Sis Koh
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The General Instructional Model: Beginning the Lesson An effective introduction to a lesson draws students into the lesson, focuses their attention on the new content to be learned, and relates that new material to content already learned.
PREPARATION Introductory Review - refreshing students’ memories and setting the stage for new learning. Resnick and Klopfer (1989) - “people are not recorders of information but builders of knowledge structures. To know something is not just to have received information but also to have interpreted and related it to other knowledge” Introductory Focus - is the process teachers use to introduce a learning activity. It provides two functions: • •
To attract students’ attention To provide a context for the topic being studied.
A Sensory focus - provides students with something to see, hear, feel, smell, or even taste as they begin the lesson. The concept is borrowed from cognitive learning theory and is a type of orienting stimulus. Most common type of sensory is visual. Hunter (1984) - used anticipatory set for introductory activities that focus student attention on the material to be presented, reminding them of what they already know and stimulating their interest in the subject. Advanced Organizers David Ausubel (1968) – He advocated the use of advance organizers, introductory Statements that framed new content and related it to content Students already knew.
Advance organizers are effective for a number of reasons: (1) focus student’s attention on the topic at hand, (2) inform them where the lesson is going, (3) relate new material to content already understood, and (4) provide structure for the subsequent lesson. Whatever the form the introductory focus takes, the fact that this information is written on the board or projected overhead provides better focus than the same information on individual sheets provided for the students. If students are looking down at their desks, the teacher cannot tell if they are looking at the sheet or are looking down because they are not paying attention. When the focus is at the front of the room, the teacher can monitor students’ attention through eye contact, which is one of the major ways that researchers assess student engagement. If the teacher finds that students are not looking at whatever is being displayed for them, the teacher can adjust the lesson to regain their attention.
PRESENTATION Presenting Content Madeline Hunter (1984) - called “input,” where the teacher presents the new information or skills that the students are to learn. A common method of presenting content is the lecture. Lecture, method of instruction, endures primarily because of its simplicity. It place students in a passive role, allow inattention, and low levels of engaged time often result.
APPLICATION Active Student Involvement Regardless of student’s ages, the topic, or specific teaching strategy, effective teachers maintain high levels of students involvement in their learning activities Practice and Feedback As students learn new content and skills, they need opportunities to try these out and interrelate them. Practice provides students opportunities to try out and test their grasp of new content on their own. Feedback is any information about current behavior that can be used to improve future performance. Through interactive practice and feedback, teachers give students opportunities to consolidate new learning, reinforce old, and eliminate errors and misconceptions. The form that these interactive practice and feedback sessions take depends on the type of content being taught. Skills-oriented lessons provide students with practice in performing the skill, while concept-related lesson focus on positive and negative examples of the concept.
Effective feedback has four characteristics: • • • •
It is immediate. It is specific. It provides corrective information. It has a positive emotional tone.
Teacher Praise - the most common form of positive feedback. - teachers simply tell students when they’ve given a good answer or done good work. Review and Closure Closure is a form of review that occurs at the end of a lesson, when the topic is summarized and structured. It allows students to leave the class with a sense of the day’s content and what they were supposed to have derived from it.
EVALUATION Assessment - is the process of gathering information and making instructional decisions based on the information. Its basics purpose is to gauge the learners’ progress and provide feedback for both the teachers and students. Different forms: • • • • • •
Quizzes Tests Homework Writing Assignment Projects Work samples
PREPARATION Introductory Review - refreshing students’ memories and setting the stage for new learning. Resnick and Klopfer (1989) - “people are not recorders of information but builders of knowledge structures. To know something is not just to have received information but also to have interpreted and related it to other knowledge” Introductory Focus - is the process teachers use to introduce a learning activity. It provides two functions: • •
To attract students’ attention To provide a context for the topic being studied.
A Sensory focus - provides students with something to see, hear, feel, smell, or even taste as they begin the lesson. The concept is borrowed from cognitive learning theory and is a type of orienting stimulus. Most common type of sensory is visual. Hunter (1984) - used anticipatory set for introductory activities that focus student attention on the material to be presented, reminding them of what they already know and stimulating their interest in the subject. Advanced Organizers David Ausubel (1968) – He advocated the use of advance organizers, introductory Statements that framed new content and related it to content Students already knew.
Advance organizers are effective for a number of reasons: (1) focus student’s attention on the topic at hand, (2) inform them where the lesson is going, (3) relate new material to content already understood, and (4) provide structure for the subsequent lesson. Whatever the form the introductory focus takes, the fact that this information is written on the board or projected overhead provides better focus than the same information on individual sheets provided for the students. If students are looking down at their desks, the teacher cannot tell if they are looking at the sheet or are looking down because they are not paying attention. When the focus is at the front of the room, the teacher can monitor students’ attention through eye contact, which is one of the major ways that researchers assess student engagement. If the teacher finds that students are not looking at whatever is being displayed for them, the teacher can adjust the lesson to regain their attention.
PRESENTATION Presenting Content Madeline Hunter (1984) - called “input,” where the teacher presents the new information or skills that the students are to learn. A common method of presenting content is the lecture. Lecture, method of instruction, endures primarily because of its simplicity. It place students in a passive role, allow inattention, and low levels of engaged time often result.
APPLICATION Active Student Involvement Regardless of student’s ages, the topic, or specific teaching strategy, effective teachers maintain high levels of students involvement in their learning activities Practice and Feedback As students learn new content and skills, they need opportunities to try these out and interrelate them. Practice provides students opportunities to try out and test their grasp of new content on their own. Feedback is any information about current behavior that can be used to improve future performance. Through interactive practice and feedback, teachers give students opportunities to consolidate new learning, reinforce old, and eliminate errors and misconceptions. The form that these interactive practice and feedback sessions take depends on the type of content being taught. Skills-oriented lessons provide students with practice in performing the skill, while concept-related lesson focus on positive and negative examples of the concept.
Effective feedback has four characteristics: • • • •
It is immediate. It is specific. It provides corrective information. It has a positive emotional tone.
Teacher Praise - the most common form of positive feedback. - teachers simply tell students when they’ve given a good answer or done good work. Review and Closure Closure is a form of review that occurs at the end of a lesson, when the topic is summarized and structured. It allows students to leave the class with a sense of the day’s content and what they were supposed to have derived from it.
EVALUATION Assessment - is the process of gathering information and making instructional decisions based on the information. Its basics purpose is to gauge the learners’ progress and provide feedback for both the teachers and students. Different forms: • • • • • •
Quizzes Tests Homework Writing Assignment Projects Work samples
