(rev) Manual Pt 2-2 Types Of Learning

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TYPES OF LEARNING - Learning about LEARNING DOMAINS This introduces us to the idea of different realms of learning. Since there are several kinds of learning, it is useful to think of each kind as existing in a separate department or domain. The first two we may call the “cognitive” (knowing) and “functional” (performing) domains. Educational and training institutions will vary in their emphasis regarding knowledge and skills. Diagram 1 illustrates this difference. The diagonal (arrowed) line indicates the proportion of an institution’s agenda or “track” given over to INSTRUCTION (what to know) and the proportion dedicated to SKILLS (how to do).

< Functional Domain

SKILLS what

how

BIT

proportion

of

to

programme’s

KNOW

to DO

agenda

In this diagram the (fictitious) “Academic College of Education” (“ACE”) spends 85% of its time providing instruction in various fields of knowledge and 15% developing students’ skills. On the other hand, the “Basic Institute of Technology” (“BIT”) has two-thirds of its programme taken up with training the students in how to do the work that one day they will have to carry out in the outside world. Only one third is spent giving instruction in head knowledge.

(“track”) ACE

INSTRUCTION Cognitive Domain >

At this point we again ask: What is our “ACE” Institution: 85% Instruction in business as theological educators? Are we simply Knowledge providing knowledge - packing information into 15% Training in the heads of our students so that they may know Skills what truths, ideas and facts with which to fill other people’s heads once they leave us? “BIT” Institution: 33% Instruction in Knowledge Or should we be developing skills, so that our 67% Training in graduates will be able to handle that knowledge, Skills apply it to the various situations they will meet, and even research further information for themselves when necessary - knowledge that will Diagram 1. be relevant to their particular ministry?

DISCUSSION List two major skills that future church leaders need to develop and suggest how these might be developed in training.

1.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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MINISTERIAL FORMATION < Functional Domain SKILLS what to KNOW

Affective Domain > FORMATION

how

how

to

to DO

BE

Increasingly today those who are responsible for theological education are becoming concerned with what has been termed “ministerial formation”, that is, the spiritual development of those being trained. Indeed often this is the area where the students themselves experience most disappointment after they arrive at Seminary or Bible College. They come in great anticipation of somehow finding a spiritual oasis for their thirsty souls, but find instead all the marks of the world that they thought would be left outside! Of-course this has been the experience of the monk and hermit down the ages. Yet that does not absolve us from being concerned with the spiritual formation of our students – what is usually called the affective domain. This is the part of the training that aims to affect the behaviour of the student as his / her character is moulded by close discipleship of Jesus and as attitudes become more Christlike.

INSTRUCTION Cognitive Domain > Diagram 2.

We must seek to be agents of change as we show our students how to minister to their people in such a way that the lives as well as the faith of their congregations are radically altered to express God’s Kingdom values and commitments. It is here that good modelling demonstrated by teachers has the greatest influence. (See Prof. Neil Foster’s article in Appendix L.) But such modelling should be reinforced by activities found in the curriculum. So we now have three domains (See diagram 2): the cognitive domain of instruction, the functional domain of skill acquisition. and the affective domain concerned with the spiritual formation of the student. Thus, as well as coming to know many things and learning how to do the work to which (s)he is called, the student reflects on how to be a man or woman of God. Example of a learning objective in the affective domain: “I came to Seminary to become a pastor who cares about his people’s economic, social, political and religious problems.” (- Student’s response to the question: “Why did you come to Seminary?”) These three educational domains each have their own appropriate mode of learning: formal study (course materials, books and lectures) in the cognitive domain; informal modelling in the affective domain; and non-formal practice and reflection (fieldwork) in the functional domain.

DISCUSSION Which of these

three

domains

is

most

neglected

and

why?

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LEARNING DOMAINS of THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION < Functional Domain Affective Domain > SKILLS what

FORMATION

how

how

to UNDER

to

to

to - STAND

KNOW

DO

BE

why

INSTRUCTION

WISDOM

Cognitive Domain >

< Sapiential Domain

Diagram 3

Note carefully: “Doing” here refers not to obedience – doing what we have been told to do – but rather to practising certain skills, until we are able to “do” them. Obedience, on the other hand, is learnt through “being”, or becoming, more like Christ, as attitudes are changed and character is (trans)formed. The way Diagram 2 was drawn might suggest an imbalance needing to be corrected. This is indeed the case. For further reflection leads us to recognise that a truly balanced theological curriculum (in the widest sense of the word) requires a fourth element – the dimension of understanding. There is little point in knowing about things whose purpose we do not truly understand, and many practical tasks, if they are to be done effectively and with lasting results, require an approach that is also purposeful and wise. So we may call this fourth area of educational development the sapiential (or prudential*) domain, a label coined to highlight the discerning characteristic of

this aspect of personal growth. *

“Prudential” and “sapiential” both come from Latin words meaning wise. “Prudential” is defined as: “exercising good judgement; practical and careful in providing for the future”, and derives from a Latin word meaning “farsighted, acting with foresight”, surely such qualities that are much needed in the ministry of God’s people.

The Case of Apollos Acts 18:24-28 shows Apollos as a preacher well instructed in Knowledge, developed in Skills and well advanced in spiritual Formation, but lacking seriously in Wisdom. He was well informed (knowing), taught accurately and spoke eloquently (doing), but he needed the help of Priscilla and Aquila to explain the Way of God more adequately (understanding). Since “eloquently” in the Greek can be translated also as “full of Spiritual fervour”, there is a strong case for also finding a reference here to his spiritual character (his being). All four domains are important in learning, whether in order to write a school essay or to service a bicycle in the workshop, as has been pointed out by Roger Lewis, Professor of Learning Development at Humberside University. For in order to service a bicycle, he notes, “I need to: • know where to apply oil and which components to check; • have manual skills [doing], e.g. in adjusting brakes; • want to do it, or at least accept the importance of maintaining the bicycle [which is to do with attitude and so the formation of one’s being]; • understand why I am carrying out the various tasks [to do with purpose, design, and how the various parts of the whole fit together]”.* *in “How to Write Essays”, by R.Lewis, p. 7, Collins Educational, 1995

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So what is really needed in theological education? Should not all four learning domains be catered for, especially where students train and live together in a college community?

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A PYRAMID MODEL of LEARNING In a three-dimensional model, these four learning domains would be best portrayed as the four sides of a pyramid, with equal emphasis being placed on each domain. All four are important for the support of the peak. This pyramid model emphasises the essential nature of each domain for the over-all development of an individual’s learning. Thus passing on knowledge by itself produces only a façade of learning. Knowing needs to be backed by doing, being and understanding in equal proportions for substantial learning to take place. If this mutual support of each domain for the other three is missing, sooner or later what is supposedly learnt is found not to have been truly learnt, and the whole edifice of such “learning” crumbles.

Educational Objectives involved in the four Learning Domains Within each learning domain many different educational objectives can be identified, each particular to that domain. The verbs that might be used in stating these objectives when constructing a course have been usefully charted as follows: If the goal is:

Knowledge

Insight

then the verb (or verbal phrase) used to describe an objective can be one of the following:

List State Trace Write Know Recite Recall Define Identify Describe Delineate Memorise Recognise Enumerate Become aware of Become familiar with

Select Choose Discern Classify Contrast Separate Evaluate Compare Discover Examine Reflect on Think through Understand Comprehend Discriminate between Differentiate

Skill

Use Solve Study Apply Assist in Explain Produce Practice Interpret Pray about Internalise Experience Communicate

Attitude

Plan View Desire to Appreciate Be sensitive to Sympathise with Be convinced of Commit yourself to Have confidence in

(-Roy B. Zuck, quoted in Expository Preaching: Principles & Practice, Haddon W. Robinson, p.111, IVP, 1986)

To confirm your understanding of the differences between the four domains try the following exercise:

DISCUSSION Write four educational objectives using a verb from each of the domain boxes above:

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I. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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What are Our Goals? Looking at Curriculum in terms of learning domains helps us to identify our pre-suppositions and priorities. We are provoked to ask ourselves: • Are we simply providing knowledge, packing information into the heads of our students so that they simply know what to say once they leave us (but do not why or when to say it)? • Or are we developing skills, so that our graduates will be able to handle that knowledge, apply it to the various situations they will meet, and even be able to research further information by themselves when necessary? • Are we seeking to be “agents of change” in human behaviour, training students so to minister to their people that not only faith is strengthened but lives as well are radically altered to express the values and commitments of God’s Kingdom? • Are we training our students to be able to make good judgements and wise choices, based on clear thinking, sound values and well understood principles of conduct? Are they learning to reflect on the purpose of their actions, expressing vision and insight in their decisions? Wisdom comes through an understanding of the purpose of things. It is not simply an accumulation of past experiences, but rather an insight into the present suitability of something for fulfilling an ultimate end that accords with the wisdom of God himself. This sense of a human purpose that is also aligned with God’s purposes (original, present and ultimate) is crucial for development. Another important way of viewing our goals is to ask questions about the levels of learning development that we are aiming at in our students. We may want them to be able to understand the significance of the information they have come already to know. But a further development occurs when they start to reflect on the application of this understanding to their situation. Development of learning continues when a student can critique the arguments of others and eventually evaluate his or her own thinking, attitudes and actions in the light of what he or she has learnt previously. This encourages the formation of mature thinking and, when combined with the development of good attitudes, contributes to the spiritual formation of the student.

DISCUSSION List three significant attitudes that future church leaders should be encouraged to cultivate. How can training take this kind of formation into account?

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2.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Identify one major area of understanding that needs to be developed during training:

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What steps can we take to include all the learning domains when reviewing our curriculum and courses?

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Note: A summary of this section, together with further examples of its application, can be found in Appendix A.

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MODES of LEARNING As educationally we have identified several fields (domains) of learning, equally we must be aware of several modes (or ways) of learning – termed formal, non-formal and informal. Formal learning takes place in an environment where grades, classes, examinations, written work and other academic requirements are emphasised. Non-formal learning is equally well organised, but the purposeful study combines fieldwork with dialogue, evaluation and reflection, and emphasises the practical purposes of a course. Students placed under local leaders as their apprentices (e.g. curates in Anglican type churches) are learning nonformally from their elders as they get the reactions of their more experienced colleagues to their own stumbling efforts. Informal learning occurs as a consequence of the ethos of the training institution, the quality of community life where students and staff can inter-act, the latter having the role of models as well as mentors. Students learn from such mentors by absorbing their insights and whole approach to ministry. Different modes of learning can be used in any domain. The challenge for the teacher (and his / her educational institution) is to use the appropriate mode(s) for each subject and to plan a curriculum that not only covers the most relevant subjects in each domain, but also makes use of a variety of modes in each domain. Try the next exercise with a colleague or group of colleagues. Brainstorming might be helpful as a preliminary activity before selecting the examples that might prove most significant for your programme of training.

DISCUSSION Can you think of an informal way, and a non-formal way of teaching one subject (of your own choice) in each domain? Informal ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Nonformal------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

If learning does not end at graduation, or at the end of a course, in what ways (if any!) does our curriculum encourage people to learn for themselves (not necessarily the same as learning by themselves)? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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The next section deals with levels of learning and advocates a policy of Spiral Learning. It is presented in diagrammatic form and concludes with two Discussion questions.

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