Roldan M. de Guia Department of Biochemistry Faculty of Pharmacy University of Santo Tomas
Structural Effects π electron delocalization (Resonance) CH2
.. : CH Cl ..
.. : Cl ..
.. NH2
.. O .. C .. NH2
:O: CH3
C
.. O .. H
Structural Effects
π electron delocalization (Resonance)
Structural Effects
π electron delocalization (Resonance)
Structural Effects
π electron delocalization (Resonance)
:O:
.. :O
H
.. :O: N+
:O: C H
.. NH2
Structural Effects
Hyperconjugation
H H C CH CH2 H +
H
..-
H C CH CH2 H
H
..+ H C CH CH2 H
H
..H C CH CH2 H
+
Structural Effects
Hyperconjugation
Dienes
CH2
CH CH CH2
conjugated
isolated
cumulative
Structural Effects
Hyperconjugation
H
H
H C H
H C H
H H C H
+
-
+
..
.. -
Structural Effects
Hyperconjugation H
O
H C C H
O
H
+
H O H C C H H
O
Structural Effects +
CH3
+
CH3
CH3
+
CH2
CH2 H3C
H -
:CH3
-
O2N
C: H H
. CH
3
C. H
C
+
CH3
Structural Effects
Inductive Effect
Electron attracting inductive with excess positive charges effect +
+
R N R
NH3
+
NO2
R those with electronegative atoms NH2
OH
F
OCH3
Cl Br groups exhibiting orbital electronegativity C N
N N
those with easily polarizable valence electrons I
-
Structural Effects
Inductive Effect
Electron attracting inductive effect δ+ δ− H3C Cl δ+
δ++
δ−
CH3
CH2
Cl
CH3
CH3 +
H3C N CH3 --
δ+ CH2
δ− O
H
δ+
Structural Effects
Inductive Effect
Electron repelling inductive alkyl groups effect CH3
negative groups -
COO
O H3C C
--
S
-
H3C
-
H3C H3C
O
O
O C
O
S
CH C N
O
R C
-
O
O O
R
S O O
Structural Effects
Steric Effect
Structural Effects
Hydrogen Bonding F
H δ+
O
H δ+
N
R
O
H δ+
F
H
O
H
N
H
δ+
δ+ δ+
H
O
O H
F
O H O
H O H H
H O R
R C
H
C R O H O
H C O O H
OH
OH
Acids and Bases
Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases An acid is a proton donor A base is a proton acceptor HBr
+ H2O
acid
base
NH3 + H2O base acid
Br + H3O
NH4 + OH
Note that water can act as an acid or a base
Acids and Bases
Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases HBr HBr acid
+
+ H2O H
O
Br + H3O H
base
Br
+
conjugate base
O H
H
H
conjugate acid
Every acid–base reaction involving proton transfer has two conjugate acid–base pairs.
Acids and Bases
Lewis Acids and Bases A Lewis acid is an electron pair acceptor. (think empty orbital)
A Lewis base is an electron pair donor. (think filled orbital) The result of a Lewis acid–base reaction is often called an adduct.
Acids and Bases
Lewis Acids and Bases H
+
H
O
O
H
Lewis acid
Lewis base
Electron deficient
Electron rich
H
H
H
Adduct New covalent bond
Acids and Bases
Lewis Acids and Bases Examples of Lewis Acids: Fe3+ AlCl3
H3O+
Examples of Lewis Bases: NH3 H2O
Cl
−
Acids and Bases
Acids and Bases pH = – log[H3O+] A + H3O
HA + H2O
Ka =
A
H3O
HA
pKa = – log (Ka)
Acids and Bases
Acid Strength HA + H2O
H3O+ +
A-
- WEAK ACID A Has a strong conj. base E N E R G Y
(∴ higher energy)
HA
ionization easier
- STRONG ACID A Has a weak conj. base (∴ lower energy)
Acids and Bases
Acids and Bases
Acid Strength Factors that influence stability of the conjugate base include: • • • • •
Resonance Electronegativity Atomic Size Hybridization Inductive Effects
Acids and Bases increasing quality of resonance
R OH
Resonance Effects pKa Values 18
R CH3 CH3
30
CH3O C CH3 O
25
OH 10 O R C OH
5
45
R NH2
NH2 25
O
R C CH3 O
28
20
O
R C CH2 C R 9
O R C NH2
15
Acids and Bases
The Acetate Ion
O
O CH3
C OH
-H+
CH3
C O
Base
acetic acid
O CH3
C O
acetate ion Resonance Stabilized Equivalent structures (charges on oxygens)
Acids and Bases
The Phenolate Ion O
O
O
O
O
O
More resonance structures, but not more stable than acetate Nonequivalent structures (note charges on carbon and oxygen)
Acids and Bases
Electronegativity
increasing electronegativity
pKa Values O
CH4
>45
RCH3
45
NH3
34
RNH2
35
H2O
16
ROH
18
HF
3.5
R C CH3 20 O R C NH2 15 O R C OH
5
Acids and Bases
Electronegativity
increasing size
pKa Values O
HF
3.5
F–
1.36 Å
H2O
16
HCl
–7
Cl–
1.81 Å
H2S
7
H2Se
4
H2Te
3
HBr HI
–9 –10
Br I–
–
1.95 Å 2.16 Å
R C OH O R C SH S R C SH
Acids and Bases
Inductive Effects Electron-withdrawing Groups
δ− Cl
δ+ C
F, Cl, Br, O, N
Electron-donating Groups
δ+ CH3
δ− C
R, CH3, B, Si
electronegative elements alkyl groups and elements less electronegative than carbon pull electron density push electron density toward carbon away from carbon
Acids and Bases
Inductive Effects Chlorine helps to stabilize – CO2– by withdrawing electrons
δ− Cl
δ+O C O
This effect diminishes with distance—it extends for about 3 bonds
δ − δ + δ−δ+ δ− δ+ Cl C C C
O
O
Acids and Bases increasing electronegativity
I Br Cl F
Inductive Effects
CH2COOH
pKa Values 3.13
CH2COOH 2.87 CH2COOH 2.81 CH2COOH
CH3 Cl
COOH
CH2
CH
4.75
COOH 2.81
Cl Cl
increasing substitution
COOH
1.29
Cl 2.66
Cl
C Cl
COOH
0.65
Electrophiles
e- pair acceptor
R
electron poor may possess formal positive charge
R
incomplete octets greatly reduced e- density those that can yield e- poor species
X2 in protic solvent
R
O C
O
OH
SO3 +
SO3H
δ+ CH3
R C+
+
X
AlCl3 δ−
AlCl4
R.
X.
: CH2
NO2+
CO2
R C+ O
H2O
H+
BF3 FeBr3
Nucleophiles e- pair donor excess negative charges
OH-
fractional negative charges
RO-
may have a lone pair e-
R R C: R
NH2-
O R
C
-
O
CN-
X-
N3O-