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Semantic Analysis: A Practical Introduction Book · June 2011

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Semantic Analysis

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A Practical Introduction Cliff Goddard i "~

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No. INDUK :=n01A(ffi002~ TG TERIMA: IiAOIAH I BEll Rp. fbd< DARI :

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

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TIlis book has been printed dfgitaUy and produud in a standard specification ~n order to ensure its continuing availahfiity

OXFORD UNIVERSJTY PR.ESS

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Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press i~ th~. UK and in certain other countries Published in the United Stat,es by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © ClitfGoddard 1998

The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right OXford University Press (maker) Reprinted 2009 . All rights reserved. No part of this pUblication may be reproduced.

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, . without the prior permission in writing or Oxford University Press, , or as expressly permitted by law, or under tenns agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover

And you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

ISBN 978-0-19-870016-6

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If language can be se' then, as Wallace Chi curriculum seems should lead to a sit the discrimination curriculum as pra, this book is to hel for undertaking the' of others. Any introducto methods and in its and depth of cove: and discussing m a rigorous but co students. Its chief is Anna Wierzbic1 significant figures Jaekendoff, Leona: George Lakoff. a matical and illocu of lexical semantil conceptualisation, for illustrative pu: Polish, Spanish, The plan oftb ground concepts Then follows a se emotion and col, in semantic me verbs and disco both linked with two areas of veri verbs, and wor,

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pleted with the

ithin Anna Wierzbicka's ews this theory's applica­ agmatics, and non-verbal

er into a loose thematic :en to be largely independ­ to give students, teachers, .sing a sequence of topics. 1 because they are import­ Ise, in my opinion, they are d Nicole (1996 [1662]: 15) ,rt of Thinking: 'a book can ,d, since it is useful only to ~tes to a book's readability :r closes with a selection of which have solutions pro­ "ical terms is also given for ler reading. twentieth century has not lated as it has been by the ved that meaning lay out­ Chomsky, whose primary 'ecent years, however, the : are rediscovering the lex­ :ion that the grammatical , recent survey goes so far 10 longer divides the field : a unifying focus' (Levin Harris (1993) has called liferation of developments ve grammar, all of which Itics.

get interested in linguistic

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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Many people have generously furnished criticisms and comments which have helped improve this book. I want particularly to thank my semantics students at the University of New England, and those people who have made detailed comments on the entire manuscript, especially Keith Brown, Anna Wierzbicka, David Wilkins, and several anonymous reviewers. My researcl1 assistant Vicki Knox provided me with invaluable help on tech­ nical and practical matters, and also with many insightful criticisms. For helpful discussions and/or information on particular topics, my thanks are also due to Felix Arneka, Timothy Curnow, Nick Enfield, Nicholas Evans, Kumie Fujimori, Dan Gartner, Rie Hasada, Norlinda Hasan, Mee Wun Lee, Beat Lehmann, Nick Reid, Verna Rieschild, Anatoly Ruvinsky, and Malindy Tong.

CONTENTS fl

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List of Figures and Figure Credits Typographical Conventions and Symbols

xiii

xv

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1. Semantics: The Study of Meaning

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l.l Language and meaning

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1.2 The nature of meaning

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1.3 Linguistic approaches to meaning

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1.5 Semantic phenomena

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II

16 .

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading ,

22

25

1.4 Issues in semantic theory

2. Three Traditions: Lexicography, Logic, and

Structuralism

26

2.1 The pitfalls of defining

26

2.2 Accuracy in a definition

31

2.3 The logical tradition 2.4 Some logical concepts used in semantics

36

39

2.5 Classical Componential Analysis (CA)

43

2.6 Componential analysis in generative grammar

50

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

53

55

3. Contemporary Approaches, Contemporary Issues

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3.1 The Natural Semantic Metalangual!e ~..,

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CONTENTS

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List of Figures and Figure Credits Typographical Conventions and Symbols

1. Semantics: The Study of Meaning

xiii

xv 1

l.l Language and meaning

1

3

1

1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

I

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading ,

I

I

'I

The nature of meaning Linguistic approaches to meaning Issues in semantic theory Semantic phenomena

2. Three Traditions: Lexicography, Logic, and

Structuralism 2. I The pitfalls of defining 2.2 Accuracy in a definition 2.3 The logical tradition 2.4 Some logical concepts used in semantics 2.5 Classical Componential Analysis (CA) 2.6 Componential analysis in generative grammar

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

3. Contemporary Approaches, Contemporary Issues

6

II

16

22

25

26

26

31

36

39

43

50

53

55

56

3.1 The Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) approach

56

3.2 Doing reductive paraphrase explications

61

x Contents 3.3 An abstract metalanguage: Ray Jackendoff's conceptual

semantics

64

3.4 New approaches: frames and scenarios

69

3.5 New phenomena: prototypes

71

3.6 Metaphors and image schemas

77

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

82

85

4. The Semantics of Emotions

4.2 Semantic components of emotion words

86

88

4.3 Comparisons between some English emotions

91

4.4 'Culture-related' emotions

96

4.1 Theories of the emotions

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86

4.5 Three 'anger' words in Yankunytjatjara

100

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

110

5. Colours

106

III

5.1 Colour naming around the world

111

5.2 Colour vision 5.3 'Defining' colour meanings in neural terms 5.4 Towards a conceptual analysis of colour 5.5 Unravelling colour meanings

117

120

124

127

5.6 Colour meanings across languages

131

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

134

135

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6. Speech-Act Verbs

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136

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6.1 What is a speech act?

136

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6.2 Searle's approach

140

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Contents xi (endoWs conceptual

6.3 Reductive paraphrase of speech-act verbs 64

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86 88 91 96 100 106 110

ords emotions Ira

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7.1 Describing particles and interjections

165

7.2 Three English particles: or, too, and well

169

7.3 Some particles in other languages 7.4 A fistful of interjections

177

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

191 194

8. Motion

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184

195 ~

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8.1 Approaches to space and motion

196

1

8.2 How to know whether you're coming or going

203

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8.3 Motion verbs in Arrernte

213

III

8.4 Motion verbs in other languages

218

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Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

221 223

III

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terms ur

163 164

7. Discourse Particles and Interjections _._._

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Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

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82 85

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6.4 Cultural aspects of speech acts

145 154

120 124

127

9. Artefacts and Animals

224

9.1 Artefact meanings

224

9.2 The meaning of cup and mug

230

9.3 The semantics of 'folk biology'

238

9.4 The meaning of cats

245

9.5 Outstanding issues

251

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

256 259

131 134

135

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136

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136 140

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xii

Contents

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10. Causatives

260

10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5

260

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How basic is BECAUSE? Conventional descriptions of causatives Productive causatives across languages Some causative verbs in English Causation and culture

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading 11. Grammatical Categories

266

269

277

285

290

293

294

1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3

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11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6

Pronominal systems Noun and numeral classifiers Locational deixis Evidentials and experiencer constructions Experiencer constructions Concluding remarks '

Exercises and discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

295

301

311

314

317

320

3.4

3.5 5.1

321

323

5.2

12. New Developments 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5

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The expanding semantic metalanguage New work on NSM syntax Language acquisition Cultural scripts Non-verbal communication

324

324

329

336

341

347

Discussion questions Suggestions for further reading

353

355

Solutions to Selected Exercises References Language Index General Index

356

379

401

403

5 5.5 8.1 . 9.1 9.2 F:

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