Science Advancement

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Contents White Holes and Wormholes...........................................................................................4 Black Holes, Black Holes, Black Holes!..................................................................................10 Gravitational redshift...................................................................................................14 Rotation: a=0.0...............................................................................................................................15 Rotation: a=0.2...............................................................................................................................15 Rotation: a=0.4...............................................................................................................................16 Rotation: a=0.6...............................................................................................................................17 Rotation: a=0.8...............................................................................................................................17 Rotation: a=1.0...............................................................................................................................18 Visualizing rotating coordinates:.....................................................................................................22 Rotation: a=0.0...............................................................................................................................22 Rotation: a=1.0............................................................................................................................23 Rotation from 0.0 to 1.0...............................................................................................................23 Pythagoras's Theorem.....................................................................................................................25 Coordinates.....................................................................................................................................27 The Metric.......................................................................................................................................29 Energy, Matter, and the Curvature of Spacetime.............................................................................31 ISRO Successful in Recovering SRE-1.................................................................................37

Chinese Astronauts to Orbit with Mini Monitoring Satellite...................................................44 Are You Ready to Colonize Mars in 1,000 Years?..................................................................45 NASA Getting Nervous About the Software of Its James Webb Space Telescope.........................50 Roskosmos and ESA Hold Talks for a Joint Shuttle Program..................................................52 Man’s Fastest Spacecraft About to Have a Close Encounter with Jupiter...................................53

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Spirit and Opportunity Can Get New Drivers.......................................................................42

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McNaught: First Daylight Comet of the 21st Century.............................................................38

Joy Ram NASA All Geared Up to Launch Multiple Probes to Investigate Auroras....................................55 Universe Speeding Up Its Expansion, Is Newton’s Gravitational Theory Flawed?.......................57 XCOR’s 5M15 Methane-oxygen Engine Tested Successfully....................................................59 Dying Mira A Giving Birth to a New Planetary System!..........................................................60 NASA Selecting Proposals for Mars Scout Program..............................................................62 JAXA Recommends Canceling Japan’s Maiden Trip to Moon..................................................63 Online Astronomers Discover 200 New Planets...................................................................65 Milky Way’s ‘previously Known’ Companions Are Nothing More Than Strangers Passing by........66 Comet McNaught Enters Our Field of View.........................................................................67 Lunar Rock Study Shows That Moon is More Like a Planet.....................................................69 Chandra Detects Light Echo from Sagittarius A*..................................................................70 PTX Can Make Inter-Planet Travel Possible........................................................................71 Antimatter...................................................................................................................73 Notation...........................................................................................................................................73 Origin (naturally occurring production)............................................................................................73 [edit] Asymmetry.........................................................................................................................73 Artificial production.........................................................................................................................74 [edit] Antihydrogen......................................................................................................................74 Antihelium....................................................................................................................................75 Preservation.................................................................................................................................75 Cost..............................................................................................................................................76

Mobile Phone Secrets & Tricks......................................................................................78

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Antimatter in fiction.........................................................................................................................77

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Uses................................................................................................................................................76 Medical.........................................................................................................................................76 Fuel..............................................................................................................................................76

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White Holes and Wormholes Schwarzschild wormhole

The Schwarzschild metric admits negative square root as well as positive square root solutions for the geometry. The complete Schwarzschild geometry consists of a black hole, a white hole, and two Universes connected at their horizons by a wormhole. The negative square root solution inside the horizon represents a white hole. A white hole is a black hole running backwards in time. Just as black holes swallow things irretrievably, so also do white holes spit them out. White holes cannot exist, since they violate the second law of thermodynamics.

Do Schwarzschild wormholes really exist? Schwarzschild wormholes certainly exist as exact solutions of Einstein's equations. However:

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The negative square root solution outside the horizon represents another Universe. The wormhole joining the two separate Universes is known as the Einstein-Rosen bridge.

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General Relativity is time symmetric. It does not know about the second law of thermodynamics, and it does not know about which way cause and effect go. But we do.

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When a realistic star collapses to a black hole, it does not produce a wormhole ;  The complete Schwarzschild geometry includes a white hole, which violates the second law of thermodynamics (see above);  Even if a Schwarzschild wormhole were somehow formed, it would be unstable and fly apart (see

Kruskal-Szekeres spacetime diagram of the wormhole

The Kruskal-Szekeres coordinate system is arranged so that the worldlines of radially infalling (yellow) and outgoing (ochre) light rays lie at 45o. The white hole is the region at the bottom of the diagram, bounded by the two red antihorizons. The black hole is the region at the top of the diagram, bounded by the two pink-red horizons. Both white and black holes have singularities at their centres, the cyan lines. The regions at left and right outside the horizons are the two Universes. The two Universes are joined by a wormhole, the region of spacetime between the white hole and black hole singularities.

Partial Kruskal spacetime diagram showing a single Universe with a Schwarzschild black hole.

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Compare these Kruskal spacetime diagrams of the Schwarzschild geometry:

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As long as the inhabitants of the two Universes remain outside the horizons, they cannot meet or communicate with each other. However, the inhabitants can meet after falling into the black hole. Having met, they also soon meet the singularity.

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Kruskal spacetime diagram of the complete Schwarzschild geometry, showing a white hole, a black hole, and two Universes connected by a wormhole. This is the spacetime diagram illustrated above. Complete Kruskal diagram in which the second Universe is imagined to be a mirror image of the first. Kruskal diagram of a realistic black hole formed from the collapse of a star.

Penrose diagram of the Schwarzschild wormhole

Instability of the Schwarzschild wormhole

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The embedding diagram of the Schwarzschild wormhole illustrated at the top of the page seems to show a static wormhole. However, this is an illusion of the Schwarzschild coordinate system, which is ill-behaved at the horizon.

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The Kruskal spacetime diagram reveals that in reality the Schwarzschild wormhole is dynamic, and unstable. The tremendous gravity impels the wormhole both to elongate along its length, and to shrink about its middle. The yellow arrows indicate the directionality of the horizons. A person (or signal) can pass through a horizon only in the direction of the arrow, not the other way. There is a certain arbitrariness to the shapes of these embedding diagrams - the spatial geometry at a given `time' depends on what you decide to label as time, how you slice spacetime into hypersurfaces of constant time. The inset shows the slicing for the embedding diagrams adopted here, drawn on the Kruskal

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spacetime diagram. Impossible to pass through the wormhole

Unfortunately it is impossible for a traveller to pass through the wormhole from one Universe into the other. A traveller can pass through a horizon only in one direction, indicated by the yellow arrows. First, the traveller must wait until the two white holes have merged, and their horizons met. The traveller may then enter through one horizon. But having entered, the traveller cannot exit, either through that horizon or through the horizon on the other side. The fate of the traveller who ventures in is to die at the singularity which forms from the collapse of the wormhole. The traveller can however see light signals from the other Universe. The trapped region between the two horizons is the Schwarzschild bubble encountered on the trip into the black hole. A glimpse through the wormhole

Suppose, despite the objections, attached to another Universe through a What would we see?

that our Universe were Schwarzschild wormhole.

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Only after falling through the horizon of the black hole are we able to see the other Universe through the throat of the wormhole. We are never able to enter the other Universe, and the penalty for seeing it is death at the singularity.

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Here is a glimpse through the wormhole at the other Universe, visible through the Schwarzschild surface still ahead and below us. We are at 0.35 Schwarzschild radii from the central singularity. Compare this to the normal view. For simplicity, I have supposed that the other Universe contains stars exactly like ours, so it's a bit like looking through a distorted mirror.

It would be foolhardy to attempt this fatal experiment in the hopes of glimpsing another Universe. As seen in the next section, when a realistic star collapses to form a black hole, it does not produce a wormhole. 29 May 1998 update. Oops, there's yet another set of grid lines missing from this picture, and in the movie below. Through the mouth (pink) of the wormhole, we should be able to see the surface of the black hole as seen in the other Universe, curved into our view by the gravity of the black hole, in the same way that we can see the surface (red) of the black hole in our own Universe through the screen formed by the outward

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Schwarzschild surface (white). I'll fix it when I get the time. Falling into a wormhole

This movie is the same as the Falling to the singularity of the black hole movie, now with another Universe, visible but unreachable, on the other side of the

but horizon.

Clicking on the image gives you a double-size version of the same movie (same 185K GIF, same resolution, just twice as big on the screen). Stabilizing a wormhole with exotic matter

In principle, a wormhole could be stabilized by threading its throat with `exotic matter'. In the stable wormhole at left, the exotic matter forms a thin spherical shell (which appears in the diagram as a circle, since the embedding diagram is a 2-dimensional representation of the 3-dimensional spatial geometry of the wormhole). The shell of exotic matter has negative mass and positive surface pressure. The negative mass ensures that the throat of the wormhole lies outside the horizon, so that travellers can pass through it, while the positive surface pressure prevents the wormhole from collapsing. In general relativity, one is free to specify whatever geometry one cares to imagine for spacetime; but then Einstein's equations specify what the energy-momentum content of matter in that spacetime must be in order to produce that geometry. Generically, wormholes require negative mass exotic matter at their throats, in order to be traversible.

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A good reference is M. S. Morris & K. S. Thorne (1988), ``Wormholes in spacetime and their use for interstellar travel: A tool for teaching general relativity'', American Journal of Physics, 56, 395-412.

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While the notion of negative mass is certainly bizarre, the vacuum fluctuations near a black hole are exotic, so perhaps exotic matter is not utterly impossible.

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Black Holes, Black Holes, Black Holes!

The annual meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington, D.C. this year covered more than 30 subjects from the Sun, White Dwarfs, Pulsars and Black Holes to the evolution of Galaxies, the interstellar medium and gamma-ray bursts. Here's a short review of 5 new discoveries about black holes:

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The stars orbiting close to Milky Way's black hole The origin of young stars at the center of our galaxy has puzzled astronomers, but the orbits may be the key to unlocking the mystery. The astronomers use a new laser virtual star at the W.M. Keck observatory in Hawaii. The hostile environment around the supermassive black hole should make it extremely difficult for stars to form, but many young stars have been detected around the black hole”, said UCLA astronomy graduate student Jessica Lu, who reported that she and her team are tracking a puzzling group of more than 30 massive young stars of uncertain origins. "How were these stars formed in such an inhospitable region?" Lu asked. "My advisor, Andrea Ghez, calls this mystery 'the paradox of youth.' Using the Keck's Laser Guide Star adaptive optics system, we expect to resolve the paradox. We are able to measure how these young stars move across the sky with an unparalleled precision (only two kilometers per second) and determine, for the first time, the orbit of each of the young stars located a few light months from the black hole. Just as a fingerprint can be used to identify a person, the information encoded in the orbits of the young stars will tell us how and where they formed," said Lu, a member of a UCLA research team including her advisor, Ghez, a UCLA professor of physics and astronomy.

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The 'eating habits' of black holes at the center of young galaxies An analysis of the Hubble Space Telescope's deepest view of the universe offers

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compelling evidence that monster black holes in the centers of galaxies were not born big but grew over time through repeated galactic mergers. "By studying distant galaxies in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), we have the first statistical evidence that supermassive black-hole growth is linked to the process of galaxy assembly," said Arizona State University astronomer Rogier Windhorst, who is a member of the two teams that conducted the analysis. "Black holes grow by drawing in stars, gas and dust. These morsels come more plentifully within their reach when galaxies merge." A link between the growth of galaxies through mergers and the feeding of the central black holes has long been suspected. The evidence, however, has been inconclusive for many years. "The HUDF has provided very high-quality information," said Seth Cohen of Arizona State University. "It is the first data we could use to test this theory, since it allowed us to study about 5,000 distant galaxies over a period of four months."

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NASA'S Chandra finds black holes stirring up galaxies Black holes are creating havoc in unsuspected places, according to a new study of images of elliptical galaxies made by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory. The discovery of far-reaching explosive activity, due to giant central black holes in these old galaxies, was a surprise to astronomers. The Chandra data revealed an unsuspected turmoil in elliptical galaxies that belies their calm appearance in optical light. Astronomers believe massive clouds of hot gas in these galaxies have been stirred up by intermittent explosive activity from centrally located super-massive black holes. "This is another example of how valuable it is to observe the universe at different wavelengths besides just the traditional optical wavelengths," said NASA's Chandra Program Scientist Wilt Sanders. "Without these X-ray and radio observations, we wouldn't know these apparently static galaxies in reality are still evolving due to the interaction with their central black holes." These results came from an analysis of 56 elliptical galaxies in the Chandra data archive by associate professor Thomas Statler and doctoral candidate Steven Diehl, both of the Physics and Astronomy department at the Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. "Most elliptical galaxies have traditionally been considered to be quiet places, like placid lakes," Statler said. "Our results show these galaxies are a lot stormier than we thought. These results are part of an emerging picture that shows the impact of super-massive black holes on their environment is far more pervasive than previously thought."

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Spinning black hole leaves dent in spacetime

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MIT scientists have found a black hole that has chiseled a remarkably stable indentation in the fabric of space and time, like a dimple in one's favorite spot on the sofa. Black hole regions are notoriously chaotic, generating light at a range of frequencies. Similarities seen nine years apart imply something very fundamental is producing a pair of observed frequencies, namely the warping of space and time predicted by Einstein but rarely seen in such detail. "The fact that we found the exact same frequency of X-ray oscillations nine years later is likely no coincidence," said Jeroen Homan of the Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research at MIT. "The black hole is still singing the same tune. The oscillations are created by a groove hammered into space-time by the black hole. This phenomenon has been suspected for a while, but now we have strong evidence to support it." Our galaxy's black hole emits flares In the most comprehensive study of Sagittarius A* (Sgr A*), the enigmatic supermassive black hole in the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, astronomers -- using nine ground and space-based telescopes including the Hubble Space Telescope and the XMM-Newton X-ray Observatory -- have discovered that Sgr A* produces rapid flares close to the innermost region of the black hole in many different wavelengths

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and that these emissions go up and down together. This insight into the frequent bursts of radiation observed shooting off the black hole like firecrackers -- similar to solar flares -- will help scientists better understand the dynamics of Sgr A* and the source of its flares. "We observed that the less energetic infrared flares occur simultaneously with the more energetic X-ray flares as well the submillimeter flares," said Yusef-Zadeh. "From this, we infer that the particles that are accelerated near the black hole give rise to Xray, infrared and submillimeter emission. In addition, not all of the material that approaches the black hole gets sucked in. Some of the material may be ejected from the vicinity of the central black hole or event horizon. Our observations hint that these flares have enough energy to escape from the closest confines of the supermassive black hole's sphere of influence." "This is not something we expected," added Yusef-Zadeh. "Other black holes in other galaxies don't show this flare activity. We believe it is the dynamics of the captured material -- very close to the event horizon of the black hole -- that produces the flares. And the flares are fluctuating at low levels, like flickers. The flare radiation results from fast-moving materials in the innermost region of the black hole. It's a way of life for Sgr A*, this frequent low level of activity."

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Gravitational redshift. I will now look at the gravitational redshift-effects near Black Holes. When light approaches the center of a Black Hole, it will be gravitational shifted towards a more energetic waveband. In terms of colour it will get blue-shifted (shorter wavelength). This effect can be described by the lapse function or redshift factor:

Let's consider a spacecraft flying towards the center of a Black Hole. An unfortunate passenger payed a return-ticket to see the singularity from a first class stable orbit. He thought he could return in two weeks. What will he see from the rear window, while looking at the nice and safe universe where he was born?

If the light from the distant stars is red, he will see it being more and more orange, yellow and blue. In the end, the light becomes ultra-violet so he can't see it (but he should remember his sun glasses and sun-lotion with a sufficient -factor). If the astronaut not dies because of gravitational tidal forces, he will maybe die because of UV-radiation! The frequency of the distant light seen from a radius closer and closer to the center goes like:

If we look at the red lights on the back of the spacecraft - from a safe orbit - it is the opposite situation: The photons will loose energy trying when leaving the gravitational field, and become infrared. The redshift of the Kerr-metric is very similar, but it also depends on the rotation parameter a.

In the following, we will illustrate the energy of a photon approaching the Black Hole by it's colour. This illustration shows an 'electro-magnetic wave' changing colour and wavelen Page

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The result of shooting photons towards a Black Hole can now be illustrated like this:

Rotation: a=0.0

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[We see some 'red' photons (with low energy) approaching the Black Hole. The outer tracks are just bended, but still changed in colour (they are temporarily orange and even yellow) before they leave the gravitational field where they are redshifted.]

Rotation: a=0.2

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[Because of the non-zero value of a, one can begin to see the asymmetry arising from the rotation.]

Rotation: a=0.4

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[You can now begin to observe the 'turn-off' effect, where photons are dragged in the right (rotation-) direction even if they start in the other direction.] Arindam Chakraborty

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Rotation: a=0.6

Rotation: a=0.8

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Rotation: a=1.0 Arindam Chakraborty

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[In the last interval of a-values, the horizon contracts rapidly from nearly 2M to it's final value 1M] Here is the last snapshot (a=1.0) viewed from another angle:

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[The photons coming in from the left are blueshifted (if you are following them!). At the horizon, they are shifted through the blue, and into the far ultra-violet (showed as violet for clarification). The violet horizon-sphere is shrinked slightly for better view of the inner circles.] File-type

Equator flat

Eq. curved+static

Eq. curved+rotat.

Inventor

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VRML

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Kerr's rotating Black Holes. Let's generalise some of the formulas used in the static Schwarzschild case, to the case of rotating Black Holes. The Kerr metric is written in Boyer-Lindquist coordinates:

where the coordinate functions are given (with G=c=1): Page

The physical value of J is for a star like the sun: corresponding to a=0.185 M. If a=0 we have the Schwarzschild case for a nonrotating Black Hole (or star). We define FIDucial Observers (FIDOs) as little (experimental) physicists locatedat each point in spacetime measuring all possible physical quantities in their local proper units. They'll get a hard job in the Kerr geometry. To keep their job, they have to follow the geometry which actually rotates with increasing Arindam Chakraborty

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the specific angular momentum is:

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speed towards the center. How can this be? All physical objects are dragged into circular motion by the Black Hole's rotation. Our FIDOs (which are supposed to be at rest) will follow the (absolute) space around the rotating hole. The Boyer-Lindquist coordinates naturally includes this rotating coordinate system, so in the Kerr reference frame, the geometry actually swirls like the air in a tornado. The angular velocity of a FIDO as viewed from infinity is:

This angular velocity depends on a and r. The larger a, the larger .

[The coordinate system rotates with the hole (because of ). One straight radius is deformed into a spiral after some time. From left to right: a=0,0 and a=1,0.] Other properties of the Kerr metric: The redshift factor is generalised with the coordinate functions to:

The inner horizon:

•

The outer horizon:

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The static limit:

The volume between the horizon,

The curvature will just change with

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•

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The Kerr metric has two horizons instead of one, and a static limit inside which nothing can remain at rest (there's only one way around: with the rotation):

and the static limit is called the ergosphere.

as:

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Now we can show the angular (time dependent) rotation with the curvature.

Visualizing rotating coordinates: Within the Inventor/VRML language, it is possible to divide the polar plane into stripes, where each mini-radius (a discrete element) rotate with increasing angular velocity inwards. When a grows, the horizon gets smaller, and the curvature greater. Therefore the extreme Kerr (a=1) case has a quite bigger curvature surface than the static Schwarzschild case.

Rotation: a=0.0

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[The red circle marks the Schwarzschild horizon at r=2M.]

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[The red circle is the extreme Kerr horizon at r=1M.] Rotation from 0.0 to 1.0

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[Pictures from a series of curved coordinate sytem with 'frozen' rotation. The greater value of a, the more wickled does the radial lines get. It is like the water in a whirlpool, or the air in a tornado! The original 3D-Inventor/VRML files can be seen below.]

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Describing How Mass Warps Spacetime One of the central challenges of physics is—and has always been—to predict how things move. The earliest astronomers were really nothing more than astrologers, trying to discern when stars would appear on the horizon, or where the Sun would be found at a certain date. Eventually, this turned into true, scientific astronomy, and physicists used their laws to predict how all sorts of bodies moved through the heavens. Newton showed us that these same laws could be used to predict more earth-bound things, such as how an apple falls from a tree. Modern physicists are concerned with the motions of the tiniest particles in the atoms around us, and the motions of the heaviest objects in the heavens above. We've mentioned that differential geometry gives us tools to understand the motion of particles when spacetime is curved. It doesn't say anything about why spacetime should be curved, though. Einstein took the tools of differential geometry, and showed us how and why spacetime curves. In doing this, he gave us very powerful tools to predict the motion of particles.

Pythagoras's Theorem Understanding Einstein's laws begins with another old theorem you might remember from high-school geometry. The Pythagorean theorem tells us the length of one side of a triangle, given the lengths of the other two sides. This is a very basic, and straightforward theorem that applies to any triangle with one right angle—that is, one angle of 90 degrees. The theorem is not very difficult to use. Suppose we have a The Pythagorean triangle with a shortest side of 3 feet, and a second-shortest side of 4 Theorem: A2+B2=C2 feet. We take these numbers and square them (multiply them by themselves), giving 9 and 16 square feet. We add these together, and get 25 square feet. Now, whatever the longest side is, its square must be 25. The correct length, then, is 5 feet, since 5 squared is 25. Page

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Of course, not every triangle has a right angle. We can extend Pythagoras's theorem to this more general case by subtracting a term. Suppose that we know the length of two sides of the triangle, and the angle between them. If that angle is α, then the "Law of Cosines" is as given below. This rules is just like the Pythagorean theorem, except that we also need to measure at least one angle of the triangle.

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The Law of Cosines: A2+B2-2×A×B×cos(α)=C2

You might remember the cosine function here written as "cos"; it takes the angle, and gives back another number, as shown here.

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A plot of the cosine function. Notice that it is zero for 90°.

When α is 90 degrees, the cosine is 0, so the extra term in the Law of Cosines drops away, and it reduces to the same thing as the Pythagorean Theorem. When α is less than 90 degrees, we see that the extra term makes the side with length C smaller, which we would expect. Similarly, if α is greater than 90 degrees, the extra term makes C larger.

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The Pythagorean Theorem—and, more generally, the Law of Cosines—gives us an indispensable way to measure geometric objects. We also have another tool, which gives us an indispensable way to keep track of where those geometric objects are.

Coordinates Suppose you want to keep track of an astronaut who is somewhere along a single line, like in our examples from the section on Relativity. You could choose a point, and measure how far the astronaut is from that point. If the astronaut is, for example, ten feet to the right of the special point, you might say that she is at the coordinate x=+10. Ten feet to the left, and you could call it x=-10. She could even be at a fractional coordinate like x=+6.78.

An Astronaut at x = +10

Of course, coordinates are just numbers that we place at each point to label that point, and to keep track of what happens at each point. We can lay those numbers down in any way we want. We might, for example, put in three coordinates for every foot. Then, if the astronaut is at a coordinate of x=+30, she would still be 10 feet to the right of the origin. We say that there is a factor of proportionality—three, in this case. Then, if we want the actual distance, we just divide the coordinate x by the factor of proportionality:

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In a similar way, you may want to keep track of an astronaut somewhere in two An Astronaut at x=+4, and y=+ 3 dimensions. Again, you could choose a special point—called the origin—then set up a grid. Move to the right or left along the grid until you are directly under or above the astronaut to find the first coordinate, then move up or down to find the second. For example, our second astronaut might be four feet to the right, and three feet up. His coordinates would be x=+4 and y=+3. If he were three feet down, his coordinates would be x=+4, and y=-3. We can see this in the figure at the right.

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Using the Pythagorean Theorem with these coordinates is a breeze. To find how far the second astronaut is from the origin, we take the x coordinate and square it, then take the y coordinate and square it, then add the two together.

That is, the distance squared is 25, so the astronaut's distance from the origin is just 5 feet. Just as in the onedimensional case, however, our coordinates could be stretched or squished compared to the actual physical distances. In this case, though we might have two different stretches in the different directions. To take an example, for every three x coordinates, there might be one foot of distance, while one foot of distance might correspond to seven y coordinates. In this case, we have to do something like we did for the one-dimensional problem:

An Astronaut at x = +5.73, and y = + 3.46

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26 Another way our original grid might be distorted is if it were skewed. That is, we might keep all the line intervals fixed, but simply push the vertical lines over at an angle of 60 degrees, for example. In this case, we have to go farther over to be "under" the astronaut, so his new x coordinate is x=+5.73. This also gives us farther to go "up" to reach him, so his new y coordinate is y=+3.46, as we see to the right. Now, we

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can't use the Pythagorean Theorem with these coordinates; we have to use the Law of Cosines instead. The cosine of 60 degrees is 0.5, so we have

Again, this says that the distance squared is 25, so the astronaut's distance from the origin is still 5 feet. We expect that to be the case, since the real physical distance shouldn't change if we just change the way we write our coordinates.

The Metric When laying down a grid for coordinates, we could even combine the stretch-squish with the skew. In general, then, we would need a formula relating distance to coordinates like

Obviously, this quickly gets complicated—and tiring to write out. We can save time and effort by grouping some of the terms together and writing this same formula as

That is, we group those big terms together, giving them new name. Specifically, we define

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27 These numbers we've defined—gxx, gyy, and gxy—are very important in physics. Together, they form the metric, which relates physical distances to whatever coordinates we decide to use. In general, the metric is just a little more complicated than the one we have shown here. First, we could be dealing with more than two dimensions. In three dimensions, we would add a z coordinate, and we

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would need gzz, gxz, and gyz for the metric. We could even be working with time by adding a t coordinate. With all four dimensions, the metric involves the numbers gxx , gxy , gxz , gxt , gyy , gyz , gyt , gzz , gzt , and gtt .

More importantly, the metric could change from place to place. If our coordinates were warped, we might have a grid that looks like our first grid in one place, but is bent over like the second grid in another place. It is possible to draw warped grids on a flat piece of paper. In this sense, we would get a warped metric in a space that is really flat. On the other hand, it is impossible to draw a nice, straight grid in a space that is really curved. By very carefully examining exactly how the metric changes from point to point, we can tell if we've just drawn curvy coordinates in a flat space, or if we've drawn our coordinates in a truly curvy space. Now we are getting very close to Einstein's Equations. Einstein had these warped pieces of spacetime that he needed to describe in some quantifiable way. He saw that a careful examination of the metric could describe the true geometry of any spacetime, whether curved or flat, so he used it for his theory. Einstein combined certain numbers describing the metric's changes from place to place into what is now called the Einstein tensor. Just like the metric, the Einstein tensor is a set of numbers. For four-dimensional spacetime, we have Gxx , Gxy , Gxz , Gxt , Gyy , Gyz , Gyt , Gzz , Gzt , and Gtt .

These numbers describe what is physically interesting about the geometry of spacetime. Understanding the geometry of spacetime allows us to see how particles will move, bringing us one step closer to the ultimate goal of physics. There is just one more ingredient left.

Energy, Matter, and the Curvature of Spacetime We've gotten a sneak preview of Einstein's equations before: G=8πT. The G on the left stands for the different numbers in the Einstein tensor. But, the Einstein tensor represents the geometry of spacetime, so this is what the left side really represents. We also know that the curvature of spacetime is caused by matter, so the T on the right must represent matter. Just like G, the symbol T stands for a set of numbers: Txx , Txy , Txz , Txt , Tyy , Tyz , Tyt , Tzz , Tzt , and Ttt

These numbers measure different things about matter. Together, they make up the Stress-Energy Tensor.

Measures how much mass there is at a point—how much density

Txt , Tyt and Tzt

Measures how fast the matter is moving—its momentum

Txx , Tyy and Tzz

Measures the pressure in each of the three directions

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Ttt

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Pieces of the Stress-Energy Tensor

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Txy , Txz and Tyz

Measures the stresses in the matter

As we see from the table, things like stress, pressure, and momentum come into Einstein's equations. That is, stress, pressure, and momentum all have some effect on the warping of spacetime. This is related to Einstein's most famous equation, E=mc2, which says that energy has mass. Warped spacetime affects how matter moves by changing its geodesics. On the other hand, Einstein's equations show us how matter—and its movement and pressures—affect the shape of spacetime. Thus, Einstein solved the fundamental problem in Physics—in principle. Of course, solving something in principle is very different from solving in practice. Finding real solutions has proven to be very difficult. Often, it is a job best left to computers

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The parallel lives of super-massive black holes and their host galaxies Researchers at the Max Planck Institut für Astrophysik have used the most recent constraints from X-ray and optical/Infrared observations to trace the parallel growth of black holes and galaxies back to the time when the Universe was five times younger than its current age. They have found that the supermassive black holes commonly observed in galactic nuclei must have assembled earlier, and evolved slower, than the stars in their host galaxies. Black holes, with masses from a few millions to a billion times that of the sun reside in the centers of nearby galaxies. Even more remarkably, recent observational evidence indicates that the mass of the central black hole is tightly correlated with the total mass (and luminosity) of the stars in the central, spheroidal component of galaxies, called bulge. The larger the black hole, the larger the bulge (see Fig.1). These discoveries imply that the formation of the galactic spheroids (and of galaxies themselves) must be intimately connected to the growth of the central black hole, as recent numerical simulations performed at the Max Planck Institut für Astrophysik have indeed been able to show (see Colliding galaxies light up dormant black holes). In the local Universe, black holes not only comprise a fixed fraction (about 1 part in a thousand) of the mass of their host galaxies, as indicated by the black hole-bulge correlations, but they are also known to be growing at a rate proportional (still a factor of about one part in a thousand) to the rate at which stars are being formed (see Low Mass Black Holes Still Grow Today). But was this true also in the past?

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From observations of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) and Quasars (QSOs), the most powerful class of AGN, we know that black holes must have assembled at the time when galaxies were still forming. According to the standard picture, AGN are powered by the release of gravitational energy from matter that falls onto a supermassive black hole. Therefore, measuring the amount of radiation emitted by the active galactic nuclei gives a measure of how fast the black holes grow. Andrea Merloni, Gregory Rudnick and Tiziana Di Matteo at the Max Planck Institut für Astrophysik have collected the most up to date information on the evolution over cosmic time of the AGN population, and derived from that the history of black holes mass assembly in galaxies. Then, they have compared it with all available measurements of the total stellar mass residing in galaxies and of the rate at which it was assembled since early times (about 10 billion years ago) till today.

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Figure 2 illustrates the results they have obtained in details. The upper panel shows the data of the evolution in the observed stellar mass density in the Universe (total mass in stars per unit volume) as a function of time, together with the best approximation calculated from the known evolution of the black hole mass density. The prediction shown by the solid curve implies a non-constant ratio between black hole mass and host spheroid mass. The lower panel shows the evolution in the star Arindam Chakraborty

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formation rate and the corresponding black hole growth rate (rescaled by a factor of about one thousand). This study demonstrates, for the first time, that the correlation between black hole mass and galactic bulge properties observed in the local Universe has evolved and was different in the past. Black holes and bulges do indeed grow together, but not at the same rate. The researchers have found that supermassive black holes assembled earlier than bulges: 10 billion years ago they were about 1.7 times larger than their host spheroids compared to today. Since then, black holes have grown less compared to the rate at which their hosts have. These results, combined with future sensitive observations of even more distant galaxies and Quasars, will help scientists to better understand how the first stars and black holes assembled in the early Universe.

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A schematic representation of the correlation between black hole masses and host spheroids, observed in the local Universe. Credit: NASA and A. Feild (STScI)

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The top panel shows the evolution in the stellar mass density, solid line with dark-red shaded area) as a function of redshift, z (where z=0 corresponds to today and z=3 to approximately 10 billion years ago). The density is given as a ratio to today's value. The predicted stellar mass density has been calculated from the evolution of the black hole mass density. Also shown are the relative decomposition of the total stellar mass density into spheroids (dashed line, orange shaded area) and disks and irregulars (dotted line, light-orange shaded area). This shows that the stellar mass in galaxies was almost equally divided between bulges and disks/irregulars in the past, but is dominated by the bulges today. The lower panel shows the evolution in the star formation rate (solid line and dark blue shaded area) and the corresponding black hole accretion rate density (dot-dashed line) rescaled by a factor of about one thousand. Since z=2, black holes grew more slowly than the stars, as indicated by the dot-dashed line rapidly declining towards z=0. The data points are a collection of all the available measurements of the total stellar mass density (upper panel) and star formation rate density (lower panel) in the Universe as a function of time.

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ISRO Successful in Recovering SRE-1

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ISRO in a major breakthrough was successful in recovering its space capsule that was launched on January 10 for a launch pad in Sriharikota on India’s east coast. The capsule called the Recovery Experiment or simply SRE-1 came back to the planet and landed in the Bay of Bengal about 140 KM from the launch site. ISRO also commented that the successful launch and the recovery have demonstrated that India is capable in developing technologies like aero-thermo structures, deceleration and flotation systems, navigation, guidance and control systems. The mission launched four satellites some 637 kilometers into space. Two were indigenous, one from Indonesia and one from Argentina. The SRE-1 also successfully completed two experiments during its short 12-day stay in space. The experiments included studying metal melting and crystallization under microgravity and investigating the synthesis of nano-crystals under microgravity conditions. The recovery was doing around 29,000 Kmph on its way back to Earth when it was about 100 km from

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earth but ISROs parachutes and aerodynamic braking worked to perfection and the capsule landed at just a speed of 43 Kmph in the Bay of Bengal. The flotation equipment also worked perfectly and the capsule was picked up by

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and Indian Navy.

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the Indian Coast Guard

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McNaught: First Daylight Comet of the 21st Century Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Jolly. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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35 Comet McNaught has been in our field of view for a couple of weeks now and it has already taken a place in the brightest comets that have ever been sighted.

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Joy Ram The comet was discovered by Robert McNaught last August and is one of the greatest and the brightest comets in recent times. The comet turned into a bright object on January 12, when it was at a distance of 15.9 million miles from the sun. Now the comet’s show is almost over for the Northern Hemisphere residents but is still visible from the Southern Hemisphere. The comet reached its peak brightness on January 14 when it was shining at a magnitude of -5.1. So bright that it could be seen with naked eyes once the sun was below the horizon. Comets that are visible in day light are rarely seen and Comet McNaught is among them. Going down the History books here is the list of some other comets that were similar to Comet McNaught.

1)Comet West, 1976:

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This comet was discovered by astronomer, Richard West in November 1975. It developed into a bright object when from the sun. This was the last daylight comet sighting till we found Comet McNaught on the horizon.

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sighted in March 1976. It was seen with naked eye for ten minutes when it was at a distance of 18.3 million miles

Joy Ram 2) Comet Ikeya-Seki, 1965:

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Joy Ram This was the brightest comet of the 20th century and was first sighted by Japanese Astronomers. The comet could be seen by blocking the sun with ones hand. It was also described as appearing ten times brighter than the Full Moon and had a magnitude of -15. 3) Comet Skjellerup-Maristany, 1927: The comet was bright but the sightings were hampered with the poorest observing circumstances possible. When the comet was at a distance of 16.7 Million miles from the sun it could be seen in daylight at a 5degree angle and having a magnitude of -6. 4) Great January comet of 1910: This magnificent comet was spotted by workmen at the Transvaal Premier Diamond Mine in South Africa. The observatory Director Robert Innes viewed it as a snowy-white object that was brighter than Venus and was several degrees from the sun. 5) Great September comet of 1882:

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38 This comet is perhaps the brightest comet that has ever been seen. This was first spotted by a group of Italian Sailors in the Southern Hemisphere. This came very close to the sun and was easily visible in daylight when it was just 264,000 miles from the sun and had a magnitude between -15 to -20 and was described as a blazing star near the sun.

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Joy Ram 6) Great comet of 1843:

This comet passed the sun at a distance of only 126,000 miles and was widely observed in full daylight. Since the comet was at an angle of 1-degree to the sun it was observed as an elongated white cloud. 7) Great comet of 1744: This comet was first sighted in 1743 as a dim object in the sky. Eventually the comet brightened when it came closer to the sun and finally was described as a 1st magnitude comet with a 7-degree tail. Comet McNaught is now viewable only in the Southern Hemisphere and should be sighted in the west as the darkness falls. It should disappear from our view by the end of January or in early February. The sighting can the first comet of the 21st century that was viewed with naked eyes and that too in daylight…!

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Via: msnbc

Spirit and Opportunity Can Get New Drivers

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be compared to some of the comets that have been mentioned above but it should remain in the History Books as

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40 Until now NASA’s Mars rovers named Spirit and Opportunity relied on driver software that enabled them to move after scanning each and every movement initially.

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Joy Ram Now NASA has uploaded new software to the onboard computers that can enable the rovers to look ahead and plan a path to a spot 50-meter away. The new software is named “Field D-Star” and has been developed at the Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburg. The software is so advanced that it can enable the Rovers to find their path out of a maze. The above image shows us the overhead view of the site of the test. The software developed path is inside the blue box and is superimposed upon by an image taken by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. The red areas are the keep out zones that prevent the rover from getting too close to an edge of a Rock and falling down. Green areas are the safe areas, purple diamond represents Opportunity and the blue diamond represents the rover’s destination. The blue line is the best path to reach the destination and the rover must follow that path. Opportunity’s new software is currently in the testing phase and is used as a backseat driver. The rover is currently relying on the older software but as soon as tests come out positive the new software will be made the primary driver of the rover.

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Chinese astronauts can walk in with a small satellite monitoring their movements.

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Joy Ram A Chinese news agency, China News Service reported that the mini satellite will be launched from the manned spacecraft and will continue to orbit around the astronauts. China is expecting to launch a manned spacecraft as early as 2008. The mission includes space walk and to dock the space craft to a target object which according to me can be the ISS. A researcher also commented that small satellite can weigh anywhere between 100 to 1,000 kgs and the small weight makes it possible to launch the satellite from a manned space craft. Other than the ease of developing and launching these satellites the researcher also stated that these satellites can form and work in a constellation and can outperform the functions of a conventional heavy weight satellite. These small satellites are energy efficient and are much more reliable than other satellites.

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Some Scientists and astronomers on Earth have already started thinking that Earth is not going to hold the damage done by humans for more time. That includes Robert Zubrin, who is an aerospace engineer and an author who is best known for his plans to go to Mars and make the Red Planet inhabitable in another 1,000 years.

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43 Basically if we think about colonizing other planets the agency that should be most talked about is NASA and if we talk about scientists and astronomers then it is Robert Zubrin. Why Mars?

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Joy Ram While Earth is most like other neighbors like Venus, still Mars attracts us towards itself because of the following: • The day at Mars which is also known as Sol is similar to Earth. The day at Mars is of 24 hours 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds. • Mars has a surface area that is almost the same as that we have on earth. Consider the fact that only 29.2% of Earth’s surface is dry and Mars has a Surface area of 28.4% than that of the total area of Earth. • Mars has an axial tilt of 25.19-degrees and Earth has a tilt of 23.44-degrees. • Mars thin atmosphere that is about 0.7% of Earth’s is enough to protect the residents from solar and cosmic radiation. • Recent observations by Spirit and Opportunity have also suggested the presence of water on Mars. How to Send Humans to Mars? The initial phase is to transport humans to the distant planet. This in itself is a very difficult task. For the same Robert Zubrin and two other colleagues developed the Mars Direct Plan which relies on transporting humans to Mars using the existing technology and a budget of $20 billion. The heart of Mars Direct Plan includes a launch vehicle that is called Ares. Ares is similar to Saturn V. Ares has a modified space shuttle external tank, two solid-fuel rocket boosters and four shuttle main engines that are mounted to the external tank’s undersurface. Initially if the Lander in launched in 2013 it would ride an ERV or an Earth Return Vehicle with a 100-KW nuclear reactor on a small rover. It will take some eight months to reach Mars and then create 112-tones of Methane and Oxygen propellants. Out of the created gases 96-tones will be used to return the ERV to Earth at the end of the planet. After 26-months of the launch of ERV another vehicle called the Mars Habitat Unit or MHU will be launched. It will be having a crew of 4 and will take some six months to reach Mars. Once on Mars the crew will spend 18 months on the surface and will complete a set of experiments aided by a small rover vehicle carried aboard their habitat unit and powered by the excess Methane that was created by the ERV.

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Joy Ram How to Colonize Mars?

When Humans are capable of landing on Mars they will be tempted to raise a colony in Mars. This is the most

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critical procedure but if we go by Zubrin it can be done in 1,000 years.

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Zubrin has suggested that the main thing to consider while we go on Mars is the fact that its atmosphere is not like Earth and humans will have to Terraform the entire planet before it can be considered inhabitable. What is Terraforming? Terraforming is the process of deliberately changing the planet’s environment to produce a world that is habitable by humans. There is some scientific debate over whether it would ever be possible to Terraform Mars or not. According to Zubrin it is possible. He has suggested that initially we will have to raise the temperature of the

planet. Since Mars is at a distance of 142 Million Miles from Sun the surface temperature of the planet ranges

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Joy Ram between -129C to 0C.

It is necessary that we raise the temperature of the planet and that can be done in more than one way. We can develop huge mirrors that can orbit around the red planet and direct the sunlight on its surface. Other plan includes colliding asteroids with Mars. Asteroids are rich in ammonia and when heated ammonia releases enormous amount of green house gases that can raise the temperature of the planet. If we are successful in Terraforming the planet then the next step is to do some plantation. Since we have already got enough CO2 on the planet, we can use plants to convert CO2 to O2 which is the most necessary gas for human survival. But during plantation we have to keep in mind that the dead plants should be harvested so that they don’t

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form any more CO2.

This step will develop O2 on the planet that will be used by humans and will also raise the temperature

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of Mars, which in turn will melt the rich water deposits on the planet. After this humans will be able to move around without any artificial Oxygen cylinders or space suits.

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Joy Ram What can go wrong?

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The above plans are still too futuristic and cannot be easily followed. The reasons are:

• Radiation levels for the trip to and from Mars are very high. These radiations will significantly raise the

• It is not known whether the gravity on Mars can support human life or not.

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risk of cancer and birth defects.

• Humans that will be born and brought up on Mars will not be able to resist the high gravity on Earth if sometime they plan to come to Earth to meet some of their distant relatives or come for a holiday to Earth. • All these trips are thing of the future and we are not sure what the technology holds for us. • May be the first step of planting fails as we don’t know how plants will cater to the low gravity of the planet.

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Joy Ram • The low gravity will not be able to hold a dense atmosphere on Mars. So humans will always be open to some cosmic radiations.

NASA Getting Nervous About the Software of Its James Webb Space Telescope Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Jolly. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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NASA is developing the companion of its famous Space Telescope, Hubble. The new space telescope has been named after NASA’s Second top administrator James Webb who left NASA a year before the first successful landing on the moon. The James Webb Space telescope is scheduled for a launch in 2013 and will orbit earth at 940,000 miles that is four times the distance between moon and earth. NASA’s earlier similar launch of the Hubble Space Telescope was successful but later the agency found out that the mirrors in the telescope were ground to wrong specifications and then it has to send a shuttle mission to replace the lenses. The agency is now worried about the performance of the Webb Space Telescope as a field surface to this would prove to be more expensive than the field mission that was provided to Hubble.

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Different international agencies are working on the Telescope Guidance, Navigation and control systems. To ensure better quality NASA is telling each of the participants to develop the software using Unified Modeling Language that will allow the code to be generated from models. NASA has also told the participants to use as many interfaces and software standards as possible. NASA also requires that the system platform should be reliable so that it does not require any services throughout its extensive service time. The James Webb telescope will be having more instruments to measure infrared light rather than visible light. This should enable telescope to peer further in time than Hubble was able to.

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Russian Space Agency Roskosmos and the European Space Agency are holding talks to jointly

launched by a Russian Soyuz-2 rocket. The decision has been made by ESA and it has already spent more than $26 million for the preliminary developments of the project. ESA is also discussing the project with possible Japanese participants. ESA has also commented that the main aim of the new shuttle project was to develop a shuttle that can take astronauts to the ISS and back from there. That means

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The new shuttle would be based on a Russian Soyuz shuttle and will be

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develop a space shuttle that can be launched from a base in French Guiana.

Joy Ram they are intending to build a shuttle that can be compared to NASA’s Discovery Space Shuttle that is already in use for ISS tours. They also plan to use the shuttle for participating in a US-planned lunar exploration program. ESA is hopeful that they will be able to present a concrete plan by the end of next year and if all goes well they will be able to have a launch in 2010.

Man’s Fastest Spacecraft About to Have a Close Encounter with Jupiter Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Jolly. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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Spacecraft New Horizons’s encounter with Jupiter scheduled for late February is being eagerly awaited in scientific circles. The space craft built by NASA is the fastest spacecraft ever built by man. It will be at a distance of 1.4 million miles from Jupiter on February 28, 2007 following a launch a year ago. NASA stated that the main purpose for sending the spacecraft to Jupiter is to use the planet’s immense gravitational force to slingshot New Horizons to a speed of 52,000 mph or 84,000 kph. This enhanced speed will

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shave of three years from the time to reach Pluto which is the main destination of the spacecraft. New Horizons

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which will reach the distant planet in 2015.

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Jupiter has already been visited by seven other spacecrafts but none of them had as sophisticated instruments as New Horizons is having onboard. The spacecraft will study Jupiter, its four moons, its rings and also its magnetic field. The 476 kg New Horizons will also study the stormy atmosphere of Jupiter so that there are no surprises when the spacecraft reaches Pluto. New Horizons will also examine the Great Red Spot on the planet that is a storm twice the size of earth and has been raging for several hundred years. After studying Jupiter the spacecraft will continue the onward journey to Pluto which will take another eight years. After reaching Pluto in July 2015 New Horizons will study it for five months and then if every thing

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NASA All Geared Up to Launch Multiple Probes to Investigate Auroras

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goes as per plan it will also study the smaller worlds in the Kuiper Belt.

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NASA is all set to launch five dishwasher sized probes to investigate the origin and other facts about Auroras.

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Auroras is the brilliant show of light that is found in the sky in Northern Hemisphere of the planet. This light show is caused by a Magnetic Storm and they can change from dim shimmering curtains of light into

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brilliant freaks of color.

After the research the scientists will be able to pinpoint the exact point of birth of these Auroras and that will help them to predict space weather.

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These Auroras give a brilliant light show in the Northern Hemisphere but since they are charged they can also disrupt communication signals between Earth and the orbiting Satellites. If we go into History these Auroras were earlier thought to be spirits passing by the Earth but later it was revealed that these so thought spirits are nothing but charged particles that are emulated from the sun. Later when these particles pass through our atmosphere some of them leak into Earth’s Magnetosphere and collide with the air molecules, this impact releases visible light, creating an aurora. Sometimes these particles build up the Earth’s Magnetic field and when the field breaks tremendous energy is released and that causes the Aurora to shine brilliantly. The multiple probes will orbit for around ten months before they assume their desired position in an arc over North America. From this position the probes will then map the Magnetic field and will also observe these storms during the two year mission. NASA has commented that the probes will enable them to predict the space weather which is important to keep the astronauts safe during an intense magnetic storm.

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Universe Speeding Up Its Expansion, Is Newton’s Gravitational Theory Flawed?

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Scientists had discovered by the end of the last century that the expansion of the universe is not slowing

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down but it is accelerating.

Earlier scientists usually thought that the gravitational forces of the universe will slow down its

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expansion. But the acceleration of the universe can only be explained by two things that are either our gravitational theory is flawed or the universe is made up of 70% dark energy that is helping it to overcome the forces of gravity. An international team of researchers known as ESSENCE have now added new pieces to the puzzle. They have released the detail observations of supernova explosions that allow the researchers to trace the expansion of the universe. The team has also observed the light from the dying stars that was emitted billions of years ago. Researchers have now commented that there are many models that can explain this acceleration of the

universe despite the gravitational forces that keep it back. But still the best model that can explain this

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Joy Ram consequence is the model that was proposed by Einstein back in 1917.

Einstein had said that the universe is made up of Dark Matter or Vacuum and this vacuum has immense energy that can pull the universe. Though, the theory of Einstein was flawed when he made it as people then thought that the universe is static and not moving in any direction. But now when researchers have found out that the Universe is not static and is moving so we can say that the theory put by Einstein is the best possible way to explain it else we will have to think that the Gravitational theory put forward by Newton is flawed. Thus we can answer the expansion of the universe can be answered by adding Einstein’s Cosmological Constant that is the energy of Vacuum to the gravitational theory.

XCOR’s 5M15 Methane-oxygen Engine Tested Successfully Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Vishal. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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XCOR Aerospace announced the successful testing of an innovative new test engine named as 5M15. The engine is touted to be the first of its kind that uses a mixture of liquid methane and oxygen as propellants. The test has been performed on a initial workhorse version of the 7,500 lbf LOX/methane engine for NASA which has was developed by Alliant Techsystems (NYSE: ATK) under a $3.3 million contract with XCOR. The engine has undergone Six short-duration test fires successfully. Construction of this kind of rocket engine will revolutionize the space industry as it has many advantages over the kerosene-oxygen engine. Some factors that make the fuel combination ideal are • The combination has higher specific impulse • Higher oxidizer-to-fuel ratio makes the combination less flammable • Methane can be pressurized to great extent therefore a large quantity can be compressed to a small volume. This has two benefits, one is that it eliminates the use of a complicated pump system and second is that large quantity of fuel can be stored in a small container. This first version of rocket engine has no cooling system and uses a heat sink throat. The company has plans to construct and test a regeneratively-cooled version of this engine and test it later in 2007. The data collected from these tests will be of great use in construction of a prototype version of the engine that will be closer to flight weight.

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Dying Mira A Giving Birth to a New Planetary System!

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Till now astronomers thought that when a star dies all the planets that are associated with the star also start counting their last breath. But like always the never ending universe has created more puzzles for the Astronomers.

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An international team of Astronomers have reported about an unusual phenomenon that is taking place

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some 350 light years away from Earth.

They have observed that the dying red giant star named Mira A is being captured in a disk around its smaller companion named Mira B. This is the first step in the creation of a planetary system.

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Astronomers have usually referred Mira A as the most celebrated and the best studied star in our galaxy and they were amazed to find this new and unexpected phenomenon. Astronomers usually find these dusty disks near young stars and they are like nurseries where new planets are formed. This is the first time when such a nursery is found near a dying star. The discovery will find new ways to search for new planets in the universe. Such new planets that are formed after the death of an old star and can reveal some of the many secrets that the universe holds for us. Mira A is located at a distance of 350 light years from the earth in constellation Cetus and was first observed some 400 years ago. Its smaller companion was first observed in 1990s by the Hubble Space Telescope. Mira continually changes its color and is also visible to the naked eye for about a month at a time and then reappearing after eleven months.

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This red star is very much the same as our sun but now it is dying and is loosing an earth sized mass force of the smaller Mira B.

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from its dusty outer layer every seven years. More than one percent of this mass is captured by the gravitational

Using better techniques and the Hubble Space telescope, astronomers were also able to determine that the Mira B which was initially thought to be a white dwarf is actually a smaller version of our own sun. The dying Mira A is 5,000 times brighter than our sun and the heat from this giant star heats the edge of the disk to earth like temperature and that causes the disk to glow in infrared. The dying giant will now be the starting of another planetary system and will also harbor all new possibilities of new worlds in formation. May be some day we find life on some of these planets.

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63 Exploring Mars has always been the main target of NASA who has already been successful in landing on the planet. Still the quest for more information keeps lurking the minds of the astronomers at NASA. They have selected two proposals for the future robotic missions on the planet. In addition to that the space agency will also fund a U.S. Scientist to participate in the proposed European Mars mission.

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Joy Ram The selected proposals will get an initial funding of approximately $2 million to conduct a nine-month feasibility analysis and the best mission will finally get a $475 million grant from NASA and an opportunity to launch in 2011. The selected proposals are: • Mars atmosphere and Volatile Evolution Mission: This mission is also known as MAVEN and will provide the first of its kind measurements to address the key issues regarding the climate of Mars. The mission will also focus on Martian Atmosphere and ionosphere. The project is headed by Dr. Bruce Jakosky, University of Colorado. • The Great Escape Mission: This mission would determine the basic processes in Martian Atmosphere evolution by measuring the structure and dynamics of upper atmosphere. The principal investigator is Dr. Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute, Colorado. NASA has also selected two proposals for technology development studies, which have received a total of $1.5 million. These include: • Urey Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector: The instrument will incorporate three detection systems to investigate the Oxidant materials on the surface of Mars. The principal investigator is Dr. Jeffery Bada, University of California at San Diego. • Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer: The instrument also known as Moma will investigate the organic molecular signatures and also the environment in which they exist using a mass spectrometer and a gas chromatograph. The principal investigator is Dr. Luann Becker, University of California at Santa Barbara. NASA aims to study the planet on the basis of its present and the past environment and climatic changes. We hope that the research will enable the space research agencies to put man on Mars in the near future.

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The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency(JAXA) is making plans to cancel their maiden moon mission that was scheduled more than a decade ago. The mission has suffered major delays and now the mission’s mother ship needs some repair. The repair costs are more than expected so the space agency has recommended that the mission should be cancelled. But still the final decision will come some time in this month. The Lunar-A mission was to plant some seismic sensors on the surface of moon so that the astronomers could gather more information on the core of the satellite and also gather more data about the origin of the moon.

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If Japan would have been successful in the mission it would have put the country in the group of the elite members who have succeeded in landing on the moon. The group till now has only three members that include United States, Russia and European Union. China which earlier succeeded in putting a man into orbit ahead of Japan also has set the sight on landing on moon. JAXA has also stated that the agency has plans to put a man on moon by 2025. Other futuristic missions of JAXA include sending a probe to our nearest neighbor Mars. But the agencies is plagued by problems with JAXA’s Hayabusa mission to land on an asteroid and collects some samples and get them back to Earth. The mission had suffered severe fuel leak and massive communication failures.

Online Astronomers Discover 200 New Planets

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It seems that this is a golden age of astronomy as more and more discoveries are being made from the online community members. This new online service has provided the users with mountains of data collected by professional scientists in search of other worlds. The technology has turned the lonely skywatchers to research assistants by bridging the gabs between the researchers and amateurs with the streaming speed of internet. In 1995, neophyte stargazer Thomas Bopp gained fame for co-discovering what would be known as

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Comet Hale-Bopp. Two years ago, in what was billed as the first such find by an amateur in 65 years, Jay McNeil newborn star.

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of Kentucky took a picture of a new nebula - an illuminated cloud of gas and dust lit by what is believed to be a

One of the earliest online citizen scientist projects was SETI (at) home, which distributed software that created a virtual supercomputer by harnessing idle, Web-connected PCs to search for alien radio transmissions. Many other such projects have been launched since then to promote virtual astronomy.

One such project is, Systemic. The project has 750 amateur associated to it and has already reported to discover 200 planets in far-off solar systems using traditional methods. The system is simple to use what you have to do is download software and rifle through data that measure the tiny gravitational wobble in a star’s motions in search planets that orbit stars other than our sun. It

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Joy Ram also allows you to decode the simulated data to make new discoveries. Although the Systemic Web site provides the search tools, it doesn’t promote any of the discoveries. National Science Foundation is looking forward to create other such projects that would include simpler equipments that may encourage more people to participate in this web-based astronomy. It has already funded a $10 million project to create a “national virtual observatory” that is may be capable of compiling data and images from various sources like Hubble Space Telescope, ground and space-based telescopes which could help in further researches.

Milky Way’s ‘previously Known’ Companions Are Nothing More Than Strangers Passing by Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Irani. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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All these days we knew that our Milky Way has two best-known companions — the Magellanic Clouds,

which are a pair of nearby dwarf galaxies. But, a recent observation of the dwarf galaxies has eventually upset this three-member family picture, i.e. they may be nothing more than strangers passing by. The Large and Small Magellanic clouds are found to be moving with a velocity of 378 kilometres per second and 302 km/s respectively. This velocity reveals that they are ‘moving too fast’ to be considered as satellites of the Milky Way! This is discovered by comparing the Hubble Space Telescope images taken two years apart. This has helped make the most accurate measurements of the Magellanic Clouds velocities to date.

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Joy Ram But, if the two galaxies were orbiting the Milky Way, their velocities would have to be about 250 km/s, the researchers believe. Nitya Kallivayalil of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics said, I really wasn’t expecting them to be moving so fast.

Hats off to the astronomers at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, Maryland (both in the US) for making this discovery.

Comet McNaught Enters Our Field of View Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Jolly. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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Comet McNaught is getting very close to the sun and you might be able to see it when the sun goes down the horizon. If not then you can take a binoculars and scan the western sky once the sun is safely below the horizon. The comet is the brightest comet in thirty years. In the days to come the comet will pass the sun and will temporarily be invisible in the glare of the sun.

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Joy Ram But after disappearing for some days it will finally emerge from in a good position and will be viewed by people in the southern hemisphere. The comet is continuously being heated by the solar glare and can become the brightest comet in centuries and will be visible even in daylight. Watch some more pictures after the jump.

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Lunar Rock Study Shows That Moon is More Like a Planet

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73 A latest Lunar-Rock study has shown that the moon is more like a planet and less of a natural satellite of Earth. The Study has come to this conclusion with the proof that moon has an Iron Core much like Earth. The findings make the theory that moon has originated from the Earth even more relevant. The theory concluded that moon was formed when a Mars Sized object collided with the earth when our planet was still in the

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Joy Ram formation stage. The impact was so powerful that a moon sized part of our planet was thrown off in space after the impact. After sometime the debris condensed and the moon was formed. Researchers had already believed that the moon cannot be a satellite of the earth because of its large size. The moons of other planets are very small when compared to our moon. This makes moon more of a planet and less of a satellite. The study on the moon rocks suggest that the lunar mantle is very low in elements that bond easily with iron, gold and platinum and is very similar to the mantle of Earth. We can identify the iron core of the Earth using measurements from the sensitive seismographs that are placed all over the planet. But moon has no such technology that can measure and identify its iron core. Researchers have never had distinct evidence of the iron core on moon but they were suspicious about it.

Chandra Detects Light Echo from Sagittarius A* Join Instablogs Community for free to Send Quick Message to Jolly. You can use the same account for over 100 blogs of Instablogs Network. You will be able to not only leave a comment on this blog, but post entries here too.

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NASA’s Chandra X-Ray observatory has discovered a light echo in Milky Way’s Black Hole, Sagittarius A*. The light echo was produced when the X-Ray light that fills the black hole was reflected off the gas clouds that are near the black hole. The primary X-Rays from the hole would have reached our planet fifty years ago but the reflected ones took more time. The outburst occurred fifty years ago when the black hole swallowed a mercury sized mass, causing an X-Ray outburst which was then reflected off the gas clouds. According to the researchers Sagittarius A* is a black hole that has a mass equivalent of 3 million suns that is lurking at the center of our galaxy. The black hole is almost invisible at all wavelengths especially in XRays. Considering this faintness we can also say that other stars and gas seldom get closer to the black hole to be in danger. This also means that the huge appetite of the black hole is not being satisfied. It has had the last decent meal some fifty years ago and is starving since then. This cannot be compared to the feastings that other black holes of other galaxies enjoy. The echo also illuminates other areas of the center of the galaxy that can help us to see the formation of some more stars.

PTX Can Make Inter-Planet Travel Possible

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Researchers at the University of Alabama in Huntsville are developing propulsion technologies that can make long distance space travel for humans possible. They are currently working on a technology named PTX or Plasmoid Thruster Experiment that will help them develop a highly efficient propulsion system that can eventually change the way we all travel in space. The technology can also be used to develop better propulsion systems that can take humans to other planets. PTX was originally built by NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center and the MSFC had later donated the technology to UAH for further research.

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The main theory behind the research is to investigate the properties of a small scale and pulsed plasma thruster.

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PTX works by ringing a single coil turn conical coil to about 500 KHz that ionizes the gas and then accelerates it forming a Plasmoid that has a closed magnetic field structure.

The researchers are facing many challenges with this approach as the thruster has to be highly efficient since the electric propulsion system has to perform continuously for years if we want to travel to other planets. The propulsion system uses plasma which is in contact with electrodes and acceleration grids. This contact causes erosion when the system is used for long duration of time. But the Plasmoid thruster has better lifetime since it is not in contact with the thruster components.

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Joy Ram Researchers are working on the technology so as to improve the thruster so that it can be used in the hostile conditions of space. We can improve the thruster on earth but once it’s in space it cannot be repaired or improved. If we want a successful inter-planet mission then such components will have to perform on their full potential with minimum failures.

Antimatter

Notation Arindam Chakraborty

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There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead, and what might be possible if antimatter could be harnessed, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics. The process of developing particles and antiparticles is called baryogenesis.

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In particle physics and quantum chemistry, antimatter is the extension of the concept of the antiparticle to matter, where antimatter is composed of antiparticles in the same way that normal matter is composed of particles. For example, an antielectron (a positron, an electron with a positive charge) and an antiproton (a proton with a negative charge) could form an antihydrogen atom in the same way that an electron and a proton form a normal matter hydrogen atom. Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter would lead to the annihilation of both in the same way that mixing antiparticles and particles does, thus giving rise to highenergy photons (gamma rays) or other particle–antiparticle pairs.

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One way to denote an antiparticle is by adding a bar (or macron) over the particle's symbol. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as p and p, respectively. The same rule applies if you were to address a particle by its constituent components. A proton is made up of u u d quarks, so an antiproton must therefore be formed from u u d antiquarks. Another convention is to distinguish particles by their electric charge. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as e− and e+ respectively.

Origin (naturally occurring production) [edit] Asymmetry

Most objects observable from the Earth seem to be built of matter rather than antimatter. There is no current reasoning over why matter prevailed over antimatter, but many believe it was the result of asymmetry, and some scientists believe that the ratio of this asymmetry was roughly a billion antimatter particles to a billion and one matter particles[1]. Antiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy cosmic rays impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the solar system) produce minute quantities of antimatter in the resulting particle jets, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. It may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the Milky Way Galaxy and other galaxies, where very energetic celestial events occur (principally the interaction of relativistic jets with the interstellar medium). The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the gamma rays produced when positrons annihilate with nearby matter. The gamma rays' frequency and wavelength indicate that each carries 511 keV of energy (i.e. the rest mass of an electron or positron multiplied by c2). Recent observations by the European Space Agency’s INTEGRAL (International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory) satellite may explain the origin of a giant cloud of antimatter surrounding the galactic center. The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of X-ray binaries, binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars, mostly on one side of the galactic center. While the mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of electron-positron pairs, as ordinary matter gains tremendous energy while falling into a stellar remnant.[2][3]

Artificial production Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold). During the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter,[4] also called baryon asymmetry, is attributed to violation of the CP-symmetry relating matter and antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery.

In 1995 CERN announced that it had successfully created nine antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the PS210 experiment. The experiment was performed using the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR), and was led by Walter Oelert and Mario Macri. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic ("hot") and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s — ATHENA and ATRAP. In 2005, ATHENA disbanded and some of the former members (along with others) formed the Arindam Chakraborty

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[edit] Antihydrogen

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Positrons are also produced via the radioactive beta+ decay, but this mechanism can be considered as "natural" as well as "artificial".

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ALPHA Collaboration, which is also situated at CERN. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic ("cold") antihydrogen, better suited to study. In 1999 CERN activated the Antiproton Decelerator, a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 3.5 GeV to 5.3 MeV — still too "hot" to produce study-effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late 2002 the ATHENA project announced that they had created the world's first "cold" antihydrogen. The antiprotons used in the experiment were cooled sufficiently by decelerating them (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a Penning trap. The antiprotons also underwent stochastic cooling at several stages during the process. The ATHENA team's antiproton cooling process is effective, but highly inefficient. Approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator; roughly 10 thousand make it to the Penning trap. In early 2004 ATHENA researchers released data on a new method of creating low-energy antihydrogen. The technique involves slowing antiprotons using the Antiproton Decelerator, and injecting them into a Penning trap (specifically a Penning-Malmberg trap[citation needed]). Once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the antiprotons; the resulting Coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately 4 K. While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap (the mixing trap). Exciting the resonance of the mixing trap’s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma; but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap’s environment. The positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection; the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium. Once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled, the antiproton-electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap (containing the positrons). The electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing trap's electrical field. When the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in further cooling of the antiprotons. When the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form. Being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not affected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields. Using this method ATHENA researchers predict they will be able to create up to 100 antihydrogen atoms per operational second. ATHENA and ATRAP are now seeking to further cool the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an inhomogeneous field. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, their spin produces magnetic moments. These magnetic moments vary depending on the spin direction of the atom, and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge.

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Hydrogen atoms are the simplest objects that can be considered as "matter" rather than as just particles. Simultaneous trapping of antiprotons and antielectrons was reported[5] and the cooling is achieved;[6] there are patents on the way of production of antihydrogen.[7]

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The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing 107 antiprotons per second.[citation needed] Assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen, it would take two billion years to produce 1 gram or 1 mole of antihydrogen (approximately 6.02×1023 atoms of antihydrogen.) Another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage. As stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen. The ATHENA project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for tens of seconds — just enough time to briefly study their behaviour.

Joy Ram Antihelium

A small number of nuclei of the antihelium isotope, 3He have been created in collision experiments.[8] Preservation

Antimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and the container. Antimatter that is composed of charged particles can be contained by a combination of an electric field and a magnetic field in a device known as a Penning trap. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which atomic traps are used. In particular, such a trap may use the dipole moment (electrical or magnetic) of the trapped particles; at high vacuum, the matter or anti-matter particles can be trapped (suspended) and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation (see, for, example, magneto-optical trap and Magnetic trap). Small particles can be also suspended by just intensive optical beam in the optical tweezers. Cost

Antimatter is said to be the most expensive substance in existence, with an estimated cost of $300 billion per milligram.[9] This is because production is difficult (only a few atoms are produced in reactions in particle accelerators), and because there is higher demand for the other uses of particle accelerators. According to CERN, it has cost a few hundred million Swiss Francs to produce about 1 billionth of a gram.[10] Several NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts-funded studies are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the Van Allen belts of Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants like Jupiter, hopefully at a lower cost per gram.[11]

Uses Medical

Antimatter-matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as positron emission tomography (PET). In positive beta decay, a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and neutrinos are also given off). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a cyclotron and are widely generated for medical use. Fuel

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Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by neutrinos, so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost.[12]

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In antimatter-matter collisions resulting in photon emission, the entire rest mass of the particles is converted to kinetic energy. The energy per unit mass (9×1016 J/kg) is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy (compared to TNT at 4.2×106 J/kg, and formation of water at 1.56×107 J/kg), about 4 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using nuclear fission (about 40 MeV per 238U nucleus transmuted to Lead, or 1.5×1013 J/kg), and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than the best possible from fusion (about 6.3×1014 J/kg for the proton-proton chain). The reaction of 1 kg of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8×1017 J (180 petajoules) of energy (by the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc²), or the rough equivalent of 47 megatons of TNT. For comparison, Tsar Bomba, the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated, reacted an estimated yield of 50 Megatons, which required the use of hundreds of kilograms of fissile material (Uranium/Plutonium).

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The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion. Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy—millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter due to inefficiencies in the process. Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter. Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated—so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient. Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955 by Segrè and Chamberlain.[citation needed] The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase to between 3 and 30 nanograms per year by 2015 or 2020 with new superconducting linear accelerator facilities at CERN and Fermilab. Some researchers claim that with current technology, it is possible to obtain antimatter for US$25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs). Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as deuterium-tritium fusion power (assuming that such a power source actually would prove to be cheap). Many experts, however, dispute these claims as being far too optimistic by many orders of magnitude. They point out that in 2004; the annual production of antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $20 million. This means to produce 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend 100 quadrillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for 100 billion years. Storage is another problem, as antiprotons are negatively charged and repel against each other, so that they cannot be concentrated in a small volume. Plasma oscillations in the charged cloud of antiprotons can cause instabilities that drive antiprotons out of the storage trap. For these reasons, to date only a few million antiprotons have been stored simultaneously in a magnetic trap, which corresponds to much less than a femtogram. Antihydrogen atoms or molecules are neutral so in principle they do not suffer the plasma problems of antiprotons described above. But cold antihydrogen is far more difficult to produce than antiprotons, and so far not a single antihydrogen atom has been trapped in a magnetic field. Since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms, the thrust to weight equation used in antimatter rocketry and spacecraft would be very different. In fact, the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to Mars in a few minutes. In comparison, the Mars Global Surveyor took eleven months to reach Mars using conventional means. It is hoped that antimatter could be used as fuel for interplanetary travel or possibly interstellar travel, but it is also feared that, as a side-effect of antimatter propulsion, the design of antimatter weapons might become an equal reality.

If we could assemble all of the antimatter we've ever made at CERN and annihilate it with matter, we would have enough energy to light a single electric light bulb for a few minutes.[13]

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Antimatter in fiction There is a long history of the appearance of antimatter in the Science Fiction genre. The very first use was a short story which appeared in the July 1942 issue of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction. The story had been commissioned by the magazine editor John W. Campbell, Jr. after he heard of scientific controversies over whether asteroid sized pieces of "contraterrene" (antimatter) might actually exist.

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One researcher of the CERN laboratories, which produces antimatter regularly, said:

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Campbell first offered the commission to Robert Heinlein but after he refused the story went to Jack Williamson. Williamson's short story Collision Orbit appeared under his pseudonym Will Stewart

Mobile Phone Secrets & Tricks .:: NOKIA ::. Nokia Universal Codes Code Description : These Nokia codes will work on most Nokia Mobile Phones (1) *3370# Activate Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) - Your phone uses the best sound quality but talktime is reduced my approx. 5% (2)#3370# Deactivate Enhanced Full Rate Codec (EFR) OR *3370# ( Favourite ) (3)*#4720# Activate Half Rate Codec - Your phone uses a lower quality sound but you should gain approx 30% more Talk Time. (4)*#4720# Deactivate Half Rate Codec. (5)*#0000# Displays your phones software version, 1st Line : Software Version, 2nd Line : Software Release Date, 3rd Line : Compression Type. ( Favourite ) (6)*#9999# Phones software version if *#0000# does not work. (7)*#06# For checking the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI Number). ( Favourite ) (8)#pw+1234567890+1# Provider Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols). (9)#pw+1234567890+2# Network Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols). (10)#pw+1234567890+3# Country Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols). (11)#pw+1234567890+4# SIM Card Lock Status. (use the "*" button to obtain the "p,w" and "+" symbols). (12)*#147# (vodafone) this lets you know who called you last. (13)*#1471# Last call (Only vodofone). (15)*#2640# Displays security code in use. (17)*#43# Allows you to check the "Call Waiting" status of your phone. (18)*#61# Allows you to check the number that "On No Reply" calls are diverted to. (19)*#62# Allows you to check the number that "Divert If Unreachable (no service)" calls are diverted to. (20)*#67# Allows you to check the number that "On Busy Calls" are diverted to. (21)*#67705646# Removes operator logo on 3310 & 3330. (22)*#73# Reset phone timers and game scores. Arindam Chakraborty

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(16)*#30# Lets you see the private number.

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(14)*#21# Allows you to check the number that "All Calls" are diverted to

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(23)*#746025625# Displays the SIM Clock status, if your phone supports this power saving feature "SIM Clock Stop Allowed", it means you will get the best standby time possible. (24) *#7760# Manufactures code. (25)*#7780# Restore factory settings. (26)*#8110# Software version for the nokia 8110. (27)*#92702689# Displays - 1.Serial Number, 2.Date Made, 3.Purchase Date, 4.Date of last repair (0000 for no repairs), 5.Transfer User Data. To exit this mode you need to switch your phone off then on again. ( Favourite ) (28)*#94870345123456789# Deactivate the PWM-Mem. (29)**21*number# Turn on "All Calls" diverting to the phone number entered. (30)**61*number# Turn on "No Reply" diverting to the phone number entered. (31)**67*number# Turn on "On Busy" diverting to the phone number entered. (32)12345 This is the default security code.

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press and hold # Lets you switch between lines NOKIA 5110/5120/5130/5190 IMEI number: * # 0 6# Software version: * # 0 0 0 0 # Simlock info: * # 9 2 7 0 2 6 8 9 # Enhanced Full Rate: * 3 3 7 0 # [ # 3 3 7 0 # off] Half Rate: * 4 7 2 0 # Provider lock status: #pw+1234567890+1 Network lock status #pw+1234567890+2 Provider lock status: #pw+1234567890+3 SimCard lock status: #pw+1234567890+4 NOKIA 6110/6120/6130/6150/6190 IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: * # 0 0 0 0 # Simlock info: * # 9 2 7 0 2 6 8 9 # Enhanced Full Rate: * 3 3 7 0 # [ # 3 3 7 0 # off] Half Rate: * 4 7 2 0 # NOKIA 3110 IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: * # 0 0 0 0 # or * # 9 9 9 9 # or * # 3 1 1 0 # Simlock info: * # 9 2 7 0 2 6 8 9 # NOKIA 3330 *#06# This will show your warranty details *#92702689# *3370# Basically increases the quality of calling sound, but decreases battery length. #3370# Deactivates the above *#0000# Shows your software version *#746025625#This shows if your phone will allow sim clock stoppage *4370# Half Rate Codec activation. It will automatically restart #4370# Half Rate Codec deactivation. It will automatically restart Restore Factory Settings To do this simply use this code *#7780# Manufacturer Info

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Date of Manufacturing *#3283# *3001#12345# (TDMA phones only) This will put your phone into programming mode, and you'll be presented with the programming menu. 2) Select "NAM1" 3) Select "PSID/RSID" 4) Select "P/RSID 1" Note: Any of the P/RSIDs will work 5) Select "System Type" and set it to Private 6) Select "PSID/RSID" and set it to 1 7) Select "Connected System ID" Note: Enter your System ID for Cantel, which is 16401 or 16423. If you don't know yours, ask your local dealer for it. 8) Select "Alpha Tag" 9) Enter a new tag, then press OK 10) Select "Operator Code (SOC)" and set it to 2050 11) Select "Country Code" and set it to 302 for Canada, and 310 for the US. 12) Power down the phone and power it back on again ISDN Code To check the ISDN number on your Nokia use this code *#92772689# .:: Ericsson ::. Ericson T65 *#05# Fake Insert puk screen Press no to exit Ericsson T20 Ericsson T20 MENU tecnichal Info [type] >*<<*<* Displays : 1] Info service 1] Info SW 2] Info hardware 3] SIMlock 4]setup

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2] Service setup 1] Contrast 3]Service Test 1] Display 2]Leds 3]Keyboard 4] ringer 5] Vibration 6]Headset 7] Microphone 8]Clock 4] Names List MENU info [Type] >*<<**< Network and Subnetwork : NCK and NSCK Ericsson T28 >*<<*<* menu Tecnichal info SW vers. and name list >*<<**< menu Personal Info Network and Subnetwork : NCK and NSCK < and > are the right and left menu's keys Ericsson T18s/T10/A1018s >*<<*<* software CXC125065 Internal product code

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PRG 970715 1515 Software version and SW rev. <* CLR <><** < and > are the right and left menu's keys !!!><** Control /Enable SIM Lock!!! Ericsson R310 Technical Info : >*<<*<* Options : 1) service Info info Software Simlock Configuration 2) Service Test Display Led/Illumination Keyboard ringer Vibration Headset Microphone Clock 3)Text's name List Info personal : >*<<**< SIM Locking ( 8 digits' code ) ( it could harm your phone ) 1) Network 2) Subnetwork 3) SP 4) Corporate .:: Siemens ::. Siemens C25 IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: put off sim card and enter: : * # 0 6 # and press LONG KEY Bonus screen: in phone booke: + 1 2 0 2 2 2 4 3 1 2 1 .:: Bosch ::. IMEI Number: * # 0 6 # Dafault Language: * # 0 0 0 0 # Net Monitor: * # 3 2 6 2 2 5 5 * 8 3 7 8 # .::Alcatel ::. IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: * # 0 6 # Net Monitor: 0 0 0 0 0 0 * .:: Samsung ::. Samsung SGH600/2100DB IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: * # 9 9 9 9 # albo * # 0 8 3 7 # Net Monitor: * # 0 3 2 4 # Chaning LCD contrast: * # 0 5 2 3 # Memory info: * # 0 3 7 7 # albo * # 0 2 4 6 # Reset pamieci (SIMLOCK`a removing!!!): *2767*3855# Reset pamieci CUSTOM: *2767*2878# Battery state: * # 9 9 9 8 * 2 2 8 # Alarm beeper: *#9998*289# Vibra test: *#9998*842# .:: Dancall ::. IMEI number: * # 0 6 # Software version: * # 9 9 9 9 # .:: Philips ::. *#3333*# Displays the blocking list. *#7489*# Displays the security code. *#06# Displays the IMEI number. *#8377*# Displays the SW info. .:: Panasonic ::. Panasonic gd90 gd93 *#9999# SW - Type the code on switch on , during network seek -Vers. SW and production code Enable ringing and vibration contemporarily

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Enable vibration with # then increase volume with "tone menu " Panasonic gd70 *#9999# SW - Type the code on switch on , during network seek -Vers. SW and production code Enable ringing and vibration contemporarily Enable vibration with # then increase volume with "tone menu " .:: Acer ::. Acer V 750 *#400# Display Adc/ Set Cal-Value *#402# Set LCD Contrast *#403# Display Errors Info *#300# Display Info Hw & Sw *#301# Menu Test *#302# Menu Acoustics *#303# (Settings saved) Set English language? *#307# Menu Engineering *#311# Reset Phone Code - [ Also reset Security Codes ! ] *#330# (Execute not success) [ unknown ] *#331# (Service deactivated) [ unknown ] *#332# (Service unavailable)[ unknown ] *#333# (Execute not success)[ unknown ] *#351# (Service unavailable) [ unknown ] *#360# (Invalid input)[ unknown ] *#361# (Invalid input) [ unknown ] *#362# (Invalid input) [ unknown ] *#363# (Invalid input) [ unknown ] .:: Genie ::. Genie DB *#06# IMEI. *#2254*# Near Cell Mode. For every received BTS will be displayed : Current channel and 2 channel levels *#06# IMEI *#2558# time of network connection ( D/H/M ) *#2562# Fores reconnection to network !!!*#7489# Dispalys and modify phones' security code!!! !!!*#3377# SIM lock information !!! *#7378# SIM card Informations : supported phase name and tipe *#7693# Enable/disable "Sleep Mode" *#8463# State of "Sleep Mode" *#2255# Debug Call Mode enable/disable *#3333*# Displays the blocking list. *#7489*# Displays the security code *#06# Displays the IMEI number *#8377*# Displays the SW info. .:: NEC ::. NEC db2000 *#2820# software vers. IMEI *#06# Reset *73738# (send?) SP Lock info: * # 3210 # (send?) Network barring info : *#8140# (send?) ( it could harm your phone ) SIM lock it could harm your phone ) *#4960 # (send?) -Inquiry * 4960 * password * password # (send?) lock #4960* password # (send?) unlock [password] [8 digits]

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Net Lock *#7320# (send?) -Inquiry * 7320 * password * password # (send?) lock #7320* password # (send?) unlock [password] [ 8 digits] Net Lock 2: *#2220# (invio) - Inquiry * 2220 * password * password # (send?) lock #2220* password # (invio?)unlock [password] [8 digits] Unlock subnetwork *#1110# (send?) - inquiry * 1110 * password * password # (send?) lock #1110* password # (send?) unlock [password] [n� 8 cifre] ( it could harm your phone ) .:: Trium ::. Trium Geo/Geo @ - Astral - Cosmo -Aria Enter the menu and type * A new menu will be displayed : Application : SW version and battery's voltage

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Trium Galaxy Push * and type 5806: Production date and SW version .:: Telit ::. Telit GM 810 MONITOR - technical menu - : type ++++ and push OK. Adiacent cells list : # and * Now if you push OK the phone displays battery ' s voltage and temperature .:: Sagem ::. Sagem MC959/940 Select commands' menu and push * Displays a new menu' : Appli : software vers. and battery's voltage Eprom Sim Lock Test LCD: display test , green/red and vibration Sagem MC920 Select commands' menu and push * Displays 5 new menus : 1 APPLI VERSION ( SW) BATTERY (voltage ) 2 PROM (IMEI) 3!!! SIM LOCK (10 digits code requested ) !!! 4- NETWORK (returns : OPTION NOT AVAILABLE) 5- TEST LCD SYMBOL 1 (LCD) SYMBOL 2 (test2 LCD) BLACK (all icons and carachters displayed ) FOR PHOTO (welcome message and time ) VIBRATOR (vibration test ) .:: Sony ::. Sony CMD Z5/J5 Vers. SW : Without SIM , switch on phone and type l *#7353273# .:: Eprom ::. !!! Sim Lock [10 digits code ] ( it could harm your phone ) NETWORK : OPTION NOT AVAILABLE Test LCD: display test of the green/red leds and vibration Push * and type 4329 :enables/disables network monitor 1 (the same of MT35) Push * and type 621342 :enables/disables network monitor 2 Push * and type 5807 : Serial Number Software Vers. Push * and type 936505: IMEI -- Software Vers.

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Some versions and dates: V 3.14 28/11/97 V4.33 11/03/98 V 4.73 22/04/98 V 5.24 14/9/98 Pin-Out Diagram for the 6110 1 - VIN CHARGER INPUT VOLTAGE 8.4V 0.8A 2 - CHRG CTRL CHARGER CONTROL PWM 32Khz 3 - XMIC MIC INPUT 60mV - 1V

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TPush * and type 547 : Test serial Data Cable DISPLAYS :"Testmode" Push * and type 362628: ISMI BLOCK (UNKNOWN) Push * and type 476989: NS BLOCK (UNKNOWN) Push * and type 482896:CP BLOCK (UNKNOWN) Push * and type 787090: ? BLOCK (UNKNOWN) Push * and type 787292 : block current network !!! Push * and type 967678: SP LOCK!!! Push * and type 850696:Warm Start ( ENABLE/DISABLE) Push * and type 3926 : Swicth off phone Push * and type 5806: Production date and SW version .:: Motorola ::. Motorola V3688 IMEI *#06# Enhanced Full Rate Codec EFR Enable EFR : [][][] 119 [] 1 [] OK. disable EFR : [][][] 119 [] 0 [] OK .:: Tips and Tricks ::. Send an E-mail from your GSM From your telephone you can send an email to whichever E-mail customer of the Internet network. The e-mail will be sent to the maximum of within an hour from the reception. The sended message will contain in luminosity the telephone number of the sender. In order for sending email, send an SMS with this syntax (always separated by spaces): EMA name@domain text-of-your-email Example: in order to send an email to [email protected], do the following: EMA [email protected] text-of-your-email if your phone cant print @ replace it with a ! EMA johon!doe.com text-of-your-email And then send this message to the folloving number: +39 338 8641732 Free SMS Center numbers From your telephone you can send SMS messages of 160 char. max. to another GSM phone Your message will be sent through an SMS Center (usually the one that gave your provider) You pay a little fee depending of your provider, BUT YOU WILL HAVE TO PAY something In order for sending SMS without paying anything, you got to change your SMS Center number with these one +491722270300 or +358405202999 or +352021100003 Codes (that they dont tell you in the manual) To check the IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) type: *#06# Information you get from the IMEI: XXXXXX XX XXXXXX X TAC FAC SNR SP TAC = Type Approval Code (first 2 digits = country code). FAC = Final Assembly Code (For Nokia phonfiltered=10). SNR = Serial Number. SP = Spare (always SP=0). To check the phone's software (firmware revision information) type: *#0000# ( or for some phones outher then Nokia 61XX you can try *#model nummber# ex. for 8110 *#8110#) Information you can get from the phone's software version: V 3.14 28-11-97 NSE-3 1st line: Software version. 2nd line: The date of the software release. 3nd line: Phone type, .

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4 - SGND SIGNAL GROUND 5 - XEAR EAR OUTPUT 80mV - 1V 6 - MBUS 9600 B/S 7 - FBUS_RX 9.6 - 230.4 KB/S 8 - FBUS_TX 9.6 - 230.4 KB/S 9 - L_GND CHARGER / LOGIC GND Revealing Headphone and Car-Kit Menus Think about this: If you do these tricks the new menus can not be erased after the procedure. But it's not dangerous or harmful for your phone To enable the headset-function, you have to short-circuit the "3" and "4". After a short time there is "Headset" on the display Now, menu 3-6 is now enabled! To enable the carkit-function you have to short-circuit the "4" and "5". After a short time, "Car" is shown on the display and the menu 3-7 is enabled!! This Trick is for you how want to hear more then your supposed to ! If you short-circuit the left and the right contact with the middle contact ("3", "6" and "9") the Nokia Software hangs! The profile "Headset" will be activated. Before you do this, just active the "auto call receive" function in the headphone profile and set the ringing volume to "mute" Now you can use your phone for checking out what people are talking about in a room. Place the phone somewhere stratidic and call your phone! The phone receives the call without ringing and you can listen to what people are talking about! .....gr8... Serial numbers on your 6110 For more info type: *#92702689# The first screen gives you the serial and IMEI number. Then there is the Date of Manufacture: ex. Made 1297 Then there is the Purchasing Date: ex. Purchasing Date 0298 Then there is the last Repair Date: ex. Repaired: 0000 Note: you must turn off the phone to exit after this test, because of the last function, "transfer user data" which doesn't work as "standard"....You can use this mode only to transfer all Calender, Profile and Callers Group Information to another phone (eg. if you are replacing phone or configuring phones for use within your company or when a particular phone doesn't works correctly ) Activating and deactivating EFR and HFR, on your 6110 *3370# to activate Enhanced Full Rate - Makes calls sound better, but decreases the battery life by about 5%. #3370# to deactivate Enhanced Full Rate *4720# to activate Half Rate Mode - Drops call quality, but increases battery life by about 30%. #4720# to deactivate Half Rate Mode

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