Strategic Writing

Strategic Writing No matter what you write, as a student writer, your immediate goal is always the same: to get a good grade. To that end, this web collection describes a strategy for planning your document, developing your ideas, and revising your work. Technical writing, because it conveys complex information, must be organized, precise, and clear; otherwise, your reader may misinterpret, devalue or completely miss your point. Because a reader should never have to struggle to figure out what you are saying, you must employ a writing strategy that ensures the efficient, accurate flow of information. Good writing requires structure. Good structure does not simply happen. Before you begin to write, you should have a clear plan in mind for your entire document; a little time here will save you a lot of time later. While you develop your first draft, focus on one idea at a time, but link ideas together, clearly explaining how each step brings the reader closer to your conclusion. After you have finished your draft, take time to revise -- this is the most frequently neglected part of the writing task.

Topics Planning Your Document •

Brainstorming

•

Title

•

Headings

•

Outline

Developing Your Ideas •

Thesis statement

•

Carrying Out the Plan

•

Illustrations (Tables, Graphs, etc.)

•

Conclusion

Revising Your Text •

Construction

•

Conjunction

•

Reduction

Planning Your Document Even if the kind of document you are writing is a fairly standard form, like a lab report, that has already provided a plan for you to follow, the "discussion" and "conclusion" sections of your lab report still require independent planning. Sitting down to write a document without a clear idea of where you want to go can be disastrous. You risk writing an introduction that sounds good but adds nothing to your technical document (for example, "Throughout the ages, mankind has looked up at the stars and wondered..."). Such sentences are the written equivalent of saying "umm..." or chatting about the weather. In order to avoid being defeated by a false start -- or a series of false starts the night before the assignment is due -- you should carefully consider your title, your headings, and your outline before you begin writing. In order to consider these elements, you must first come up with some good ideas. Brainstorming A large number of students do serious damage to themselves by skimping on this stage, or on the related process of outlining. Nobody would ever

begin to build a bridge, factory or even a single gear without a detailed plan. You should approach your writing task in the same manner. Once you know your general topic (which your instructor will probably give you), you can begin to brainstorm. Brainstorming is a strategy for exploring ideas that relies upon the free expression of thoughts. During your brainstorm, you may end up rejecting certain lines of thought; if you can see clearly enough to reject an idea this early; you have invested your time well. It would be much worse if you had not realized you were on the wrong track until after you had sweated your way through several paragraphs or pages. Open a new word-processing file, type the paper topic on the first line, and then simply write out -- as quickly as possible, paying no attention to grammar, punctuation, or spelling -- all your thoughts. Here is a selection from a sample "brainstorming" passage for an assignment in which the student was asked to take a position for or against nuclear power in Canada. The sample presented here has not been spell-checked or edited (good brainstorming does not have to be pretty). Canada and Nuclear Power risks and benefits; haven't heard much on the news about nuclear power accidents -- is that because governments are doing more to enforce safety regs? How much does Canada pay for safety reg as opposed to the cost of researching other forms of power? What are the drawbacks of other forms of power gen? Hydro -- dams up rivers and sometimes destroys ecology upstream; in China a million people will be flooded out by a huge dam; is it better to put more money into researching new power sources (solar, cold fusion) or to put that money into improving the safety of existing nuclear plants? Better means more economical, more reliable, faster...

The complete brainstorming exercise might be half as long as the whole document is supposed to be; the real test is not length, but content. At some point, you can print out your brainstorm and underline the main points, making notes in the margins where you need to develop your ideas further. Another method of brainstorming may be more attractive to people who think visually. Take a fresh sheet of paper, and write the topic in the middle of the page. Draw lines from the central topic to any other ideas that may come to you; by continuing this process, you can create a weblike structure to help you organize your thoughts. Title A topic is the general subject or theme of a work. A title, on the other hand, is a more specific, informative statement of the contents of a work. Before you actually begin writing, you should have a clear idea of what title you will give your work. Even if your document is something with a predetermined title, such as a lab report, you may still wish to focus your attention by thinking up a title for your discussion and conclusion sections -- even though that title may not actually appear on paper. •

Topic: "Nuclear Power Plants in Canada"

•

Title: "Why Canada Should Expand Its Nuclear Power

Programs" •

Title: "A Disaster Waiting to Happen: Canada's Nuclear

Power Safety Regulations"

•

Topic: "NASA and ESA (European Space Agency)

Cooperation"

•

Title:

"An

Analysis

of

Failed

NASA

and

ESA

Telecommunications Ventures" •

Title: "A Promising Future for a Successful Partnership:

NASA and ESA in the Year 2000"

Keep your title in mind as you write every section of your document. If, by the time you finish writing your draft, you feel your document does not reflect your title, you have two options: revise the whole document to do better justice to the title, or change the title to make it match the document. See: thesis statement, conclusion.

Headings Before you actually begin writing your document, you should have a clear idea of how you want to organize your ideas. Most kinds of technical writing documents have somewhat standardized formats, although your professor or TA may have a specific variation in mind. You may wish to start afresh word processing document, and type all the subheadings. For instance, if you are writing a memo, you might type: 1.

Header

2.

Purpose

3.

Summary

4.

Discussion

5.

Action

Using much the same strategy as you did in your brainstorming session, begin to fill in the information under its proper subheading; do not worry about complete sentences or paragraph structure at this stage. Draw whatever information you can from the textbook or handout that describes your assignment. Begin to place the best, most important ideas from your

brainstorming session under their proper headings. Obviously, you cannot begin to write an abstract, summary, or conclusion until you have written the rest of your document; but some sections will virtually write themselves.

Outline Once you have brainstormed for ideas, come up with a title, and filled information into your headings (if your document requires them), you should develop an outline. An outline is a hierarchical structure (ordered by level of importance) that illustrates the relationship of ideas. Like nested subroutines in a computer program or the pairs of parentheses in an equation, each point on an outline can contain smaller subpoints. Make sure that you order your points logically by forcing yourself to come up with headings that group several ideas together. It is much easier to shift one- or two-word points around on an outline than it is to shift sentences and paragraphs around in your rough draft, so now is the best time to make major organizational changes. For instance, consider the following outline for an object description: Personal Computer I.

Hardware A.

CPU 1.

Memory

B.

Monitor

C.

Printer

D.

Keyboard

E.

Mouse

F.

Disk Drives

II.

III.

Software A.

Programs

B.

Data

Platforms A.

IBM

B.

Mac

The above outline falls short in several areas. In the first place, a CPU is far more important to the computer than a printer is -- a computer without a printer is still a computer, while a computer without a CPU is just a bunch of add-ons. On a similar note, not every computer will have a mouse. In the second place, no point should have only one subpoint, so "Memory" should find a partner or move somewhere else. Finally, the topic "Platforms" is much broader than either "Hardware" or "Software." Clearly this outline needs adjustment. The following outline addresses these problems: Personal Computer I.

Components A.

Hardware 1.

CPU

2.

Interface

3.

B.

II.

a.

Input

b.

Output

Storage a.

Drives

b.

Memory

Software 1.

Programs

2.

Data

Platforms

A.

IBM

B.

Mac

Note that the second outline places "Hardware" and "Software" under the broader title, "Components." The item "Memory," which had been listed under "CPU," has been grouped with "Drives" under the new heading "Storage." The specific item "CPU" now seems more important, since it is on the same level with the general topics "Interface" and "Storage." The variable items, such as the mouse and printer, have disappeared from this outline, but will be dealt with under the headings "input" and "output." Once the outline is complete, you can begin to develop your one- or twoword points into complete sentences or whole paragraphs. Developing Your Ideas Developing a collection of ideas (like the listing of points in an outline) into a successful piece of written communication takes time and effort. You need to come up with a thesis statement which not only reflects your title but also describes the contents of your paper. You also need to carry out your plan by backing up your thesis with well-constructed paragraphs that provide evidence. Since technical documents are frequently concerned with

conveying

quantitative

(numerical)

as

well

as

qualitative

(interpretative) information, you should also know how to use illustrations such as tables and charts to support your textual information. Finally, you should write a conclusion that does not merely restate your thesis, but emphasizes the strongest evidence your document provided in order to prove that thesis. If you have planned your document well, you should have little trouble identifying the links between the different points you want to make. Your job as a writer is to state those links simply and clearly, so that the reader can follow them easily to your conclusion.

Thesis Statement A thesis statement (topic sentence) is a brief declaration of the contents or main idea of the information that follows. The thesis statement of a document is usually the first sentence of the first paragraph; however, if the topic is very complex or the reader requires background information, an equally effective place for the thesis statement is the last sentence of the first paragraph. Recall that a topic is a general statement of subject, and a title gives the main idea of the document you are writing (see also: conclusion). The thesis statement is even more informative, because it also describes your writing strategy: •

Title: "Why Canada Should Expand Its Nuclear Power

Programs" •

Thesis: "Canada should expand its nuclear power programs

to satisfy the country's growing need for more energy because nuclear power is a proven, reliable source of energy, because improved safety regulations have greatly reduced the risk of nuclear accidents, and most of all because the perfection of dependable alternative energy sources will likely not be completed for decades." The writer of the above thesis statement has not only given the main idea, but also provided a background statement (that is, Canada needs more energy) and listed three supporting ideas (nuclear energy is reliable, regulation has increased safety, and the alternatives are not dependable). A reader would expect a few sentences or a whole separate paragraph on background, followed by at least one separate paragraph on each of the three main ideas (in the same order as they were listed), followed in turn

by a concluding paragraph. If the document follows some other structure, the effect will be jarring.

Carrying Out the Plan Paragraph Structure | Parallel Structure | Transitions | Evidence

Paragraph Structure Write a good topic sentence for each paragraph in your document. Just as the main thesis statement describes the paragraphs that will follow, the topic sentence of a paragraph should describe the sentences that follow. Write your topic sentences so that a reader who reads only the topic sentence of each paragraph would have a clear understanding of your paper.

Parallel Structure Use parallel structure when you list your supporting points. Parallel structure refers not only to grammar but to ideas. For instance, "...to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, and boldly going where no one has gone before" is not parallel because "to explore" and "to seek out" set up a grammatical pattern disrupted by "going." [Although "to boldly go" is a split infinitive, which many people consider to be a grammatical mistake.] Below are a sample title and a sample thesis statement; the thesis statement lacks a different kind of parallel structure: •

Title: North American Governments Should Mandate the

Production of Electric Automobiles

•

Thesis: The rest of North America should follow

California's lead in mandating the production of electric automobiles because electric motors are cleaner, batteries are safer than gas tanks, and industry needs as much incentive as possible to mass-produce electric cars for the consumer market. The three supporting ideas are not parallel because they do not serve the same purpose. For instance, the first point, "electric motors are cleaner," does not tell us what electric motors are being compared to; the reader has to wait until the second point, "batteries are safer than gas tanks," in order to tell that this passage is comparing electric cars to conventional gaspowered cars. Such a problem can be easily fixed. A greater problem is the fact that these first two points are fairly specific, while the third point (that industry should be encouraged to mass-produce electric cars) is much more general. This disparity reflects a problem in outlining -- the writer has not successfully placed his or her ideas into a hierarchical structure. The following revision addresses this problem: •

The rest of North America should follow California's lead

in mandating the production of electric automobiles because the new electric cars are safer than conventional cars both to the environment and to the people who use them, and because a government mandate will provide incentives for industry to massproduce electric cars for the consumer market. Now the first point is "electric cars are safer...," which has two subpoints (environment and users); the second point is now "a government mandate will provide incentives...". The writer of the second version will likely first attempt to convince the reader that electric cars are a good thing, and then go on to argue that because they are a good thing, governments should encourage industries to manufacture them for a consumer market.

Transitions You should use transitional words and phrases to link your thoughts together. The following passage gives a topic sentence and several supporting ideas, but does not link those ideas together. Example 1: Compact discs (CD's) have several advantages over the new digital audio tape (DAT): CD's are easier to use, the recorded data is better protected, and the medium itself is more durable. The user can instantly access a particular track or passage within the track by pushing a button. Digital audio tape must be wound on the spool. No part of the CD player actually touches the CD, so the encoded information will last indefinitely. The tape playhead physically touches the DAT which means the inevitable loss of some of the encoded music. A CD cannot jam or stretch, and is not affected by ordinary temperature extremes. Digital tape must be stretched along a complex path which can become obstructed; the tape is also very sensitive to temperature fluctuations (based on Michael H. Markel and Helen Holmes, Technical Writing: Situations and Strategies, Canadian Edition, Nelson Canada, 1994, p. 272). The above paragraph is well-organized, in that the writer has listed the two items to be compared and the three criteria by which they will be rated, and then written one sentence for each of the six evaluations. However, the writer has merely placed these ideas side-by-side, and has made no attempt to connect them. Although such connections are not strictly necessary for such a short essay, their absence can cause confusion. Observe how much more smoothly the same paragraph flows with the addition of some transitional words and phrases:

Example 2: Compact discs (CD's) have several advantages over the new digital audio tape (DAT): CD's are easier to use, the recorded data is better protected, and the medium itself is more durable. The most obvious benefit is that the user can instantly access a particular track or passage within the track by pushing a button. Digital audio tape, on the other hand, must be wound on the spool. Second, because no part of the CD player actually touches the CD, the encoded information will last indefinitely. In a tape deck, the playhead physically touches the DAT which means the inevitable loss of some of the encoded music. Third, a CD cannot jam or stretch, and is not affected by ordinary temperature extremes. Digital tape, on the other hand, must be stretched along a complex path which can become obstructed; the tape is also very sensitive to temperature fluctuations. The writer uses some transitions ("most obvious", "second," and "third") to signal a progression from one point of comparison to the next and others ("on the other hand" twice and "in a tape deck") within each point to signal a switch in focus from CD to DAT. These transitional words and phrases allow the reader to take in the second passage much more quickly, because he or she does not have to stop and think about how each new statement relates to the next.

Evidence In a technical writing document, you must present a coherent and complete discussion using nothing but words (illustrations such as tables and graphs should supplement the discussion, not supplant it). A good discussion is an argument supported by evidence. Your argument for

a lab report may simply be, "I performed Lab #3, I achieved the objectives, and I understand the results." Although you would never include such a sentence in your report, you would still need to provide the appropriate evidence. When most people think of technical writing, they think of quantitative (numerical or informative) statements; however, no document of any complexity can avoid making qualitative (analytical or comparative) statements as well. Whenever you make a qualitative statement, you are making a judgment. Even when you give quantitative information, you have made certain decisions about what qualitative information is the most important or how it affects your conclusion. Be aware of the ways in which your assumptions, knowledge, and objectives affected the way you researched and planned your document. Once you have identified your unsupported claims and assertions, you should back up each claim. For instance, if you state that your experiment proves circuit A is better than circuit B, you should first tell the reader what you mean by "better." Does circuit A meet more experimental criteria than circuit B? Is circuit A easier to upgrade? Safer? More nutritious? What if circuit A is much cheaper to build, but circuit B is slightly more dependable?

Illustrations The document that you are reading now frequently uses illustrations in the form of textual examples. However, as the reader you are not left alone to interpret the qualities of those examples. For instance, in a previous section, transition example #2 uses bold type to highlight important details; the sentences immediately following the example interpret and evaluate that information. Such strategies ensure that the reader can not

only recognize the important details but can learn why you think they are important. The same holds true whether the illustrations are equations, pictures, tables or charts. "A picture is worth a thousand words," as the saying goes, but the technical writer must still handle the qualitative information; the function of an illustration is to present quantitative data. When the intention is to report a large amount of data, a paragraph is inappropriate. For instance, the following paragraph is hard to read (not to mention boring): At t = 0, the voltmeter read 0.0V. At t=1, the voltmeter read 0.0V. At t = 2, the voltmeter read 0.015V. At t = 3, the voltmeter read 0.03V. At t = 4, the voltmeter read 0.035V. At t= 4, the voltmeter read 1.10V. At t = 5, the voltmeter read 0.04V. At t = 6, the voltmeter read 0.0V. The information is much more accessible in the following form:

Of course, the writer would still have to describe, in words, the important information the picture contains: "The voltage began at 0, and rose to 0.03

by t = 2. At t = 4 there was a sharp increase to 1.10V, after which the voltage subsided quickly, returning to 0 at t = 6. For instance, a process description of the conversion of chemical energy to kinetic energy in a steam engine benefits immensely from an illustration.

However, the writer must still give the reader a basic understanding of the information the picture contains. This illustration would be more useful if the important parts were identified with letters, so that you could write a description like the following: "This process begins when the expanding steam (A) moves into the cylinder (B), pushing the piston rod (C) with sufficient force to drive an external gear assembly."

Conclusion The nature of the conclusion depends upon the specific document you have been asked to write, but in general your conclusion should emphasize the information you want your reader to have learned from your document. A conclusion should not merely repeat the main thesis.

Consider the following samples from a technical report in which the author was asked to evaluate the management's proposal to shift resources: •

Thesis: CanTech Industries should temporarily enact the

management's proposal to discontinue the X-400 printer in order to free up factory resources for the more profitable X-600. •

Conclusion 1: Therefore, it has been shown that CanTech

Industries should temporarily shift its focus from the X-400 printer to the X-600. The weak Conclusion 1 adds nothing to the document. Enough said. •

Conclusion 2: This study has determined that the factory

trial runs, cost effectiveness estimates, and market projections support the management's interest in shifting production resources from the X-400 printer to the X-600 model. Using the conclusion to review the main discussion points, as in Conclusion 2, is better -- but if the opening paragraph is well organized, it will already have provided a detailed overview. Conclusion 2 not only reviews the discussion with sufficient brevity, but also emphasizes the relationship between the discussion and the thesis; the whole purpose of the discussion, after all, was to prove the thesis.

This document describes rhetorical patterns (ways of organizing) that are commonly

used

Mechanism Description

in

technical

writing.

Comparison/Contrast More Important to Less Important

Process

Description

Situation-Problem-Solution-Evaluation

Classification Definition

Cause-Effect

Partition Mechanism

Description

explains the arrangement and shape of an object in space. Such a description may involve movement, complex motions are better handled with the process description.

Typically, the parts of mechanism

description answer the following questions in order: •

What is it?

•

What is its function?

•

What does it look like?

•

How does it work?

•

What are its principal parts? [2] o

Give a detailed description of each part.

o

Each of these parts may require a mechanism

description of its own. Process

Description

explains the arrangement of a sequence in chronological order. In organization, it is similar to mechanism description, except that the "partby-part" becomes step by step: •

What is it?

•

What is its function?

•

Where and when does it take place?

•

Who or what performs it?

•

How does it work?

•

What are its principal steps? [2]

Process description includes sequence, instructions and procedure; however, only instruct if you expect your reader to perform the process

you describe. Try to keep separate these two concepts: "How to do something" and "How something occurs" [2]

The first calls for

instructions or procedure; the second, for sequence. Classification involves grouping things together (on the basis of similarities) and dividing them (according to differences). Classification assists in the complete consideration of a topic [3]. Note the danger of Faulty Coordination. Partition is the act of dividing things into their component parts; very similar to classification, and an inevitable part of mechanism description and process description [2]. Partition could be spatial (how each part looks) or functional (how each part works). Definition uses words to fix the meaning of a thing -- to make it "definite". The short definition (a paragraph or a single sentence) is essential to technical writing. For instance, the Mechanism Description and the Process Description each begin with a call for a definition. A definition answers the question "what is it?" Good definitions employ the following formula: Species thing to defined A batten

= genus + be group to which = + the thing belongs is a tapered piece of that wood

differentia specific details that separate it from other things in its group fits into a pocket in the trailing edge of a sail, helping it hold the shape that allows it to propel a boat.

Sometimes definitions might be much longer than one sentence, in which case you are still trying to answer "what is it?" but will be using most other patterns to help answer it: you can define by describing, classifying, comparing, etc. Comparison/Contrast

(C/C)

analyzes two or more things, based on established criteria. C/C is very useful in technical situations where we are looking at ideal vs. actual results, or calculated vs. measured values. To make C/C work the things must be comparable, and the criteria must be valid for both. For example, if comparing sailboats, we would have more points of valid comparison between two yachts both 30-40 ft. long, than between one yacht and a 15 ft. dinghy. All are sailboats, all have hulls, spars, sails, rigging, steering -- but that tells us only the most general information. If you are not a sailor, it tells you even less. More

Important

to

Less

Important

is a "catch-all" structure that you use 1. all the time, and 2. when nothing else works. It is essential to what is known as the pyramid structure: 1.

Many technical documents start with the most important

point and moving to secondary points. Mechanism descriptions, results or discussion in lab reports and writing for electronic media all benefit from starting with what is important and moving to less important points. 2.

Even when no logical organization is obvious, you can still

prioritize ideas so that your reader knows what is essential quickly. Situation-Problem-Solution-Evaluation is a major structure for Engineering thinking and writing. The written

document is organized in the order of the thinking process. The essential principles are these: •

understand and describe the situation to be faced,

•

analyze the specific problem to be tackled,

•

establish methods or protocol for solving the problem,

•

create, analyze and refine a solution (or several possible

alternatives) •

evaluate how well the proposed solution addresses the

problem.[4:5] In the last step, you will also need to consider what further work might be necessary (perhaps research or testing) before the final stage of a solution: implementation. Cause-Effect is a reasoning structure used to organize writing all the time in engineering, like problem-solution. It aims to answer a particular set of questions: What if? and Why did something happen? The basic structure for cause-effect is the following: •

The Assertion: the claim you are trying to prove. In fact,

this is the conclusion, but you put it first. •

The Facts: the information to consider

•

The Reasoning: the explanation of how you reached your

conclusion from the information. [2] With cause-effect reasoning, be careful to avoid the following logical fallacies: •

drawing conclusions from inadequate evidence,

•

assuming X causes Y just because X comes after Y

•

begging the question. This means proving something you

assume is true only by assuming it is true.

As an instructor and grader in the University of Toronto Engineering Communication Centre, part of my responsibilities have included grading or otherwise responding to nearly 800 engineering formal reports. This short list addresses some common problems that brought down the grades of almost every student. The first three points should help you get started, the next group will help as you write, and the final six -- perhaps the most important -- will help you revise what you've written and prepare to hand it in. -- Dennis G. Jerz

Before You Write 1. Plan ahead. If you can, bring an outline and/or a draft to the Engineering Communication Centre. It may be the most productive half hour you invest in your studies this year. Be aware that the centre tends to fill up early when major assignments are pending, so you need to book an appointment ahead of time. 2. Follow your instructions carefully. Know what is expected of you, and invest your time accordingly. For instance, evaluating a design takes more work than merely describing it; justifying a conclusion takes more work than merely reporting it. Understanding rhetorical patterns may help you see what the assignment is asking. Omitting or skimping on an important section in favor of an unimportant one can severely hurt you. If you're puzzled, don't delay; ask your professor, TA or someone in the writing centre to help you decode what is being asked.

3. Outline. Resist the urge to start filling up pages immediately with nonsense like, "Throughout the ages, mankind has sat around tribal fires, looking up at the stars and wondering about [your topic here]." In order to avoid being defeated by a false start -- or a series of false starts the night before the assignment is due -- you should have a clear idea of where you want to go before you start trying to get there.

While You Write 4. Remember that every word is NOT precious. Often students get bogged down trying to say it right. Just say it. Get your ideas down as quickly and efficiently as possible. If you get stuck on one section, look at your outline and start working on the next section. Soon, you'll find you can come back to the trouble spot with little sweat. When you write this way, your first draft will come out fairly quickly, but it will need to be revised! 5. Use paraphrasing and direct quotation intelligently. Some students will laboriously rewrite an entire paragraph or page from another source -for instance, taking a phrase like "the structure's outer shell" and turning it into "the external shell of the structure," and so on. Even if you spend hours revising the original work in order to avoid using the original author's words, you still have to give credit to the original author. The time you spend revising somebody else's text is time that you aren't spending on your own writing. Even if you copy none of the original author's exact words, using another person's work without giving due credit is still plagiarism. See the Engineering Writing Centre's Accurate Documentation for details on how to cite your sources properly. 6. Organize your text. Use good paragraph structure, paying attention to topic sentences and transitions. Define your terms before you use them,

carefully working from old information to new information. Also, use informative headings to help bridge sections. A header such as "Design of a Hyperdrive Filter" is more informative than just "Project Design". 8. Use illustrations properly. No matter how beautiful your charts, graphs, and diagrams may be, good graphics cannot save bad writing. Do not let your graphics steal too much time that you should spend on your writing. You must also describe in words all the important information you give in your illustrations. In fact, any illustration that you don't write about as well is useless. Labelling illustrations correctly including Figure number, title, and source is also very helpful and shows a clearly organized document. 9. Back up your files (and learn how to change your printer cartridge, and feed your dog something other than your homework) so you won't have to give a lame excuse for why you aren't ready on time.

After You Write 10. Cut the filler. Your grader will read your document, not weigh it. Technical documents are not like English essays. In English essays, you search for extra words to pad out what little you have to say about Hamlet's madness, but in technical writing, "brevity is the soul of wit." Often, the introduction section winds up being the most wordy and pointless. Revise that section particularly carefully. 11. Create strong indicators. One important aspect of a technical paper is that you create really obvious indicators for your reader. For example, the last sentence in the first paragraph at the top of this document explains my three sections.

In technical documents such "signposts" are very

important, even if they make boring sentences.

12. Check for cohesion (good transitions and logical ordering). Ensure that the title and introduction you originally chose for your document still make sense. Your grader will judge you (in part) on how well you do what you say you are trying to do. If you notice at a late stage that your document does not actually deliver what you promised, but you're satisfied with what you provided instead, touch up your introduction so that it fits perfectly. Be sure your conclusion is not like the following: Therefore, this paper has [repeat introduction here]. 12. Proofread. Spelling and grammar checkers are no substitute for a dictionary, close inspection, and time. 13. Format your document neatly. Everybody plays with margins now and then in order to stretch or squeeze text, but immense titles, oversized graphics, and great swaths of white space will fool nobody. A wellformatted document has the following simple features: •

One-inch margins all around

•

Double-spaced text so that your grader has room to make

comments •

12 point font because smaller type is too hard to read

•

Clear paragraph breaks either by indenting half an inch

or skipping a line (not both) •

Numbered pages (even if you do so by hand)

•

Simple staple to bind pages. Paper clips fall off; spiral

bindings or those horrible static-laden plastic covers irritate graders who often have hundreds of papers to sort and handle. As a general rule, I assume that the excessiveness of binding is inversely proportional to the quality of the work. 14. Print out your final draft with care. If you are planning to become an engineer, you had better know how to replace a fading printer cartridge. If for some reason you must

use erasable paper, turn in a clear photocopy; otherwise, your grader may accidentally obliterate

part

of

your

work.