Types Of Research
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Kathmandu University School of Education
Research Methods in Education (Lecture 3 – Types of Research)
-- Mahesh Nath Parajuli
Types yp of f research
Survey
Descriptive
Experimental
Action research
Case study
Evaluation
Ex-post facto
E h Ethnographic h study d
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
2
Types yp of f research
Based upon different assumptions and the way we understand and take the research, they can be classified into different types yp Types of research is thus a system of classifying researches based upon the way we approach, organize, and proceed with the whole process of f research h
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
3
Types yp of f research
Some bases for classifying research Field – sociology, education, economics Purpose – exploratory, descriptive, comparative, relational l l Application – basic, applied Instruments – survey, interview, quantitative, qualitative Types of f data d – objective, b subjective, b quantitative, qualitative Forms F of f thi thinking ki – deductive, d d ti iinductive d ti
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
4
The survey y method m
Survey is basically a method of research that emphasizes in collecting and analyzing data, mostly y quantitative, q , in a very y strict scientific,, objective and orderly manner Researches seeking representation and generalizability need to collect comparatively l large volume l of f data d t and d hence, h they th need d to t go for the survey method
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
5
The survey y method m
Ensuring for reliability and validity are thus important in surveys and are often used to test and develop hypotheses Surveys can be carried out on any topic of human interests including perceptions and values of people and groups and relations and interactions among variables Depending upon the need, it can be carried out i a census in s s and d sample s l manner
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
6
Descriptive D p research
Descriptive researches are carried out with the main purpose of describing some processes and p phenomena in the sense of what has happened or what is happening out there Descriptive research does not go for explaining causal relationships and test hypotheses While describing phenomena/processes they however try to identify the relationships
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
7
Descriptive D p research
Description should not be understood as simple description because without ordering and organizing g g data we cannot describe (hence, ( , description includes some analysis) Descriptive researches are often known as basic form of research because these provide i important t tb base f for llooking ki f for analysis l i and d interpretation
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
8
Experimental E p m research
Experimental research explores cause and effect relationship and thus often used for hypothesis yp testing g It does so by controlling/manipulating the independent variable(s) and seeing how these control/manipulation affect the dependent variable i bl But such control and manipulation is possible only in laboratory situation
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
9
Experimental E p m research
Hence, the idea of quasi-experimental method h been has b developed d l d where, h attempts tt t are made d to control some variables, if not all, to the maximum possible extent and see the effects of such control Control – independent group Post – pre-test group Example :
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
10
Action research
Action research is intervention in some program, process, etc. and to see the outcome of such interventions Largely a ‘situational’ research, concerned with identifying problems and then problem-solving measures in specific situational contexts The objective j is also to develop p new programs, p g policies, approaches, etc. in order to enhance the quality and effectiveness of processes and outcomes
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
11
Action research
Action research generally continues for longer period and may consist multiple phases like base-line,, trial,, developmental, p , etc. It is a flexible research method that can adopt or adjust new variables, variables in other words, words the study can adopt itself as per the change taking place l in i the th study t d population l ti Hence, it is often blamed for being less rigorous and scientific
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
12
The case study y method m
Case studies are detailed, deep, systematic, and interpretive studies that seek to answer questions like ‘how’ and ‘why’ q y A study of characteristics of one – a person, a unit/section of a company, company a company, company etc – or few units in order to make a ‘full’ understanding of f th the ‘‘case’’ Comprehensive understanding of some issue
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
13
The case study y method m
The problem of establishing boundary for the case is sometimes difficult As the findings of case study research are derived from one (or few) cases, they cannot be generalized Hence, case study is not appropriate for hypothesis testing or for seeking causal relationships
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
14
Evaluation research E
Evaluation method is used for the evaluation of programme: identifying gaps and problem areas, measuring g achievements,, assessing g impacts, p , and suggesting improvement measures Evaluation researches are carried out either as on-going evaluation, known as Formative research h, or as terminal t i l evaluation, l ti k known as
Summative research Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
15
Evaluation research E
Formative - aims to provide feedback in identifying problems and weaknesses and where improvements are needed; hence, the focus is on process Summative – aims to assess the overall outcome or impact and the cost-effectiveness of the program, that is, it is finding out whether a program works or is worth implementation; hence, the focus is on outcome
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
16
Ex-post E p facto f research
Ex post facto is ‘after the fact’ research seeking explanations causing or affecting present situation
In it, one or more dependent variables are examined, going back over time and space in retrospective order, and seeking relationships, causes, and their meanings Seeking explanation for what might have contributed to the occurrence of a particular phenomenon
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
17
Ex-post E p facto f research
In ex post facto research, the independent variables i bl are nott under d th the control t l of f th the researcher because the event(s) has(have) already taken place or because they cannot be controlled The task now is to reconstruct the ‘event’ event based upon other available information and thus analyze y and interpret p the ‘event’ or happenings to establish causes, effect, relationships, and their meanings, and suggest i improvement t needs, d if relevant l t
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
18
E Ethnography g p y
Ethnos – ‘people’, ‘people in culture’, ethnography – ‘study of people in different culture’ or ‘describing their ways of life’ Ethnography is an approach to give voice to multiple realities people construct about their world and everyday life It begins with the basic question of ‘what is the culture of this group of people?’ (Patton, 2002, p. 81) and interprets social realities from cultural perspective
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
19
E Ethnography g p y
What is the culture? Culture is the pattern of beliefs, behavior, practices, thinking, etc. people develop and share h while hil living li i together t th for f a time ti period i d Ethnography thus is not only a particular method th d of f data d t collection, ll ti b butt also l a style t l of research for understanding the social meanings and activities of the people
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
20
E Ethnography g p y
Ontological and epistemological premise that th realities the liti are subjective bj ti and d multiple lti l and d that the knowledge can be created or recreated perceived and interpreted by recreated, people themselves justify the ethnographic study y of social processes p Traditionally, ethnography was mainly used by y anthropologists p g to study y foreign g cultures (in Western sense) – a study of Others
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
21
E Ethnography g p y
But now the method is used by all social scientists i ti t and d can cover any contemporary t social issue under any social branch of study Th ethnographers The thn r ph rs derive d riv m mainly inl fr from m th the participant observation, in-depth interviews, etc meaning intensive field work in which etc. the researcher goes deep down the culture under study y – seeking g a ‘thick description’ p
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
22
E Ethnography g p y
Apart from these traditional methods, today’ss ethnographer may use latest tools today and technology like computerized models, internet, multimedia, and so on It is no more necessary to research in a face-to-face situations (actually its meaning h s changed) has h n d) Some people even claim that an ethnographer while staying in her/his own room room, can now be in the field interviewing people and making observations – understanding and i t interpreting ti diff differentt cultural lt l contexts t t
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
23
E Ethnography g p y
Ethnography is thus a fine blend of theory, analysis l i and d narration ti in i a localized l li d context t t or it is a theoretical interpretation of everyday realities Can I study myself, my family, my class, my workplace? Autoethnography is the answer Studying oneself or one’s one s group as a part of that culture is autoethnography
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
24
Research Methods in Education (Lecture 3 – Types of Research)
-- Mahesh Nath Parajuli
Types yp of f research
Survey
Descriptive
Experimental
Action research
Case study
Evaluation
Ex-post facto
E h Ethnographic h study d
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
2
Types yp of f research
Based upon different assumptions and the way we understand and take the research, they can be classified into different types yp Types of research is thus a system of classifying researches based upon the way we approach, organize, and proceed with the whole process of f research h
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
3
Types yp of f research
Some bases for classifying research Field – sociology, education, economics Purpose – exploratory, descriptive, comparative, relational l l Application – basic, applied Instruments – survey, interview, quantitative, qualitative Types of f data d – objective, b subjective, b quantitative, qualitative Forms F of f thi thinking ki – deductive, d d ti iinductive d ti
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
4
The survey y method m
Survey is basically a method of research that emphasizes in collecting and analyzing data, mostly y quantitative, q , in a very y strict scientific,, objective and orderly manner Researches seeking representation and generalizability need to collect comparatively l large volume l of f data d t and d hence, h they th need d to t go for the survey method
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
5
The survey y method m
Ensuring for reliability and validity are thus important in surveys and are often used to test and develop hypotheses Surveys can be carried out on any topic of human interests including perceptions and values of people and groups and relations and interactions among variables Depending upon the need, it can be carried out i a census in s s and d sample s l manner
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
6
Descriptive D p research
Descriptive researches are carried out with the main purpose of describing some processes and p phenomena in the sense of what has happened or what is happening out there Descriptive research does not go for explaining causal relationships and test hypotheses While describing phenomena/processes they however try to identify the relationships
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
7
Descriptive D p research
Description should not be understood as simple description because without ordering and organizing g g data we cannot describe (hence, ( , description includes some analysis) Descriptive researches are often known as basic form of research because these provide i important t tb base f for llooking ki f for analysis l i and d interpretation
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
8
Experimental E p m research
Experimental research explores cause and effect relationship and thus often used for hypothesis yp testing g It does so by controlling/manipulating the independent variable(s) and seeing how these control/manipulation affect the dependent variable i bl But such control and manipulation is possible only in laboratory situation
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
9
Experimental E p m research
Hence, the idea of quasi-experimental method h been has b developed d l d where, h attempts tt t are made d to control some variables, if not all, to the maximum possible extent and see the effects of such control Control – independent group Post – pre-test group Example :
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
10
Action research
Action research is intervention in some program, process, etc. and to see the outcome of such interventions Largely a ‘situational’ research, concerned with identifying problems and then problem-solving measures in specific situational contexts The objective j is also to develop p new programs, p g policies, approaches, etc. in order to enhance the quality and effectiveness of processes and outcomes
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
11
Action research
Action research generally continues for longer period and may consist multiple phases like base-line,, trial,, developmental, p , etc. It is a flexible research method that can adopt or adjust new variables, variables in other words, words the study can adopt itself as per the change taking place l in i the th study t d population l ti Hence, it is often blamed for being less rigorous and scientific
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
12
The case study y method m
Case studies are detailed, deep, systematic, and interpretive studies that seek to answer questions like ‘how’ and ‘why’ q y A study of characteristics of one – a person, a unit/section of a company, company a company, company etc – or few units in order to make a ‘full’ understanding of f th the ‘‘case’’ Comprehensive understanding of some issue
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
13
The case study y method m
The problem of establishing boundary for the case is sometimes difficult As the findings of case study research are derived from one (or few) cases, they cannot be generalized Hence, case study is not appropriate for hypothesis testing or for seeking causal relationships
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
14
Evaluation research E
Evaluation method is used for the evaluation of programme: identifying gaps and problem areas, measuring g achievements,, assessing g impacts, p , and suggesting improvement measures Evaluation researches are carried out either as on-going evaluation, known as Formative research h, or as terminal t i l evaluation, l ti k known as
Summative research Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
15
Evaluation research E
Formative - aims to provide feedback in identifying problems and weaknesses and where improvements are needed; hence, the focus is on process Summative – aims to assess the overall outcome or impact and the cost-effectiveness of the program, that is, it is finding out whether a program works or is worth implementation; hence, the focus is on outcome
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
16
Ex-post E p facto f research
Ex post facto is ‘after the fact’ research seeking explanations causing or affecting present situation
In it, one or more dependent variables are examined, going back over time and space in retrospective order, and seeking relationships, causes, and their meanings Seeking explanation for what might have contributed to the occurrence of a particular phenomenon
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
17
Ex-post E p facto f research
In ex post facto research, the independent variables i bl are nott under d th the control t l of f th the researcher because the event(s) has(have) already taken place or because they cannot be controlled The task now is to reconstruct the ‘event’ event based upon other available information and thus analyze y and interpret p the ‘event’ or happenings to establish causes, effect, relationships, and their meanings, and suggest i improvement t needs, d if relevant l t
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
18
E Ethnography g p y
Ethnos – ‘people’, ‘people in culture’, ethnography – ‘study of people in different culture’ or ‘describing their ways of life’ Ethnography is an approach to give voice to multiple realities people construct about their world and everyday life It begins with the basic question of ‘what is the culture of this group of people?’ (Patton, 2002, p. 81) and interprets social realities from cultural perspective
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
19
E Ethnography g p y
What is the culture? Culture is the pattern of beliefs, behavior, practices, thinking, etc. people develop and share h while hil living li i together t th for f a time ti period i d Ethnography thus is not only a particular method th d of f data d t collection, ll ti b butt also l a style t l of research for understanding the social meanings and activities of the people
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
20
E Ethnography g p y
Ontological and epistemological premise that th realities the liti are subjective bj ti and d multiple lti l and d that the knowledge can be created or recreated perceived and interpreted by recreated, people themselves justify the ethnographic study y of social processes p Traditionally, ethnography was mainly used by y anthropologists p g to study y foreign g cultures (in Western sense) – a study of Others
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
21
E Ethnography g p y
But now the method is used by all social scientists i ti t and d can cover any contemporary t social issue under any social branch of study Th ethnographers The thn r ph rs derive d riv m mainly inl fr from m th the participant observation, in-depth interviews, etc meaning intensive field work in which etc. the researcher goes deep down the culture under study y – seeking g a ‘thick description’ p
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
22
E Ethnography g p y
Apart from these traditional methods, today’ss ethnographer may use latest tools today and technology like computerized models, internet, multimedia, and so on It is no more necessary to research in a face-to-face situations (actually its meaning h s changed) has h n d) Some people even claim that an ethnographer while staying in her/his own room room, can now be in the field interviewing people and making observations – understanding and i t interpreting ti diff differentt cultural lt l contexts t t
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
23
E Ethnography g p y
Ethnography is thus a fine blend of theory, analysis l i and d narration ti in i a localized l li d context t t or it is a theoretical interpretation of everyday realities Can I study myself, my family, my class, my workplace? Autoethnography is the answer Studying oneself or one’s one s group as a part of that culture is autoethnography
Mahesh Parajuli, 2009
24
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