Systems Analysis And Design

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN C O U R S E T A B L E

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S Y L L A B U S C O N T E N T S

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ADAMSON UNIVERSITY College of Sciences Department of Computer Science

COURSE SYLLABUS CS321 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

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PRELIM

MIDTERM

FINALS

I. COURSE

DESCRIPTION: This course brings to understanding the theories, concepts, tools, and techniques of system development methodologies. It explains the universal and relative phases that comprise the whole life of a project plus a discussion of some common situations that occurs during each phase.

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II. COURSE OBJECTIVE: At the end of the course, the students are expected to: 2.1. emphasize the importance of information system to organization. 2.2. provide alternative proposals for system improvement. 2.3. run down the procedures in gathering user’s needs and requirements. 2.4. analyze existing flows with the aid of different techniques. 2.5. plan a database structure distinctively related for all tables involve. 2.6. design a system that outlines the real essence of a user’s view. 2.7. set rules for testing a system for implementation.

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III.NUMBER OF CREDITS Units Credits: Lecture

3 units 2 units

Laboratory 1 unit IV.PRE-REQUISITES CS222 Database Management System CS311 C Language CS312 Operating System V.COURSE REQUIREMENTS Major Examinations (Prelim, Midterm, Final) Quizzes Recitation / Boardwork / Seatwork / Assignment Research Paper Company Information System 5

VI.TEXTBOOK / REFERENCES Systems Analysis and Design, 4th edition by Kenneth Kendall and Julie Kendall Systems Analysis and Design by Silver and Silver Systems Analysis and Design and the Transition to Objects by Sandra Donaldson Dewitz Information Systems Design by Steve Green VII. GRADING SYSTEM Examination (Prelim, Midterm, Final) Class Standing üQuizzes üRecitation / Seatwork / Boardwork üAssignment üCase Study

40% 60%

______ 100% 6

Legend: TS – Total Score in Class Standing PES – Prelim Exam Score MES– MES Midterm Exam Score FES– FES Final Exam Score

PGPG Prelim Grade MGMG Midterm Grade FTGFTG Final Tentative Grade FGFG Final Grade

TPS –Total Perfect Score in Class Standing TPPS –Total Perfect Score in Prelim Exam Score TPMES –Total Perfect Score in Midterm Exam Score TPFES –Total Perfect Score In Final Exam Score

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PG = ((TS/TPS) * 50 + 50)* 60% + ((PES/TPPES)* 50 + 50)* 40% MG = ((TS/TPS) * 50 + 50)* 60% + ((MES/TPMES)* 50+50)* 40% FG = ((TS/TPS) * 50 + 50)* 60% + ((FES/TPFES)* 50 + 50)* 40% FG = PG * 30% + MG * 30% + FG * 40%

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS

At the end of the topic, the students must be able to:

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS Types of Computer Based Information System The Systems Analyst

understand the classification of existing information

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systems recognize a systems analyst Systems Development and identify his responsibilities Life Cycle learn the approaches in project development and their embodying phases P

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS INFO. REQUIREMENT

identify the general and specific information that the customer requires 

ANALYSIS Determining Feasibility

Sampling and create an initial view of a possible Investigating Hard Data answer to the problem, opportunityInterviewing or Questionnaires directive Observation Prototyping 

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS

At the end of the tropic, the students must be able to:  practice creating diagrams representing activities in a process

ANALYSIS PHASE Data flow Diagram Data Dictionary Structured Decision Semi-structured Decision Preparing the System Proposal

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write an initial proposal for the expected users

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS

design user views and data acceptance that fits their needs and requirements map database the into a 

DESIGN PHASE Output Design Input Design File or Database

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User Interface

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structured relation lay out the most effective form of acquiring information M

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS

At the end of topic, the students must be able to:

QUALITY ASSURANCE THROUGH SOFTWARE

assimilate the ways in ENGINEERING Approaches software creation and Documentation document them execute the designs in codes Code Generation and while continuously debugging Design and testing them Reengineering Testing` 

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OBJECTIVES

CONTENTS IMPLEMENTING THE

3. plan an effective approach at the time of implementation up to their support to the users F

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INFORMATION SYSTEM

Implementing Approaches STraining Users  Conversion  Evaluation 

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ADAMSON UNIVERSITY College of Sciences Department of Computer Science

TABLE OF CONTENTS CS321 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

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PRELIM

MIDTERM

FINALS

TOPIC

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INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

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Two reasons for the overwhelming information and paperwork Data Vs. Information Characteristics of valuable Information Importance of Information Information Resource Management (IRM) System Characteristics of System

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39 41 44 45 48 51 52

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TOPIC 

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Information Systems Analysis and Design (SAD) Need for SAD Limitations of SAD

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58 60 62

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TOPIC 

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Types of Computer-Based Information System

Components Types Benefits of Information Systems Causes of Unsuccessful System Ways to have Successful Systems Categories of People Involved in Systems Development

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63 63 65 74 75 77 78

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TOPIC

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The Systems Analyst

Job Description of SA Duties of SA Roles of SA Critical Success Factors of SA Domain of Skills Career Path of SA

84 85 86 88 89 90 94 95

Phases of SDLC

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Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

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TOPIC

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INFORMATION REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS 99       

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Determining Feasibility Project Fundamentals Criteria for Selection of Systems Projects Objectives for Systems Projects Assessing Project Feasibility Planning Activities Managing Analysis and Design Activities

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100 100 103 104 105 123 133

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TOPIC  Sampling and Investigating Hard Data  Steps that SA must follow to design a good sample  Types of Hard Data

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138 139 143

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TOPIC  Interviewing  Planning for Interviewing  Question Types  Attributes of Open-Ended and Close Question  Question Pitfalls  Arranging Question in a Logical Sequence  Structured Vs. Unstructured Interviews

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150 150 153 158 160 162 167

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TOPIC  Questionnaires  Guidelines to Help you Decide whether use of Questionnaires is appropriate  Basic Question Types  Scaling and Questionnaire

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168 169 170 173

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TOPIC  Observation  Steps in Observing Managers Typical DecisionMaking Activities  Methods of Structured Observation of Environment(STROBE) Analogy Between Filmic Elements for Observation and STROBE Decision Makers Activities

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176 177 179 180

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TOPIC  Prototyping  Kinds of Prototyping  Guidelines for Developing Prototype  Disadvantages and Advantages of Prototype  Three Main Ways A User can be of Help in Prototype

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184 185 190 192 193

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TOPIC

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ANALYSIS PHASE

195 196 196 197 200 204 205 206

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Data Flow Diagram Advantages of Data Flow Approach Symbols Developing Data Flow Diagram Logical of Data Flow Diagram Physical Data Flow Diagram Reason for Partitioning Data Flow Diagram

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TOPIC  Data Dictionary  Data Repository  Creating Data Dictionary  

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207 208 212

Structured Decisions Three Alternatives for Decision Analysis of Structures Decisions

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213 214

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TOPIC  Semi-Structured Decisions  Decision Support System (DSS)  Three Major Concerns Arise When Analyzing the Semi- Structured DSS  Bottleneck in the Three Phases of Decision Making  Dimension of Semi-Structured Decisions  Multiple-Criteria Decision Making M

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222 222 223 224 226 227

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TOPIC  Preparing the System Proposal  Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs  Steps in Choosing Hardware and Software  Identifying Benefits and Cost

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228 229 230 237

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TOPIC

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DESIGN PHASE

239 240 240 246

Output Design  Objectives of Output Design  Factors to Consider When Choosing Output Technology  Realizing How Output Bias Affect Users  Designing Printed Output  Designing Screen Output  M Designing I Da Web T siteE R M 

247 250 254 256

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TOPIC Input Design  Most Common Input Media  Input Verification Control  Input Design Guidelines  Good Form Design File or Database  File Organization  Database Organization  Guidelines for File or Database Relation Design M I D T E R M

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261 264 266 268 271 280 284 288 290

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TOPIC User Interface  Objectives of User Interface  Types of User Interface  Dialog  Sequence Query Language (SQL)

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292 292 293 296 299

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TOPIC

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QUALITY ASSURANCE THROUGH SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

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Approaches Approaches to Quality Total Quality Management Systems Design and Development(SDD) Modular Development Structured Charts

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302 302 303 305 309 313

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TOPIC Documentation  Nassi-Shneiderman Charts  Pseudocode  Procedure Manuals  The Folklore Method Code Generation and Design  Code Generation  Design  Coding F

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318 319 320 320 322 325 325 326 326 S

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TOPIC Reengineering  Selected Reverse Engineering Tools  Reverse Engineering Concept  Advantage of Using a Reverse Engineering Toolset Testing  Program Testing with Test Data  Full Systems Testing with Test Data  Full Systems Testing with Live Data

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327 328 329 330

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331 333 335 336

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TOPIC

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IMPLEMENTING THE INFORMATION SYSTEM

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Implementing Approaches  Implementing Distributed System  Client/Server System Configuration  Advantage Client Server Model  Types of Distributed System Networks Training Users  Training Strategies Who to train? F People I who N train A S users L Guidelines for Training 

338 341 342 346 347 350 351 351 352 352

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TOPIC Conversion  Conversion Strategies  Five Conversion Strategies for IS  Security  Organizational Metaphors and their Relationship to successful Systems  Types of Information System Evaluation  Types of Evaluation  Utilities of Information  Evaluating the System F I N A L S

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354 355 355 362 366 367 368 369 370 371

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Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design

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Information and paperwork are the most abundant products generated by modern business. There are two reasons for the overwhelming information and paperwork: PEOPLE. People is the reason because a growing population generate a tremendous amount of data that needs to be entered, manipulated, processed, and output like medical files, school records, employment to name a few. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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GOVERNMENT. The second reason is the increase of government regulation and controls. Computers, particularly, microcomputers are widely used to cope with this burgeoning paperwork. It fuels information based upon which large and small decisions are made. It is use to help management policy and make better decisions about employment, purchasing, and distribution patterns. The flow and availability of data has become indispensable vital element of almost every human enterprise. It requires planning, people, machines, and money. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 40

Data vs. Information D at a

Consist of raw facts concerning people, events, or other entities collected in vast quantities from both internal and external sources. Examples: employee’s name, number of hours worked

Types of Data:

1. Alphanumeric Data - numbers, letters and other characters 2. Audio Data - sound, noise, or tones 3. Image Data - graphical images or pictures 4.Video Data - moving images or pictures [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 41

Information Data that has been process and presented in a form suitable for human interpretation and decision making. A collection of facts organized in such a way that they have additional value beyond the value of the facts themselves. Rules and relationship can be set-up to organized data into useful, valuable information. The type of information created depends upon the relationships defined between existing data. Adding new or different data means relationships can be redefined, and new information can be created. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 42

Process Refers to turning data and information A set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined outcome Data

Process

Information

Process of transforming data into information The process of defining relationship between data and information requires knowledge. Knowledge – body of rules, guidelines and procedures used to select, organized, and manipulate data to make it suitable for specific task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 43

Characteristics of Valuable Information 1. ACCURATE - error-free 2. COMPLETE - contains all important facts 3. ECONOMICAL - information must not be costly to produce 4. FLEXIBLE - can be used for a variety of purposes 5. RELIABLE - can be depended on - reliability of information depends on the source of information. 6. RELEVANT - important 7. SIMPLE - not overly complex causing information overload. 8. TIMELY - deliverable when needed. 9. VERIFIABLE - can easily be checked to determine correctness. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 44

Importance of Information Information has taken its place in organization as a major corporate resource. It represents other sources in an organization such as money and materials especially when the size of the firm increases. This is so because monitoring the physical operation of an organization will be time consuming to do. As a manager, they rely on information to monitor these physical operation. The manager uses many reports or information displays to reflect the firm’s conditions and use these in decision-making. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 45

Information Must Be Manage According to McLeod, Information must be manage accordingly and correctly, just as other resources found in the organization. Manager needs to understand that there are costs associated with production, distribution, security, storage and retrieval of all information. Although information is all around, it is not free, and its strategic use for positioning a business competitively should not be taken for granted. [MCLEOD, 1998]

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Reasons For Information Management 1.Increasing complexity of management task due to: a.International economic influences b.Increasing complexity of technology c.Shrinking time frames d.Competitive pressures e.Social pressures 2. Availability of Problem-Solving tools such as computer [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 47

Information Resource Management Concept that information is a major corporate resource and must be managed using the same principles being applied in managing other assets of the organization. Principles: 1. A business organization is composed of resources that flow into the organization and then return to the environment where these resources comes from. [MCLEOD, 1998]

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2. There are two basic types of resources: a.physical resources such as: i. personnel iv. machines ii. materials v. money iii. facilities b.conceptual resources such as: i. data ii. Information 3. As the scale of operation grows, it becomes more difficult to manage the physical resources by observation. Thus, the manager is forced to rely on the conceptual resources. 4. The same basic principles that have been developed for the management of physical resources can be applied to the management of conceptual resources. [MCLEOD, 1998] 49

5. Management of data and information includes: a.acquisition prior to the time they are needed b.security measures design to protect the resources from destruction and misuse c.quality assurance d.removal procedures that discharge the resource from the organization when they are no longer needed. 6. Management of data and information can be achieved only through organizational, not individual commitment. [MCLEOD, 1998]

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System A regularly interacting and interdependent group of element forming a unified whole. A set of interacting elements to accomplish a certain goals or objectives. Consists of tools, supplies, machine, procedure and people. Usually requiring some type of orderly management. Major attributes of system is that they possess qualities and capabilities not found in individual elements. This attribute – the whole producing results that are greater than the sum of its parts. Example: car [MCLEOD, 1998] 51

Characteristics of a System 1. Component -an irreducible part or aggregation of parts that makes a system. -also called a subsystem 2. Interrelated components -dependence of one subsystem on one or more subsystems 3. Boundary - the line that marks the inside and the outside of a system and which sets off the system from its environment. [MCLEOD, 1998] 52

4. Purpose -overall goal or function of a system 5. Environment -refers to anything that is external to a system that interacts with a system 6. Interface - point of contact where a system meets its environment or where subsystems meet each other [MCLEOD, 1998]

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Functions of interfaces: a.security – protecting the system from undesirable elements that may want to infiltrate it. b.filtering – unwanted data both for elements leaving the system and entering it. c.coding and decoding – incoming and outgoing messages d.detecting and correcting errors – in its interaction with the environment e.buffering – providing a layer of slack between the system and its environment, so that the system and its environment can work on different cycle and at different speeds. f.summarizing – raw data and transforming them into the level of detail and format needed throughout the system(for an input interface) or in the environment(for an output interface) [MCLEOD, 1998] 54

7. Constraints - limit to what a system can accomplish - can either be imposed by internal or external factors 8. Input -refers to what ever a system takes from its environment in order to fulfill its purpose. 9. Output -refers to whatever a system returns to its environment in order to fulfill its purpose. [MCLEOD, 1998]

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Business Systems A collection of policies, procedures, methods, people machines, and other elements that interact and enable the organization to reach each of its goalsto profit or to render service. A system concerned with accomplishing specific business goals and is broken down into a number of subsystems. Business systems rely on the data provided by the information system [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 56

Information Systems Set of interrelated elements or components that collect (input), manipulate and store(process), disseminate(output) data and information and provide a mechanism for feedback System that manages data needed by a business system

BURCH, 1992

Considered an asset to gain competitive advantage if effectively manage due to the increase in volume of information that must be processed, it led to a greater reliance upon computer-based information system(CBIS) Considered an asset to gain competitive advantage if effectively manage. 57

INFORMATION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN A complex, challenging, and stimulating organizational process that a team of business and systems professionals uses to develop and maintain computer-based information systems Series of processes systematically under taken to improve a business through understanding of organization’s objectives, structures, and processes as well on how can exploit information technology for the system’s advantage [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 58

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS The scientific study of systems processes, including investigation of inputs, and outputs, in order to find better, more economical, and more efficient means of processing. Used to gain an understanding of an existing system and what is required of it. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

SYSTEMS DESIGN Proposes a new system that meets the requirements specified. This new system maybe built a new or by changing the existing system. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 59

NEED FOR SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 1.Used to analyze, design, and implement improvements in the functioning of businesses that can be Seeks to analyze data input or data flow, processing or transforming data, data storage, information output within the context of a particular business 2.accomplished through the use of computerized information systems. 1. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

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ADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Greater efficiency Maximizing profit Resources to the best advantage Reduction of human effort Faster turnaround Reduction and elimination of errors in data and information 7. Consistent operations and procedures [SILVER & SILVER, 1992]

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LIMITATIONS OF SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 1.Some business problems are beyond the scope of systems analysis and design 2.Efforts cost time and money 3.Human element can cause complications 4.Effort is required to sell a system [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT TEAM - Systems development is a team effort. Characteristics of a systems development team: 1.Diversity in backgrounds, skills and goals that comes from all different groups interested in the system 2.Tolerance diversity, uncertainty, ambiguity 3.Clear and complete communication 4.Trust [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 62

Computer-Based Information System CBIS is an information system that is composed of hardware, software, databases, telecommunication, people and procedures that are configured to collect, manipulate, store, and processed data into information.

CBIS

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] Components: 1. Hardware - consists of computer equipments used top perform input, processing, and output activities 2. Software - consists of programs and instructions given to the computer and to the user 3. Database - an organized collection of facts and information [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 63

4. Telecommunications - allows organization to link computer systems together into effective networks 5. People - any person involved in information systems development including information systems personnel that manages, run, program, and maintain computer systems - any person that benefits in the use of the information system(users) 6. Procedures- includes strategies, policies, methods, and rules that human use to operate the CBIS

CBIS

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

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Types of CBIS 1. Transaction Processing System - an organize collection of people, procedures, databases, and devices used to record completed business transaction - system to process large amount of data for routine business transactions support day-to-day activities of the business [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 2. Office Automation Systems - support data workers - includes all of the formal and informal electronic systems primarily concerned with the communication of information to and from persons both in and outside the firm [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

CBIS

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Data Workers

CBIS

workers that do not usually create data or new knowledge but rather analyze information in order to transform data or manipulate it in some way before sharing it with, or formally disseminating it throughout the organization and, sometimes, beyond. Office Automation Applications a. word processing b. communication c. spreadsheet d. desktop publishing e. electronic scheduling [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 66

3. Knowledge Work Systems –support professional workers or knowledge workers by aiding them in their effort to create new knowledge and by allowing them to contribute it to their organization or to the society at large. Examples: CAD/CAM [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 4. Management Information Systems – an organize collection of people, procedures, databases, and devices used to provide routine information to managers and decision makers – provide periodic reports, special report and outputs of mathematical simulation that comes from transaction processing system

CBIS

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 67

TPS CBIS Marketing MIS

Production MIS Common Database

Financial MIS

Other MIS

Management Information System [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 68

5. Decision Support System - an organized collection of people, procedures, databases, and devices used to support problem- specific decision making - support middle management of information workers who needs assistance with semi-structured problems(problems that contains some aspects of being easily predictable as well as other aspects that require the exercise of judgment) - an interactive system that supports a single manager or relatively small group of managers in the solution of semi structured problems by providing information or suggestions, and varying degrees, concerning specific decisions

CBIS

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 69

DSS Generator

CBIS Model Base

Database

user interface

Decision Support System [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 70

6. Expert System -information system that can function as a consultant to a problem solver, not only to by suggesting to a solution but also by explaining the line of reassuring that leads to the solution as what a human expert can do.

CBIS

-branch of artificial intelligence and is also called knowledge-based systems Expert Systems user

User interface

Rule basic Inference

Knowledge base [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 71

7. GROUP DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM - Intended to bring a group together to solve a problem with the help of various supports such as polling, questionnaires, brainstorming, and scenario creation [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] - Helps middle managers and information workers collectively plan and decide important business issues 8.COMPUTER SUPPORTED COLLABORATIVE WORK - Intended for team collaboration via networked computers that uses a software called “group ware” [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 9. EXECUTIVE SUPPORT SYSTEMS - Support senior managers of the firm in the strategic planning function.

CBIS

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[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

ESS GDSS CSCWS ES DSS MIS Knowledge Work System Office Automation System

Transaction Processing Systems

Systems Analyst may be involved with any or all of these systems 73

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

BENEFITS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS 1.Added value to products (goods or services) 2.Better service advantage 3.Competitive 4.Fewer errors 5.Greater accuracy 6.Higher- quality products 7.Improved communications 8.Increased efficiency 9.Increased productivity 10.More efficient administration 11.Reduced operation requirements 12.Reduced operation casts 13.Superior financial decision making 14.Superior control over operations 15.Superior managerial decision making 74

CAUSES OF UNSUCCESSFUL SYSTEM 1.Systems developed did not support business strategies and policies 2.Poor systems planning and inadequate project management 3.Failure to define or understand user requirements and get users involved in systems development 4.Negligence in estimating cost and benefit of the system project 5.Creation of a myriad of design defects and errors 6.Acquisition of computers and soft ware that no one needs or knows to use 7.Installation of incompatible or inadequate technology 8.Negligence in implementing adequate controls 9.Development of unstructured, unmaintainable software 10.Inadequate implementation tasks [BURCH, 1992] 75

Problem caused by poorly develop systems can range from loss of life, to loss of assets, to loss of customers, and revenues, to management making wrong decisions based on inaccurate or untimely information, to wasted time and decreased productivity. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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WAYS TO HAVE SUCCESFUL SYSTEMS 1.Stressing user involvement in systems development 2.Implementing planning and the use of project management techniques 5.Develop alternatives for system design for evaluation before making majors commitments to final design, technology, and software development 6.Designing all system design components functionally 7.Use of detailed functional design as guide for software design, and testing 8.Prepare clear, complete, and current documentation 9.Using coordinated, planned approach to systems implementation 10.Performance of post-implementation reviews 11.Design and perform systems maintenance BURCH, 1992 77

CATEGORIES OF PEOPLE INVOLVED IN SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT 1. SYSTEM OWNERS - Information system’s sponsors and chief advocates - Usually responsible for budgeting the money and time to develop and support information systems, and for the ultimate acceptance o0f the information system. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 2. SYSTEMS USERS - People who use (and directly benefit from) the information system on a regular basis- capturing, validating, entering, responding to, and storing data and information.

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 78

ROLES OF SYSTEM USERS a.Define problems to be solve b.Define opportunities to be exploited c.List down requirements to be fulfilled d.State business constraints to be imposed by or for the information system primary concern is to “get the job done” [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

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TYPES OF SYSTEM USER a. CLERICAL WORKERS -People performing day-to-day activities in the business -People who initiate or handle the bulk of any organization’s data. They often make routine decision based on data and generate information for managers. They are of need of systems that help them process more data with greater speed and fewer mistakes. Examples: Bookkeeper, clerk, office, clerk, salesperson, secretary b. TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL STAFF -Consists largely of business and industrial specialists who perform highly skilled and specialized work -Also called knowledge workers Examples: Accountant, engineer, lawyer, scientist, statistician [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

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c. SUPERIOR -Lowest level of management who controls the day-today operations of the organization. -Tend to be interested in “budget for” and “efficiency of” the operations they supervise Examples: Foreman, group leader, project manager, shift leader. d. MIDDLE MANAGERS -Concerned with relatively short-term/ tactical planning, organizing, controlling, and decision-making. Examples: Accounts receivable manager, department head, purchasing manager [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 81

3. SYSTEM DESIGNER – translates user’s business requirement and constraints into technical solutions. – Design computer files, database, inputs, outputs, screen, networks and programs that will meet the system user’s requirements – Also integrate technical solution back into the day-to-day business environment Examples: Systems analyst, data analyst, network analyst

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[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

e. EXECUTIVE MANAGER – Responsive for long-term/strategic planning and control for the organization. Examples: Chief executive officer(CEO), chief information officer(CIO), college dean, president, principal

4. SYSTEM BUILDERS – construct multi-user information system based upon the design specifications. Examples: Application programmer, database programmer, network administrator [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

83

The Systems Analyst Systems Analyst One who systematically assesses the functioning of business by examining the input and processing of data, and the outputs of the information with the intent of improving organizational processes. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

84

JOB DESCRIPTION OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST The system analyst gathers and analyzes information about current systems and any new requirements for any new systems. He or she uses that information to plan modifications to existing systems or to design new systems. The analyst introduces the specifications through formal presentations and documentations. The analyst supervises the coding and testing of new programs, site preparation, documentation and training, conversion, and maintenance [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

85

DUTIES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST 1.Apply fact-gathering techniques to study current systems and develop requirements for the proposal of a new information system. 2.Develop solution to business system procedures. 3.Design procedures for data collection and processing. 4.Used structured diagramming and documentation methods to illustrate and define both existing and proposed Information systems. 5.Estimating requirements for time and resources, and estimate benefits. 6.Perform cost – benefit analysis on any proposed system solution. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 86

7.Supervise site preparation 8.Choose hardware and software. 9.Use prototyping technique to develop abbreviated systems quickly during analysis and design. 10.Evaluate system designs for quality and ease of maintenance 11.Design input forms, output reports, and display formats. 12.Incorporate security measures into system design. 13.Supervise coding, testing, and quality control. 14.Supervise user documentation and training. 15.Oversee conversion to new system. 16.Supervise maintenance and change control after the system is in operation. 17.Establish system development standards. 18.Keep current with developments in the field of computer technology. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 87

ROLES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST 1.As a consultant 2.As a supporting expert 3.As a change agent [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] QUALIFICATIONS OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST 1.Bachelors degree in computer science, information science, accounting, statistics or business. 2.Experienced programmer 3.Training in systems analysis and design. 4.Experience or training in business systems. 5.Effective verbal and written communication skills. 6.Experience or training in management skills. [SILVER & SILVER, 1992] 88

CRICITAL SUCCESS FACTORS OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST 1.Creativity and innovation 2.Good verbal and written communication skills. 3.Positive attitude towards others. 4.Technical knowledge of computers and information systems hardware and software. 5.Knowledge of basic business theories and concepts. 6.Willingness to work with others 7.Ability to solve problems. [SILVER & SILVER, 1992] 1. 89

DOMAIN OF SKILLS 1. Analytical Skills –Understanding of the organization and its functions, to identify the opportunities and problems, and to analyze and solve problems. a. Systems thinking b. Organizational knowledge c. Problem identification d. Analysis and solving of problems 2. Technical Skills Understanding the information technology.

potentials

and

limitations

of

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 90

Knowledge in: a. Types of computers b. Programming languages c. Operating systems d. Data communication standards and software for LAN and WAN e. Systems development tools and environments f. Decision support system generators and data analysis tools. g. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

91

Can be achieve through: a. Reading computer publications and books b. Joining professional societies interested in computer technologies. c. Attending computer classes or teach at a local college d. Attending any courses or training sessions offered by your organization e.Attending professional conferences, seminars, or trade shows f.Participating in electronic bulletin boards, news groups or conferences [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999] 92

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1999]

3. Management Skills – Understanding how one must manage projects, resources, risks and changes Knowledge in : a. resource management b. project management’ c. risk management d. change management 4. Interpersonal Skills – Understanding how one will work with end users as well as other persons involved in systems development a. communication skills b. working alone and with a team c. facilitating groups d. managing expectations 93

Academic Training

Industry Experience

CAREER PATH Industry experience OF A Academic Training SYSTEMS ANALYST Junior Analyst Senior Analyst

Private Consulting

Management

SILVER & SILVER, 1992 94

THE SYSTEMS ANALYST

SDLC

Sequence of steps used to organize a large of activities needed to build system Traditional methodology used to develop, maintain, and replace information system

SILVER & SILVER, 1992 95

4. Systems Evaluation And Selection 3. General Systems Design

SDLC

2. Systems Analysis

5. Detailed Systems Design

6. Systems Implementation 1. Planning

7. Systems Maintenance

SILVER & SILVER, 1992 96

PHASES OF SYSTEMS CYCLE (SDLC)

DEVELOPMENT

LIFE

SDLC

1. SYSTEMS PLANNING – Initial investigation of the system – A brief study of the problem to determine whether the systems project should be pursued – Net result is a rough plan for how-and whether-to proceed with the project. 2. SYSTEMS ANALYSIS – Its purpose is to understand the existing system and propose alternate replacement system at the end. SILVER & SILVER, 1992 97

3.SYSTEMS DESIGN – Conceptualizes the system to be developed – Provides plans for data-entry procedures, userinterfaces, file and database design controls and backup procedures. 4.SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT – Phase where the system is actually being developed – Involves programming and testing of system 5.SYSTEMS IMPLEMENTATION – Phase where system is put into operational use. 6.SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE - Longest phase and the costliest phase in the SDLC - Phase where the system is monitored and made

SDLC

necessary adjustments to make the system produce SILVER & SILVER, 1992 continuously expected results of it.

98

Information Requirements Analysis

99

Determining Feasibility PROJECT FUNDAMENTALS 1.Determining project feasibility 2.Scheduling projects 3.Planning and then managing activities and team members for productivity [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Systems Project Begins with problems or with opportunities for the improvement within a business that often come up as the organization adapts to change [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 100

Business people suggest systems project for two broad reasons: 1.To experience problem that lend themselves that systems solutions 2.To recognize opportunities for improvement through upgrading, altering installing new systems when they occur [KENDALL & KENDALL,1999] 1. The systems analyst serves as catalyst and supporting expert primarily by being able to see where processes can be improved. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

101

Improvements to systems can be defined as changes that will result in incremental yet worthwhile benefits: 1.Speeding up a process. 2.Streamlining a process through the elimination of unnecessary or duplicated steps. 3.Combining processes. 4.Reducing errors in input through changes of forms and display screens. 5.Reducing redundant output. 6.Improving integration of systems and subsystems. 7.Improving worker’s satisfaction with the system. 8.Improving ease of costumer, supplier, and vendor interaction with the system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 102

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF SYSTEMS PROJECTS 1.Backing from management 2.Appropriate timing of project commitment 3.Possibility of improving attainment of organizational goals 4.Practical in terms of resources for systems analyst and organization 5.Project is worthwhile compared to other ways that organization could invest resources [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Remember that when a business commits to one project, it is committing resources that thereby become unavailable for other projects. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 103

SEVERAL ACCEPTABLE OBJECTIVES FOR SYSTEMS PROJECTS, INCLUDES: 1.Reducing errors and improving the accuracy of data input. 2.Reducing the cost of the system output by streamlining and eliminating duplicate or unnecessary reports. 3.Integrating business subsystems. 4.Upgrading customer services to gain a competitive edge. 5.Speeding up input. 6.Shortening data-processing time. 7.Automating manual procedures to improve them in some way (reduce errors, increase speed or accuracy, cut down on employee time required, etc.) [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 104

ASSESSING PROJECT FEASIBILITY All projects are feasible given unlimited resources and infinite time [PRESSMAN, 1992] Most projects must be developed within tight budgetary and time constraints [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] is a required activity for all information systems project and is potentially a large undertaking that requires a systems analyst to evaluate a wide range of factors. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

105

SOME OF THE FEASIBILITY FACTORS ARE REPRESENTED BY THE FOLOWING CATEGORIES: 1.Technical Feasibility 2.Economic Feasibility 3.Operational Feasibility 4.Schedule Feasibility 5.Legal and Contractual Feasibility 6.Political Feasibility 7. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

106

vTECHNICAL FEASIBILITY The analyst must find out whether current technical resources can be upgraded or added to in a manner that fulfills the request under consideration. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] this is where the expertise of systems analysts is beneficial, since by using their own experience and their contact with vendors, they will be able to answer the question of technical feasibility . [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 107

The potential consequences of not assessing and managing risks can include the following outcomes: a. b.Failure to attain expected benefits from the project. c.Inaccurate project cost estimates d.Inaccurate project duration estimates e.Failure t achieve adequate system performance levels f.Failure to adequately integrate the new system with existing hardware, software,or organizational procedures. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

108

v ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY its purpose is to identify the financial benefits and costs associated with the development project; it is often referred to as cost-benefit analysis. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] a.Determining Project Benefits i.Tangible Benefits– refer to items that can be measured in dollars and with certainty. Example: Lower transaction costs/higher profit margins [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 109

MOST TANGIBLE BENEFITS WILL FIT WITHIN THE FOLLOWING CATEGORIES: § Cost reduction and avoidance § error reduction § Increased flexibility § Increased speed of activity § Improvement of management planning and control § opening new markets and increasing sales opportunities [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] ii.Intangible Benefits – refer to items that cannot be easily measured in dollars or with certainty. – may have direct organizational benefits such as the improvement of the employee morale or they may have broader societal implications such as the reduction of waste creation or resource consumption. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 110

b. Determining Project Costs – similar to benefits, an information system can have both tangible and intangible costs – besides tangible and intangible costs, you can distinguish IS-related development costs as either one-time or recurring. ONE-TIME COSTS – refer to those associated with project initiation and development and the start-up of the system. These costs typically encompasses activities such as: i.System development ii.New hardware and software purchases iii.User training iv.Site preparation v.Data or system conversion [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 111

RECURRING COSTS –refer to those costs resulting from the ongoing evolution and use of the system. These cost typically include: i.Application software maintenance ii.Incremental data storage expense iii.New software and hardware leases iv.Supplies and other expenses example: paper, forms, data center personnel [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] Both one-time and recurring cost can consist of items that are fixed or variable in nature. Fixed Cost –refer to cost that are billed or incurred at a regular interval and usually at a fixed rate. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 112

TYPES OF COSTS: i.Procurement => EXAMPLE: Consulting Costs; Equipment purchase or lease; Site preparation and modifications; Capital Cost ii.Start-Up => EXAMPLE: Operating system software; Communication equipment installation; Start-up personnel iii.Project-Related=> EXAMPLE: Application software; Software modifications to fit local system; Collecting and analyzing data; Preparing documentation iv.Operating => EXAMPLE: System maintenance costs; Asset depreciation; Management, operation, and planning personnel [KING & SCHREMS, 1978] 113

c. The Time Value of Money –most techniques used to determine economic feasibility encompass the concept of TVM. –refers to the concept of present cash outlays to future expected returns. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] Cost of Capital –the rate of which money can be borrowed or invested. Discount Rate –the rate of return used to compute the present value of future cash flow. Present Value –the current value of a future cash flow. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 114

COMMONLY USED ECONOMIC COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE 1.Net Present Value(NPV) –uses a discount rate determined from the company’s cost of capital to establish the present value of a project. – the discount rate is used to determine the present of value of both cash receipts and outlays. 2.Return On Investment(ROI) –is the ratio of the net cash receipts of the project divided by the cash outlays of the project. –tradeoff analysis can be made among projects competing for investment by comparing their representative ROI ratios. 3.Break-Even Analysis(BEA) –finds the amount of the time required for the cumulative cash flow from a project to equal its initial and ongoing investments. [HOFFER,GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 115

Formula in figuring out the present value: _1 _

PVn = Y [

(1+i)

]

n

present value of money discount rate years from now

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

116

Example of TVM: Suppose you want to buy a used car from an acquaintance and she asks that you make three payments of $1,500 for three years, beginning next year, for a total of $4,500. Solutions: PV1 = 1500 x [ PV1 = 1500 x [ PV1 = 1500 x [

_1_ _ 1

]

= 1500 x .9091 = 1363.65

2

]

= 1500 x .8264 = 1239.60

3

]

= 1500 x .7513 = 1126.95

(1+.10) _1_ _ (1+.10) _1_ _

(1+.10) where PV1 , PV2 , and PV3 reflect the present value of each $1,500 payment in year one, two, three, respectively. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 117

To calculate the Net Present Value (NPV) of the three $1,500 payments simply add the calculated present values: NPV = PV1 + PV2 + PV3 = 1363.65 + 1239.60 + 1126.95 = $3,730.20

[HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

118

v OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY is dependent on the human resources available for the project and involves projecting whether the system will operate and be used once it is installed. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Its purpose is to gain an understanding of the degree to which the proposed system will likely solve the business problems or take advantage of the opportunities outlined in the systems service request or project identification study. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 119

v SCHEDULE FEASIBILITY the process of assessing the degree to which the potential time frame and completion dates for all major activities within a project meet organizational deadlines and constraints for affecting change. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] the schedule of activities produced during project initiation and planning will be very precise and detailed for the analysis phase. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

120

KEY ELEMENTS IN DEVELOPING A PROJECT PLAN: 1.A definition of scope for the project stating which general functions within the purchasing department will be analyzed and which activities outside of purchasing will be considered. 2.A more complete problem statement. 3.An initial requirements statement specifying in general terms which types of information and information processing are needed, how urgent the situation is, and what constraints seem to be in place on a systems solution. 4.A request for resources of people, time, and money to develop the information requirements and system functional specifications. 5.A time line indicating when the project team will perform various steps of the project. 6.A business case or justification for continuing with the project. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 121

Data gathering Data Flow and Decision Analysis Proposal Preparation Break apart the major Data Entry Design activities into Input Design smaller ones. Output Design Data Organization

Analysis

Design

Implementation

Implementation Evaluation

Beginning to plan a project by breaking it into three major activities. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 122

PLANNING INCLUDES ALL OF THE ACTIVITIES REQUIRED TO: 1.Select a systems analysis team 2.Assign members of a team to appropriate projects 3.Estimate the time required to complete each task 4.Schedule the project so that tasks are completed in a timely fashion. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

123

ACTIVITY PLANNING AND CONTROL 1.Estimating Time Required The systems analyst’s first decision is to determine the amount of detail that goes into defining the activities. The lowest level of detail is the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) itself, while the highest extreme is to include every detailed step. Sometimes the most difficult part of project planning is the crucial step of estimating the time it takes to complete each task or activity. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 124

Detailed Activity Data Gathering

Conduct Interviews Administer Questionnaires Read Company Reports Introduce Prototype Observe Reactions to Prototype

Data Flow and Analyze Data Flow Decision Analysis Proposal Preparation

Perform Cost / Benefit Analysis Prepare Proposal Present Proposal

Weeks Required 3 4 4 5 3 8 3 2 2

Refining the planning and scheduling of analysis activities by adding detailed tasks and establishing the time required to [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] complete these tasks. 125

2. Gantt Charts for Project Scheduling It is essentially a chart on which bars represent each task or activity. The System analyst will find not only that this technique is easy to use but also that it lends itself to worthwhile communication with end users. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Advantages: 1.Its simplicity 2.The bars representing activities or tasks are drawn to scale; that is the size of the bar indicates the relative length of time it will take to complete each task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 126

Activity

Incomplete Activity Completed Activity Partially Completed Activity

Conduct Interviews Administer Questionnaires

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Read Company Records Analyze Data Flows Introduce Prototype Observe reactions Perform Cost / Benefit Prepare Proposal Present proposal q

1

2 3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Using a two-dimensional Gantt Chart for planning activities that can be accomplished in parallel.

Weeks 127

3. PERT Diagrams Was developed in the late 1950s for use in the U.S. Navy’s Polaris nuclear submarine project PERT is an acronym for Program Evaluation and Review Techniques. is useful when activities can be done in parallel rather than in sequence. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] A program (project) is represented by a network of nodes and arrows that are then evaluated to determine: 1.Critical activities 2.Improvement of the schedule if necessary 3.And review progress once the project is undertaken. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 128

THE CIRCULAR NODES ARE PRESENT TO: 1.Recognize that an activity is completed. 2.Indicate which activities need to be completed before a new activity may be undertaken (precedence). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Critical path –is determined by calculating the longest path, it is defined as the path that will cause the whole project to fall behind even if one day delay is encountered on it. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Events

–are circles on the PERT diagram, and can be identified by numbers, letters, or any other arbitrary form of designation. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 129

REASONS FOR USING A PERT DIAGRAM OVER A GANTT CHART: 1.Easy identification of the order of precedence. 2.Easy identification of the critical path and thus critical activities. 3.Easy determination of slack time. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

130

Activity

Predecessor

Duration

A B C D E F G H I

None A None B,C B,C E D G H

3 4 4 8 5 3 3 2 2

Conduct Interviews Administer Questionnaires Read Company Reports Analyze Data Flow Introduce Prototype Observe Reactions to Prototype Perform Cost / Benefit Analysis Prepare Proposal Present Proposal

Listed activities for use in drawing a PERT diagram. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 131

q A completed PERT diagram for the analysis 20 A,3 10

phase of a systems project.

B,4 C,4

30

D,8

50

E,4

G,3

60

H,2

70

I,2

80

F,3 40

In this example, there are four paths: 10-20-30-50-60-70-80 The longest path which 10-20-30-40-60-70-80 takes 22 days. 10-30-50-60-70-80 10-30-40-60-70-80 [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 132

MANAGING ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ACTIVITIES 1.Communication Strategies for Managing Teams –a way to organize your thinking about teams is to visualize them as always seeking a balance between accomplishing the work at hand and maintaining the relationships among team members. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 2.Setting Project Productivity Goals –systems analysts are accustomed to thinking about the productivity goals for employees who show tangible outputs such as the number of entries keyed in per minute, or the number of items scanned per second. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 133

GOALS NEED TO BE FORMULATED AND AGREED BY THE TEAM SHOULD BE BASED ON: 1.Team member’s expertise 2.Former performance 3.And the nature of the specific project [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Using the hints or methods for estimating time required and coupling them with experience will enable the team to set worthwhile productivity goals. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

134

3. Motivating Project Team Members –motivation is an extremely complex but a good one to consider. –setting goals can also motivate team members by clarifying for them and others what must be done in order to get results. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 4.Avoiding Project Failures –management along with the feasibility studies are usually the best defenses possible against taking on projects that have a high probability of failure. –the decision process of your team must be open stand up to scrutiny from those outside of it and the team members should consider that their reputation and standing in the organization are inseparable from the projects they accepts. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 135

v Legal and Contractual Feasibility The process of assessing potential legal and contractual ramifications due to the construction of a system. Typically, legal and contractual feasibility is a greater consideration if your organization has historically used an outside organization for specific systems or services that you now are considering handling yourself. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

Contractual Obligations my Involve in: 1.Ownership of software used in joint ventures 2.License agreements for use of hardware or software 3.nondisclosure agreements with partners 4.Or elements of a labor agreement [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] 136

v Political Feasibility The process of evaluating how key stakeholders within the organization view the organization. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996] Since an information system may affect the distribution of information within the organization, and thus the distribution of power, the construction of an IS can have political ramifications. [HOFFER, GEORGE & VALACICH, 1996]

137

Sampling and Investigating Hard Data S aThe m process p of systematically selecting representative l ielements n g of a population

Helps accelerate the process by gathering selected data rather than all data for the entire organization [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] REASONS OF SA TO SELECT REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF DATA TO EXAMINE: 1.Containing costs 2.Speeding up the data gathering 3.Improving effectiveness 4.Reducing bias [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 138

STEPS THAT SA MUST FOLLOW TO DESIGN A GOOD SAMPLE ARE: 1.Determining the Data to be Collected or Described –SA needs a realistic plan about what will be done with the data once it is collected –duties and responsibilities of systems analyst at this point are to identify the variables, attributes, and associated data items that needed to be gathered in [KENDALL the sample.& KENDALL, 1999] 2.Determining the Population to be Sampled –SA has to determine whether the population should include only one level of organization, all levels, or even the reactions of customers & if necessary. [KENDALL KENDALL, 1999] 139

3. Choosing the Type of Sample a. Convenience Samples – the easiest to arrange but it is also the most unreliable – unrestricted, non probability samples Example: SA put a notice in a company newsletter asking for everyone interested in the new sales performance to come to a meeting at 1:00 on Tuesday. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] b.Purposive Sample – is based on judgment – still non probability sample but moderately reliable – SA can choose a group of individuals who appear knowledgeable and who are interested in the new[KENDALL information system. & KENDALL, 1999] 140

c. Simple Random Sample

– not practical, especially when sampling involves documents and reports – a numbered list of population should be obtain to ensure that each document or person in the population has an equal chance of being selected. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] d.Complex Random Samples that are most appropriate for the SA are: i.Systematic Sampling-simplest method of probability sampling ii.Stratified sampling- the process of identifying subpopulations, or strata, and then selecting objects or people for sampling within the subpopulations. iii.Cluster Sampling-the systems analyst select a group of documents or people to study. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 141

4.Deciding on the Sample Size – it is important to remember that the absolute number is more important in sampling than the percentage of population. – it is necessary to set a sample size greater that one but less than the size of the population itself. – if each of the documents in a population contained exactly the & same information [KENDALL KENDALL, 1999] as every other document, a sample size of one would be sufficient. Sample Size Decision- often depends on the cost involved or the time required by the systems analyst- or even the time available by people in the organization. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 142

TYPES OF HARD DATA: a.ReportsDocuments used for decision making 1.Analyzing Quantitative – SA needs to obtain some of the documents such as reports regarding the status of the inventory, sales, or production that are used in running the business. – Many of these reports are not complex, but they serve mainly a feed back for quick action. – Many summary reports are used by decision makers to provide background information, spot exceptions to normal occurrences, and afford strategic overviews of organizational plans. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] b.Performance Reports – its important function is to assess the size of the gap [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 143 between actual and intended performance.

– provide periodic updates of what is occurring in the business. – Many summary reports are used by decision makers to provide background information, spot exceptions to normal occurrences, and afford strategic overviews of organizational plans. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] WAYS OF ANALYST IN INSPECTING RECORD: i.Checking for errors in amounts and totals ii.Looking for opportunities for improving the recording form design iii.Observing the number and type of transactions iv.Watching for instances where the computer can simplify the work (that is, calculations and other data manipulation. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 144

d.Data Capture forms –understanding the system that is currently in place should be done before you set out to change the information flows in the organization. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Steps in creating a catalog of form to help you understand the information flow that is currently in use in the business: i.Collect examples of all the forms in use, whether officially sanctioned by the business or not (official vs. bootleg forms). ii.Note the type of form (whether printed in-house, handwritten, computer-generated in-house on-line,etc.). iii.Document the intended distribution pattern. iv.Compare the intended distribution pattern with who actually receives the form. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 145

2.Analyzing Qualitative Documents Guidelines that can help analyst to take a systematic approach to this sort of analysis are: a.Examine documents for key or guiding metaphors. b.Look for insiders versus outsiders or an “us against them” mentality in documents. c.List terms that characterize good or evil and appear repeatedly in documents. d.Recognize a sense of humor, if present. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 146

Qualitative Documents a.Memos – are not kept or they are made available only to those who have “a need to know”, as defined in organizational policy. – analysis of memo content will provide you with a clear idea of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of organizational [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] members. b.Signs on bulletin boards or in work areas – serve as subtle reinforces of values to those who read them. – it is also instructive to note whom signs are intended or and to find out through interviews whether organizational members are held accountable for acting on the information posted. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 147

c.Corporate Web Sites – web sites accessible to the public should also be viewed by the analyst. – examine the contents for metaphors, humor, use of design features (such as color), and the meaning and clarity of any messages provided. d.Manuals [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] – it should be analyze following the four guidelines spelled out previously. –examining manuals, both printed and on-line, systematically will give you a picture of the way things ought to happen. – writers of manual are allowed more elaboration in making a point than is typically accorded to those writing memos or posting signs. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 148

e.Policy Handbooks – while this documents typically cover both areas of employee and corporate behavior, you can be primarily concern with those that address policies about computer services, use, access, and charges. – policies are larger guidelines that spell out the organization ideal of how members should conduct themselves in order to achieve strategic goals. – examining policies allows the systems analyst to gain an awareness of the values, attitudes, and beliefs that are guiding the corporation

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 149

Interviewing Kinds of Information sought in interviewing…….

Opinions Goals

Feelings

Informal Procedures Planning for Interview: 1.Read Background Material – read and as much background information about the interviewees and their organization as possible. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 2. Establish Interviewing objectives – the1999] use of background information being gathered as well as own experienced to establish interview objectives. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 150

Key Areas of Decision-Making: a.Information sources b.Information formats c.Decision-making frequency d.Qualities of information e.Decision-making style 3.Decide Who to Interview [KENDALL & who KENDALL, 1999]include key people at all – when deciding to interview, levels who will be affected by the system in some manner. – strive for balance so that as many user’s needs are addressed as possible.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 151

4.Prepare the Interviewee – prepare the person to be interviewed by calling ahead or sending an e-mail message and allowing the interviewee a time to think about the interview. – interview should be kept at 45 minutes to an hour at the most. [KENDALLType & KENDALL, 1999] 5.Decide on Question and Structure – proper questioning techniques are the heart of interviewing, so better write the questions to cover the key areas of decision making that you discovered when you ascertained interview objectives.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 152

QUESTION TYPES: a.Open-Ended Questions – include those questions such as “what’s” and “how’s” that answers most likely their opinions. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] b. Closed Questions – answers finite number, such as ‘none’, ‘one’, or ‘fifteen’. – limits the response available to the interviewee. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] BIPOLAR QUESTION – is special kind of closed question, it limits the interviewee even further by only allowing a choice on either pole, such as yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 153

BENEFITS OF USING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: i.Putting the interviewee at ease. ii.Allowing the interviewer to pick up on the interviewees vocabulary, which reflects his/her education, values, attitudes and beliefs. iii. providing richness of detail.. iii.revealing avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped. iv.making it more interesting for the interviewee. v.allowing more spontaneity. vi.making phrasing easier for the interviewer. vii.using them in pinch if the interviewer is caught unprepared. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 154

DRAWBACKS OF USING OPEN-ENDED QUESTION: i.asking question that may result in too much irrelevant detail. ii.Possibly losing control of the interview. iii.Allowing responses that may take too much time for the amount of useful information gained. iv.Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared. v.Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition” with no real objective for the interview. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 155

BENEFITS OF USING CLOSED QUESTIONS: i.Saving time ii.easily comparing interviews iii.getting to the point iv.Keeping control over the interview v.Covering lots of ground quickly vi.Getting to relevant data

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

156

DRAWBACKS OF USING CLOSED QUESTION: i.Being boring for the interviewee ii.Failing to obtain rich detail( due to the fact that the interviewer supplies the frame of reference for the interviewee) iii.Missing main ideas for the preceding reason iv.Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee. . [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

157

Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Question Open-ended closed low

Reliability Reliability of of data data

high

low

Efficient Efficient use use of of time time

high

low

Precision Precision of of data data

high

much

Breadth Breadth and and depth depth

little

much

Interviewer Interviewer skill skill required required

little

difficult

Ease Ease of of analysis analysis

easy

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 158

c.Probes – the strongest “probe” or “follow-up” is the simplest “why” – if done in a systematic and determined manner, your probing will be acknowledged as a sign that you are listening to what’s being said, thinking it through, and responding appropriately. – it allows the systems analyst to follow up questions to get more detailed responses. EXAMPLES: §Why? §What makes you feel that way? [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 159

QUESTION PITFALLS 1.Avoiding leading questions – leading questions tend to lead the interviewee into a response that using seem to one EXAMPLE: You agree with other managers that inventory control should be computerized, don’t you? [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

160

2.Avoiding double-barreled questions – are those that use only one question mark for what are actually two separate questions. – double-barreled question is poor choice because interviewees answers only one question (purposely or not), or may mistake which question they are answered and draw the wrong conclusion. EXAMPLE: What decisions are made during a typical day and how do you make them? [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

161

ARRANGING QUESTIONS IN A LOGICAL SEQUENCE: 1.Pyramid Structure – inductive organization of interview questions can be visualized as having a pyramid shape. – the interviewer begins with very detailed, often closed, questions. – should be use if you believe your interviewee needs to warm up to the topic. – useful if the interviewee seems reluctant to address the topic. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] EXAMPLE: If you are interviewing someone who has told you over the phone that he or she does not need to talk with you because that person already knows what is wrong with the forecasting model, you should be probably structure the interview as a pyramid. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 162

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

start with a what specific precisely is the question problem in your forecasting model? Have you considered obtaining more up-todate information? What do you think would make forecasting here more effective? In general, how do you feel about forecasting ?

Pyramid Structure

and end with a general one 163

2. Funnel Structure – the interviewers takes a deductive approach by beginning with generalized, open-ended questions and then narrowing the possible responses by using closed questions. – provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview. begin with What are your reactions to the new system? a general What computers do you use? question What is the cost of the new computer system? Is the new computer system worth

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

the and end cost? with a specific one

164

3. Diamond-Shaped Structure – is the best because it is the combination of the two previous structures. – begins with easy, closed questions that provide a warm-up to the interview process. – in the middle of the interview, the interviewee is asked for opinions for broad topics that obviously have no “right” answers. [KENDALL KENDALL, 1999] your – the chief advantage of this&structure is keeping interviewee’s interest attention through variety of right Remember thatand once you know howa to ask the questions. questions at the right time, you have many options for sequencing them. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

165

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

begin with How a do you make specific question, your distribution decisions?

Do you think you can teach someone else to make these decisions? What would it take to setup decision rules so others can benefit from your experience?

move toward general questions,

Are computers helpful in making decisions? Can a computer make these distribution and end with decisions? a specific question. 166

Structured vs. Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured difficult

high Much needed much much opportunity great low low low high

Structured

Evaluation Evaluation Amount Amount of of time time required required Training Training required required Allows Allows spontaneity spontaneity Provides Provides interviewee interviewee insight insight flexibility flexibility

easy low limited little very little little

Interviewer Interviewer control control

high

Precision Precision

high high low

Reliability Reliability Breadth Breadth and and Depth Depth

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 167

Questionnaires attitudes Kinds of Information sought when using Questionnaires…….

beliefs

behavior

characteristics

Once you have determined that you have good cause to use a questionnaire and have pinpointed the objectives to be fulfilled through its use, you can begin formulating questions. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 168

Some guidelines to help you decide whether use of Questionnaires is appropriate: 1.The people you need to question are widely dispersed (different branches of the same corporation) 2.A large number of people are involved in the systems project, and it is meaningful to know what proportion of a given group (for example, management) approves or disapproves of a particular feature of the proposed system. 3.You are doing a exploratory study and want to gauge overall opinion before the systems project is given any specific direction. 4.You wish to be certain that any problems with the current systems are identified and addressed in follow-up interviews. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 169

Basic question types used on the questionnaire are: 1.Open-Ended Questions – are particularly well-suited to situations in which you want to get at organizational member’s opinions about some aspect of the system, whether product or process. – when it is impossible to list effectively all of the possible responses to the question. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 2.Closed Questions – should be used when the systems analyst is able to list effectively all the possible responses to the question and when all the listed responses are mutually exclusive, so that choosing one precludes choosing any of the others. – when you want to survey a large sample of people. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 170

Trades-off between the use of open-ended and closed questions on Questionnaires Open-ended

closed

slow

Speed Speed of of completion completion

fast

high

Exploratory Exploratory nature nature

low

high

Breadth Breadth and and depth depth

low

easy

Ease Ease of of preparation preparation

Difficult

Difficult

Ease Ease of of analysis analysis

easy

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 171

Some guidelines to use when choosing language of your questionnaire: 1. Use the language of respondents whenever possible. Keep wording simple. 2. Work of being specific rather than vague in wording. However, avoid overly specific question as well. 3. Keep questions short. 4. Do not patronize respondents by talking down to them through low-level language choices. 5. Avoid bias in wording. This also means avoiding objectionable questions 6. Target questions to the right respondents. Don’t assume too much knowledge. 7. Ensure that questions are technically accurate before including them. 8. Use software to check whether the reading level is appropriate for the respondents. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 172

Scaling in of aassigning QIsuthe e sprocess tionn i r e s numbers or other symbols to an attribute or characteristic for the purpose of measuring it. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Reasons for Scaling 1. To measure the attitudes or the characteristics of the people answering the questionnaires. 2. To have the respondents judge the subjects of the questionnaire. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

173

Four different forms of measurement scales: 1.Nominal scale –are used to classify things. 2. Ordinal scale –allows classification and also implies rank ordering. 3. Interval scale –posses the characteristic that the interval between each of the numbers are equal but there is no absolute zero. 4.Ratio scale –when the interval is equal and there is an absolute zero. used less often by the systems analyst. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

174

Reasons for Scaling 1. Validity –is the degree to which the questions measures what the analyst intends to measure. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 2.Reliability –measures consistency. a. External Consistency – if the same result obtained both times when question was administered once and then again under the same conditions. b. Internal Consistency – if the questionnaire contains subparts and these parts have equivalent results. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 175

Observation Kinds of Information sought when Observing decision-maker behavior and the office environment.

activities messages

relationships

influence

Observing the decision maker and the decision maker’s physical environment are important information-gathering techniques for the systems analyst. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 176

The following steps aid in observing a manager’s typical decision making activities: 1.Decide what is to be observed (activities). 2. Decide at what level of concreteness activities are to be observed that is, will the analyst observed that “The manager freely shared information with subordinates” or make a much more concrete observation such as “Manager sends a copy of the same memo to three subordinates”?). Determining the level of concreteness of observation will also dictate the amount of inference in each observation and subsequently the amount of interpretation needed once observations are made. 3. Create categories that adequately capture key activities. 4. Prepare appropriate scales, checklists; or other materials for observation. 5. Decide when to observe. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 177

Time Sampling Cuts down on bias with randomization of Advantages observations Allows a representative view of Gathers data in a frequent activities fragmented fashion that doesn’t allow Disadvantages time for a decision to unfold Misses infrequent but important decisions

Event Sampling Allows observation of behavior as it unfolds Allows observation of an event designated as important Takes a great deal of analyst’s time Misses a representative sample of frequent decisions

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 178

Methods for Structured Observation of the environment is referred to as STROBE: 1.It provides a standard methodology and standard classification for the analysis of those organizational elements that influence decision making. 2. It allows other systems analyst to apply the same analytic framework for the same organization. 3. It limits analysis to the organization as it exists during the current stage in its life cycle. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

179

Analogy between filmic elements for observation and strobe FILMIC ELEMENTS Set location People position within a frame Stationary objects Props (movable objects)

ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS Office location Decision maker’s placement in an office (i.e., desk placement) File cabinets, bookshelves, and equipment for storing information Calculator, PCs, and other items used for processing information

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 180

FILMIC ELEMENTS External objects (brought in from other scenes) Lighting and color Costumes

ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS Trade journals, newspapers, and items used for external information Office lighting and color Clothing worn by decision makers

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 181

A summary of decision-maker characteristic that correspond to observable elements in the physical environment Characteristics of Decisionmakers Gathers information informally

Corresponding Elements in the Physical Environment Warm, incandescent lighting

Seeks extra organizational information

and colors Trade journals present in office

Processes data personally Stores information personally

Calculators, PCs present in office Equipment/files present in office

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 182

Characteristics of Decisionmakers Exercises power in decision

Corresponding Elements in the Environment DeskPhysical placed for power

making Exhibits credibility in decision Wears authoritative clothing making Shares information with others Office easily accessible

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

183

Prototyping Kinds of Information sought when Prototyping…

user reactions innovations

user suggestions

revision plans

Prototyping of information system, is a worthwhile technique for quickly gathering specific information about users’ information requirements. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 184

KINDS OF PROTOTYPES

1.Patched-up – it has to do in with constructing a system that works but is patched up or patched together. –in engineering this approach is refer to as breadboarding-creating a patched together, working model of an integrated circuit. 2.Non-operational Prototype [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] –is that of a non working scale model which is set up to test certain aspects of the design. –a non working scale model of an information system might be produce when the coding require by the applications is too extensive to prototype but when the useful idea of the system can be gained through the prototyping of the input and the output only. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 185

Input

Process

Output

A non operational prototype may seek users’ opinions on the interfaces (input and output). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 186

3. First-Of-A-Series –involves a first full scale model of a system, often called a pilot. –it is useful when many installations of the same information systems are plan. FULL-SCALE WORKING MODELS allows users to experience realistic interaction with the new system, yet it minimizes the cost of overcoming any problems that it presents. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 4. Selected Features –concerns with building an operational model that includes some, but not all of the features that the final systems will have. –when this kind of prototyping is done the system is accomplished in modules, so that if the features that are prototyped are evaluated successfully. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

187

Facility 3 Facility 2 Facility 1

A First-Of-A-Series Prototype is a working model that will be used elsewhere if its is successful. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 188

Facility 1

Facility 2 Facility 3

A First-Of-A-Series Prototype is a working model that will be used elsewhere if its is successful. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 189

GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING A PROTOTYPE 1.Working in manageable modules –one that allows users to interact with its key features yet can be built separately from other system module. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 2.Building the prototype rapidly –analyst can use prototyping to shorten this gap by using traditional information-gathering technique to pinpoint prominent information requirements and then they can quickly make decisions that bring forth a working model. –it is important to emphasize that at this stage in the life cycle, the analyst is still gathering information about what users need and want from the information system. –when this kind of prototyping is done the system is accomplished in modules, so that if the features that are prototyped are evaluated successfully. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 190

3.Modifying the prototype –making the prototype modifiable means creating it in module that are not highly interdependent. –a helpful attitude that demonstrates to users how necessary their feedback is if the system is to improve. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 4. Stressing the user interface1999] –to easily interact with the systems prototype. –must be well developed to enable users to to pick-up the system quickly. –on-line, interactive systems using GUI interfaces are ideally suited to prototype. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 191

DISADVANTAGES Difficult to manage prototyping Users and analyst may adopt a prototype as a completed system when it is inadequate

ADVANTAGES Potential exists for changing the system early in its development Opportunity exists to stop development on a system that is not working May address user needs and expectations more closely.

Disadvantages and Advantages of prototyping [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 192

THREE MAIN WAYS A USER CAN BE OF HELP IN PROTOTYPING: 1.Experimenting with the prototype –allows user the reality of hands-on interaction. –limited functionality along with the capability to send comments to the systems team ca be included. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 2.Giving open reactions to the1999] prototype –making users secure enough to give an open reaction is part of the relationship between analysts and users that your team works to build. –providing a private (relatively unsupervised) period for users to interact with and respond to the prototype is one way to insulate them from unwanted organizational influences. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 193

3. Suggesting to the prototype –is their willingness to suggest additions to and/or deletions from the features being tried. –in the end it is the analyst responsibility to weigh this feedback and translate it into workable changes where necessary. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

194

Analysis Phase

195

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM A graphical representation of data processes throughout the organization Advantages of the Data Flow approach: 1.Freedom from committing to the technical implementation of the system too early. 2.Further understanding of the interrelatedness of the systems and subsystems. 3.Communicating current system knowledge to users through data flow diagrams 4.Analysis of a proposed system to determine if the necessary data and processes have been defined. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

196

SYMBOLS

MEANING

EXAMPLE

Entity

Student

Flow of Data

New Student Information

Process Student Data Store

2.1 Create Student Record 03 Student Master

The four basic symbols used in Data Flow Diagram by [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Gane & Sarson. 197

vExternal entity – can either be a department, a business, a person, or a machine – also called a source or destination of data vFlow of Data – are the arrow that shows movement of data from one point to another, with head of the arrow pointing toward the data’s destination. vProcess – A rectangle with rounded corner is used to occurrence of a transforming process. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

198

Process represent work being performed within the system and should be named using one of the following formats: a.Assigned the name of the whole system when naming a high-level process. example: inventory control system. b.To name a major subsystem, such as Inventory Reporting Subsystem. c.Use a verb-adjective-noun format for detailed processes. VERB – describes the type of activity. examples: compute, verify, prepare, print or add ADJECTIVE – illustrates which specific output, such as backordered or inventory, is produced. examples:compute sales tax, print backordered report. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 199

DEVELOPING DATA FLOW DIAGRAM 1.Creating the context diagram – is the highest level in a data flow diagram and contains only one process, representing the entire system. – the initial context diagram should be an overview, one including basic inputs, the general system,diagram and outputs. 2.Drawing 0 (the next level) – is the explosion of the context diagram and may include up to nine processes. 3.Creating child diagrams (more detailed levels) – the process on diagram 0 that is exploded is called the parent process, and the diagram that results is called the child diagram. – the primary rule for creating diagram, vertical balancing, dictates that child diagram cannot produce output or receive input that the parent process is not also produce or receive. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 200

Entity 1 Entity 2

Input A

0 System Name

Input B

1 Input A General Entity 1 Process AAA

Data Flow B

Output C Entity 3

2 General Output C Process BBB

Entity 3

vContext 01

Entity 2

Data Store 1

3 Input B General Process CCC

02

Data Flow D

Data Store 2 4 General Process DDD

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Diagrams (above) Can be “exploded” into 201 Diagram 0

4.Checking the diagram for errors 2 11 3

processes need to have at least one input data flow and one output data flow

Data Flows should not split into two or more different data flows

2

all Data Flows must either originate or terminate at a process

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 202

The progression of models from physical to logical… Current logical data flow diagram Derive the logical data flow diagram for the current system by examining the physical data flow diagram and isolating unique business activities.

New logical data flow diagram

New Physical data flow diagram

Create the logical data flow diagram for the new system by adding the input, output, and processes required in the new system to the logical data flow diagram for the current system.

Derive the physical data flow diagram by examining processes on the new logical diagram. Determine where the user interfaces should exists, the nature of the processes, and necessary data stores.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

203

LOGICAL DATA FLOW DIAGRAM Are often more stable because they are based on business events and not on a particular technology or method of implementation. Has a business emphasis and helps the analyst to understand the business being studied, to grasp why procedures are performed, and to determine the expected result of performing a task. Advantages in using a logical diagrams: 1.Better communication with users. 2.More stable system. 3.Better understanding of the business by analyst. 4.Flexibility and maintenance. 5.Elimination of redundancies and easier creation of the physical model. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

204

PHYSICAL DATA FLOW DIAGRAM Shows how the system will be constructed. Also have intermediate data stores-often, a transaction file. Advantages of data flow diagram: 1.Clarifying which processes are manual and which are automated. 2.Describing processes in more detail than do logical DFDs. 3.Sequencing processes that have to be done in a particular order. 4.Identifying temporary data stores. 5.Specifying actual names of files and printouts. 6.Adding controls to ensure the processes are done properly. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 205

SIX REASONS FOR PARTIONING DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS: 1.Different user groups – if the processes performed by several different users groups, often at different physical location within the company, they should be partitioned in different computer programs. 2.Timing – examined the timing of the processes. If two processes execute at different times, they cannot be grouped into one program. 3.Similar tasks – if two processes performed similar tasks and both are batch processes, they may be grouped into one computer program. 4.Efficiency – several batch processes may be combined into one program for efficient processing. 5.Consistency of data – processes may be combined into one program for consistency of data. 6.Security – processes may be partitioned for security reasons. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 206

DATA DICTIONARY Is a reference work of data about data(that is, metadata), one that is compiled by systems analysts to guide them through analysis and design. The data dictionary may be used to: 1.Validate the data-flow diagram for completeness and accuracy. 2.Provide the starting point for developing screens and reports 3.Determine the contents of data stored in files. 4.Develop the logic for data-flow diagram processes. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

207

DATA REPOSITORY While the data dictionary contains information about data and procedures, a larger collection of project information. The Repository concept is one of the many impacts of CASE tools and may contain the following: 1.Information about the data maintained by the system, including data flow, data stores, record structures, and elements. 2.Procedural logic. 3.Screen and report design. 4.Data relationships, such as how one data structure is linked to another. 5.Project requirements and final system deliverables. 6.Project management information, such as delivery schedules, achievements, issues that need resolving, and project users. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 208

Data Flow Diagram

Data Flow

Data Dictionary

Data Flow Description Form XXX

Data Structures

Data Elements XXX

XXX

Data Store

Data Store Description Form XXX

Data Structure

Data Elements

XXX

XXX

How the data dictionaries relate to data flow diagram [KENDALL & KENDALL 1999] 209

v DATA -should FLOW be described first for all input and output, followed by the intermediate data flow and the data flow to and from data stores. -the detail of each data flow is described using the data structure, a group of elements sometimes called fields. v DATA STRUCTURES -are usually described using algebraic notation like: •= means “is composed of” •+ means “and” •{ } indicate repetitive elements •[ ] represents an either/or situation •( ) represents an optional elements -allows the analyst to produce a view of elements that make up the data structure, along with information about those elements. 210 [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

v DATA ELEMENTS -each of it should be defined once in a data dictionary and may also be entered previously on an element description form. v DATA STORES -all base elements must be stored with in the system. -are created for each different data entity being stored. -when data flow base elements are grouped together to form a structural record, it is created for each unique structural record. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 211

CREATING THE DATA DICTIONARY 1.Analyzing Input and Output An important step in creating the data dictionary is to identify and categorize system input and output data flow. 2.Developing data store Contains information of a permanent (item number, description, and item cost) or semi-permanent nature. It is acceptable to start with some information and then add more information to the data store when you analyze more data flows and realize more information to be added. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 212

STRUCTURED DECISION Conditions, condition alternatives, actions, and action rules must be known in order to design systems systems for structured decision. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] The analyst first determine the conditions-that is, occurrence that might affect the outcome of something else. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

213

THREE ALTERNATIVES FOR DECISION ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE DECISIONS: 1.Structured English when structured decisions are not complex, this is the appropriate technique in analyzing the decision process. it is based on: a.structured logic or instructions organized into nested and grouped procedures. b.simple English statements such as add, multiply, move, and so on. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] a. 214

Writing Structured English •Express all logic in terms of sequential structures, decision structures, case structures, or iterations. •Use and capitalized accepted keywords such as IF, THEN, ELSE, DO, UNTIL, and PERFORM. •Indent blocks of statements to show their hierarchy (nesting) clearly. •When words or phrases have been defined in a data dictionary, underline those words or phrases to signify that they have a specialized, reserved meaning. •Be careful when using “and” and “or”, and avoid confusion when distinguishing between “greater than” and “greater than or equal to” and like relationships. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

215

Calculate CalculateBase BasePremium Premium IF IF construction constructionisisbrick brick THEN THENdeduct deduct 10 10percent percent of of base baseto tototal total ENDIF ENDIF IF IF owner owner chooses chooses$100 $100deductible deductible THEN THENadd add15 15 percent percent of of subtotal subtotal ENDIF ENDIF IF IF home homehas hasburglar burglar alarm alarm THEN THENdeduct deduct 55percent percent of of adjusted adjustedsubtotal subtotal ENDIF ENDIF

Using structured English for analyzing the decision process for a simple sequential decision [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 216

Structured English Type example Sequential Structure Action #1 A block of instructions Action #2 where no branching occurs Action #3 Decision Structure IF Condition A is true Only IF a condition is true, THEN complete the following implement Action A statements; ELSE implement Action B otherwise jump to the ELSE ENDIF Example of logic expressed in a sequential structure and decision structure [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

217

Structured English Type Structure Case A special type of decision, structure where the cases are mutually exclusive (if one occurs the others cannot)

Example IF Case #1 implement Action #1

ELSE IF Case #2 implement Action #2 ELSE IF Case #3 implement Action #3 ELSE IF Case #4 implement Action #4 ELSE print error ENDIF Iteration DO WHILEthere are Customers. Blocks of Statements Action #1 that are repeated until ENDDO done Example of logic expressed in a case structure and an iteration 218

2.Decision Tables is a table of rows and columns, separated into four quadrants. when the it is used to determine which actions need to be taken, the logic moves clockwise beginning from the upper left. Conditions and Action Conditions Actions

Rules Condition Alternative Action Entries

The standard format used for presenting a decision table [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 219

3.Decision Trees are used when complex branching occurs in a structured decision process. Analyst tree does not contain probabilities and outcomes, because in systems analysis trees are used mainly for identifying and organizing conditions and actions in a completely structured decision process. Condition

Means IF

Condition 1

2

1

Condition

2

Action 1

Action 4

1

2

Action 2

3

Condition

2

Action 3

can be thought of as meaning THEN

4

2

Conventions for drawing a decision tree [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

220

CHOOSING A STRUCTURED DECISION ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE: 1.Structured English when a.There are many repetitious actions. OR

b.

Communication to end users is important. 3.Decision Tables when a. Complex combinations of conditions, actions, and rules are found. OR b. You require a method that effectively avoids impossible situations, redundancies, and contradictions. 4.Decision Trees a. The sequence of conditions and actions is critical. OR b. When not every condition is relevant to every action (the branches are different). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

221

SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISION Are those that are partially programmable but still require human judgment. DSS are most powerful when addressing semi-structured decisions, since the DSS supports the decision maker in all phases of decision making but does not mandate one final answer. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Decision Support System Posses many characteristics that differentiate them from other, more traditional Management Information System. Supports the decision-making process through the presentation of information that is designed for the decision maker’s problem-solving approach and application needs. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 222

THREE MAJOR CONCERNS ARISE WHEN ANALYZING SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM: 1.Whether decision makers are primarily Analytic or heuristic 2.How decisions are made in the three problem-solving phases of intelligence, design, and choice 3.The multiple-criteria methods that are useful in solving semistructured problems. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Analytic Decision Maker

Heuristic Decision Maker

Learns by acting Learns by analyzing Users step-by-step procedure Values quantitative information Uses trial and error Values experience and models Builds mathematical models and Rules on common sense algorithms Seeks optimal solution Seeks Satisfying solution KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 

223

Unable to identify the problem Intelligence Unable to define the problem Unable to prioritize the problem

Design

Unable to generate alternative Unable to quantify or describes Alternative Unable to assign criteria, values weights, and makings

Choice

Unable to identify a choice method Unable to organize and present information Unable to select alternative

Common Bottlenecks in the three phases of Decision Making [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 224

Certainty

Information and experience increase certainty.

Risk

Uncertainty

Decisions are made under certainty, uncertainty, and risk, which are determined by the availability of information and experience. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

225

DIMENSIONS OF SEMI-STRUCTURED DECISIONS 1.The degree of decision-making skill required -relates back to the concepts of analytic and heuristic decision makers -is measured in the analytic and experience-based maturity of the decision maker. 2.The degree of problem complexity -DSS can help in this regard by encouraging the decision maker to define the boundary of the system, and he/she b would accomplish this goal by clearly defining the problem and limiting the number of variables. 3.The number of decision criteria -a manager concerned is dealing with a structured problem, but most real-world problems have multiple, conflicting goals and multiple decision criteria. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 226

Multiple-Criteria Decision Making Approaches allow decision makers to set their own priorities, and most allow the decision maker to perform sensitivity analysis by asking “what-if” types of question [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999 Give the decision maker a more powerful way to evaluate alternatives and the design phase of decision making [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999 A decision involving multiple criteria may include choosing a software package that is powerful, has clear documentation, and is user friendly but inexpensive. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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PREPARING THE SYSTEM PROPOSAL Systems proposal is a destination of all the systems analyst has learned about the business and about what is needed to improve its performance. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] In order to address information requirements adequately, the systems analyst must used systematic methods for acquiring hardware and software, must identify and forecast future costs and benefits, and must perform cost-benefit analysis. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

228

Ascertaining Hardware and Software Needs The systems analyst needs to work along with user to determine what hardware will be needed Hardware determination can come only in conjunction with determining information requirements. Knowledge of the organizational structure can also be helpful in hardware decision. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

229

Steps in choosing hardware and software…

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Inventory computer hardware

Estimate Workloads

Evaluate hardware

Evaluate Software

Choose the vendor

Acquire the computer equipment 230

If an Updated Computer Hardware is an available,the systems analyst needs to sit up one quickly and carry through on it. You need to know: 1.The type of equipment - model number, manufacturer. 2.The status of the equipment operation - on order, operating, and storage, in need of repair. 3.The estimated age of the equipment. 4.The physical location of the equipment. 5.The projected life of the equipment. 6.The department of person consider responsible for the equipment. 7.The financial arrangement for the equipment - owned, leased, or rented. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 231

ESTIMATING WORKLOADS Means that systems analyst formulate numbers that represent both current and projected workloads for the system, so that any hardware obtain well posses the capability to handle current and future workloads. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

232

EVALUATING COMPUTER HARDWARE Is the share responsibility of management, users, and systems analysts. Criteria that the Systems Analysts and Users should use to evaluate performance of different systems hardware include: 1.The time required for average transactions(including how long it takes to input data and how long it takes to receive output). 2.The total volume capacity of system(how much can be processed at the sane time before the problem arises). 3.The idle time of the central processing unit. 4.The size of the memory provided. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

ACQUISATION OF COMPUTER EQUIPMENT Advantages Buying



Leasing



Renting



Disadvantages

Cheaper that leasing or renting Initial cost is high Risk of obsolescence over the long run The ability to change system / Risk of being stuck if choice was Full control wrong Provides tax advantages of Full responsibility accelerated depreciation No capital is tied up No financing is required Leases are lower than rental payments No capital is tied up  No financing is required  Easy to change systems  Maintenance and insurance are usually included

Company doesn’t owned the system when lease expires Usually a heavy penalty or terminating the lease 

Company doesn’t owned the Computer  Cost is very high because vendors assumes the risk(most expensive option) 

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Software Evaluation 1.Performance Effectiveness a. Able to perform required tasks b. Able to perform all task that maybe desired at some time in the future c. Well design display screens d. Adequate capacity 2.Performance Efficiency a. Fast response time d. Efficient storage of data b. Efficient input e. Efficient back-up c. Efficient output 3.Ease of Use a. Satisfactory users interface e. Adequate feedback b. Help menus available f. Good error recovery c. Readme files for last minute changes d. Flexible interface [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 235

4.Flexibility a. Options for input b. Options for output c. Usable with other software 5.Quality of Documentation a. Good organization b. Adequate on-line tutorial c. Web site with FAQ 6.Manufacturer Support a. Tech support hotline b. Newsletter or e-mail c. Web site with downloadable product updates [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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IDENTIFYING BENEFITS AND COSTS Tangible Benefits Are advantages measurable in dollars that accrue to the organization through the use of information system Examples: Increase in the speed processing The advantage of the computer’s superior calculating power Intangible Benefits Include improving the decision making process, in enhancing accuracy, becoming more competitive in customer service, maintaining a good business image, and increasing job satisfaction for employees by eliminating tedious tasks. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 237

Tangible Costs Are the cost of the equipment such as computers and terminals, the cost of resources, the cost of systems analysts’ time, the cost of programmers’ time, and other employees’ salaries. Intangible Costs Include losing a competitive edge, losing the reputation for being first with an innovation or the leader in a field declining company image due to increased customer dissatisfaction, and effective decision making due to untimely or inaccessible information. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Design Phase

239

OUTPUT DESIGN Is information delivered to users through the information system by way of intranets, extranets, or the World Wide Web. Six objectives for output: 1.Design output to serve the intended purpose. 2.Design output to fit the user. 3.Delivered the appropriate quantity of output. 4.Assure that the output is where it is needed. 5.Provide the output on time. 6.Choose the right output method.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 240

vPrinters

are changing so rapidly that any list of them is outdated the next year.

Three key factors: 1.Reliability 2.Compatibility with software and hardware 3.Manufacturer support.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Output Method Advantage Printer Specially Printers (label makers, etc.) Display Screen Audio Screen

Handles large volumes of output. Can easily accomplish special tasks that would be difficult on standard Good for frequently printer. accessed, ephemeral messages. Good for individual user 

Disadvantage May be noisy Cannot be networked 

Can be expensive if required for many users Is expensive to develop 

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 242

Output MethodAdvantage Microform

Disadvantage

Handles large volume Can be of information expensive initial investment 

DVD and CD- Has large capacity ROM Can be update very Electronic Output (e-mail, easily faxes and Web Can be made pages interactive Can be “broadcast”

Is more difficult to update 

Has generally lower resolution Web sites need diligent maintenance 

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 243

•Specialty printers involved in expensive, highly useful desktop technology. •Screens as output are an increasingly popular output technology. may provide an ideal output technology for information that is needed only once and that need never be stored. •Audio output Is interpreted by the human ear as speech, although it is actually produced by discrete digital sounds that are then put together in such a way as to be perceived as V continuous words. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

244

•CD-ROMS and DVDs CD-ROMs are being used to output any information that is voluminous and somewhat stable in content. DVD(Digital Versatile Disk) is expected to replace the CD-ROM soon because a DVD has more capacity and a DVD drive can read CD-ROMs as well as DVDs. •Microforms are ideal for large volumes of output such as cataloged parts or customer lists, and they can significantly reduce the physical space required for storage. •Electronic output in a form of e-mail, faxes and bulletin board messages that can be sent from one computer to another without the need for hard copy. [KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

245

Factors to consider when choosing output technology 1.Who will use(see) the output(requisite quality) 2.How many people need the output? 3.Where is the output needed(distribution/logistics)? 4.What is the purpose of the output? 5.What is the speed with which output is needed? 6.How frequently will the output be accessed? 7.How long will(or must) the output be stored? 8.Under what special regulations is the output produced, stored, and distributed? 9.What are the initial and ongoing costs of maintenance and supplies? 10.What are the environmental requirements(noise absorption, controlled temperature, space for equipment, and cabling) for output technologies? [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 246

Realizing how output bias affect users 1.Recognizing bias in the way output is used bias is present in everything that humans create. Three main ways in which presentation of output are unintentionally biased: 1. How information is sorted. 3. Choice of graphics. 2. Setting of acceptable limits. 2.Introducing bias when information is sorted bias is introduced to output when the analyst makes choices about how information is sorted for a report. 3.Introducing bias by setting limits many reports are generated on an exception basis only, which means that when limits on values are set beforehand, only exceptions to those values will be output. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 247

Four general problems with setting limits that may bias output: 1.Limit set too low. 2.Limit set too high. 3.Range of exceptions output too narrow. 4.Range of exceptions output too wide. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

248

Introducing bias through graphics 1.Avoiding bias in the design of output: a.Be aware of the sources of bias. c.Create an interactive design of output that includes users and a variety of differently-configured systems during the testing of Web document appearance. d.Work with users so that they are informed of the output’s biases and can recognize the implications of customizing their displays. e.Create output that is flexible and that allows users to modify limits and ranges. f.Train users to rely on multiple output for conducting “reality tests” on system output. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

249

Designing printed output 1.Report design conventions Constant information – is information that remains the same whenever the report is printed. Variable information – is information that can vary each time the report is printed out. 2.Paper quality, type, and size 3.Special output forms 4.Functional attributes a. the heading or title of the report b. the page number c. the data preparation d. the column headings e. the grouping of related data items together f. the use of control breaks [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

250

5.Stylistic/aesthetic attributes Steps in designing output reports with a computeraided software tool a. determine the need for the report. b. determine the users. c. determine the data items to be included. d. estimate the overall size of the report. e. title the report. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

251

Steps in designing output reports with a computer-aided software tool: a.determine the need for the report. b.determine the users. c.determine the data items to be included. d.estimate the overall size of the report. e.title the report. f.number the pages of report. g.include the preparation date on the report. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

252

h.label each column of data appropriately. i. define variable data, indicating on the screen whether each space or field is to be used for an alphabetic, special, or numeric character. j.indicate the positioning of blank lines used to help organize information. k.view prototype reports with users and programmers for feasibility, usefulness, readability, and aesthetic appeal. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Designing screen output Guidelines for screen design 1. Keep the screen simple. 2. Keep the screen presentation consistent. 3. Facilitate user movement among screens. 4. Create an attractive screen. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

254

Screen Design Example:

1.Tabular output for decision support systems information systems that were designed to support decisions makers in semi-structured decision systems. 2.Graphical output for decision support systems to organize information through the use of data flow diagrams; and to inform management about recommendations on the proposed information system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

255

Designing a web site

1.General guidelines for designing web sites b.Use professional tools -use software called a web editor like Microsoft’s front page or adobe page mill. c.Study other web sites -analyze design elements are being used, and see how they are functioning. d.Use the resources that the web has to offer e.Examine the web sites of professional designers f.Use the tools you’ve learned. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

256

a. g.Consult the books h.Look at some poor examples of web pages, too i.Create templates of your own j.Use plug-ins, audio, and video very sparingly k.Plan ahead. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

257

Web Terms Meaning book mark A stored address of a web page, (in Microsoft internet explorer bookmarks are called “favorites.”) You can jump to a page by clicking on its bookmark. FAQ “frequently asked question.” Web sites often have a page devoted to these so the company sales force or tech support are not inundated with the same questions over and over again and users can have FTP “file transfer protocol” is currently the most common 24 hour access to answers. way to move files between computer systems.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 258

browser

Software that allows you to read web pages, copy, save, and print these pages.

GIF

“graphic interchange format” a popular compressed image format best suited for artwork.

Java

An object oriented language that allows dynamic applications to be run on the internet.

Webmaster

The person responsible for maintaining the web site.

www

“world wide web” a global hypertext system that uses the internet. “virtual reality markup language” a language similar to HTML that allows users to browse in 3D.

VRML

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

JPEG HTML http:// Hyperlink plug-ins URL

“joint photographic expert group” developed and gave the acronym of its name to title this popular compressed image format best suited for photographs. “hypertext markup language” is the language behind the appearance of documents on the web. “hypertext transfer protocol” is used to move web pages between computers. In a hypertext system words, phrases or images that are underlined or emphasized in some way(often Additional software(often developed by a third party) with a different color). that can be used with another programs. “uniform resource locator” is the address of a document or program on the internet.

260

INPUT DESIGN The systems analyst is acknowledging that poor input calls into question the trustworthiness of the entire system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Data is usually input to a processing system in one of two modes; by the transaction or by the batch. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

261

Transaction-Oriented Processing – source data is entered directly into the processing system at the time the transaction occurs without intermediate storage. Input is made in real time. This mode is also known as online data entry. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] Batch Processing – involves preparing data to be input to a system at a later time. In this mode, source data is transcribed on to machine-readable storage media. This mode is also known as offline data entry. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

262

Elements of Data Input A source document is a record of an original transaction, generated at a time the transaction takers places. Source documents contain the about the procedures or activities initiated during the transaction. The data on source documents must be made available for processing by the system. This involves transferring the data on the source document to another record that is machine readable. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

Input Media Several methods are used to prepare source data for input into a system. The purpose of all input devices is to convert media into electronic pulses that can be stored and manipulated by computers or other devices. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] 263

Most Common Input Media 1.Keyboard Terminals a.Smart terminal – have an integrated microprocessor 2. b.Dumb Terminals – Do not have integrated microprocessor. 3. 4.Manual a.LongData handEntry or onDevices a typewriter 5. 6.Optical Scanning Devices 7. a.Mark Sense Readers 8. b.Optical Character Readers 9.Magnetic ink Character Readers 10. a.Magnetic Ink Character Recognition 11.Voice Recognition Devices 12.Other Input Devices ( mice, wands, joysticks, digitizers, and light pens.) [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] 264

Design of Source Document A source document should capture data in the sequence in which it will be entered to the system. It should have adequate space for the user to fill in the data. Filled should be labeled, and explanatory notes should be included in the form to make sure that data is entered correctly. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

265

Input Verification Control Well-designed information systems have transaction controls that monitor input data to make sure it is correct, in the proper range, and complete. •Range Test – data must be entered within the range or limit that is expected for the kind of transaction being process. •Test for Completeness – all data must be necessarily entered for the processing transaction. •Accuracy Test – the data must be entered accurately. •Sequence Test – the data must be entered in proper sequence. •Data Type Check – data entered in the field must be in the correct data type. •Combination Test – information entered into two field must be properly related. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] 266

Verification Involves making comparisons to check the accuracy of the data transferred from one document to another. •Keyboard Information Twice •Batch Totals – some of all values in a given field in a batch. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989]

267

Input Design Guidelines •Design input screens for operator convenience. Place related items close together. Avoiding shifting between capital letters and lower case and between figures and numbers unless necessary. •Use a consistent style. Don’t call for a date to be entered one way, for instance 1/29/89, and later ask for it to be entered as January 29, 1989. •Only variable data should be entered, not constants. Structure records, for example, so that the operator enters “6723,” not “EMPLOYEE NUMBER 6723.” •Use common expressions to identify fields: ADDRESS rather than LOCATION or DOMICILE, LAST NAME rather than SURNAME, and so on. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] 268

• Enter data in a logical sequence. For instance, name, address, phone number, is more logical than name, phone number, address. •Use the computer to perform the computations. For example, enter the number of hours worked and the pay rate, and let the computer calculate the gross pay. •Design forms with the end user in mind. Provide enough space for people to write or print required information. For example, leave adequate space for names of states or individuals. •Use codes or abbreviation to simplify data entry. It is obviously easier to enter F for female and M for male, rather than having to key in the full words. •Provide entry operators with a guide showing standard abbreviations to be used and explanations of style and format for all fields. [SILVER & SILVER, 1989] 269

Four guidelines for form design should be observed in order to design useful forms: 1.Make forms easy to fill out. 2.Ensure that forms meet the purpose for which they are designed. 3.Design forms to assure accurate completion. 4.Keep forms attractive.

[KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

270

Incident Report Data

Good Form

Types of incident

Design 1.Form

Name of first person involved

-forms should flow from left to right and top to bottom.

Address

Investigating Officer

Phone

Injuries

Name of second person involved Address

Phone

Injuries

Phone

Comments

Name of witness Address

Describe what happened Action taken Suggestions 271

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

1.Form Flow

Location

Time

2.Seven sections of a form -a second technique that makes it easy for people to fill out forms correctly in logical grouping of information. Seven main sections of a strong form are: a.Heading e. Signature and verification b.Identification and access f. Totals c.Instructions g.Comments d.Body

3.Captioning – another technique that can make easy work of filling out a form. – tell the person completing the form what to put on the blank line, space, or box. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 272

Good screen and web forms design

good form design is transferable to screen design and eventually to the good design of Web sites and their pages.

Four guidelines for screen design: 1.Keep the screen simple. – the first guideline for good screen design is to keep the screen display simple. – the display screen should show only that which is necessary for the particular action being undertaken. 2.Keep the screen presentation consistent. 3.Facilitate user movement among screens. 4.Create an attractive screen. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 273

Keeping the screen consistent the second guideline for good screen design is to keep the screen display consistent. Facilitating movement the third guideline for good screen design is to make it easy to move fro one screen to another. Scrolling this is an extremely easy way for inexperienced users to change screens. Calling up more detail another general approach to movement between screens allows users to call up another screen quickly by using cursor positioning along with a specific command [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 274

On-screen dialog Displaying prompts facilitate of user movement between screens. Designing an attractive screen the fourth guideline for good screen design is to create an attractive screen for the user. Three screen sections this method is useful because it simplifies interactions with screens. the top of the screen features a “heading” section, part which is written into the software to describe to the user where he or she is in the package. the middle section is called the “body”of the screen this can be used for data entry and is organized from left to right and top to bottom. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 275

Using windows hyperlinks another way to keep the screen display simple is to list a few basic commands that, when used, will overlay windows to partially or totally fill the current screen with new information. Inverse video and blinking cursors Techniques that effectively enhance the attractiveness of screens. Using different type of fonts are another way to make screens attractive to users. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

276

Attributes attribute characters control the characteristics of the screen field to the right of them and include the following qualities: 1.Protection -determines whether the user may enter data into the screen field or not. 2.Intensity -is how bright a screen field will appear 3.Shift and extended attributes -limits data fields to numeric or alphanumeric entries when data is keyed. Attribute character considerations when designing mainframe terminal screens for entering data, the attribute character must be taken into consideration. [KENDALL & KENDALL,277

Screen code generation may be designed using a number of CASE tools. 1.Using icon in screen design -icons serve functions similar to those of words and may replace them in many menus, since their meaning is more quickly grasped than words. -icons designed for the spreadsheet for excel 7.0 2.Graphical user interface -uses a windows, OS/2, Macintosh, or other graphics screen for entering and displaying data. 3.Tab control dialog boxes -are another part of graphical user interfaces and another way to get users organized and into system material efficiently. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 278

Guidelines for designing the control dialog boxes: a.Create a separate tab for each unique feature. b.Place the most commonly used tabs in front and display them first. c.Consider including three basic buttons in your design: OK, cancel, and help. 4.Using color in screen design -color is an appealing and proven way to facilitate computer input. The top five most legible combinations of foreground lettering on background are(starting with the most legible combination): a. black on yellow d. white on blue b. green on white e. yellow on black c. blue on white [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 279

FILE OR DATABASE Is a central source of data meant to be shared by many users for a variety of applications. Conventional files will remain a practical way to store data for some (but not all) applications. Design Objectives: 1.Purposeful information retrieval. 2.Efficient data storage. 3.Efficient updating and retrieval. 4.Data integrity. 5.Data Availability.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 280

The effectiveness objectives of the database include: 1.Ensuring that data can be shared among users for a variety of applications. 2.Maintaining data that are both accurate and consistent. 3.Ensuring that all data required for current and future applications will be readily available. 4.Allowing the database to involve and the needs of the users grow. 5.Allowing users to construct their personal view of the data without concern for the way the data are physically stored. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 281

Data concepts Reality - the real world itself will be referred to as reality. Data - data collected about people, places, or events in reality will eventually be stored in the file or database. Metadata - the information that describes data Entities any object or event about which someone chooses to collect data. Relationships are associations between entities (sometimes they are referred to as data associations). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

282

Records is a collection of data items that have something in common with the entity. Keys is one of the data items in a record that is used to identify report when a key uniquely identifies a record, it is called a primary key. is called a secondary key if it cannot uniquely identify a record. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

283

File Organization •File types -files can be used for storing data for an indefinite period of time, or they can be used to store data temporarily for a specific purpose. •Master files -contain records for a group of entities. -if the master file is stored using conventional file methods, an expansion area is reserved at the end of each record. •Table files -contains data used to calculate more data or performance measures. Example: tax table [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

284

• Transaction files -is used to enter changes that update the master file and produce reports. -may contain several different kinds of records such as the three used for updating the newspaper subscription master, with a code on the transaction file indicating the type of •Worktransaction. files -a program can work efficiently if a work file is used. •Report files -is used when it is necessary to run a program but no printer is available(busy). -is very useful because users can take files to other computer systems and output to specialty devices such as laser printers,microfiche units, and even computerized typesetting machines. [KENDALL 285 & KENDALL, 1999]

v Sequential organization when records are physically in order in a file. when it is updated, it is necessary to go through to the entire file. sequential master file are used when the hardware(magnetic tape) requires it when the normal access requires that most of the records be accessed. vLinked lists are achieved by using a set of pointers to the direct you to the next logical record located any where in the file. vHashed File Organization is the process of calculating an address from the record key. a common hashing techniques is to divide the original number by a prime number that approximates the storage locations and then to use the remainder as the address. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 286

v Indexed Organization index is different from a pointer, since it is stored file that is separate from the data file.

in a

vIndexed-Sequential Organization also called ISAM(indexed-sequential access method). a widely used method of file organization allow program to read records directly without reading other records in the file. ISAM – the records are arrange in blocks. VSAM – or virtual storage access method, a more modern and efficient method for handling indexed-sequential files. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

287

DATABASE ORGANIZATION Hierarchical Data Structures imply that entity can have no more than one owning entity. Therefore it is structure made up of many oneto-many or one-to-one associations. Network Data Structures a relational structure consists of one or more twodimensional tables, which are referred to as relations. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

288

Normalization of a relation is accomplished in three major steps……….

User Views

Unnormalized relationship Step 1 Remove repeating groups

Normalized relations(1NF) Step 2 Remove partial dependencies

Second normal form (2NF)relations Step 3 Remove transitive dependencies

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Third normal form(3NF) relations 289

GUIDELINES FOR FILE OR DATABASE RELATION DESIGN 1. Each separate data entity should create a master file. Item master file – should contain only item information. Vendor master file – should contain only vendor information. 2. A specific data field should exist only on one master file. Example: CUSTOMER NAME should exist only on the CUSTOMER MASTER FILE, not on the ORDER FILE or any other master file 3. Each master file or database relation should have programs to create, read, update, and delete(CRUD) the records. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 290

Eight steps in the retrieval and presentation of data: 1.Choose a relation from the database 2.Join two relations together 3.Project columns from the relation 4.Select rows from the relation 5.Derive new attributes 6.Index or sort rows 7.Calculate totals and performance measure 8.Present data [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

291

USER INTERFACE OBJECTIVES 1.Effectiveness is achieved through the design of interfaces that allow users to access the system in a way that is congruent with their individual needs. 2.Efficiency as demonstrated through interfaces that both increase the speed of data entry and reduce errors. 3.User consideration as demonstrated in the design of suitable interfaces and by providing appropriate feedback to user from the system. 4.Productivity as measured by ergonomically sound principles of design for user interfaces and work spaces.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 292

Types of User Interface 1. Natural language interfaces – are perhaps the dream and ideal of inexperienced users, since they permit users to interact with the computer in their everyday or natural language. 2.Question-and-answer interfaces – the computer displays a question to the user on the screen. 3.Menus – this interface appropriately borrows its name from the list of dishes that can be selected in the restaurant. – provides the user with an on-screen list of available selections. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 293

4.Form-fill interfaces(input/output forms) – consist of on-screen forms or web-based forms displaying fields containing data items or parameters that need to be communicated to the users. 5.Command-language interfaces – allows the users to control the application with a series of key strokes, commands, phrases, or some sequence of these three methods. – manipulate the computer as a tool by allowing the user to control the dialog. – require memorization of syntax rules that may prove to be obstacles for inexperienced users. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 294

6. Graphical user interfaces(GUIs) – allow direct manipulation of the graphical representation on the screen, which can be accomplished with keyboard input, joystick, or a mouse – its creation poses a challenge, since an appropriate model of reality or an acceptable conceptual model of the representation must be invented. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

295

Dialog Is the communication between the computer and a person. Well designed dialog makes it easier for people to use a computer and leads to less frustration with the computer system.

Guidelines for dialog design:

1.Meaningful communication, so that the computer understand what people are entering and people understand what the computer is presenting or requesting. 2.Minimal user action. 3.Standard operation and consistency. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 296

Communication presenting an appropriate title on each screen, minimizing the use of abbreviations, and providing clear user feedback. Minimal user action keying is often the lowest part of a computer system, and good dialog will minimize the number of keystrokes required. Standard operation and consistency the system should be consistent throughout its set of different screens and mechanisms for controlling the operation of the screens throughout different applications. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 297

Feedback is Needed to Tell the User That: The computer has accepted the input The input is the correct form The input is not in the correct form There will be a delay in the processing The request has been completed The computer is unable to complete the request More detailed feedback is available(and how to get it) 

[KENDALL&KENDALL, 1999]

298

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE(SQL) is a popular way to implement queries. It uses a series of keywords and commands to select the rows and columns that should be displayed in the resulting table. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] DATA MINING its concept came from the desired to use the database for a more selective targeting of customers. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Data mining collects personal information about customers in an effort to be more specific and interpreting and anticipating their preferences. Diagram below 299

Warranty card customer sent in

External Data Prospects or mailing list from other companies

Data Maintained Internally

External Data Customer purchased history from credit card

External Data

Information from survey that customer filled out

Customer demographics from municipality

Customer profile obtained when customer made purchase from the web Special promotion offer for customer

[KENDALL & KENDALL,1999] 300

Quality Assurance Through Software Engineering

301

APPROACHES

SQA

APPROACHES TO QUALITY 1.Securing total quality by designing systems and software with a top-down, modular approach 2.Documenting software with appropriate tools 3. Testing, maintaining , and Auditing software. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT vResponsibility •The full organizational support of management must exist •Early commitment to quality from the analyst and the business is necessary to achieve the goal of quality •Providing on-the-job time for Information System quality circles for implementations of improvements. •Reshaping a new system or modification of the information system •Encouraging users to crystallize their expectations about

SQA

information systems and their interactions with them. •Departmental quality standards must be communicated through feedback to the systems analysis team. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

vStructured Walkthrough - a way of using peer reviewers to monitor the system’s programming and over-all development, to point out problems and to allow the programmer or analyst responsible for that portion of the system to make suitable changes [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

SQA

- it involves at least 4 people: a.programmer/analyst b.walkthrough coordinator c.programmer/analyst peer d.a peer who takes notes about suggestions [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Systems Design and Development vBottom-Up Design - identifying the process that need computerization as they arise, analyzing them as systems and either coding the process of or purchasing package software to meet the immediate problem. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

SQA

Limitations: a. Interface bugs are enormously costly to correct and many of them are not uncovered until programming is complete. b. There is a duplication of effort in purchasing software and even in entering data c. Much worthless data are entered into the system. d. Overall organizational objectives are not considered and hence cannot be met. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 305

vTop-Down Design - allows the systems analyst to ascertain overall organizational objectives first, as well as to ascertain how they are best met in an overall system [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Advantages: a.Avoiding the chaos of attempting to design a system “all at once”. b. It enables separate systems analysis teams to work in parallel on different but necessary subsystems. c. It avoids a Major problem associated with the bottomup approach [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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306

Pitfalls: • The system would be divided into a “wrong” subsystems. • Once systems division are made, their interfaces maybe neglected or ignored. • Eventually subsystems must be reintegrated. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Total quality management and the top-down approach to design can go hand in hand. The top-down approach provides the systems group with a ready-made division of users into task forces for subsystem. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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307

ORGANIZATIONAL OBJECTIVES LEVEL (coordinating systems to meet company objectives)

FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS LEVEL (e.g., payroll, accounting, and product systems)

OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS LEVEL (e.g., manage editing, updating, and printing)

PROGRAM MODULE LEVEL (e.g., read data, sort, write to files and printer)

Overall organizational objectives using top-down approach 308

Modular development - useful in programming and works well with topdown design - involves breaking the programming into logical, manageable potions or modules. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

SQA

Advantages: a.Modules are easier to write and debug because they are virtually self-contained. b.Modules are easier to maintain. c.Modules are easier to grasp, since they are selfcontained subsystems. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Guidelines for modular programming: a.Keep each module to manageable size b.Pay particular attention to the critical interfaces c.Minimize the number of modules the user must modify when making changes. d.Maintain the hierarchical relationships set up into the top-down phases. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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310

Modularity in the Windows Environment Two systems to link programs: 1. Dynamic Data Exchange(DDE) - shares code by using Dynamic Link Library(DLL) files. Server - programs that contain the original data Client - programs that uses the data Advantage: a.Programs will have the same look and feel as other Windows programs. b.It speeds development because common DLL files have code contained. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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311

Disadvantage: a. It is limited in features

SQA

b. Programs tend to use the least common nominator rather than take advantage of potentially powerful features. 4. Object Linking and Embedding(OLE) - it is superior to DDE because it ties in application data and graphics, it retains all of the properties of the originally created data. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Structure Charts -recommended tool for designing a modular, top-down system. - a diagram consisting of rectangular boxes, which represents the modules and connecting arrows. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Two types of Arrow: a.data couples – arrows with the empty circles b.control flags/switches – arrows with the field-in circles [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Drawing a Structure Chart - are meant to be drawn from the top down, the data- flow diagram [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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1 The higher level module calls the lower module Arrows with filled-in circles represent “control flags”

1.1

Arrows with empty circles represent “data couples.”

1.2

A structure diagram encourages top-down design using modules [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 314

Objective of drawing structure chart: 1.To encourage a top-down design 2.To support the concept of modules and identify the appropriate modules 3.To identify and limit as much as possible the data couples and control flags that pass between modules. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Types of Modules a. Control modules – contain the logic performing the lower-level modules. It may or may not be represented on data flow diagram.Types of statements for control modules are ‘if’, ‘perform’ and ‘do’. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] b.Transformational modules – are those created from a data-flow diagram. They usually perform only one task, although several secondary tasks may be associated with the primary task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] c.Functional or specialized modules – are the lowest in the structure, with a rare subordinate module beneath them. Perform only one task. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Module Subordination Subordination of module is one of the lower on the structure chart called by another module higher in the structure. Allowing the lower-level module to perform a task not required by the calling module is called improper subordination. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Even when a structure chart accomplishes all of the purposes for which it was drawn, the structure chart cannot stand alone as the sole design/ documentation technique. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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DOCUMENTATION Is the primary source of information about the system and the current state of development. It provides an overview of the system itself. The documentation should record all essential facts and decision about the system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Includes all management and quality assurance materials, specification which are the product for analysis and design operations, source code and technical guides and user manual use to describe the finished system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] A good documentation is clear, concise, consistent and accurate. A document must be accurate, as its value decreases rapidly with every error it contains. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 318

Nassi- Shneiderman Charts

Advantage: a.it adopts the philosophy of structured programming. b.it uses a limited number of symbols so that the flowchart takes up less space. c.it can be read by someone unfamiliar with symbols used in other of flowcharts. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Process

Three Basic Symbols:

Decision

Iteration 319

Pseudocode

-similar to structured English because it is not a particular type of programming code, but it can be used as intermediate step for developing program code. [KENDALL & KENDALL,1999]

Procedures Manuals

-they may contain background comments, steps required to accomplish different transactions, instruction on how to recover from problems, and what to do next if something is not working(troubleshooting). [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Biggest complaints a.they are poorly organized b.it is hard to find needed information in them. c.the specific case in question does not appear in the manual d.the manual is not written in the English [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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The Folklore Method is a system documentation technique that was created to supplements some of the techniques just covered. It gathers information that is often shared among users but is seldom written down. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] is a systematic techniques, based on traditional methods used in gathering folklore about people and legends.It requires the system analyst to: a.interview users b.investigate existing documentation in files c.and observe the processing of information

Objective of Folklore Method is to gather information corresponding to one of the four categories: Folklore, Tales, Saying and art forms. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 322

STOMS STOMSDescriptions Descriptionsofofhow howusers userscurrently currentlyget getthe thesystem systemtotorun run ART ARTFORMS FORMSDiagram, Diagram,tables tablesand andflowcharts flowcharts

SAYINGS SAYINGS“Do “Dothis thisand andititworks.” works.”

TALES TALES

Stories t Storiesabout abouthow howusers userswere wereable abletotoget getth

Customs, tales, sayings and art forms used in the FOLKLORE method of documentation apply to information system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 323

Choosing a Design and Documentation Technique Choose a technique that: 1.Is compatible with existing documentation 2.Is understood by others in the organization 3.Allows you to return in working on the system after you have been away from it for a period of time. 4.Is suitable for the size of the system you are working on. 5.Allows for a structured design approach if that is considered to be more important than other factors 6.Allows for easy modification [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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CODE GENERATION AND DESIGN Code Generation -is the process of using software–often a

lower or integrated CASE product to create all or part of computer program. •Full Code Generatorsrequires a full methodology for: entering all data, business rules, screen designs and so on. •Partial Code Generators generate only specific pieces of code that maybe incorporated into program being constructed by the programmers. One advance approach to code generation is a set of program called XperCASE by Siemens AG österreich., with this sophisticated set of tools, the system analyst cannot only generate program code, but also reengineer existing code. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Design

Specification requirement reflected in software design, modularity effective, functional independence software well structured, loose coupling interfaces for modules and external elements defined data structures consistent with specification and information consideration given to maintenance and documentation state to design and plan reconcilable. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

Coding

Design verified in the coding compliance with any coding standards and conventions code readily readable (including typing and data declarations) state of code and plan reconcilable. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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REENGINEERING (Reverse Engineering) Refers to the complete process of converting program code to the CASE design, modifying the design, and generating the new program code Reverse engineering is the opposite of code generation. The computer source code is examined, analyst, and converted into repository entities. modify the logic and output it as computer code in a different language. Once the program has been reverse engineered, the design may be modified, eliminating unused features and adding new features to the program. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Corporation

Product Name

Bachman Information Systems, Inc. Analyst Capture Cadre Technologies, Inc,. CGI Teamwork Systems, Inc. PacReverse Intersolv Siemens AG

XL Recovery XperCASE

Selected reverse engineering tools [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

328

Reverse engineering concepts Do process records Add 1 to counter Add amt. to Total ……….. ENDDO

Computer Source Code: C, COBOL, Xbase… Existing computer programs loaded into the reverse engineering toolset.

Reverse Engineering Toolset

Reverse engineering toolset examines computer source coded and produces CASE repository

CASE repository CASE repository is created including: structure charts, record and element descriptions in the data dictionary, screen and report layouts.

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999 329

THE ADVANTAGES OF USING A REVERSE ENGINEERING TOOLSET ARE NUMEROUS: 1.The time required for system maintenance is reduced, freeing uptime for new development. 2.Documentation, which may have been nonexistent or minimal for older programs, is produced. 3.Structured programs are created from unstructured or loosely structured computer code. 4.Future maintenance changes are easier to make, since changes may be made at the design level rather than at the code level. 5.Analysis may be performed on the system to eliminate unused portions of computer code, code that may stills exist in order programs even though it was made obsolete revisions of the program through out the years. 6. 330

TESTING All of the system newly written or modified application programs- as well as new procedural manuals, new hardware, and all system interfaces must be tested thoroughly, Haphazard, trial and error testing will not suffice. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Testing is done through system development, not just at the end. It is meant to turn up heretofore unknown problems not to demonstrate the perfection of programs, manual, or equipment. Although testing is tedious, it is an essential series of steps that helps assure the quality of the eventual system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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v Testing is accomplished on sub systems or program modules as work progresses.It is done on many different levels at various intervals.before system is put into production, all programs must be desk-checked,checked with test data, and check to see if the modules work together with one another as planned. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] The system as working whole must also be tested, this includes: a.testing the interfaces between subsystems b.the correctness of output, and the usefulness c.understandability of system documentation and output.

Programmers, analysts, operators, users all play different roles in various aspects of testing. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 332

Program Testing with Test Data -he system analysts serve as an advisor and coordinator for program testing, in this capacity the analyst work to ensure that correct testing techniques are implemented by the programmers but probably does not personally carry out this level of checking. In this stage Programmers must: a.desk check their programs to verify the way the system will work. b. create both valid and invalid test data

Link Test with Test Data -it is referred to as string testing. It checks to see if programs that are interdependent actually work together as planned. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 333

Link Testing with test data

Program Testing with test data Programmers

Analyst

Testing Operators

Full Systems Testing with test data

Users

Full Systems Testing with live data

Programmers, analyst, operators, and users all play different roles in testing software and systems [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 334

Full Systems Testing with Test Data - operators and end users become actively involved in testing Factors to consider when systems testing with test data: a. Examining whether operators have adequate documentation in procedure manuals to afford correct and efficient operation. b. Checking whether procedure manuals are clear enough in communicating how data should be prepared for input. c. Ascertaining if work flows necessitated by the new or modified system actually “flow”. d. Determining if output is correct and whether users understand that this is, in all likelihood, how output will look in this form. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Full Systems Testing with Live Data - data that have been successfully processed through the existing system. It allows an accurate comparison of the new system’s output with what you know to be correctly processed output, as well as good feel for how actual data will be handled. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Maintenance Practices - is performed most often to improve the existing software rather than to respond to a crisis or system failure. It is also done to update software in response to the changing organization. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Auditing - is another way of assuring the quality of information contained in the system. It refers to having an expert who is not involved in setting up or using a system examine information in order to ascertain its reliability. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 336

Implementing The Information System

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IMPLEMENTING APPROACHES The process of translating logical design into a physical implementation is the implementation phase. It is also the process of assuring that the information system is operational and then allowing users to take over its operation for use and evaluation. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] First Approach - the movement of computer powers to individual users by setting up and shifting computer power and responsibility to groups throughout the business with the help of distributed computing. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Second Approach -using different strategies for training users and personnel, including taking them in their own level, using a variety of training techniques and making sure that each user understand any new role that he or she must take on because of the information system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Third Approach -choosing a conversion strategy, the system analyst needs to weigh the situation and propose a conversion plan that is appropriate for particular organization and information system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Fourth Approach-involves evaluating the new or modified information system, the analyst need to formulate performance measures on which to evaluate the system, evaluation comes from users, management, and analyst themselves. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Process-oriented -translation of module specification into program specifications, the program development cycle can then be applied: this involves specification review, design, coding, testing and integration. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Data-oriented -information system still need to concentrate on system’s data requirements. Translating a logical data model expressed in terms of entities, attributes, domains and relationships into a physical data implementation. This translation process can be considered into a mapping of one model. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Implementing Distributed System - if the reliability of a telecommunication network is high, it is possible to have distributed systems for businesses, a setup which can be conceived of as an application of telecommunications. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] - the concept of distributed systems is used in many different ways, it will be taken in a broad sense so that it includes workstation that can communicate with each other and data processors, as well as different hierarchal architectural configuration of data processors that can communicate with each other and that have differing data storage capabilities. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 341

Client/Server Technology -the client/server (C/S) model. -client/server computing -client/server technology client/server architecture This refer to a design model that can be thought of as applications running on a local area network (LAN). Client/ server network- is performing its distributed processing,.since it should have the look and feel of a unified system. Peer-to-peer network - PCs can act as either the server or the client , depending on the requirements of the applications. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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-

Client as Part of the Client/Server Model using a LAN Client – refers to the network machines which are typically points of entry to the client/server system.that is used by human. It could be a network desktop computer; a workstations or laptop computers; or any way in which the user can enter the system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Client Workstations used smaller programs that stay resident in the client to do “front-end processing”(as opposed to back-end processing), including communicating with the user. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Client-based application means that the applications resides in a client computer and cannot be access by other users on network. It requires separate installation on each workstation if the LAN has not purchased a site license. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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A client/server system configuration Local data

Microsof t Powerpo int

User-specific Application Visible Analyst

Visio

Microsoft Microsoft Excel Word

Clients

Microso ft Access General Application Enterpris e Data

Server 344

File server- is the term used to denote a computer on a LAN that stores on its hard disk the application programs and data files for all of the clients on the network. Server-based applications are types of client processing capabilities that permits the user to request network applications(program stored on a network server rather than on users computer) from the server. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Print Server- on a LAN is accessible to all workstations. It is a PC dedicated to receiving and (temporarily) storing files to be printed. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Advantages of Client/Server Model a.there are well-documented high start-up or switch-over cost associated with a movement to a C/S architecture. b.it affords greater computer power end greater opportunity to customize applications. Disadvantages of Client/Server Model a.systems are not always the best solution to an organization problem. b.it is more expensive than other options [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Types of distributed system networks: Standard types of network: a.Local Area Network(LAN) b.Wide Area Network(WAN) [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Main Types of Distributed Systems Networks 1.Hierarchical Networks 2.Star Networks 3.Ring Networks 4.Bus configuration [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Advantages of Distributed Systems Allow data storage out of the way of on-line, real-time transactions. Allow less expensive media for data storage when all data are not needed all of the time by all users. Lower equipment cost since not all system parts need to perform all functions. Lower equipment cost by permitting flexibility in choice of manufacturer. Less expensive than large systems initially since expansion can be planned for without actually purchasing hardware. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Disadvantages of Distributed Systems Difficulty in achieving a reliable system Security concerns increase commensurately when more individuals have access to the system Analysts must emphasize the network and the interactions it provides and de-emphasize the power of subsystems. Choosing the wrong level of computing to support (i.e., individual instead of department, department instead of branch) [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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TRAINING USERS Systems analysts engage in an educational process with users. Throughout the system development life cycle, the user has been involved, so that by now the analyst should possess an accurate assessment of the users who must be trained. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] In the implementation of large projects, the analyst will often be managing the training rather than be personally involved in it. the analyst can bring to any training situation is the ability to see the system from users viewpoint. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Training Strategies are determined by who is being trained and by who will train them. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Who to train - all people who will have secondary or primary use of the system must be trained. This includes everyone from dataentry personnel to those who will use output to make decisions without personally using a computer. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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vPeople who train users. Possible training sources include: 1. Vendors 2. Systems Analysts 3. External Paid Trainers 4. In-House trainers 5. Other System user Guidelines For Training 1.Establishing measurable objectives 2.Using appropriate training methods 3.Selecting suitable training sites 4.Employing understandable training materials [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Elements

Relevant Factors

Training objectives Training methods Training sites Training materials

Depend on requirements of user’s job. Depend on user’s job, personality, background, and experience; Depend on training objectives,use cost, combination of lecture, demonstration, Depends onfree user’s needs; operating availability; vendors sites with hands-on, and study. manuals, cases, prototypes of operable equipment; in-house equipments and output;on-line tutorials installation; rented facilities

[KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 353

CONVERSION A third approach to implementation is physically converting the old information system to the new or modified one. There are many conversion strategies available to analysts, and there is also a contingency approach that takes into account several organizational variables in deciding which conversion strategy to use. There is no best way to proceed with conversion. The importance of adequate planning and scheduling of conversion, file backup, and adequate security cannot be overemphasized. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Conversion Strategies

1.Direct changeover -it means that on specified date, the old system is dropped and the new system is put into use. Advantage: Users has no possibility of using the old system rather the new one. Disadvantage: a.It is considered as risky approach because long delays might ensue if errors occur since there is no alternate way to accomplish processing. b.Users may resent being force into using an unfamiliar system without recourse. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

355

2.Parallel conversion -refers to running the old system and the new system at the same time, in parallel. This is the most frequently use approach but its popularity maybe declined because it works best when a computerized system replaces a manual one. Advantages: a. Possibility of checking new data against old data in order to catch any errors in processing in the new system. b. Offers a feeling of security to users, who are not forced to make an abrupt change to the new system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Disadvantages a.the cause of running two systems at the same time and the burden on employees of virtually doubling their workload during conversion. b.unless the system being replaced is a manual one, it is difficult to make comparison between outputs of a new system and the old one [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

357

3.Phased or gradual conversion - attempts to combine the best features of the earlier two plans, without incurring all of the risk. Advantage:

Allows users to get involved with the system gradually and the possibility of detecting and recovering from errors without a lot of down time.

Disadvantage: It takes too long to get the new system in place and its inappropriateness for conversion of small, uncomplicated systems. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

358

4.Modular prototype conversion This approach to conversion uses the building of modular, operational prototypes to change from old systems to new in a gradual manner. Advantage: a.each module is thoroughly tested before being used. b.users are familiar with each module as it becomes operational. Disadvantage: a.prototyping is often not feasible automatically rules out this approach for many conversions. b.special attention must be paid to interfaces so that the modules being built actually work as a system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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5.Distributed conversion

-refers to a situation in which many installations of the same systems are contemplated, as is the case in banking or in franchises such as restaurants or clothing stores Advantages: Problems can be detected and contained rather than inflicted simultaneously on all sites. Disadvantage: Even when one conversion is successful, each site will have its own peculiarities to work through, and this must be handled accordingly. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Direct DirectChangeover Changeover

Parallel ParallelConversion Conversion

Gradual GradualConversion Conversion Modular ModularPrototype Prototype Conversion Conversion Distributed DistributedConversion Conversion

Five conversion strategies for information systems 361

Security

security of computer facilities, stored data, and the information generated is part of a successful conversion. It is the responsibilities of all those who come into contact with the system and is only as good as the most lax behavior policy and the organization. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] Three interrelated aspects: 1.Physical security – refers to securing the computer facility,its equipment, and software through physical means. It includes controlling access to the computer room by means of machine-readable badges or a human sign-in/sign-out system. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

362

2.Logical Security – refers to logical controls within software itself. These are passwords or authorization codes of some sort. Special encryption software has been develop to protect commercial transaction from the Web, and business transactions are from the proliferating. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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3. Behavioral security– behavioral expectations of an organization are encoded in its policy manuals and even on signs posted in bulletin boards. But the behavior that the organization members internalized is also critical to the success of security efforts. Security can begin with the screening of employees who will eventually have access to computers, data, and information in order to ensure that their interest are consistent with the organization’s interests and they fully understand the importance of carrying through on security procedures. Part of the behavioral facet of security is monitoring behavior at irregular intervals in order to ascertain that proper procedures are being followed and to correct any behaviors that may have eroded with time. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 364

Other conversion considerations 1.Ordering equipment(up to three months ahead of planned conversion). 2.Ordering any necessary materials that are externally supplied to the information system, such as toner cartridges, paper, preprinted forms, and magnetic media. 3.Appointing a manager to supervise or personally supervising the preparation of the installation site. 4.Planning, Scheduling, and supervising programmers and data-entry personnel who must convert all relevant files and databases. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Organizational Metaphors and Their relationship to Successful Systems Be aware of organizational metaphors when you attempt to implement a system you have just developed. 1.When the predominant metaphoris war, journey, or jungle, the environment is chaotic, like the zoo. However, the war and the journey metaphors are oriented toward an organizational goal, while the zoo and jungle are not. 2.In addition to the machine metaphorssuch as society, family, and the game, all signify orders and rules.the society and the zoo do not stress the company’s goal but instead allow the individuals in the corporation to set their own standards 3.Another metaphor, the organism, appears balanced between order and chaos, corporate and individual goals. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Type of Information system Success less likely with this metaphors Traditional War jungle TraditionalMIS MIS War journey

Decision DecisionSupport SupportSystems Systems

Jungle zoo

Expert ExpertSystems/AI Systems/AI

Success more likely with this metaphors Family society machine Family society organism Game organism machine Journey game organism

Society zoo

Cooperative CooperativeSystems Systems

Zoo family society

Competitive CompetitiveSystems Systems

War game organism

Executive ExecutiveInformation InformationSystems Systems

Organism game

Journey zoo

367

EVALUATION Throughout the systems development life cycle, the analyst, management, and users have been evaluating the evolving information systems and networks in order to give feedback for their eventual improvement. Evaluation is also called for following system implementation. Evaluation Techniques: a.Cost Benefit Analysis - models that attempt to estimate the value of a decision based on the effects of revised information using information theory. It is simulation or Bayesian statistics user evaluation that emphasize implementation problems and user involvement ` -information system utility approaches that examine the properties of information. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999] 368

Types of evaluation 1.Revised decision evaluation approach presents difficulty since all variables involved with the design, development and evaluation of the information system cannot be calculated or quantified. 2.The user involvement approach yields some insight for new projects by providing a checklist of potentially dysfunctional behavior by various organizational members. 3.The information system utility approach can be more comprehensive than the others if it is expanded and systematically applied. It also serves as guide in development in future project the analyst might undertake. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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The information system utility approach is a workable and straight forward framework for evaluating large-scale information systems,projects and ongoing efforts. Utilities of information a.Possession utility (Who should receive output?) b.Form utility (What kind of output?) c.Place utility (Where the information is distributed?) d.Time utility (When information is delivered?) e.Actualization utility (How the information is introduced and used by the decision maker?) f.Goal utility (answers ‘why’ information systems by asking whether the output has value in helping the organization obtain its objective. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

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Evaluating the system an information system can be evaluated as successful if it possesses all six utilities. a.“poor” the entire module will be the destined to failure. b.partial/ “fair” will result in a partially successful module. c.“good” the module is a success The information utility approach is a workable and straightforward framework for evaluating large scale information systems projects and on-going efforts. [KENDALL & KENDALL, 1999]

371