Syntactic-relations.docx

Syntactical Relations

Table of Contents Syntactical description of English Language ........................................................................................... 2 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 3

Syntactical relations ................................................................................................................................... 5 Predication................................................................................................................................................ 5 Subject-verb concord.............................................................................................................................. 5

Coordination and Subordination ............................................................................................................. 6 Formal indicators of subordination ......................................................................................................... 8 Other indicators of subordination ......................................................................................................... 10

Complementation ................................................................................................................................... 10 Complement of the Adjective/Adjectival............................................................................................... 11 Complement of the Noun ..................................................................................................................... 12 Complements in –ing and to ................................................................................................................. 13

Modification ........................................................................................................................................... 14 Sentence Modifiers .............................................................................................................................. 14

CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 16 References: ................................................................................................................................................. 17

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Syntactical description of English Language

Syntactical description means that we deal with different word groups. Syntax is the discipline that examines the rules of a language that dictate how various parts of sentences go together. Syntax does not attempt to tell people what the objectively correct way to form a sentence is. It describes how language is actually used and tries to come up with rules that successfully describe what various language communities consider to be grammatical or nongrammatical. Without syntax there would be no foundation to connect meaning with a bunch of words strung together. With syntax an infinite number of sentences are possible that are formed using a small finite number of rules. Words can be arranged regularly and irregularly for a variety of reasons to fulfill a purpose. Examining syntax we can reveal a lot about a certain writer, such as his skills, culture and meaning. Syntax can be used to convey a simple message or something deeper and more poetic. The basic function of syntax is to refer to sentence structure: how words are arranged and how a writer has created a pattern with words. Syntax can be divided into regular and irregular. Regular (normal) consists of sentences that follow basic patterns such as, for eg. : Subject + Verb. Such patterns are ofttimes fixed, meaning that there is a strict word order. Irregular syntax means that word order is not based upon patterns. Syntax is concerned with the ways in which words are combined to form a sentence while semantics deals with their meaning. I shall, whilst writing this term paper endeavour with all my power to fully illustrate the importance of syntactical relations as well as their place and where they stand concerning their juxtaposition of the English grammar. Finally, the syntactic description means how words are structured into higher units, how those units can function, and concerning semantics of course, what is their meaning.

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INTRODUCTION

Phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is a syntactic structure that expresses syntactic properties derived from its head. Most phrases have a central word defining a type of a phrase; this word is called a head (just a small number of phrases are headless). A phrase in some respect is equal as a clause, because it expresses an incomplete idea or thought, and because of this it cannot stay alone; but on the other hand while a clause is characterized by a verb and a subject through the syntactic relation called predication, there is no such relation in a phrase. Phrases can be combined with other phrases to produce clauses and other sentences. A phrase is usually verb-less, without having relationship between subject and predicate (no predication). Clause is the smallest grammatical unit that can express complete proposition. The most basic kind of sentence consists of a single (independent) clause. More complex sentences may contain multiple clauses. Clauses may be dependent and independent. Independent clauses are those that could stand as sentences by themselves, although they may be connected with other clauses in a longer sentence. Dependent clauses are those that would be awkward or nonsensical if used alone, and must be used with an independent clause. Sentence is an expression in natural language. A sentence can include words grouped meaning fully to express a statement, question, exclamation or a command. A sentence can also be defined as anything which is contained between a capital letter and a full stop. 1

Sentences can be classified:

 According to their structure: Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause, which may be one of seven types. The types differ according to whether one or more clause elements are obligatorily present in 1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/_Sentence_(linguistics)

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addition to subject and verb. The verb element in a simple sentence is always a finite verb phrase. 2 Example: The girl ran into her bedroom. Compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma), a correlative conjunction (with or without a comma), a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb that is preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. 3 Example: My friend invited me to a birthday party, and I accepted the invite. Complex

sentence

is

a sentence with

one independent

clause and

at

least

one dependent clause. A complex sentence is often used to make clear which ideas are most important, and which ideas are subordinate.4 Example: That is the place where he lives. Complex-compound sentence is a sentence with at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Example: The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, who knew he was superior, lived inside the house.

 According to their function (purpose of communication)

-

Declarative sentence expresses a state (statement) and always ends with full stop

-

Interrogative sentence makes a question and question mark is used to denote them. There are two types: yes/no questions with two possible answers and wh questions.

2

A Student’s grammar of the English Language; Sidney Greenbaum & Randolph Quirk; Longman; London; page 205 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_sentence_(linguistics) 4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_sentence_(linguistics) 3

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-

Imperative sentence means order or direction. The subject is understood and tag questions are added often.

-

Exclamatory sentence expresses strong feelings and has an exclamatory mark at the end of the sentence. Each of the previous types of sentences could be exclamatory.

Syntactical relations The following passages deal with the detailed description of the syntactical relations, and before I wade in any deeper, I’d like to mention that their order is completely random.

Predication

Predication is the relation between two obligatory sentence elements, commonly known as subject (with its modifiers) and predicate (with its complements). Considering their significance in sentence structure we can say that those two elements, in every regard, are of equal rank. Words, phrases and even whole clauses can function as either a subject or a predicate. When a whole clause functions as a subject/predicate, it is called a complex subject/predicate.

Subject-verb concord The most important type of concord in English is concord of 3 rd person number between subject and verb. A singular subject requires a singular verb: My daughter watches television after supper. A plural subject requires a plural verb: My daughters watch television after supper. The number of a noun phrase depends on the number of its head: 5|Page

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The change in male attitudes is most obvious in industry. The changes in male attitude are most obvious in industry. Clauses as subject count as singular for number concord: How you got there doesn’t concern me; Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health. The same applies to prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject: In the evenings is best for me; Slowly does it! Nominal relative clauses, on the other hand, resemble noun phrases in this respect and may have plural as well as singular concord: What was once a palace is now a pile of rubble; What ideas he has are his wife’s. 5

Coordination and Subordination

The principle of indefinite extensibility is also present in grammar in another respect: two or more units of the same status on the grammatical hierarchy may constitute a single unit of the same kind. This type of construction is termed coordination. There are different types of coordination: syndetic or linked coordination, asyndetic or unlinked coordination, and polysyndetic coordination. However, coordination is typically signaled by a link-word termed a conjunction: in this case a coordinating conjunction. 6These are: and, but, for, nor, or, not, so, yet. These conjunctions connect grammatical equivalents – form classes or position classes or structure words or grammatical structures or sentences. A few cases will illustrate this connection of equivalents. 

Connection of equivalent form-classes

Nouns

1. The library and the gymnasium are nearby.

Adjectives

2. George is powerful but clumsy

Verbs

3. He studied hard, yet failed.

Adverbs

4. Stefana dances lightly and gracefully.

5

A Student’s grammar of the English Language; Sidney Greenbaum & Randolph Quirk; Longman; London; page 216 Randolph Quirk & Sidney Green Baum & Geoffrey Leech & Jan Startvik – A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language; 1973; page 46 6

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

Connection of equivalent position classes

Adjectivals

1. He was popular and in good health. 2. My business and academic friends…

Adverbials

3. Is it upstairs or in the garage.

Nominals

4. He did what he pleased, not what was expected.

Verbals

5. We watched him rowing hard but getting nowhere.



Connection of equivalent structure words

Auxiliaries

1. You can and should help your sister.

Prepositions 2. Was the witness walking to or from the scene of the accident. 

Connection of equivalent grammatical structures

PrepPhrases 1. You can sleep on the beach or in the woods. RelClauses 

2. Steph was a girl who could swim but who was afraid to dive.

Connection of sentences Ned began nodding, for the room was hot.

Since coordinating conjunctions fulfill the grammatical function of connecting, they belong to the function-class of connectors, as do prepositions, relatives, and subordinating conjunctions. All the coordinating conjunctions except not can occur between two sentences, changing them into a single sentence, but in other positions their distribution is limited. In other words, not all of them can be used to connect the same equivalents. For example, we do not use for, nor, or, so to connect two adjectives. In writing coordinating conjunctions are sometimes used to begin a sentence. Example: Steph was never on time. But that made no difference to Dekkrs.

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These conjunctions are sometimes doubled up, as in and yet, and so, but yet, and but yet, and but not. If we compare for instance the following two sentences: 1. He was tired but yet he couldn’t sleep 2. He was tired but he couldn’t sleep yet. The first yet is a coordinating conjunction; the second is an adverbial with a different meaning. In addition to the set of eight coordinating conjunctions there is a second set that occurs in pairs: either… or, both… and, neither… nor, not… but, whether… or. These are a subclass of coordinating conjunctions known as correlative conjunctions. 7

Subordination is the non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other. The device of subordination enables us to organize multiple clause structures. Each subordinate clause may itself be superiordinate to one or more other clauses so that a hierarchy of clauses, one within another, may be built up, sometimes resulting in sentences of great complexity. A relatively simple example would be: (X) I think (Y) that you can do it (Z) if you try. Here the clause beginning at (Z) is subordinate to the clause beginning at (Y), which in turn is subordinate to the clause beginning at (X). Both (Y) and (Z) are dependent clauses, while (X) is the only independent clause, and is identical with the sentence as a whole. Dependent clauses may be classified either by structural type, or by function.

Formal indicators of subordination

Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause rather than superiordinate clause. Such a signal may be of a number of different kinds: it can be a subordinating conjunction; a wh element; the item that; inversion; or the absence of a finite 7

An Introductory English Grammar: Second Edition; Norman C. Stageberg; London; 2002; page 284

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verb form. Especially in wh items (where, when, etc) we can see a fusion of conjunction and pro-adjunct.

Subordinators Subordinators (or more fully subordinating conjunctions) are the most important formal indicators of subordination. Like prepositions, which they resemble in having a relating or connecting function, subordinators forming the core of the class consist of a single word; and again as with prepositions, there are numerous compound items which act, to various degrees, like a single conjunction. In addition there is a small class of correlative subordinators, i.e. combinations of two markers, one (a conjunction) occurring in the subordinate clause and the other (normally an adverb) occurring in the superiordinate clause. 

SIMPLE SUBORDINATORS: after, although, though, as, because, before, if, once, since, that, until, when, where, while, etc.



COMPOUND SUBORDINATORS -

ending with that: in that, so that, such that, except that, etc; in order that (or to + infinitive clause)

-

ending with optional that: now (that), provided (that), supposing (that), considering (that), seeing (that), etc.

-

ending with as: as far as, as long as, as soon as, as long as , etc; so as (+ to + infinitive clause)

-

ending with than: sooner than (+ infinitive clause), rather than (+ non-finite or verbless clause)



other: as if, as though, in case

CORRELATIVE SUBORDINATORS If…

then;

(al)though…

yet/nevertheless;

as…so

more/-er/less

…than;

as…as;

so…as…(that); such…as; such…(that); no sooner… than; whether…or; the…the.

Borderline Subordinators Three borderline categories may be mentioned:

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1. Habitual combinations of a subordinator with a preceding or following intensifying adverb (just as, if only); 2. Participle forms (suppressing…), bearing a resemblance to participle clause disjuncts like judging from … , speaking frankly; etc. 3. Expressions of time which, although adverbial in form, act like a single temporal conjunction (eg: directly/immediately/the moment I had spoken).

Other indicators of subordination We now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from subordinators. a) Wh- elements are initial markers of subordination in, for example, dependent interrogative clauses. The wh-words (such as who) function as or within one of the clause elements subject, object, complement, or adverbial. b) Subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in some conditional clauses, where the operator is had, were, or should. Other unusual syntactic orderings also play a role in distinguishing a subordinate clause: for example, Sad though I was. There are only two types of subordinate clause that contain no marker within themselves of subordinate status: these are: I.

Nominal clauses which may or may not have that: I suppose you’re right (I suppose that you’re right)

II.

Comment clauses of a kind relatable to the main clause in the previous eg: You’re right, I suppose.8

Complementation

Complementation is a relation between certain words and their complements that serve to fulfill the meaning of those words.

8

A University Grammar of English; Randolph Quirk & Sidney GreenBaum; Longman; London; page 309-315

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We reserve the term ‘complementation’ for the function of a part of a phrase or clause which follows a word, and completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies. As such, complementation may be either obligatory or optional on the syntactic level. Complementation also overlaps with other functions, such as adverbials and modifiers.9

Complement of the Adjective/Adjectival

Let us begin by examining the following two sentences: I fear that they are lost. I am fearful that they are lost. In the first sentence ‘that they are lost’ is obviously a complement of the DO type; that is, it is a nominal functioning as the direct object of the verb. Since the second sentence closely parallels the first in meaning and form, it seems reasonable in this sentence to call ‘that they are lost’ a nominal functioning as a complement of the adjective fearful. The next is similar and illustrates in addition the prepositional phrase as complement of the adjective. He hoped that a change would occur. He was hopeful that a change would occur. He was hopeful of a change. Likewise, an infinitive phrase can be a complement of an adjective: He hesitated to see her. He was hesitant to see her. Many adjectives that do not have a related verb, as those above do, all take complements of the adjectives, for example: I want to see her. I am eager to see her. 9

Randolph Quirk & Sidney Green Baum & Geoffrey Leech & Jan Startvik – A Comprehensive Grammar of English Language; 1973; page 65

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Patterns 1 and 4, both of which contain adjectival in the third position can be extended by means of this particular complement, as these examples show: I am happy that you are here. Her roommate became tired of studying. She is indifferent whether you come or not. Jim is certain to succeed. It is not always easy to make a clear-cut distinction between an adverbial and a complement of an adjectival. One can perhaps say that in natural speech the complement of the adjectival is not transposable but retains its position after the adjectival, whereas the adverbial is movable, for example: Complement of the adjectival: She was glad that he was safe; but not: *that he was safe she was glad. Adverbial: She was glad when he arrived; and also: When he arrived she was glad.

Complement of the Noun Let us, yet again, begin with the comparison of the two sentences: I fear that they are lost. My fear that they are lost… Here, if the that clause in the first sentence is the complement of the verb (DO), it seems reasonable to assume that the that clause in the second sentence is the complement of the noun. Observe that the word that is not a relative because it has no function within the clause. Thus the clause is not a relative clause. Here that is a subordinating conjunction. It stands outside the clause and connects it with the noun fear. The clause is a nominal that functions as complement of the noun. Likewise in: He contended that war is evil His contention that war is evil … 12 | P a g e

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we seem to have a complement of the verb (DO) and a complement of the noun. Note that in each pair above the noun has a corresponding verb that is either homophonous with (fear) or morphologically related to (contented) the noun. Next we turn to the infinitive phrase as a complement of the noun. In these two sentences, She decided to tell the truth. Her decision to tell the truth… it looks again as if we have a complement of the verb (DO) and a complement of the noun. And again the noun (decision) has a corresponding verb (decide). But with this structure we shall say that only nouns with related verbs can take a complement of the noun in infinitive form. This means nouns like refusal, desire, intention, promise, hope. If the noun is not of this kind, the infinitive following it will not be a complement of the noun, but probably a post nominal modifier. Compare: Complement of the noun: His refusal to submit without a fight was courageous. Post-nominal modifier: He was not a man to submit without a fight. Complement of the noun: His desire to consider the motion was thwarted. Post-nominal modifier: The next thing to consider is the stage set. Infinitive structures are many and varied and complex.

Complements in –ing and to English verbs may be divided into three classes according to the form of the verbal complement that immediately follows them. The first class contains those followed by the –ing form of the verb but not by to + a verb stem: He enjoyed eating; not: He enjoyed to eat. Those of the second class are followed by to + a verb stem but not by –ing form: 13 | P a g e

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He agreed to come; not: He agreed coming. Those of the third class are followed by either the to or the –ing form: He preferred sleeping. And: He preferred to sleep. There is no general principle that dictates which form to use immediately after a verb. Verbs taking complements in –ing and to – are called catenatives because they can cooccur in chains, such as: He wanted to stop trying to postpone working.10

Modification Modification is the process where a modifier as a subordinate element in an endocentric structure affects the meaning of the headword that it describes, limits, intensifies, and/or adds to the meaning of the head. Determination is the sub-process of modification. Modification is a function, and a word or a group of words that performs this function is a modifier. A modifier belongs with the function-classes such as the subject of verb, direct object, indirect object, object complement, and object of preposition. There is no consensus among grammarians whether to treat modification the same relation as subordination, because in both cases we talk about the relation between the two elements of different rank. It is more common to use the term modification for relation between the words up to the phrase level whereas the term subordination is left for the relation of two or more clauses of different rank on a sentence level.

Sentence Modifiers

A sentence modifier is an adverbial that modifies, as its head, all the rest of the sentence, and is often set apart by terminals-rising, sustained, or falling. 10

An Introductory English Grammar: Second Edition; Norman C. Stageberg; London; 2002; page 288-292

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Example: Naturally, he behaved at the party. Here naturally modifies he behaved at the party. Compare this: Example: He behaved naturally at the party. In this sentence naturally modifies the verb behaved, and the meaning is different from that of the former sentence. Here are examples of seven structures in which sentence modifiers are most commonly found. 

Single-word adverbial: Luckily, I knew how to swim.



Clause adverbial: Since the door was closed, we climbed in the back window.



Prepositional phrase: In fact, the contract is invalid.



Absolute structure: The guest having departed, we resumed the normal household routine.



Infinitive phrase: To keep dry in a tent, you should be provided with a fly.



Participle phrase in –ing: Considering the circumstances, he was lucky to escape alive.



Relative in –ever: Wherever she is, I will find her.11

Each of these, we note, is in initial sentence position, the most common one for sentence modifiers. However, sentence modifiers may appear in medial and final positions as well.

11

An Introductory English Grammar: Second Edition; Norman C. Stageberg; London; 2002; page 249

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CONCLUSION As I was preparing to write this term paper I was completely unaware of the importance and position of the syntactical relations which dwell deeply embedded inside the English language and inconspicuously merge with the rest of their environment. In order to fulfill the patterns, we have to be aware of certain syntactic processes, commonly known as syntactical relations (between various sentence elements). Syntactical relations are syntactical links between words or groups of words (phrases or/clauses) within sentences. There are five grammatical ties that structural grammar finds sufficient of the analysis of English syntax and those are: 

Predication is represented in the form of a relation between two sentence obligatory elements in the English language, commonly known as subject and predicate.

 Complementation is a relation between certain words and their complements that serve to fulfill the meaning of those words. It can be used on both levels – phrase or sentence level. Complement means ‘to complete’ and complementation has to do with completing the meaning of a verb. 

Coordination is the relation between the two elements of equal rank that are connected with coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, neither, nor). E.g.: coordination of two words, two phrases and two clauses.



Subordination is the non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other.



Modification is the process where a modifier as a subordinate element in an endocentric structure affects the meaning of the headword that it describes. We’ve witnessed that, indeed, there are various ways in which words can be arranged.

Syntax only serves to help us understand how to sew them all together and form a unified whole. Of course that wouldn’t be possible without the proper treatment and usage of syntactical relations.

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References: 

Leech G. and Svartvik J. (2003) A communicative grammar of English, New Jersey: Pearson Education



Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1985) A comprehensive grammar of English, London Longman



Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1997) A university grammar of English, London: Longman



Stageberg, N. C. (1971): An Introductory Grammar of the English Language, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York et al.



Yule, G. (2006) The study of language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press



Frank, M. (1972): Modern English: Exercises for non-native speakers. Part II: Sentences and complex structures, Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey



www.wikipedia.com

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