Unisex Brands

An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article

An international study of unisex and ``same-name'' fragrance brands Scott Markham

Associate Professor of Marketing, Department of Marketing & Management, The University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA

Joe Cangelosi

Associate Professor of Marketing, Department of Marketing & Management, The University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas, USA Keywords Brands, Consumer behaviour, International marketing, Perfume, Image Abstract Examines the perceptions and preferences of fragrances by females. The sample was taken from nine cities across three continents. Of the two major fragrance concepts examined, unisex fragrances have been introduced, with only about half the respondents in the nine cities (six countries) surveyed in this study being familiar with the concept. Respondents assessed the effects of ten factors on the fragrance decisions. The joint effects of ten surveyed factors show major differences between samples as stratified by area, with some consistency among the top factors, as supported by ANOVA and MANOVA analysis. Chi-Square analysis of unisex and ``same-name'' fragrances indicated significant differences in four of six variables. The ten surveyed factors were ``scent, European fragrance, price, brand (purchased for self), brand (purchased as gift), mood, season, free items with purchase, container, and color.'' ``Scent, price, brand and mood'' were the dominant variables. Significant differences existed between the respondents in the three major geographic areas, USA, Europe and Asia for seven of the ten factors, i.e. European fragrance, price, brand purchased as a gift, mood, season, container, and color.

Markets' perceptions are shaped by physical senses

Introduction Markets' perceptions are shaped, in many instances, by physical senses ± smell, sight, sound, taste and touch (Soloman, 1996). Fragrances, employing the sense of smell, and to a lesser degree sight (bottle/color of fragrance/ package) are chosen by many women to match their mood, or to enhance or change the image they have, or, are trying to create for themselves. In other words, to enhance and support their self-concept; to become the woman they perceive themselves to be. Objectives Research objectives were to determine respondent familiarity with the unisex fragrance concept, to investigate women's preferences for this concept, and to determine their inclination toward purchase. Similar objectives (familiarity, preference, and purchase inclination) were applied to ``samename'' fragrances. Additionally, this paper analyzes ten factors, seeking to determine their motivational value in causing purchase intent or behavior among women from various cultures. Background Medina and Duffy (1998) believe that a new definition of ``globalization'' is called for in relation to a highly uniform product, sold internationally. The term ``globalization'' is used in connection with ``standardization,'' The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emerald-library.com

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``adaptation,'' and ``customization.'' They believe globalization is ``the process of adopting country and target-market-dictated product standards ± tangible and/or intangible attributes ± from environments around the world to achieve a highly uniform product.'' Marketing an unchanging brand of fragrance in different countries meshes with this new definition of a global product. ``Image is everything in the `beauty' business'' (Threlfall and Ritz, 1994). Products, especially personal care products like perfume and cologne, are bundles of both tangible and intangible attributes designed to satisfy the consumer'' (Kotler and Armstrong, 1993). ``Scents can play an important part in the introduction of a person. As such, they play a significant role in the creation of an image ± a means of presenting the self to others'' (DeLong and Bye, 1990). Image creation

Unlike the earliest use of scents ± to mask offensive odors ± more recent usage has been primarily concerned with image creation. ``Historically, cosmetic, toiletry and fragrance products were available only to the privileged in society. Early beauty aids were often developed within the walls of a temple or monastery'' (Stone and Samples, 1985). Currently there are over 500 firms, in the USA alone, that market over 20,000 brands of cosmetics, toiletries and fragrances (Ainsworth, 1992). Included in this number are the 800+ world-wide fragrance brands (``How to buy a fragrance'', 1993). Two relatively new product/marketing concepts developed to increase fragrance sales are the unisex and ``same name'' fragrances. Calvin Klein developed the unisex fragrance to take advantage of the unisex apparel concept, which had earlier proven profitable for his company. Ralph Lauren's ``Polo'' brand popularized the ``same-name'' concept, i.e. ``Polo for him,'' and ``Polo for her.'' Each of these concepts is based on work done by market researchers indicating the influence of male-dominant fragrance products on females. Popular unisex fragrances include Calvin Klein's CK1 and Ckbe, and Liz Claiborne's Curve. ``Curve'' promotion includes a sweepstakes awarding Sebring Jxi Chrysler convertibles to tie-in with targeting both sexes of Generation X with its advertising for the Jxi (DeCoursey, 1996). Popular ``same name'' fragrances include Ralph Lauren's Safari for men and Safari for women, Halston's Halston for him and Halston for her, Perry Ellis' Perry Ellis for him and Perry Ellis for her, and Red for women and Red for men, in addition to the previouslymentioned Polo brand.

Every commercial fragrance has a function

A huge industry has been built around our primitive and emotional connections to scent. Every commercial fragrance has a function; some indicate product benefits, while others promise romantic benefits. In the perfume industry, marketing and image may be more important than the scents themselves (Wilkie, 1995). While on a recent trip to the south of France, one of the authors interviewed Madame Aloni Gescard (1996) of the Fragonard Parfumeur firm of Grasse, Eze and Paris, France. Madame Gescard stated that most brand name/personality fragrances today are created by fragrance designers, with instructions from the marketer and/ or personality. When the desired scent is achieved, these fragrances are then produced by houses such as Fragonard. The most popular European fragrance types, listed in rank order of importance, include floral, natural/

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sporty, citrus and oriental/spicy, with the most popular retail price in the US$40.00-60.00 range per ounce. When the unisex fragrance topic was mentioned, she believed this concept was more of a fad in Europe and would decline in importance. In regard to ``same name'' fragrances for men and women, she said this concept was very popular in Europe and believed it would remain so for the immediate future. Wilkie's (1995) research postulates reasons for using fragrances based on the age demographic ± ``thru the teenage years females are interested in competing with new body odors, defining their territory and attracting men; 20s ± same as the teen years; 30's ± to attract men and for special occasions; 40s ± to please oneself; and 50+ ± to be socially acceptable.'' This current study describes the respondents by age, as well as other demographics, and reports their preferences by more specific factors such as scent, price, brand and ``mood in while shopping.'' Cultural differences

Cultural factors affect awareness and willingness to purchase many products and services. Cultural differences exist due to differences in the geography, infrastructure, natural resources, types of businesses, length of time the culture has existed, and other factors present in the various countries around the world. These effects were measured across three large cultural groupings ± American, Western European and Asian. The specific cities and countries are listed in the following section. Methodology A two-page, 33-question instrument was used to gather the data from women in nine cities, six countries and in three languages. The cities in the USA were: Chicago, IL, Little Rock, AR, and Memphis, TN; in Europe: Luton, UK, The Hague, The Netherlands, Valencia, Spain, and Versailles, France; and in Asia: the city/state of Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The US cities were chosen because the authors had academic colleagues there who agreed to have students administer the questionnaires. The cities outside the USA were chosen randomly from a list of international cities where the authors have former students. The intent was to have responses from both Eastern (Singapore and Malaysia) and Western (USA, the UK, The Netherlands, Spain and France) cultures. The plan was to be able to contrast female fragrance purchase between cultures, as well as test for differences within each. The questionnaire was primarily self-administered. However, as it was handed out face-to-face in shopping malls and town centers, interviewers remained present while the questionnaire was being completed to answer questions. The questionnaire was designed to accommodate language and cultural differences. The Versailles questionnaire was in French, using current franc prices; Valencia was in Spanish, using current peseta prices, and the remaining questionnaires were in English, using current dollar and British pound prices. The demographic questions regarding ``race,'' and ``family income'' were omitted from questionnaires administered in the UK, France, The Netherlands, and Spain, acquiescing with cultural traditions. All other questions were identical for all nine cities.

A cross-section of women

Interviewers were instructed to select a cross-section of women by age and race, based on observation. A strong argument can be made for assuming that the resulting sample was a random probability sample. Richards and LaCava (1983) state that ``given an infinite population, there is really no way to be assured that every possible combination of sample size ``n'' has an equal probability of selection. However, if the process is stable over time and

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sequential observations are independent, the sequential output process can be viewed as a random sample from the infinite population. Hence, when the next ``n'' items or respondents is treated by a process as a random sample, the assumption can be made that the difference between the sequential elements is random (Richards and LaCava, 1983). Such was the case in this study, which employed the ``mall intercept'' interviewing technique. More specifically, the argument for randomness can be made as follows: (1) the continuous flow of customers leaving and entering shopping malls and town centers can be viewed as an infinite population; (2) regardless of the precision used in selecting sample respondents, there is no way to assure that every possible respondent has an equal chance of being selected; and (3) the selection process used was stable and consistent and the sequential observations were independent, even though there was no systematic selection procedure (Richards and LaCava, 1983). A total of 687 usable questionnaires were obtained. The data were analyzed using popular statistical software. Responses averaged 78 per city, with a low of 50 in Kuala Lumpur to a high of 103 in Versailles. Three major cultural orientations

For purposes of data analysis, the nine cities in which questionnaires were administered were collapsed into three areas, based on the continents in which they lie. It is assumed in a relative sense that homogeneity exists for cities lying in the same continents, resulting in three major cultural orientations ± these areas are the American (Little Rock, Memphis and Chicago), European (London, Versailles, The Hague and Valencia), and Asian (Singapore and Kuala Lumpur). The basis for collapsing the data into three ``more homogeneous'' areas resulted from extensive cross-tabulation analysis, which revealed significant differences among respondents by area of administration. These differences were established via the chi-square test for two or more independent samples. Collapsing the nine cities into three areas produced 255 usable responses for the USA, 327 usable responses for Europe and 105 usable responses for Asia. One of the goals of this analysis will be to examine what differences, if any, there are across the three areas in which the questionnaires were administered.

Two major issues

The data analysis for this study centered on two major issues. The first deals with respondents rating the importance of ten factors that could affect cologne/perfume purchases. These ten factors were scent, brand (purchased for self), brand (purchased as a gift), color of the cologne (including the container), price, the package, season of the year, buyer's mood at the time of purchase, free items accompanying the purchase, and the importance of the purchased brand being European. Respondents rated each of the factors on a scale of one to ten, with ``one'' indicating ``very important'' and ``ten'' indicating ``very unimportant.'' This type of itemized rating scale, which has bipolar opposites, yields interval scale data. These ten measures constituted the dependent variables in the subsequent data analysis, which utilized a univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The independent class variable in each of the aforementioned analysis was ``area of administration (AREA).'' The three classes for the independent variable, AREA, were USA, Europe and Asia. The subsequent data analysis will establish which of the dependent variables

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are significantly different across the areas of administration. The ANOVA analysis establishes whether or not respondents differ regarding each of the ten importance factors by AREA. MANOVA is utilized because of the need to examine the joint effects of AREA on the dependent variables, the ten importance factors (Hair et al., 1992). The ten ``motivators,'' or factors that were measured were chosen from the ten ``reasons you buy perfume/ cologne'' as reported by females in four Consumer Behavior classes in a mid-size, public university in the mid-south region of the USA. The second issue for analysis addresses the ``unisex'' and ``same name'' branding concepts for cologne/perfume. Respondents were asked to indicate whether or not they were familiar with ``same name'' and ``unisex'' brand colognes; how they felt about each brand concept; and whether or not they would consider purchasing cologne/perfume utilizing either of the brand concepts. The chi-square test

The chi-square test for two or more independent samples, which accommodates data of all measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) is utilized to evaluate distributions of the responses by major area (USA, Europe, Asia) in the cross-tabulation analysis. Results Demographic profile Most (176) of the 368 women indicating race were white. There were 44 blacks, 17 Hispanics, 22 non-Chinese Asians, 61 Chinese, 33 Malays, and 15 others. Owing to the previously-mentioned cultural restrictions, there were 334 non-answers (the ``race'' question was omitted from the UK, France, The Netherlands and Spain). ``Office-worker'' was the occupation in which most of the women were engaged (306), with the remainder fairly evenly split between ``outdoor work, homemaker, student and `other,''' with an average of about 12 percent in each of these latter four categories. The ``family income'' question was omitted from the UK, France, The Netherlands and Spain for cultural reasons (343 ``no answers''). Of the 359 women responding, income ranged from 16.6 percent under-$20,000 annually, to 2.8 percent over-$100,000. Almost 30 percent reported annual incomes under $50,000. Table I summarizes the demographics of the respondents in this study.

Culturally inappropriate

As indicated earlier, the race and income questions were deemed culturally inappropriate for respondents in European cities. All of the respondents were female. Regarding educational attainment, over 70 percent of the respondents had at least some college. USA respondents were the best educated, but over 40 percent of the Asian respondents had done postgraduate work. With regard to marital status, about 53 percent of the respondents were single, with the highest proportion of singles among the Asian respondents. European respondents had the highest percentage of women co-habiting at almost 16 percent. Age distribution revealed that over 80 percent of the respondents were between 19 and 34 years old, with Asia having the highest proportion, 95 percent in this age range. Using young (under 25) women as interviewees, a younger (under 30) age bias emerged. More fragrance marketers are targeting younger buyers with better products. Thus, the respondent median age of approximately 29 may be appropriate. Givenchy recently launched Fleur d'Interdit, a premium fragrance targeted at 14 to 16-year olds (Beale, 1994).

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Demographic characteristic Gender: Female

Total percent

USA

Europe

Asia

100

Area of administration: USA Europe Asia

37.1 47.6 15.3

Educational attainment: Less than high school High school graduate Some college College graduate Postgraduate

17.0 12.7 29.6 24.6 16.1

9.60 8.80 40.00 28.40 13.20

18.01 19.25 27.64 24.84 10.25

31.73 1.92 10.58 14.42 41.35

Marital status: Single Married Divorced Widowed Co-habiting

52.9 29.6 4.0 1.8 11.7

59.20 26.80 2.40 2.00 9.60

44.58 31.58 6.19 1.86 15.79

63.81 30.48 0.95 0.95 3.81

Age respondent: Less than 19 19-24 25-34 35-44 45 and over

4.6 39.0 48.9 6.7 0.7

3.67 52.24 36.73 6.53 0.82

6.58 30.72 53.92 7.84 0.94

0.97 33.01 62.14 3.88 0.00

Notes: a Because of cultural differences only 51.1 percent of the respondents answered the race question and only 50.2 percent answered the household income question. The great majority of the non-respondents were European regarding the self-administered questionnaire. b Total sample size = 687 c Chi-square test for two or more independent samples indicated @ 9.99 percent confidence: Significant differences in sample distributions area by educational attainment Significant differences in sample distributions area by marital status Significant differences in sample distributions area by age of respondents

Table I. Demographic summary of respondents by area of administration, educational attainment, marital status and age

The chi-square test for two or more independent samples revealed that significant differences existed in the distributions of responses by AREA across all three demographic variables: educational attainment, marital status and age. Demographic profile

One additional demographic measure not reflected in Table I was city size. The largest group of women, 30.3 percent, reported living in what we designated as a ``city'' (50,000-999,999); 24.5 percent said they lived in a large city (1,000,000+); 23.1 percent lived in a medium-sized town (15,00049,999); 14.8 percent lived in a small (under 15,000) town, and 7.2 percent lived in rural areas. The following demographic profile of this study thus emerges: at least some college, single and between 19 and 34 years of age, and living in cities with at least 50,000 people. Summary statistics The results in Table II indicate that only about half (47.9 percent) of the women we surveyed were familiar with the unisex fragrance concept. With the considerable international media exposure, both paid and unpaid,

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Percent of respondents USA Europe

Response

All

Asia

Familiar with concept: (yes) Unisex Same-name

47.9 59.2

65.1 69.8

41.9 62.7

24.8 22.9

Positive toward concept: (percent of those ``familiar'') Unisex Same-name

56.5 56.0

53.0 52.2

56.2 60.0

80.8 50.0

Would consider purchasing: (percent of those ``familiar'' ± yes) Unisex Same-name

11.2 8.8

9.0 2.8

13.9 12.7

11.5 20.8

Table II. Aggregate and area results of familiarity with unisex and same-name fragrances

generated by Calvin Klein's androgynous, CK1 unisex fragrance, the 47.9 percent familiarity rate was somewhat surprising. Perhaps some of the women not indicating familiarity, were familiar with the CK1 brand, the first fragrance marketed toward men and women simultaneously, but were not familiar with the term ``unisex.'' Popular unisex fragrance

More than half the respondents (56.5 percent) familiar with the unisex fragrance concept were positive toward the concept. In a related study (same sample), we asked about the women's favorite fragrance brand ± Calvin Klein ranked #1 (Markham et al., 1997). As mentioned, this brand popularized the unisex fragrance concept with its CK1 product. Calvin Klein is also the first marketer to launch a second unisex product ± Ckbe. ``An analysis of the shared, or unisex group shows these fragrances can still reach a broader audience if they continue to open new doors, with unusual distribution methods. As long as hip fashion designers promote shared clothing lines, shared fragrances will continue to proliferate'' (Floreno, 1996). CK1 became available in Tower Record stores, as well as 2,200 department stores in September 1994. It is the first time a prestige fragrance has been sold by a music chain. A major factor prompting Klein to pioneer the unisex concept is the fact that prior to the CK1 launch, 20 percent of all men's fragrance sales in department stores were estimated to be by women for their own use (Sloan, 1994). Regarding predisposition to purchase, 11.2 percent of persons feeling positive toward Unisex fragrances said they would purchase them. However, if ``maybe'' purchase were included the number would be over 75 percent.

The major determinant factor was ``scent''

Of the 37 different reasons given by the women as to why they thought the unisex fragrance concept was a good one, the major determinant factor was ``scent.'' Answers varied from ``Depends on the scent'' (8.2 percent) to ``Because I like the scent'' (4.4 percent). It is surprising that answers such as ± ``To be like my partner'' (0.6 percent); ``To share with my partner'' (1.1 percent); and ``To share but still be separate'' (0.7 percent) received such low response rates, as ``to be like my partner'' was the driving force behind the creation of the concept. More than half (59.2 percent) of the women were familiar with the fragrance brand extension with which we were interested, or ``same name'' designer

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concept for both men's and women's fragrances, e.g. Ralph Lauren's Safari for Men and Safari for Women. This was 11 percent more than were familiar with the unisex concept. This could be attributed to the fact that the ``same name'' concept was introduced several years prior to unisex fragrances. More than half (56.0 percent) of the women familiar with ``same name'' were positive toward the concept, virtually the same percent as with unisex. An important condition of brand extension success is consumers' ability to leverage their parent brand beliefs (Aaker and Keller, 1990). Proven profitable for fragrance marketers

Only about 9 percent (8.8) of those positive toward ``same name'' indicated they would purchase a ``same-name'' fragrance, or almost 2.5 percent less than unisex. As with ``unisex'', if ``maybe'' purchase responses were added the number would be over 75 percent. This leveraging of brand name familiarity, e.g. Ralph Lauren's ``Safari for men'', expanding to ``Safari for women,'' has proven profitable for fragrance marketers with the strongest brands. Belief leveraging increases the importance of the brand, and increases the likelihood of attitude consistency with the parent brand. Moreover, an important condition of the success of any new product is consumers' ability to leverage their category beliefs. If consumers can leverage their category beliefs, then it maximizes the chance that the new product will be included in their consideration sets (Ozanne et al., 1992). Data analysis Regarding perceptions toward ``unisex'' and ``same-name'' fragrances by area, Table II reveals greater familiarity by USA respondents toward both concepts, but surprisingly they are the least predisposed toward purchasing. Asians had the highest percentage of respondents positive toward the ``unisex'' concept (80.8 percent) and the highest percentage of respondents indicating that they would purchase ``same-name'' fragrances (20.8 percent). European respondents were most familiar with ``same-name'' fragrances (60 percent) and were the most predisposed toward purchasing ``unisex'' fragrances (13.9 percent). To further analyze the differences in respondents across the three major areas, the chi-square test for two or more independent samples was applied to the cross-tabulated results of each major area by familiarity with each concept, feelings about the concept, and whether the respondent would consider purchasing a ``unisex'' or ``same-name'' fragrance. The results are contained in Table III. Cross-tabulated variables: Familiarity with unisex and major area Familiarity with same-name and major area How do you feel about unisex brand concept and major area? How do you feel about same-name brand concept and major area? Would you consider buying unisex brand concept and major area? Would you consider buying same-name brand concept and major area?

Degrees of freedom

Chi-square value

Probability of insignificance

2 2

38.72 49.42

0.000* 0.000*

2

4.90

0.086*

2

1.36

0.508

4

3.33

0.505

4

18.77

0.001*

Note: * indicates statistically significant differences in distributions of responses

Table III. Chi-square analysis for unisex and same-name brand concept variables by major area (USA, Europe, Asia) 394

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The distribution of responses was found to be significantly different in four of the six analyses, as indicated in Table III. There was a significant difference across respondents by major area with regard to familiarity with the unisex and same-name brand concepts. Regarding responses of feelings by the women toward the brand concepts, there was a significant difference across major areas for the unisex concept, but not for ``same-name.'' Lastly, with respect to purchase consideration, there was a significant difference across major areas for ``same-name'' but not for ``unisex.'' The percentage frequencies in Table II provide logical support for the results in Table III. Similar to the previously discussed unisex topic, when asked why they would consider purchase of a ``same-name'' product, the largest numbers indicated it would primarily be because of scent: ``It would depend on the scent (3.8 per cent); ``If I like the scent, I would buy it'' (4.0 percent)). ``To have the same name as my partner's scent'' (0.4 percent), ``To be like my partner'' (0.7 percent), ``If my boyfriend likes it'' (0.1 percent), and other similar answers. Influence of a spouse or friend

In a follow-up question, only 83 (11.8 percent) of those surveyed indicated they would purchase a ``same name'' fragrance because of the influence of a spouse or friend. As expected, when asked ``why?'', answers centered on ``because we share everything,'' ``to be like my partner,'' and ``the scents complement each other.'' The ``influencer'' role played by the boyfriend/ spouse was thus not a very dominant variable in product purchase. The ``purchaser/decider/user'' was predominantly the female. Analysis of the importance of factors affecting fragrance purchases The questionnaire asked respondents to rate the importance of ten reasons for purchasing their favorite fragrance. Table IV summarizes responses concerning importance of the ten factors regarding purchase of the respondents' current, favorite fragrance brand for the entire sample and for each of the three major areas (USA, Europe, Asia). The results in Table IV indicate that ``scent'' and ``because it is European'' were by far the two most important reasons for purchasing favorite fragrances. Price, brand purchased and mood were also important reasons. The ``mood the women was in during the shopping experience'' was the fifth

Factor Scent Because it is European Price Brand name (purchased for self) Mood when purchased Brand name (purchased as gift) Season of year Items given free with purchase Container/bottle Color (liquid, container)

All responses

USA

Europe

Asia

1.33 1.87 3.68 4.25 4.40 4.74 4.79 5.02 5.09 5.33

1.32 2.69 3.55 4.23 4.08 4.58 4.77 5.07 5.43 4.96

1.34 1.04 3.69 4.27 4.40 5.05 4.53 4.82 5.00 5.38

1.34 2.30 4.12 4.21 5.55 4.10 6.04 5.64 4.24 6.36

Note: ten-point rating scale with bipolar adjectives: 1 = very important to 10 = very unimportant

Table IV. Descriptive statistics of factors affecting cologne/perfume purchases: aggregate and by major area JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 8 NO. 5 1999

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most significant variable which influences purchase behavior. It is the only subjective variable included with the other nine objective variables. Regarding the important reasons for purchase by the three major areas, the greatest differences are as follows: brand name (whether purchased for self or as a gift), color (liquid, container), price, container/bottle, season of year, mood when purchased and because it is European. Subsequent ANOVA and MANOVA results will either support or negate the aforementioned observations. ANOVA was used to evaluate significant differences

A univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to evaluate whether or not there were significant differences in the responses for each factor by area of administration. The results are presented in Table V. The results of Table V indicate that significant differences existed across major areas for seven of the ten factors. The factors for which there were no significant differences by major area regarding importance levels were ``scent,'' (the dependent variable with the highest average importance), ``brand name when purchased for self'' and ``items given free with the purchase.'' Regarding the factors deemed most important by respondents, significant differences by major area exist for ``because it is European,'' ``price'' and ``mood when purchased.'' Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is an extension of the analysis of variance technique and tests for significant differences across two or more criterion variables or factors. Hence, MANOVA is used in this study to assess whether or not significant differences exist for all ten importance factors when comparisons are made by the major areas which were sampled. MANOVA examines the joint effects on the dependent variables, the ten importance factors, by the independent variable, ``major area'' (Hair et al., 1992). The MANOVA result via Hotelling's T is also contained in Table V, and indicates that there are significant differences for the ten importance factors across the ``major areas'' surveyed. Hence, the results of this analysis indicate significant differences in how respondents in the USA, Europe, and Asia evaluate the ten importance factors measured. Mean importance Factor Scent Because it is European Price Brand name (purchased for self) Mood when purchased Brand name (purchased as gift) Season of year Items given free with purchase Container/bottle Color (liquid, container) MANOVA (Hotelling's T)

1.33 1.87 3.68 4.25 4.40 4.74 4.79 5.02 5.09 5.33

F value

Probability of insignificant differences

1.90 13.95 2.95 0.14 7.30 3.25 5.12 1.58 3.92 6.13 4.84

0.1503 0.0001* 0.0534* 0.8723 0.0008* 0.0399* 0.0064* 0.2069* 0.206* 0.0024* 0.0001*

Note: Insignificant differences are assumed to exist if the appertaining probability is greater than 10 percent. Significant differences are noted by *.

Table V. Univariate ANOVA and multivariate MANOVA of factors affecting fragrance purchases (class variable = major area: USA, Europe, Asia) 396

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Summary of major findings The major findings are as follows: .

.

.

Unisex fragrance ± about half the women were familiar with the concept, about half of that half were favorable toward it, and about 11 percent of the latter half indicated purchase intent. Same-name fragrance ± about 60 percent of the women were familiar with the concept, about 60 percent of that 60 percent were favorable toward it, and about 9 percent of those favorably disposed indicated purchase intent. Importance factors ± three of ten factors surveyed (``scent; brand purchased for self; free items with purchase'') were considered determining dimensions (factors) for all three major geographic areas surveyed. The areas included the USA, Europe and Asia. The US cities surveyed were Chicago, Little Rock and Memphis; European cities included Luton, UK, The Hague, The Netherlands, Valencia, Spain, and Versailles, France; Asian cities consisted of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Singapore. Significant differences were found between the three areas for the following factors ± ``European fragrance, price, brand purchased as a gift, mood, season, container and color''.

The last section of this paper deals with a discussion and managerial implications of the major findings. Created customer franchises

Discussions and managerial implications Many of the signature brands featured in this paper, e.g. Polo, Safari, Calvin Klein, Halston, Perry Ellis and Red, have created customer franchises for themselves via massive promotional investments, primarily in magazine, newspaper, brochure, and television advertising, as well as special retail promotions featuring items given free with purchase. Related product line items given with purchase include eye shadow and lip gloss. Unrelated product line items given with purchase include logo-enhanced caps and bags. Each of these highly visible (especially in the USA) brands have utilized the product positioning strategy to convince their markets that they (the individuals in the markets) become truly unique when ``wearing'' the brand. The psychic value created by the purchase experience, especially in a highfashion speciality shop or department store, as well as the sensual value created when observing the bottle/brand and applying and wearing the product/brand, is what the marketer is really selling. The main product is not the one or two ounces of colored liquid.

Research factors are important across cultures

This study indicates that of the researched factors ± ``scent, brand (purchased for self), and items given free with purchase'' ± are similarly important across cultures. The descriptive statistics in Table IV and the ANOVA and MANOVA analyses in Table V indicate the seven factors for which there were significant differences between cultures, represented by the three geographic areas of surveyed ± the USA, Europe and Asia. ``European fragrances, price and mood when purchased'' were the most significantly different. Marketers of non-European fragrances, whose pricing structure greatly differs from most of their competition, should consider market research in the individual countries they are considering entering in Europe and Asia, to determine market preferences prior to market launch. The preference for European fragrances may emanate from its Western European origins, and as many Asian countries were

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colonized by Western European nations, this may indicate the reason for the European preference. If an inordinately high price is charged for the brand, the marketer should be sure the psychic value has already been achieved in the mind of the consumer before product launch. The ``mood'' an individual shopper is in also apparently affects her purchase/non-purchase decision. The use of background music, aisle displays, and fragrance ``sprayers'' standing near the fragrance counters could all get the individuals into the ``purchasing mood.'' Marketers could be successful with either concept

Almost 15 percent of the respondents were more familiar with the unisex brand concept than the same-name concept. However, almost 11 percent of the respondents considered ``same-name'' more favorably than unisex. This appears to indicate that a marketer could be successful with either concept. Rather than choose one or the other concept, a marketer could test-market both a unisex and a same-name product in the international markets under consideration and go with either, neither, or both. Complicating this scenario is the fact that fragrance introductions have increased fivefold during the five-year period ± 1990-94; and are projected to do so again in the next five years ± 1995-99 (Ortega and McCartney, 1994). Many fragrance houses are expected to add a unisex fragrance to their franchise if they have not already done so (Floreno, 1995). The differences by area regarding unisex vs samename are depicted in Table IV. Finding significant differences, across the three geographic areas surveyed, may suggest evidence indicating the need for segmentation between areas. As ``scent, brand purchased for self, and items given free with purchase'' were important to all cultures surveyed, they would, most likely, not be determining dimensions. ``Whether or not the fragrance was European, price, and mood in while shopping'' were the three factors scoring highest as being ``culturally different.'' These three factors would appear to be the place to begin country-by-country research to determine how best to accomplish brand differentiation. Medina and Duffy (1998) state that ``it appears that the key to developing a successful international product program lies on the applicability, or compatibility, of the product category to foreign environments and the firm's ability to incorporate market differences in the product design.''

A similar reverse strategy

A marketer, who has developed a popular fragrance for men, could consider the possibility of introducing a companion product for women, as Polo, Safari, and others have successfully accomplished, and as was demonstrated in this paper. A similar, reverse strategy could possibly be employed by a successful women's fragrance brander. Adding a same-name product for men might be profitable for a specifically-targeted segment even though this would probably be more difficult than convincing a female segment(s) to purchase a ``male'' brand. Finally, marketers with established customer fragrance franchises could consider adding related lines (soap; shampoo) featuring this signature scent. ``Brand managers can use positioning strategically with brand extensions to control the extent to which consumers leverage their parent brand and extension category beliefs. For example, managers may seek to maximize brand leveraging when brand-category fit is good and the equity of the brand is strong. In such cases, they could use brand positions to maximize brand-derived belief strength and parent-brand attitude transfer'' (Sheinin, 1998).

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References Aaker, D. and Keller, K.L. (1990), ``Customer evaluations of brand extension,'' Journal of Marketing, Vol. 54, January, pp. 27-41. Ainsworth, S.J. (1992), ``Cosmetic suppliers rally to meet consumer concerns,'' Chemical and Engineering News, Vol. 70 No. 16, pp. 31-52. Beale, C. (1994), ``Givenchy out to set-up teenage perfume sector,'' Marketing, (Great Britain), June 16, p. 9. DeCoursey, J. (1996), ``Claiborne throws a curve at young men and women,'' Advertising Age, Vol. 67, April 15, p. 20. DeLong, M.R. and Bye, E.R. (1990), ``Apparel for the senses: the use and meaning of fragrances,'' Journal of Popular Culture, Winter, pp. 81-9. Floreno, A. (1995), ``Teens are the new focus in `96 fragrance trends,'' Chemical Marketing Reporter, Vol. 248 No. 26, December 25, p. 21. Gescard, A. (1996), Public Relations Director, Fragonard Perfumeur, 20, bd Fragonard 06130 Grasse, France, interviewed by Scott Markham during sabbatical, March. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1992), Multivariate Data Analysis, 3rd ed., Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, NY. ``How to buy a fragrance'' (1993), Consumer Reports, Vol. 58 No. 12, December, p. 765. Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (1993), Principles of Marketing, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Markham, S., Cangelosi, J. and Picou, A. (1997), ``A six-country, exploratory study of female fragrance purchase behavior,'' International Journal of Business Disciplines, Summer edition. Medina, J. and Duffy, M. (1998), ``Standardization vs globalization: a new perspective of brand strategies,'' Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 7 No. 3. Ortega, B. and McCartney, S. (1994), ``Nobody knows your darling wife like a perfume clerk,'' The Wall Street Journal, December 16, p. A10. Ozanne, J.L., Brucks, M. and Grewal, D. (1992), ``A study of information search behavior during the categorization of new products,'' Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 18, March, pp. 452-63. Richards, L.E. and LaCava, J. (1983), Business Statistics: Why and When, 2nd ed., McGrawHill, Inc., New York, NY. Sheinin, D.A. (1998), ``Positioning brand extension: implications for beliefs and attitudes,'' Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 7 No. 2, pp. 137-49. Sloan, P. (1994), ``Calvin Klein spins scent to music stores,'' Advertising Age, Vol. 65, June 6, pp. 4ff. Soloman, M.R. (1996), ``The perceptual process,'' in Consumer Behavior, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 56-63. Stone, E. and Samples, J.A. (1985), Fashion Merchandising: An Introduction, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Threlfall, K.D. and Ritz, J.M. (1994), ``Accenting fashion: cosmetics, toiletries and fragrances,'' The Technology Teacher, April, pp. 13-19. Wilkie, M. (1995), ``Scent of a market,'' American Demographics, Vol. 17, August, pp. 40- 3ff.

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This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the material present

Executive summary and implications for managers and executives Unisex branding ± is this the future for high fashion? Not that many years ago the idea that a brand created for and promoted to one sex could be extended to encompass both sexes would have seemed bizarre. The tone of voice, image, colours and style of a brand targeted at women would, the old-timers might argue, mean that it is wholly unappealing to men. Clothes brands, accessories and, most of all, fragrances needed different emphases to appeal to their audience. Today, as Markham and Cangelosi describe, this contention could hardly be further from the truth. Unisex and ``same-name'' brands create an appeal to both men and women unconstrained by the traditional limitations of fashion branding ± machismo for men and allure or sensuality for women. The success of brands such as Calvin Klein has changed the way in which we perceive fashion branding since the ``unisex'' approach taken by this fashion house has succeeded while traditional fashion brands with an expressed gender target have struggled. As marketers we need to ask ourselves why there has been such a significant change. Is it that the attitudes of consumers have changed especially regarding gender-specific positioning? Or have we always been amenable to gender-neutral fashion brands? Attitudes to women and the attitudes of women Markham and Cangelosi focus on responses from women in their examination of consumer attitudes to fragrance brands. We do not therefore have a comparison between the attitudes expressed by respondents in this research and the attitudes of male consumers. However, there is no doubt that the attitudes and preferences of women have changed and that this change is reflected in brand preferences. It has been reported that younger women are not especially keen on traditional, strong perfumes, preferring the modern light fragrances typified by the unisex and same-name brands described by Markham and Cangelosi. At the same time the influence of women over what men wear remains very strong extending to personal matters such as fragrance choice. Running parallel to this behavioural change is the recognition that women do not buy clothes and fragrances purely for the purpose of sexual allure. Self-indulgence, smartness and conforming to a particular image are as significant as sex to the purchase of fashion goods by women. As a result those promoting such products have pulled away from the traditional ``get your man'' positioning that used to dominate fashion brand promotions. What we see today are brands positioned across a spectrum from the traditional image described above to the gender-neutral imagery used by Calvin Klein to promote CK1. And, as Markham and Cangelosi show, women are receptive to this gender neutral positioning. Similarly, we see that the same-name brands where a gender distinction is made also appeal to women. Gender-neutral product or brand? We should consider therefore the two types of brand and look at how their positioning differs: (1) Gender-neutral products (e.g. CK1). (2) Gender-neutral brands (e.g. Polo).

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In the first instance the product is designed for use by both sexes and is promoted jointly. The appeal is to younger people who reject traditional gender roles and lifestyles. I suspect that the primary appeal is to women since they have seen the greatest adjustment in role. Younger women, educated and holding down good jobs, are expected to reject the ``you need a man'' appeals of the past. These women don't need a man but may want one. And the type of man they want must respect their independence and empowerment. The same-name brand accepts many of the points made above but the image is less radical. The difference between the sexes is acknowledged but the brand itself is gender neutral. Rather than stressing independence and an ``in-your-face'' attitude, we might argue that the same-name brands stress partnership. Men and women can share the same brand without it compromising either party's preferences. However, Markham and Cangelosi report that this sense of sharing of partnership does not represent a significant appeal. This trend in fragrance marketing reflects trends elsewhere in brand marketing with the established stereotypes being challenged and the view of the market as homogeneous undermined. It comes as more of a shock in the fragrance market because of that market's associations with sexual allure and the dominance of products for women. Is there a future for gender specific brands? Gender neutral products won't drive out the gender specific product entirely but we can anticipate a continuing trend away from the stereotyped images that dominated this market in years past. With women gradually achieving positions of power, we will see more acceptance of feminine imagery for general brand promotions rather than, as we do now, see this type of image only in media expressly targeted at women. Markham and Cangelosi show how it is possible to create successful genderneutral brands in high fashion markets although it still remains to be seen whether the brands discussed in this article stand the test of time. Despite its apparent success the CK1 brand could be viewed as a gimmick in that it reflects a time when androgynous images are significant in the high fashion world. If CK1 and similar brands can survive a time when the fashion world prefers starker distinction between genders then we can argue that the fragrance market has shifted. Finally, we should remember that, despite the success of the brands studied here, the majority of fragrance brands remain gender specific. It is unlikely that the mainstream fragrance brand owners will perceive the need to end their gender specific positioning and imagery. (A preÂcis of the article ``An international study of unisex and `same-name' fragrance brands''. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for MCB University Press.)

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