t,r ro r .r. ut .trc r nr r g r , I r(Il l rr. s u u l J b c u J L t,, rr ttrj rlrnJ $,,u1Jt...( l ttr.L..r t . u( r . f ir , r l \' (l rr. rtl r\r rn !h ( ,J n (t I.y rh( i cunr;rrft,.tL. l t.IJ, l, . ul, nt c r,l ,l ,,,.trl ,r.rt(. tt,( r\r\t,.l L c ,., ,ri rtcr.,,.., ,..,..,, .,,,j

Idealogyand the End ol IIistary'

73

di vcrsi tyfor l hci r own sir kes.Thc cilor l t o hom ogcr izc, t o im pos|r fal seuni ty i s chrracter islicoiideologicalt hinki|9. Sincet hcr e is no foundati on of feal i t y t o which t hougbt can be sublect edand sincc fl cn thc scl l i s di l i dcd in lhaL t hc r alional suf cr cgo oi I r r cud lia! gi l cr w ay to tl )c anror pl) ousr t r d slippcr y O t hcr oi Lacan. lhcr c is no sl andpoi rl tro r whicL lo im f osc a unillr olr Lhc spont r ncoLr s di vcIsi !y(' i cxi stcnco. Thc di sappcarrnc c ot a slablcr calily r nd ola st r ble conccpt ionot l hc scl t have obvi ous pam llelswit h r ecentecor om ic de\ '. lopm cnls suchas the anti l tanningvicwst hat sur f accd dur ing t hc ilcr gnlr xnd ' Ihatchcr vcrrs. l hc donr inancc ot t hc't r cc' m r r kct lcd lo r ! cconomi c nnrrchy i D which, in M ar x's t am ous phr asc, 'all t hr t is sol i d mel ts i nto ai i ."TI le im pr essionoit hc hck of soli( li! y in social and ecooorni cl i i e w as r einf or cedby t he accelef at ioniD t he ( ur novcr ti mc ol c.rpi l al fosl cr ed by lhe gr owlh of inf onnat ion t ech|ology. ]' hi s car bc sccn as L hccult ur al logic of t hc lalc capit . r lisr in wlr icl) l hc ' i nbrn:rl i on sociely' not only pr o. luccs ncw t heor ics ol hnguagc but i n l vh ich'acslhet ic pr oduct ion loday has bcconr c i ntcgratcd i nto conlm odit y p. oduclion gcner ally:t he iir niic economi c urgcncyof pro ducir r gir esh r avcs oi cvcr r nor c r ovcl- scc|r n, l goods (i .onr cl othing ! o acr oplancs) , al clcr S. cr t cr r r t cs of l ufnol cr, now asl i g nsan incr casinglycsscnlialst r uct ur l|lf unct ion In a and posi ti oD to aeslhct ic innoyat ion ar d exper im cnt aLion'. ? soci cl y w hcre p.rc kagingand im r ging ar c cr ucill i' t hc sxlc ol pol i ri csas much as o f bcor , whcr c t im c and spr cc t r c i|cr c sir gl) conrprcsscdby i rri or nr at ioDsupcr - highways,whcf c ncw\ r et ) of t s rrc rei cfred l o as ' st or ies'and m ur der ouslyr I ,nr cd nat r or rst xlesas ' pl rycr s' , i t i s D ot surpr isingt bat r calir y bcconr esvir t ur l and pci) |llJ ) t lr eir iodividu. r lilics. s bcgi n 1()l oseany l i r concept ior of S one hovc sccn poslnr odcr r ) isnrt hcor ies as subvcr sivc oi dd aul hofi tafi an i dcol o giesaDd t hus poinling t o t lt c clner gcnccol an ul tra-pl ural i stsoci e ly iu which dif f er er r rcolloc! ivosocial pr nclicc$ coul d Il ouri sh-In 1l ) isconlext t he conceptof civilsocicly has adca s(fi ki D grcturn to polit icalr lr ouShl:lhe r nif ying slalc has ir ilc( l r s a nroral proj ccr and cjvil sociclywit l) it s vr r ict y of ir r ( it Lr t ions,clr 'l) s, pr es r e gr oups is scc'r r s t hc r dca s troi cssi onal associat ior raDd w herc di vcrsi ty call bc f oslcr ed. '! O t hcf s havc suggcst cdt ha( t hc bcl i ci i hat rl 1 thought is idcologicxl r d nr er cLy{Lr ! ]ar iiculr Lc cxprcssi onof conl l ict inginlc. csls. r nddcsir esis it seli aI l idcologyr ll ot r jcct ivilywit h ot i ts ow n." ' l t contLr ses - br Lt\ ! c 'lisinl. . cs{. ! lncss

74

kteatagy

L. , r l r.r!(.r\(i l J rj c c t i | | tc r(s r Irti Ll .rrr,..rrtt,cl r.r,l r I,u.t ,JJ,,r,(L ' Il r.h t.tu IJ \tr,b :\, Il ,! ,Iful Lctrl .r.ftr ..l .u.,r {t ..tr.L ' \ I . r \J Irl .]i Ir i D r(rt,l .ry L t rl rc turi c.r,tt,r$.r B ].t., Irrrfttj rr. 'rr.\'11c. s r r c c n o o rrcrsd rs rn te rc s l e dl ,h c rc i s o such thi ng asotrj ccl i vi l y buL u' r l) rl c n L l l c 5 \rta s tr u r t(j j t(u i ! ... l ,.,rrrr.tcrrri .ri , " c. r ... 1, ,:". ,,rrucJ. ro

ijlJu.{ i, \cpri\r,, i rr t, ,, \ir) $t.i.t. 1:ll':"||1, crrc(rrvcr) lir!r'ur\ r Lo .(j\Jt;nl uul.rcrir,grhi ,,.,.,,; F., \lur rurcr. rnrr tlorl|nuJr ,r\t srrrrr.. .u,tr .,, tt,,,r,tr,t .,r,1. rJ (crrJ Lv',l.rrJ. lo h,Ir,,!cr,r/( irrrerc,r .. r,, (qLjrt. .. I J(\ .. J Inu\ llr. r'.1\cs ..r\ rf $lri.lr ir lLr. n., rL.ir(. ..IJ 'l.lt||tc 'rt ror),rrcrs lrc rnorcjnr|x)rllllrLha othcrs:1trcirrrcrcsls ol slanrp, (,,llcrl, JD,l t\,liti.ir \ rj c LLcr,ttr..\..Irr 'rs S(rne hnvc scen posrmodcrDisnr r\ rt fccvctilgof lhc ,cnd of .

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tdeolagyondthe EndaJHistory'

75

Thc rrrostsucccsst ulI ) r oponcntol t hc cnd oi illcolog) nnr l indcccl of hi sl ory i tsel t, is Fr ancis l'lkayam a. I I is ar liclc 'l- hc Er r d ol xr ouscdinr ncdixt e a] ] ( l ot 19E9ib H i sl ory?'publ i sh cdin ! ir c sur nr r r er f ollo\ 1ed by a book ent it lcd 'r i r r lt r &l cnormouscontro vcr syr nd was on inarr) ol its which elabor.rr.'d ol Histot), atkl thc Last iVaI t hal't hc unabr shcd thcnrcs.' 7In hi s ir r t iclc Fukaya|na ar gucd ri cl ory of econonr icand polilical libcf aUsm ovcr all cor npclit ols nrerD l ' nol j Lrstth e end ol t hc cold \ \ af , or LhcI ) assiogof r par lic! lal is, llr e l cri o.l of hi stor y. but t hc c d . r l lr islor y , r s such: t hit t end-poi nt of nrankind'sidcological clolut ion and lhc ! r r lvcr st t lr s' ati on oi W estcfl) libcr ! l d, jnr ocr ac) as lhc linal t or n ol hur r r r r i) govcrnnert' .r3 Fukayar nawasnot clt iinir r g t hr l t hcf c woulJ bc lr o nrorc cl cnts, bu! only t hr t lhc f inal conccplut r l ir nd I ) oiLllcal lvould r ale placchr dr Lcaily bccr i runrew ofki n shich 11lesccven1s achi cl ccl .l n thc pas1,war had Lr ccna gr cat c. r t lys! ot clr r lr 8c:br '( lo dnl c thcfo hrtdbo cr rr o cxr m pt c of libcir ldcnr ( ) cr r lic slir L. tgoit { lo w nr w i th onc a r r ot hcf sincc. wir h ( lr c dcclinc ot idcolog) . Ll) e f!rti cul ar' ni ercs t shit hcr t opur sucdbya. 1cdconllicLcouldnowL) c absorbcd i nto thc conr pct it ions ol libcr xl capit r lisr n Nor dr d Fukryanra sec t hc pcr sis( cnceot f over L) iI r Wcst cr n socict icsr r s crsl i rg doubt on his l1) esis:Povcr t y w: 's due, noL t o r lr r r kcl ilr f cc\ , bul l o cul i ufrl disad! r |lr ge which \ vould cvcnlLr allybc clinr iniLlcd i n thc facc of t hc consur cr xbundt r ncc Pr oduccd i) y t odcr n c.rt)i tal i snr.I{or co! cr , Fukr yr nr a did noL chin) t hr l lhc c d ol hi storyyi el deda t cr lcclsociely onlyt hailhcr cwas opf os|lct ol lsh ! r bel tef al tcrnalivc t o libcm l capilalism .Nat ionr lism r Diglr llouf oul si de thc nrost hist or icxilyad! r ncecl coulr t r iesoI lhc wo d, bul thcLrgcccooi )n r icpowcf swouldconciuct lhcir r ivr lr yin r hulut ur c o]r!) byw arsoi tradc. lhcr cyivr lolr cligioust und! m cnt t Llisr n, loo, w as pcri phcrrl : it was ouly of r c. r l signil) canccin lslr r lt r r ( lt vc hcrc l i rni l ed 1oa r clllivcly snr all. 1r crol t hc wor l( l As lor socialisnr , thc onl y tl l usi ble var iar r llcit alr cr t hc coll. r pscoi cor nnr unr sr \n\ r s thc pol i ti cs oi socir l dcr nocr acylvhich poscd no llt r cli Lo I : Lr kir ynnrr' s l l resi ssi occit f ully acccf t cd llic pr ir nr cy ot nr nr kct I clnlions. l ' \rkryri nx' s t hcsiswas lhlt lhcr c $ s lD ur ) ! lr f \ ir ) ircvol|lr or r iLf ) di recti on ro hi st or y ar d t lr ilt iL ar f ivcd at r I cr r d sr r lu ir ) whi. h h!man nrl urds i built st r ugglen) r ir r dividur l r eco$r iliot \ o( Ll, j , r ( hst b!' sal i s{ l cd r nd 1h. r 1lhc lr . r nr c*nr k lor t his \ r lr 'liLcr Lor\ f' ir s LL ilr . frovi dc(l k,ri rl l ibcr ir lclcnt ocr r li. ! t llcr r t ! ir list ! , . l) Lr . i ilir r 's 1l) c, ) f yi) j lr of Ihi s rccou t is r cnr ir r isccJ)o1 '1, , 1\

!,-l 76

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f ldcalogy

mc lor of Fukayarna is Nlarx'srcncbrrHcgel.Thc I)hilosodrical philosoplrical backgroundltr lrhich Fukayanaappeats is Hoget,s I'hcMDrc olog, in thc idiosyDcraticinlerprerariongivcn ro ir io Parisin the 1930sby the Itussia cnrigr6,Alexrrdrc Kojafe.i, Ccnl(rl to Ilegel'swholcph'losophy, accordiag LoKojave,wrs thc dialcclicbctweenrnastcrand slave:l)isrorycontinuediI) rhe pas! bccauscrhe separalion andslfugglcbctwecnmrrsters \rhowcnl to wirr aDd slaves*irc loiled precludedrny muturl rcspcctand rccognilio oi individualwork anddiSnjryWilh thc spreadoi the principlcsoi tbe FrenchR€volutio, howcver,univcmalcquatity ,ls ! was rchieved.Each pcrson,.ccivcduniversal_ recognirioo Cilizcnenjoyingallpolilicrlrighlsandasa "juridicalpcrson" orrhc civil law' and 'dcs;rothus berig ertircly sarislicd, struggtcard Irbour ccase:historyis over,lhcre js Dothingnorc /./ d.7'.,0i'hjs abscncc oicfforl wasnot,,lllo lhe good,ho$evcr, rdar lhe cndot pninlcd a ralher gloonr/picrureof lhe his xrlirle Fukoyanra cltitalist clc.!rityh.loresdlvin which'thccndol historywi bc a vcry slldlin)c.'l r! slrugglch ccognili0n, thelvillilgncsslo risk (,ncs Iitc tor a_.purcly rbslracrgool,'hc wo.ldwidcideototical strugglcllrl calledtortlrd:rring,courlgc,irrrrginatior and iticai_ i\rr),wit,.)crcplxccdby econor)ric cal(ihrioD,thcendtcss sot!ingoi cor)cenrs, rcchninrlpdtcnrs, crvifontncnrat anrt saristrciiori of cursUI'r(r.lrnr:,DJ\.In rhc pn,r.tr:,.Jr,(.,t ,,,t,r.r\lr.-.lcLr p..r,rJ ll'Lrc $rl lJc Ircrrlrcrrit r.or tIlo:utlrJ jJsl ll|c t(.t\lL..l r\(urD ,,i tl! lrunr-||sl,irit., ltrc u{t .l .rr(t:nr'rI "l li'( did indccd paiDi grcyo grc). N{no.v 'lhus Irukayanra s posilioni5 a bir nr,JrcrllrDrvatcnt tha| his putnlionas r bourgeois triu plr.rlistn)ighlsuggest..I.hcsc x|lr. r'rgurtrcr $rr( \l r, Dgrl,ljncd i lh( lhrrc )..rr . rtrJrc.:,t,{(lI ct$(crl nrc ur'8 rrl tlrtr\'1(: rJ irs crl,orirti,,,rIn L,ouktofiL cr.. I ukaya]n pro!idesrn overalttfieoryoihistory whichsrrcsscs tllc rolc ,'l 'fl(IIc(. unlca\cJL')cijtital,m.ill ttre.rtr,tJir,8ot I.- r:r.rs.,.rr,. l.lc tullrc$$,II(gcl'\ rc(uU0lof llrc qucsttur, xi.r.j i.,l r(J.I. rrrlturr $ ttI a Jc\(ritrrio .{ tlr ..t) ilcJ ,,r I rlrut, le,rrrrrirI'rurr..rrr nature d.awn from plaDl Retubtic. .n1;s rathcf atrstracl I d generrlizcdphilos(,phizir)g is supplcnrcnlcd by an cxlcrdcdand t|lcrr ircc0unl|)[ (hercccrrl progrcss oidcnrocracy acr(]ss ltrcgtobc_ 'l hc isjtil rtrrl .if wc arc Dowat .r poil]rrvjrerc 8cncrulrrcssaSc rrc ri,rnrrl i rir,.-,r(.j$,,,lJ.uL'.,.,rrtr:,|\,1.r...r,..I rrr,lr wnr'r, U'.'( r\ 1,\ q.,\ i $t.i.h .h..t, u . $r Iit,:,r.rr,,r,'b\r,,,r,

tdeolagyondthe EndalHistory'

77

rcpresenta [undamenta]improvonrcnt over our currentorclcr,lhen we must also take into considerarionthc lossibilily that History ilseltnight be at anend'." Ir lhe lasiseclionofhisbook,Fukayarna ironr 1wocriticisms rums1()the secondhalfolhisiitle andimagincs Lcil and ]light to tho ciicct that the vcry liftilcd natureof hunrtrn prospectsthat he describcsdoesnot allow for thc ntostfunda|nental aspiralions of huoranDaturc.From the Lefl conresthe de and lo eritendhunan righlsto promotc a radicalegrlilarirnism llere corrcchcss' lukayamajoins thc recentbacklashagainst'political Il is,howcvcr,the challergcfronr ledb) histeacherAlan Bloorrr.'?r the Righl thai f-ukayamalakes more s€riously:that some will on pfospcfl()'rnd regardasshallowasocretybrscdsolcly incvilably eificicncyand slfivc, no1 to be equal to othcrs. but lo bc pre'crnirentolcr thcn, thus subvcrlinglhe vcry princiPlcsof Fukayanrais irirly optunisticaboutthc capaliberaldemocfucy. thoughthc crilicisnts, lo copcwith Orese b;lityof libcrrl dcnrocrrcy to his book doescrvis ge rhc possibilityoi hrsrorys coDclusion jourr)cy.''lt is tlirgontraiDscttirgou! (rr r ncw xnd r)orc disturr( isdccl,ly to realizcllralon sonrccrucialPointsIrukayanra inrport:irrt His strong historicrl mc!rrrrfutive sctms ou1 ot anrbislrous. postnrodcnrisrn but ri rhc srmc rinrche k€epingwith fashtunable pluralisrnof contcnporrry socicty.'5 endorscsthc directionless ffom anyoncwho t.ics10nritrryl'141o trurlher,asmighlbo cxpecled 1o Hegel and thcir laiier-day,ii partial.disciplcsSlrrussand oilhe retraclshisconlldenlasscr!iolr sonretirnes Koji!e, Fukay,rIna erd ol history.His readingsof Plato and IIcgel afe, ot course, extreDelysclccti!'e:ior Plalo, as his most articulatenrodcrn i terprcterSimoneWeil has shown,humrn achicvcncntis dLre And thaDto s€l{-aggrandizenrent. muchnrore1oselttranscendoncc centraltollcgcl'sfiewoihistoryis noisirugglefof recognilio but progress in theconsciousncss of freedonl. Fukayana's wriling has generalcda lot ol Unsurprisingly, journalistic the hyPcwilI whichhis {irsl Aparl kom conlroversyfofm thc greel€d, coocentfatc in an acccssible was his ideas arliclc enthusiasms ard worriesof thc cnd of the twcnlicth ccntury hisaccountdoesrcvcrl scriousgapsrnd wcrknesses Ncveflhclcss to lind a completoneglcclof FfeLrdin rt book*hich It is surprising ot (I]chuina,r with the dcsircsrnd lnotivations dealsso cxtensively Fukayanlainilsto cngagescriousl!witll nrind.Nloreinrporlanll]-, of the strug!lctof dcscription cill)crfcnrinisnr hi! individual;stic

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