The European Union

Contents The European Union: An Uncritical Guide to the Abbreviations and Acronyms

viii

Preface

xiii

  1 Introduction

1

  2 The Treaties The Treaty of Rome – The Single European Act – Maastricht – Amsterdam – Nice

4

  3 The Institutions 14 The European Council – The Council of Ministers – The Council Presidency – COREPER (The Committee of Permanent Representatives) – The Convention and Intergovernmental Conferences (IGCs) – The Commission – The European Parliament – The European Court of Justice (ECJ) – The European Court of Auditors – The Economic and Social Committee (ECOSOC) – The Committee of the Regions   4 How the European Union Makes Law Different sorts of law – Unanimity v. Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) – The legislative procedures: consultation, cooperation, co-decision and assent – The budget and budgetary procedure – Monitoring expenditure

32

  5 Enlargement Background and history – Problems – The mass accession of May 2004 – Possible further accessions

43

  6 The Common Foreign and Security Policy Background and history – The Second Pillar – From Yugoslavia to Amsterdam – Common defence or militarisation? – How the CFSP works –The Nice Treaty’s reforms and developments since – Common (market) values?

51

vi  The European Union

  7 Citizenship, Justice and Security A controversial policy area – What is EU citizenship? – The Amsterdam Treaty – The Third Pillar – The Charter of Fundamental Rights – Citizenship, Justice and Home Affairs – Europol – Refugees and asylum – After 9/11

57

  8 Monetary Policy Arguments for and against a single currency – The Convergence Criteria and Growth and Stability Pact – The Euro

68

  9 The Internal Market The long arm of the Internal Market – Vital regulation or barrier to trade? – Competition policy – The Single European Act – Widows, orphans and jobs (Does the internal market mean a ‘race to the bottom’ in social and environmental policy?) – The four freedoms (Goods, services, capital and labour), some freer than others – Capital – Private Good, Public Bad (How the EU undermines public ownership) – Mixed blessings of a big market – Services – Plans – Consumer protection

76

10 External Economic Relations Imports – Exports – Globalisation – Development

92

11 Employment and Social Policy Background and history – The question of competence – Competing theories of what causes unemployment – Recent developments in employment policy – The European Employment Strategy – The Lisbon Strategy – Health and safety at work – Informing and Consulting Workers – Gender equality – Disability and ageing – Education and training – Socrates, Leonardo, and Youth for Europe – The European Social Fund (ESF)

99

12 The Environment and Public Health Background and History – Programmes, policies and problems – Kyoto – GMOs – REACH (A new framework for control of chemicals) – Public Health – Food Safety

119

13 The Common Agricultural Policy and Common   Fisheries Policy 132 The CAP: background, history and aims – How it works – The reform of 2003 – Criticisms

Contents  vii



The CFP: background, history and aims – The reform of 2002 – Regional Advisory Councils – Criticisms

14 Transport 141 The Common Transport Policy and its limitations – The 2001 White Paper – Trans-European Networks (TENs) – Marco Polo and Galileo 15 Regional Policy 149 Background and history – Agenda 2000 – Impact of enlargement – The European Regional Development Fund and other Structural Funds – The Cohesion Fund – The Community Instruments – The future 16 Industrial Policy and Energy Background, history and aims – Recent developments in industrial and related policies – Energy policy – Technology, Research and Development – The Sixth Framework Programme

155

17 The Rejection of the Constitutional Treaty: What next   for the European Union? 162 The Giscard text: Institutional reform – Foreign and defence policy (The militarisation of the EU) – Citizenship and citizens’ rights – Federalism and subsidiarity – Fiscal, financial and economic policy – Why was no agreement initially reached? – The immediate future – The revised text: The Commission – The Council – The Parliament – The Euro – Economic and employment policies – Stability and Growth Pact – Multiannual Financial Framework – Charter of Fundamental Rights – Eurojust – Enhanced Cooperation – Economic, Social and Territorial Cohesion – Energy – Declarations and Protocols relating to individual member States – The Future 18 Conclusion A summary of the criticisms

179 180

Notes Recommended Reading Index

188 201 211

1 Introduction In 1957 six countries of western Europe signed a treaty designed to further the transformation of the economic and political life of the region. The act of signing itself demonstrated that much had changed in the twelve years since the end of World War Two. In 1945, most of western Europe had been in ruins. Though the aims of the Treaty of Rome were always as much political as economic, it originally limited the Community’s powers to matters concerned with production and consumption. The Six jealously guarded their control of taxation, of the criminal law, of moral and cultural matters, of education. Their co-operation was, ostensibly at least, designed to pool economic resources and resourcefulness, not to dissolve western Europe into a single amorphous entity. Whether the European Union descended from this original Community should be an economic tool or a fully-fledged federation is now the tension at the heart of the continent’s politics. Important decisions are involved, and the future of every country in Europe will depend on their outcome. They are inherently difficult, but are made even more so for British people by the bizarre terms in which the debate is almost invariably conducted in UK political life and in the country’s media. Commonly used expressions such as ‘pro-European’, ‘anti-European’ and ‘Eurosceptic’ are deliberately misleading, and the equation of ‘Europe’ with the European Union both geographically and politically inaccurate. The rise of a rightwing party, containing some extremely unsavoury elements, and calling itself the United Kingdom Independence Party, has further muddied the already murky waters. Although ‘Europe’ occupies far more column inches in newspapers than it did even a few years ago, much comment on all sides of the debate is ill-informed about the basics of the system. Accusations levelled against the BBC in January 2005 by an independent panel commissioned by the corporation’s governors, of ignorance, stereotyping and unintentional bias, and ‘a tendency to polarise and over-simplify issues, ... ignorance of the European Union on the part of some journalists and a failure to report issues 

  The European Union

that ought to be reported’ might have referred to almost any section of the British media. Only the clear public responsibilities of the state-funded institution made the allegations more telling than they might have been if levelled against the Guardian or the Daily Express. In response, BBC governors acknowledged that a recent opinion poll had shown that ‘the BBC is not succeeding in providing basic accessible information on the topic of Europe and (that) urgent action is needed’.1 Newspapers, unlike the BBC, are entitled to their opinions. Only the way that they express them might be criticised, especially when this takes the form of the deliberate spreading of confusion. To the pro-EU press, all critics of the Union are xenophobes, mired in a nostalgic past of warm beer and village cricket. To their opponents, foreigners are generally the subject of mirth or contempt, strange people with funny accents and loose morals. It was gratifying to see both supporters and opponents of deeper European integration welcoming the group’s outspoken criticisms,2 for the truth is that neither side should believe that it is well-served by the current standard of coverage and debate. As an opponent of the Constitutional Treaty, I could only throw up my hands in despair when I read that whilst nine out of ten residents of the EU of voting age admitted to knowing nothing at all about the proposal’s contents, half would vote in its favour if they had the chance. Yet surely a supporter, if honest, would have the same reaction. Do the Europhiles really want a Union based on ignorant acquiescence, or can they too see how dangerous such a development would be? The European Union is a political and economic project which a number of governments have decided to pursue. It is not an inevitable outcome of some mysterious March of History, nor is it a boat or train which must under no circumstances be missed. Politicians who abandon reasoned argument in favour of muddy metaphors (which, for some reason, almost always involve modes of transport) generally do so because they are lying. To be for or against the European Union, to favour its deepening into a full political union, its complete disbanding or something between the two, should have nothing at all to do with patriotism, nationalism or internationalism. The EU is a proposed answer to the problems of Britain, Ireland and their neighbours on the European mainland. It is not the only available answer and it may not be the best, but it is quite possible to support or oppose it with the best of intentions. To fly the twelvestar flag is not an act of treason, to refuse to do so no retreat into

Introduction  

xenophobia. The EU exists, and the people of its member states must decide what they want to do about that fact. British voters, specifically, may soon decide whether to approve the proposed Constitution, as well as whether they wish to abandon their own currency and adopt the euro. In this book I shall attempt to provide the reader with the information he or she needs to be able to take part in these historic decisions.

Index ACP (Africa, Caribbean, Pacific) group 93, 96 Action Plan for Skills and Mobility 70 Advocates-General 29 Afforestation programmes 121 Agenda 2000 39–40, 125, 151–2 Agreement on Social Policy (ASP) 110–11 agriculture see Common Agricultural Policy Algeria 97 Amnesty International 63 Amsterdam, demonstrations 58–9 Amsterdam Treaty 6, 9–12 and citizenship 58 and civil rights 10 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 52, 53, 54 and consumer protection 89 and disability 115 and discrimination 59, 115 and education and training 116 and environmental policy 120, 121–2 European Community Treaty 59 and European Parliament 26, 63 and fundamental rights and freedoms 59 Intergovernmental Conference 17 and Justice and Home Affairs 62 and language rights 58 and national parliaments 63 animals, health and welfare of 135, 136 ‘anti-European’ 1 Antilles 175 armaments industry 52–3, 184 assent procedure 34, 37 Association Agreements 97 Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 97 asylum policy 66–7 Austria 19, 26, 27, 43, 52, 71, 73, 84, 151 Azores 151 Balkan wars 46–7, 51, 53, 95

211

Balkenende, Jan Peter 176 Bangemann, Martin 53 Barroso, Jose 24 Belgium 26, 27, 39, 64, 73, 85, 96, 160 Berlin Summit of 1999 46, 134 Berlusconi, Silvio 176 biofuels 136 biometrics 65 biotechnology 88, 126, 127, 160 Blair, Tony 169, 176 Bolkestein, Frits 86, 87 Bologna Declaration on the European Dimension for Higher Education (1999) 117 border controls 66, 175 Bosnia 51 Britain see United Kingdom British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 1–2 BSE crisis 80, 90, 120, 183 budget 38–42 budgetary authority 40–2 budgetary procedure 34, 40–2 and Common Agricultural Policy 135, 139 and Common Fisheries Policy 39 compulsory and non-compulsory expenditure 39 and Constitutional Treaty 169 disputes between member states over 169, 175 European Commission role in establishing 21–2, 40–2 European Parliament role in establishing 26, 40–2, 164 and structural funds 40, 150, 151, 154 United Kingdom annual rebate 38 Bulgaria 20, 26, 43, 49, 149 Bush, George W. 64, 169 Buttiglione, Rocco 24 Canary Islands 151 capital, free movement of 82–3 car industry 80, 90 Carson, Rachel 119

212  The European Union Cartagena Convention on Biosafety 126 Cassis de Dijon case (1979) 77 catalytic converters 80 CEEP, (EU-wide small businesses’ group) 112 Charter of Fundamental Rights 60–1 and Constitutional Treaty 166, 172 chemicals, control of 127–8 child benefits and family allowances 81 children and dependency ratio 116 offences against 11 Christianity 166, 170, 181 Citizenship 7, 57–65 and Amsterdam Treaty 57–9 and Constitutional Treaty 166 and Maastricht Treaty 9 civil rights 10 Clean Development Mechanism 124 climate change 119, 123–6 and energy policy 158 and transport 141 co-decision procedure 26, 33–7 in Amsterdam Treaty 12 in Constitutional Treaty 164 and environmental policy 120 Cohesion Fund 9, 150, 151, 152–3 and TENs 84 Cohesion policy 32, 152–3 and Agenda 2000 151 and Constitutional Treaty 174–5 European Commission ‘factsheet’ Cohesion Policy: the 2007 Watershed 157 and Lisbon Agenda 100, 103, 107 in Nice Treaty 13 in Single European Act 8 see also regional policy Comenius (EU education programme) 116 Committee of the Regions (CoR) 31 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 132–6, 139 and budget 39, 40, 134, 135 and environmental policy 119–20, 135, 136, 177 European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund 133, 150, 153

and export subsidies 94, 133–4 and external trade 92, 93, 94, 95 and protectionism 95 Common Customs Tariff (CCT) 92, 94 Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) 136–8, 139–40 Community Action Plans 138 Community Fisheries Control Agency (CFCA) 138 and environmental policy 121 Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance 150, 153 Joint Inspection Structure 138 Regional Advisory Councils 138 Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 51–6 Battle Groups 55 Common Strategy 54 and Constitutional Treaty 163, 165–6, 170 Headline Goal 2000 54 High Representative for 51–2, 54, 163, 164 Petersburg tasks 53 Planning and Early Warning Unit 54 Political and Security Committee (PSC) 54, 55 Western European Union (WEU) 52, 53, 54 Common Market Organisations (CMOs) 133 Common Security and Defence Policy see Common Foreign and Security Policy Common Transport Policy (CTP) 141, 142–5 see also transport Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers 59 Community information and consultation procedure 94 Community Instruments (CIs) 113, 115, 117, 152, 153 Community Preference 133 competition policy 35, 77–9, 90, 123 and industrial policy 155 and public ownership 84 and transport 141

Index  213 conciliation procedure 35–6 Conservatives, British 27, 111 Constitution/Constitutional Treaty 2, 3, 8, 17–19, 61, 162–78, 180 Declarations and Protocols relating to individual member states 175 and enlargement 44 and European Commission 170 and European Parliament 26, 170 and ‘European President’ 170 initial rejection by member state governments 169 rejection of in French and Dutch referenda 8, 162, 175–7 Spanish referendum on 175 consultation procedure 33, 34, 37 consumer protection 7, 30, 32, 89–91, 106 and air transport 144 in Amsterdam Treaty 12 in Charter of Fundamental Social Rights 60 and Common Agricultural Policy 132 and Common Fisheries Policy 137, 138, 140 Consumer Action Programme (1975) 89 Consumer Protection in the European Union: Ten Basic Principles 91 Economic and Social Committee (ECOSOC), representation in 31 and energy policy 84, 158, 159 and food safety 130 and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 127, 128 and internal market 76, 77, 85 and lobbying 80 ‘Priorities for Consumer Policy 1996–98’ (Action Plan) 90 and public health 128 Convention 18–19, 162, 171 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (commonly known as the European Convention on Human Rights) see Council of Europe co-operation procedure 33, 36 Copenhagen Criteria 47

COREPER (Committee of Member States’ Permanent Representatives) 17 Council of Europe European Convention on Human Rights 59, 60 European Social Charter 59 Council of Ministers 15–17, 182 Agriculture Council 133 in Amsterdam Treaty 10, 52 and ‘area of freedom, security and justice’ 62, 65 and budgetary procedure 40–1, 174 and chemicals policy (REACH) 128 and Committee of the Regions 31 and Common Fisheries Policy 137, 138 and Common Foreign and Security Policy 52, 54, 55 Common Position 34 and Constitutional Treaty 164, 167, 172–3 Declarations of 33 and disability 115 Economic and Financial Affairs Council (ECOFIN) 75 and Economic and Monetary Union 22, 74, 75, 173 and Economic and Social Committee (ECOSOC) 31 and energy policy 158 and environmental policy 119, 128 and European Central Bank 75 and European Commission 20, 21, 22 Euro Council 75, 173 and European Court of Justice 30 and European Parliament 21, 25, 26 and external trade 22, 92, 94 Fisheries Council 138 Foreign Affairs Council 163 General Affairs Council 16, 55 and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 126 and health and safety at work 108 and legislative procedure 33, 34–8 and Lisbon Agenda 100 in Maastricht Treaty 9 in Nice Treaty 11, 55

214  The European Union Council of Ministers continued and Port Services, proposed Directive on 144 Presidency 16 Qualified Majority Voting in 33–4, 35 Recommendations of 33 Requirement for unanimity in 33–4 and Services in the Internal Market, proposed Directive on 129 in Single European Act 8 and state aids 78 and TENs 145 and workers’ rights to information and consultation 111 Country of Origin Principle, see Services in the Internal Market, proposed Directive on (2005) Countryside Alliance 136 crime 6, 11, 62, 63, 66, 99, 103, 165 Croatia 43, 47, 49, 51, 93 customs co-operation 10, 62 and crime 11 duties and tariffs 39, 76, 92 customs union 5, 92 Cyprus 26, 27, 44, 45 Czech Republic 26, 27, 44 dangerous products 90, 128 data protection 65, 66 ‘Decisions’ 32 ‘Declarations’ 32 defence see Common Foreign and Security Policy delocalisation of production 86, 95, 107 democracy 25, 28, 177, 183, 187 and Common Foreign and Security Policy 56 and Economic and Monetary Union 185–6 and enlargement 47 and Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) 165 Denmark 11, 26, 27, 39, 43, 68, 70, 98, 153 deregulation 95 and Constitutional Treaty 176

of labour markets 88, 102, 103, 104 of transport 143, 144 development 39, 56, 96–8, 134, 155, 160, 186 dioxins 90, 120 diplomatic representation, right of EU citizens to 57 ‘Directives’ 32, 34 disability 10, 59, 114–15, 143 discrimination 7, 10, 12, 59, 101, 107, 112, 114, 115, 153 drugs, illegal 6, 11, 62, 109 Dublin Convention of 1988 64 e-coli 90 Economic and Financial Committee 75 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) 65–75 and European Commission 22 origins in Maastricht Treaty 5, 9 and regional policy 150 and social spending 102 see also Euro Economic and Social Committee (ECOSOC or ESC) 31, 179 ECU (European Currency Unit) 72 education 116–17 Egypt 97 elderly people 115–16 emissions trading see Kyoto Protocol employment 7, 99–118, 177, 186 and Amsterdam Treaty 9, 10 and Constitutional Treaty 173, 175 and disability 114–15 and enlargement 47 and euro 68 and European Social Fund 117–18 and freedom of movement 81 and internal market 77, 88 and Lisbon Agenda 100, 101, 102–9, 115, 156 of older people 105, 115–16 and Structural Funds 150–2, 154 of women 105, 109, 112–13 Employment Guidelines 99, 100, 101, 113 energy policy 157–9 and TENs 84 and Constitutional Treaty 175

Index  215 Enhanced Co-operation 174 enlargement 43–50 of 2004 19, 43–50, 162 of 2007 (projected) 20 and Cohesion Fund 153 and Common Agricultural Policy 45, 135, 171 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 56 and Constitutional Treaty 170, 171 and environmental policy 146 and European Parliament 24, 26 and industrial policy 156 and regional policy 45, 149, 154 and research and development 157 and restriction of right to freedom of movement 46, 48–9, 82, 171 and TENs 146 and transport 142 Environmental Action Programmes (EAPs) 119, 123 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 121 environmental policy 119–28 in Amsterdam Treaty 6, 12, 89 and Common Agricultural Policy 135, 136, 139, 177 and Common Fisheries Policy 138 and Constitutional Treaty 164, 176 and consumer policy 89, 90 and Council of Ministers 16 and Economic and Social Committee 31 and energy policy 158 and enlargement 43, 150 environmental economic strategies as source of growth 106 and European Court of Justice 30 and internal market 76, 77, 80, 85, 86, 93, 156 and liberalisation 158 and Lisbon Agenda 103, 106 and lobbying 80 in Maastricht Treaty 9 mainstreaming of 143 in Nice Treaty 7 and regional policy 150

and research and development 159 and Services in the Internal Market, proposed Directive on 87 in Single European Act 4, 8 and Structural Funds 150, 152 and TENs 83, 84 and transport 83, 121, 141, 142, 143, 146 Equal (Community Instrument to combat discrimination) 153 equal opportunities 59, 101, 109, 112–14 and Amsterdam Treaty 10 Community Framework Strategy on gender equality 113 and Structural Funds 113, 118, 150 Erasmus, (EU university education programme) 116 Estonia 26, 27, 44 Euro see Economic and Monetary Union Eurojust 172 ‘Europe’ as short-hand for European Union 1 European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF) see Common Agricultural Policy European Atomic Energy Community (Eurotom) 157 European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) 144 European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) 46 European Central Bank (ECB) 74–5, 168 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) 17, 157, 159 European Commission 19–25 and Amsterdam Treaty 10 and budgetary procedure 40, 41 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 54 Communications of 33 and competition policy 22, 78–9 and Constitutional Treaty 19, 163, 164, 168, 172 and consumer policy 91 and Convention 18 and discrimination 59

216  The European Union European Commission continued and European Central Bank 75 and European Council 14, 15 and European Court of Justice 29, 30, 32 and external trade 22, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97 Green Papers 34 and legislative procedure 33–8 and Maastricht Treaty 9 and Nice Treaty 7, 12, 13 Recommendations of 33 Social Agenda for 2005–10 100 and state aids 77 Tobin Tax, view of 83 and transport policy 83 White Papers 34 European Community (EC) 1 European Community Treaty, see Amsterdam Treaty European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), see Council of Europe European Council 14–15 and Amsterdam Treaty 10 Cologne Summit 1999 60 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 53, 54 and Constitutional Treaty 8, 163, 164, 167, 170, 172, 173 Copenhagen Summit of 1993 45, 46 Declarations of 33 and European Monetary Union 73, 74 Lisbon Agenda 100 Lisbon Summit 2000 100 Luxembourg Summit 1998 100 and Maastricht Treaty 9 and Nice Treaty 13, 55 and Single European Act 8 Stockholm Summit 2001 100 Thessalonika Summit 2003 162 European Court of Auditors 30–1, 42 European Court of First Instance 29 European Court of Human Rights 30 European Court of Justice (ECJ) 15, 22, 29–30, 33, 182 and civil liberties 62 and Constitutional Treaty 166 and discrimination 59, 113

and internal market 77, 86 and Maastricht Treaty 9 European Data Protection Supervisor 66 European Defence Agency 55 European Disability Forum 115 European Economic Area (EEA) 49–50, 85 European Economic Community (EEC) 157, 180 European Employment Strategy 99, 100, 113 Joint Employment Report of Commission and Council 99, 100 National Action Plans 99, 100 European Environmental Bureau 120 European Food Safety Authority 130–1 European Foreign Minister 163, 164, 172 European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions 48 European Free Trade Area (EFTA) 49, 85 European Investment Bank (EIB) 46, 84, 107 European Investment Fund 84 European Monetary Union see Economic and Monetary Union European nationalism 179–80 European Parliament (EP) 15, 16, 25–9 and budget 38 Committee on Budgetary Control 42 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 54 and Constitutional Treaty 163, 164, 172 corporate lobbying of 29 election of 24, 26, 49 and enlargement 44 and environmental policy 120 and human rights 33, 38 informal consultations 36–7 and legislative procedure 33–8 monitoring expenditure 42 and nomination of European Commission 23–5

Index  217

Political Groups 35, 36, 37, 144 powers of 22–3 Rapporteurs 36 ‘readings’ 35–8 rejects proposed Directive on Market Access to Port Services 144–5 representation in 26, 27–8 resolutions of 33 Shadow Rapporteurs 36 and TENs 146 European Political Parties 28–9 European Prosecutor 165 European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) 150, 152 European Research Area 160 European Research Council, proposal for 106 European Social Action Investment Plan, proposal for 107 European Social Charter (1961) 59 European Social Fund (ESF) 117–18, 150 European System of Central Banks (ESCB) 75 European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) 107 European Union (EU) 1, 2–3, 14 citizenship of 57 and democracy 182–6 extradition and judicial cooperation, agreement with US on 65 history and development of 180–1 and legal personality 167 militarisation, see Common Foreign and Security Policy right of member states to secede from 167 European Works’ Councils 112 Europol (EU police force) 62, 63 agreement with US 65 ‘euro-sceptics’ 1, 26 Farage, Nigel 28 federalism 166–7 Financial Instrument for Fisheries Guidance (FIFG) 150 Finland 19, 26, 27, 43, 52, 70, 73, 151 fiscal policy 167–8 food safety 130–1, 135

foreign policy, see Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) ‘Four Freedoms’ 80 France 8, 18, 19, 26, 27, 51, 64, 70, 73, 74, 162, 166, 168, 169, 170, 175 freedom of movement 57, 80, 81, 170–1 Friends of the Earth 136 Galileo (satellite-based radio navigation system) 146 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 94, 135 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 97 Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) 134 General Product Safety Directive (1992) 90 genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) 120, 126–7, 131 Geneva Convention on Refugees 63, 67 Germany 19, 26, 27, 44, 47, 51, 64, 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 98, 160, 168, 169, 170 Giscard d’Estaing, Valery 18–19, 162, 166 globalisation 95–6, 107 Great Britain see United Kingdom Greece 26, 27, 43, 64, 149, 150, 152 greenhouse gases 124, 125 Green Papers, see European Commission Green parties 119 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), limitations of as measure of real economic success 99 Growth and Stability Pact 70, 71, 95, 103, 104, 107, 169 Grundtvig (EU adult education programme) 117 health and safety at work 86, 107–10 Action Programmes 108–9 Commission Communication Adapting to change in work and society: A New Community Strategy on Health and Safety at Work, 2002–2006 109–10 Framework Directive (1989) 108 and women 109, 112

218  The European Union health policy, see public health Helios (EU network for disabled people) 115 Helsinki Final Act 56 holidays, paid 99 Horizon (unemployment initiative) 115 humanitarian aid 97 human rights and Amsterdam Treaty 10, 59 and Charter of Fundamental Rights 60, 166 and Common Foreign and Security Policy 56 and enlargement 47 and European Parliament 33, 38 and Maastricht Treaty 97 and terrorism 64 of women 114 Hungary 26, 27, 44, 49 Iceland 49, 50, 83 IMF (International Monetary Fund) 182, 187 immigration 63 industrial policy 155–7 information and communications technology (ICT) 105 Intergovernmental Conferences (IGCs) 17–19, 162, 165 internal market see Single European Market (SEM) International Criminal Court 47 International Labour Organisation (ILO) 60 Inter-reg III (Community Instrument) 153 Iraq 64, 168 Ireland 26, 27, 43, 45, 48, 52, 64, 65, 73, 149, 150, 165, 170, 175, 186 Israel 38 Italy 19, 24, 26, 27, 64, 73, 90 Joint Employment Report 100 Joint Research Center (JRC) 160 Jordan 97 judicial co-operation 62 Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) 62–7 and Maastricht Treaty 5, 9 Kohl, Helmut 69

Kok, Wim 103, 104 Kosovo 51, 53 Kyoto Protocol 123–6 labour costs 102 labour markets direct intervention 99, 100 labour mobility 70, 81–2 participation rate of older workers in 99, 105 participation rate of women in 105 reform of 99, 100, 101, 102, 106 see also employment; European Employment Strategy, Lisbon Agenda Latvia 26, 27, 44, 45 Leader + (Community Instrument for poorer rural regions) 153 Lebanon 97 Leonardo da Vinci (EU training and education programme) 117 liberalisation of capital movements 83 and Constitutional Treaty 176 of energy supply 158–9 and Lisbon Strategy 103 of transport 141, 143 of world trade 95 Lichtenstein 49, 85 Lingua (EU language education programme) 117 Lisbon Agenda/Programme/Strategy 88, 99, 102–7, 156 and ‘competitiveness’ 99, 102, 103 and ‘convergence’ 100 and education 105 and enlargement 105 and ‘European social model’ 103, 104, 105 European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC), criticisms of by 107 and health and safety at work 109 and ‘knowledge-based society’ 103 and regional policy 154 Report of the High-Level Group of Independent Experts, Facing the Challenge 103–7 and Research and Development 105, 106

Index  219 Lithuania 26, 27, 44 lobbying 29, 79, 80, 120, 126, 128, 155, 179, 183 Lomé Convention 96, 97, 134 London bombings of 2005 146 Luxembourg 26, 27, 73, 98 Luxembourg Process, see European Employment Strategy Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union) 4–6, 8–9 and citizenship 57 and co-decision 26 and Common Foreign and Security Policy 51–2, 54 and development policy 96–7 and education and training 116 and environmental policy 120, 123 and health 128 and Justice and Home Affairs 62 and regional policy 150 and research and development 160 three pillar structure 5, 54, 62 McCreevy, Charlie 87 McKenna, Patricia 6 Madariaga, Javier Solana 52 Madeira 151 Madrid bombing of 2004 64 ‘mainstreaming’ 121,143, 155, 157 Malta 26, 27, 73, 98 Marco Polo (transport programme) 146 media, British 1–2 Mercosur (Latin American economic community) 97 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 97 Miners’ Strike (1984–85) 111 Minerva (EU open and distance learning programme) 117 Morocco 97 Multi-annual Financial Framework 174 multinational corporations (MNCs) political power of 182–3 NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) 182 nationalism 179–80

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) 52, 53, 54, 170, 187 nature conservation 97 Netherlands 8, 26, 27, 70, 73, 86, 96, 98, 103, 160, 162, 175 Nice, Treaty of 6–8, 12–13, 162 and Committee of the Regions 31 and Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 55–6 and Economic and Social Committee 31 European Council meetings 14 and European Political Parties 28–9 Intergovernmental conference 17 and Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) 6, 7, 168–9 Northern Ireland Peace Initiative 153 Norway 49, 85, 180 NOW, New Opportunities for Women 113 nuclear energy 46, 125, 157, 158, 159 oil 85, 158 Ombudsman 26, 58 open method of co-ordination 99–100 ‘Opinions’ of the Economic and Social Committee 31 of the European Parliament 33 patents Community Patent 88, 106–7 on software 106 Palestine 64 parental leave 112 Paris Charter 56 part-time work 112 peacekeeping 10, 53 pensions aggregation 81 competence 115 Petersberg tasks 10, 53 petition, right of 58 PHARE (Poland–Hungary Assistance in Restructuring their Economies) 46 Poland 26, 27, 44, 166, 168, 169, 170

220  The European Union police 9, 10, 11, 58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67 Political Cooperation 51 Political Parties at European Level, see European Political Parties Political and Security Committee (PSC), see Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pollution 80, 119, 120, 125, 126, 141, 142, 145, 147, 158 Portugal 26, 27, 43, 45, 71, 73, 74, 149, 150, 169 postal services 85 poverty 39, 45, 97, 98, 101, 103, 114, 149, 156 privacy 65 privatisation 95, 176, 181 productivity 100, 104 agricultural 132 in EU compared to US and Japan 157 and Lisbon Agenda 106 in new member states 105 ‘pro-European’ 1 professional qualifications, recognition of 88–9 proportionality 6, 167 protectionism 30, 95, 186 ‘provisional twelfths’ 41 public health 128–30 and the Common Agricultural Policy 136 DG Sanco 128 public ownership 84, 96 public–private partnerships 106 public procurement 106, 107 pure beer law (German) 77



Quakers 63 Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) 33–4 and Amsterdam Treaty 10 and Common Foreign and Security Policy 54, 170 and Constitutional Treaty 163, 164–5, 166, 170, 172–3 and democracy 33–4 ‘double qualified majority’ 165, 168 and environmental policy 122–3 and health and safety at work 108

SAFE (Safety Actions for Europe) Safety Actions for Europe 108 salmonella 90 Santer, Jacques 23 Schengen system 11, 62, 65 self-employed, rights of 49, 57, 82, 112 services essential, proposed Directive on 129 financial 105, 106, 107 freedom to provide 86 free movement of 86, 104, 107

and Maastricht Treaty 9 and Nice Treaty 6, 7, 12, 55 and Single European Act 8 weighting of votes per member state 168

racism 11, 63, 67 REACH 127–8 Readmission agreements 67 ‘Recommendations’ 33 Redundancy 111 refugees 66–7 refunds, to member states 39 regional policy 149–54 and Constitutional Treaty 174–5 and poverty and social exclusion 149 see also European Regional Development Fund; Cohesion Fund; Structural Funds ‘Regulations’ 32, 34 Renault, factory closure 111 renewable energy 158–9 Research and Development (R&D) 104, 156, 157, 159–61 Sixth Framework Programme for (2003–06) 160 spending on 161 residence, right of 11, 57 resident non-EU nationals, rights of 63 right to demonstrate, restriction of by EU measure 66 risk capital, availability of 106 Romania 20, 26, 27, 43, 49, 149 rural development 135

Index  221 promotion of competition among 106 shift from manufacturing towards 156–7 Services in the Internal Market, proposed Directive on (2005) 86, 89, 96 and health care 129–30 single currency see Euro Single European Act (SEA) 4, 8, 79 and barriers to trade 4, 79 and co-decision 26 and common foreign and defence policy 4 and environmental policy 4 and frontier controls 57 and internal market 4 and regional policy 149 and research and development 4, 159 and social policy 4 Single European Market (SEM) 76–91, 104 Action Plan for (1997) 88 and employment 80, 105 and environment 80, 150 and industrial policy 156 and regional disparities 149 and restructuring of industry 150 and transport policy 141–6 transposition of internal market measures by member states 105 White Paper on completing the internal market, 1985 76 see also services ‘Single European Sky’ 144 single programming document 150 Sjöstedt, Jonas 83 Slovakia 26, 27, 44, 49 Slovenia 26, 27, 44, 45 Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) 106 social dumping 87, 107, 108 social exclusion 100 Solana, Javier 52, 163 sovereignty 5, 44, 49, 174 Spain 19, 26, 27, 43, 45, 64, 73, 149, 150, 160, 168, 169, 170, 175 state aids 77–8, 88, 93, 94, 100, 107 and transport 141

Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) 95 Structural Funds 150–4 and environment 120–1 and equal opportunities 113, 150 see also Agenda 2000; Cohesion Fund; European Regional Development Fund; European Social Fund subsidiarity 6, 9, 166–7 subsidies 22, 93, 169 agricultural 96, 121, 133, 134, 135, 136, 171 fisheries 137, 138 Sweden 19, 26, 27, 43, 48, 52, 68, 98, 151, 153, 177 Swedish Left Party 83 Switzerland 49, 50 Syria 97 technology 159–61 telecommunications 83–4 data protection and privacy 10 TENs see Trans European Networks (TENs) terrorism 64, 65, 66 textiles 92 Thatcher, Margaret 111, 143 Tobin Tax 83 trade, external 92–8, 22, 32, 67, 77, 126, 134, 155, 184, 186 see also World Trade Organisation (WTO) trade unions 31, 59, 111, 114, 144 training 45, 104, 112, 114, 115, 116–17, 117–18, 156 Trans European Networks (TENs) 83–5, 145–6 and industrial policy 153 transport 141–8 cost of 85–6, 142 and environmental damage 85, 126 Treaty on European Union (TEU) see Maastricht Treaty Treaty of Rome 32 aims of 1 and agricultural policy 132 amendments to 4 competition policy 78 and development policy 96 and energy policy 157

222  The European Union Treaty of Rome continued and environmental policy 119 and equal pay 112 and free movement of goods 76 and free movement of labour 81 and public ownership 84 and state aids 77–8 and transport policy 141 Tunisia 97 Turkey 38, 43, 49, 149

Van Buitenen, Paul 23 VAT (Value Added Tax) 38, 39, 89 Villepin, Dominique de 177 Visa Information System 65–6 Volkswagen 90 voting rights of EU citizens 58

waste management policy 84, 123, 158 water supply 84, 123 pollution of 120, 121, 123 privatisation of 96 Western European Union (WEU) see Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) White Papers, see European Commission women access to labour market 112–14, 118 and Convergence Criteria 112 and Stability and Growth Pact 112 see also equal opportunities, gender discrimination, gender equality workers’ rights Directive on the Approximation of the Laws of the Member States on the Safeguarding of Workers’ Rights in Conjunction with the Transfer of Undertakings (1977) 111 and Directive on Mergers of Limited Companies 111 European Works’ Councils 112 right to information and consultation 110–12 working conditions 99, 102 working hours 99 World Bank 182 World Customs Organisation 65 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 76–7, 93, 94–5, 97 and the Common Agricultural Policy 134, 135, 136 and Common Customs Tariff 92 Doha ministerial conference 134 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 138

‘War on Terrorism’ 64 Washington Consensus 181–2

Youth for Europe Programme 117 Yugoslavia, see Balkan Wars

Unemployment see employment UNICE (EU-wide employers’ group) 112 Union Minister for Foreign Affairs, see European Foreign Minister United Kingdom 2, 19, 26, 27, 38, 43, 51, 61, 68, 71, 111, 165, 166, 169, 170 United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) 1, 28 United Nations Charter 56 United Nations Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD) 134 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change See Kyoto Protocol United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) 63–4 United States 51, 52, 53, 54, 82, 99, 102, 124 universities, relationship with industry 106