Reports

Lab reports Lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in engineering and can count for as much as 25% of a course yet little time or attention is devoted to how to write them well. Worse yet, each professor wants something a little different. Regardless of variations, however, the goal of lab reports remains the same: document your findings and communicate their significance. With that in mind, we can describe the report's format and basic components. Knowing the pieces and purpose, you can adapt to the particular needs of a course or professor. A good lab report does more than present data; it demonstrates the writer's comprehension of the concepts behind the data. Merely recording the expected and observed results is not sufficient; you should also identify how and why differences occurred, explain how they affected your experiment, and show your understanding of the principles the experiment was designed to examine. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and organized writing. You still need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently.

Typical Components •

Title Page

•

Results

•

Abstract

•

Discussion

•

Conclusion

o

Note: Verb Tenses

•

Introduction

•

References

•

Methods and Materials (or Equipment)

•

Appendices

•

Experimental Procedure

•

Further Reading

1. The Title Page needs to contain the name of the experiment, the names of lab partners, and the date. Titles should be straightforward, informative, and less than ten words (i.e. Not "Lab #4" but "Lab #4: ). The Abstract summarizes four essential aspects of the report: the purpose of the experiment (sometimes expressed as the purpose of the report), key findings, significance and major conclusions. The abstract often also includes a brief reference to theory or methodology. The information should clearly enable readers to decide whether they need to read your whole report. The abstract should be one paragraph of 100-200 words (the sample below is 191 words).

Quick Abstract Reference Must have: 1. Purpose 2. Key result(s) 3. Most significant point of discussion 4. Major conclusion May include: 1. Brief method 2. Brief theory Restrictions: ONE page 200 words MAX. Sample Abstract This experiment examined the effect of line orientation and arrowhead angle on a subject's ability to perceive line length, thereby testing the Müller-Lyer illusion. The Müller-Lyer illusion is the classic visual illustration of the effect of the surrounding on the perceived length of a line. The test was to determine the point of subjective equality by having subjects adjust line segments to equal the length of a standard line. Twenty-three subjects were tested in a repeated measures design with four different arrowhead angles and four line orientations. Each condition was tested in six randomized trials. The lines to be adjusted were tipped with outward pointing arrows of varying degrees of pointedness, whereas the standard lines had inward pointing arrows of the same degree. Results showed that line lengths were overestimated in all cases. The size of error increased with decreasing arrowhead angles. For line orientation, overestimation was greatest when the lines were horizontal. This last is contrary to our expectations. Further, the two factors functioned independently in their effects on subjects' point of subjective equality. These results have important implications for human factors design applications such as graphical display interfaces. 3. The Introduction is more narrowly focussed than the abstract. It states the objective of the experiment and provides the reader with background to the experiment. State the topic of your report clearly and concisely, in one or two sentences:

Quick Intro Reference Must Have: 1. Purpose of the experiment 2. Important background and/or theory May include: 1. Description of specialized equipment 2. Justification of experiment's importance Example: The purpose of this experiment was to identify the specific element in a metal powder sample by determining its crystal structure and atomic radius. These were determined using the Debye-Sherrer (powder camera) method of X-ray diffraction. A good introduction also provides whatever background theory, previous research, or formulas the reader needs to know. Usually, an instructor does not want you to repeat the lab manual, but to show your own comprehension of the problem. For example, the introduction that followed the example above might describe the Debye-Sherrer method, and explain that from the diffraction angles the crystal structure can be found by applying Bragg's law. If the amount of introductory material seems to be a lot, consider adding subheadings such as: Theoretical Principles or Background. Note on Verb Tense Introductions often create difficulties for students who struggle with keeping verb tenses straight. These two points should help you navigate the introduction: •

The experiment is already finished. Use the past tense when talking about the experiment. "The objective of the experiment was..."

•

The report, the theory and permanent equipment still exist; therefore, these get the present tense:

"The purpose of this report is..." "Bragg's Law for diffraction is ..." "The scanning electron microscope produces micrographs ... 4. Methods and Materials (or Equipment) can usually be a simple list, but make sure it is accurate and complete. In some cases, you can simply direct the reader to a lab manual or standard procedure: "Equipment was set up as in CHE 276 manual." 5. Experimental Procedure describes the process in chronological order. Using clear paragraph structure, explain all steps in the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to happen. If your professor says you can simply state that you followed the procedure in the manual, be sure you still document occasions when you did not follow that exactly (e.g. "At step 4 we performed four repetitions instead of three, and ignored the data from the second repetition"). If you've done it right, another researcher should be able to duplicate your experiment. 6. Results are usually dominated by calculations, tables and figures; however, you still need to state all significant results explicitly in verbal form, for example: Using the calculated lattice parameter gives, then, R = 0.1244nm. Graphics need to be clear, easily read, and well labeled (e.g. Figure 1: Input Frequency and Capacitor Value). An important strategy for making your results effective is to draw the reader's attention to them with a sentence or two, so the reader has a focus when reading the graph. In most cases, providing a sample calculation is sufficient in the report. Leave the remainder in an appendix. Likewise, your raw data can be placed in an appendix. Refer to appendices as necessary, pointing out trends and identifying special features. Quick Results Reference 1. Number and Title tables and graphs 2. Use a sentence or two to draw attention to key points in tables or graphs 3. Provide sample calculation only 4. State key result in sentence form

7. Discussion is the most important part of your report, because here, you show that you understand the experiment beyond the simple level of completing it. Explain. Analyse. Interpret. Some people like to think of this as the "subjective" part of the report. By that, they mean this is what is not readily observable. This part of the lab focuses on a question of understanding "What is the significance or meaning of the results?" To answer this question, use both aspects of discussion: 1. Analysis

2. Interpretation

What do the results indicate clearly?

What is the significance of the

What have you found?

results? What ambiguities exist?

Explain what you know with certainty

What questions might we raise? Find

based on your results and draw conclusions:

logical explanations for problems in the data:

Since none of the samples

Although

reacted to the Silver foil test,

received on 14 August 2000, testing

therefore sulfide, if present at

could not be started until 10 September

all,

a

2000. It is normally desirably to test as

concentration of approximately

quickly as possible after sampling in

0.025

order

does g/l.

not It

exceed is

therefore

to

the

water

avoid

samples

potential

were

sample

unlikely that the water main

contamination. The effect of the delay is

pipe break was the result of

unknown.

sulfide-induced corrosion. More particularly, focus your discussion with strategies like these: •

Compare expected results with those obtained. If there were differences, how can you account for them? Saying "human error" implies you're incompetent. Be specific; for example, the instruments could not measure precisely, the sample was not pure or was contaminated, or calculated values did not take account of friction.

•

Analyze experimental error. Was it avoidable? Was it a result of equipment? If an experiment was within the tolerances, you can still account for the difference from the ideal. If the flaws result from the experimental design explain how the design might be improved.

•

Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues. Often undergraduate labs are intended to illustrate important physical laws, such as Kirchhoff's voltage law, or the Müller-Lyer illusion. Usually you will have discussed these in the introduction. In this section move from the results to the theory. How well has the theory been illustrated?

•

Relate results to your experimental objective(s). If you set out to identify an unknown metal by finding its lattice parameter and its atomic structure, you'd better know the metal and its attributes.

•

Compare your results to similar investigations. In some cases, it is legitimate to compare outcomes with classmates, not to change your answer, but to look for any anomalies between the groups and discuss those.

•

Analyze

the

strengths

and

limitations

of

your

experimental

design.

This is particularly useful if you designed the thing you're testing (e.g. a circuit). 8. Conclusion can be very short in most undergraduate laboratories. Simply state what you know now for sure, as a result of the lab: Example: The Debye-Sherrer method identified the sample material as nickel due to the measured crystal structure (fcc) and atomic radius (approximately 0.124nm). Notice that, after the material is identified in the example above, the writer provides a justification. We know it is nickel because of its structure and size. This makes a sound and sufficient conclusion. Generally, this is enough; however, the conclusion might also be a place to discuss weaknesses of experimental design, what future work needs to be done to extend your conclusions, or what the implications of your conclusion are. Quick Conclusion Reference Must do: 1. State what's known 2. Justify statement Might do: 3. State significance 4. Suggest further research 9. References include your lab manual and any outside reading you have done.

10. Appendices typically include such elements as raw data, calculations, graphs pictures or tables that have not been included in the report itself. Each kind of item should be contained in a separate appendix. Make sure you refer to each appendix at least once in your report. For example, the results section might begin by noting: "Micrographs printed from the Scanning Electron Microscope are contained in Appendix A."

PROPOSALS The proposal is one of the most important forms of writing engineers do. Successful proposals lead to jobs, products and profit. Unsuccessful proposals lead nowhere. This document presents the basics of proposals: •

The goal

•

The audience

•

The structure

•

The use of research

The Goal While style and structure of proposals vary, successful proposals require Attitude. A successful proposal convinces the reader that: •

The proposal is good (scientifically, economically)

•

The writers are qualified to accomplish the task.

"Convincing" makes many engineers uncomfortable because they think good science should convince by itself; however, you must still persuade the reader that your science is good. Convince the reader that you have thought through the problem and have a workable solution. The Audience No one ever paid a consultant to tell him what he already knew. Your audience needs to know something.

You need to explain the problem clearly, and to provide full

background to give context to your solution. Remember the readers need

•

to know that you know what you are doing

•

to understand your approach

Structure of the Proposal Six Basic Elements: 1. Executive Summary 2. Introduction 3. Project Description or Program 4. Timeline and Milestones 5. Budget 6. Qualifications The Executive Summary The executive summary is a short, information-packed summary of the proposal. In one or two paragraphs, state the purpose of the proposal, the essentials of the program and the total expense of the budget. This should not exceed one page. A reader should finish the summary knowing the basic information. Only an interested reader needs to read more. Write the executive summary after you have finished the rest of the report.

Purpose ÷ The purpose can be described any number of ways. Here are two: 

State the problem or need you are prepared to address. Many proposals are

responding to problems that need to be solved. e.g. A part of a product wears out too soon. How can we make the product work better? 

Explain the goal of the proposal. Sometimes a proposal is to develop a new

product or idea. In this case, you are not solving a problem. Still you need to explain why you want to develop the proposal. (See the sample below for an example of this). However you describe it, you need to clearly and simply explain what the proposal is for. The executive summary needs to be aimed at a general audience ÷ typically managers ÷ so this is not the place for technical detail. It is the place, however, for considering the company and its requirements

Program ÷ At the proposal stage, students will rarely have a fully-worked out solution. That is expected for research-based projects. (Many proposals in industry will be able to present a full solution because the proposal is to implement previously developed technology.) Regardless, the executive summary needs to include a brief statement of what you think you will do. In one or two sentences state at least one of these: o

what will take place

o

benefit of the project

o

how and where it will operate

Funding requirements ÷ State the bottom line. If an explanation of the figure is required, make that as concisely as possible. Qualifications ÷ Briefly state your name, history, purpose, and activities, emphasizing your capacity to carry out this proposal. Sample of an Executive Summary (Slightly modified from the original)

Executive summary

Notes

(1) Memory management is a crucial factor in

operating

system

and

1. The first sentence gives some

application

context by defining terms. it could

performance. (2) The purpose of this

be improved by adding the simple

project is to study of the relative merits of

word "computer" to separate this

the best fit and worst fit selection

study from something in cognitive

algorithms used in memory management.

ergonomics.

(3) the first goal of the project is to produce

2. The project's goals are clearly

a reference table with the test sets and

stated in the second, third and

results for software developers using

fourth sentences.

algorithms. (4) The second goal is to develop a very specific set of rules for

3. The value of the project is outlined in sentence five.

when to use each algorithm. (5) the results

4. the limitation or scope of the work

will be valuable to software developers

is presented in sentences six and

when choosing between the best fit and

seven.

5. the cost is explained in the last worst fit selection algorithms. (6) while the first goal can be attained in the ten week period, attaining the second goal will

sentence. note that the cost is for ten weeks regardless of whether the second goal is attained.

depend on the results of the data. (7) consequently, the second goal may be

6. this summary does not include the

unreachable, or require further research. (8)

writer's qualifications, presumably

the cost for the ten week period is $7500.

because the writer is a student who has no experience in this kind of work.

Introduction One major problem students have is blurring Executive Summaries and Introductions. NEVER assume that the reader of the introduction has already read the executive summary. In other words, the executive summary just repeats

1.

State the purpose (make it clear that you are proposing something).

Define the opportunity or problem. Usually, you need to begin by explaining the situation: what circumstances led to the proposal (e.g. an industrial sponsor's problem)? Consider the following: o

Decide what facts best support the project.

o

Determine whether it is reasonable to portray the need as acute.

o

Explain how your project relates to similar projects that preceded it.

o

Avoid circular reasoning.

2.

Explain useful background. e.g. What engineering principles will guide your

solution? Even if you think your reader knows this information, show the reader that you understand it too. (Sometimes, background is separated into a separate section. If you do this, put the background after the overview.)

3.

Give a brief overview of the contents of the whole proposal. (For example, in

the introduction to the "structure of the proposal" here, six basic elements are listed.

These are then elaborated in later sections. A similar kind of brief sketch will help a proposal reader.) This is what a first draft of an introduction might look like Notice that there are a number of questions whose answers might help develop really good opening context.

The market for backpacks is huge. Students throughout North America from ages 5-25 carry backpacks to school. [find out sales figures?] Many need to replace their backpacks each year due to frayed straps or broken zippers. [survey users to discover complaints about existing backpacks?] Therefore, any company that can produce and market a product that is cheap and/or high quality will be able to find a market niche. [analyze what determines cost? materials? place of manufacture? distance to market?] This proposal will outline a product that will fill the need for a high quality yet affordable product appropriate for university students. The Project Description or Program State explicitly what you propose to do. Some also include a "scope" statement ÷ an explicit statement of what you will not be doing to help limit the task. Explain your approach to the problem in detail. Some of the following questions might be useful: •

What are the technical specifications for the proposed piece of work?

•

How will current research ÷ such as recent articles on the subject or other

projects of a similar kind ÷ be used to help solve the problem? •

How does your work fit into a larger project?

Included in your program you should have three subsections: objectives, methods, and evaluation. You do not need to use these sections as subheadings, but you do need to clearly explain all three aspects of the project. OBJECTIVES Your objectives must be tangible, specific, concrete, measurable, and achievable in a specified

time

period.

Currently, software developers have only a general description and understanding of how the algorithms work in deciding which algorithm is more appropriate for their application. I propose to quantify the performance of each algorithm given varying sets of memory requests. This data will allow developers to compare the performance trade off of each algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application. Objectives can come in several varieties:

1.

Behavioral ÷ A human action is anticipated.

Software developers will be able to compare the performance trade off of each algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application.

2.

Performance ÷ A specific time frame within which a behavior will occur, at an

expected proficiency level, is expected.

Software developers will be able to compare the performance trade off of each algorithm based on the expected memory request set for their application. This efficiency will cut the time for testing new applications by 40%.

3. 4.

Product ÷ A tangible item results.

The first goal of the project is to produce a reference table with the test sets and results for software developers using algorithms. The second goal is the development of a very specific set of rules for when to use each algorithm. While the first goal can be attained in the ten week period, attaining the second goal will depend on the results of the data. METHODS In your program, you need to do the following:

•

Describe the specific activities that will take place to achieve the objectives, that

is what will occur from the time the project begins until it is completed. •

Enable the reader to visualize the implementation of the project.

•

Match the previously stated objectives.

•

Provide the order and timing for the tasks.

•

Defend your chosen methods, especially if they are new or unorthodox.

EVALUATION Building evaluation into a project is an important part of engineering design. You need to consider how you will evaluate whether the project is successful. How will you measure whether the project meets its goal? By including a mechanism for evaluation in your proposal, you indicate that achieving objective is a serious goal. You also provide the best means for others to learn from your experience. Two types of Formal Evaluation are common

1.

Measuring the product (e.g. test a computer program's performance under various

conditions for versatility, accuracy, speed, etc.)

2.

Analyzing the process (e.g. analyze the milestones such as the ability of a

prototype to integrate with other components of a project) Either or both might be appropriate

SHORT REPORTS Business and industry, as well as university, often demand short technical reports. They may be proposals, progress reports, trip reports, completion reports, investigation reports, feasibility studies, or evaluation reports. As the names indicate, these reports are diverse in focus and aim, and differ in structure. However, one goal of all reports is the same: to communicate to an audience. Your audience for an academic report is already very well informed. Your professor and teaching assistants will not usually read your report in order to extract knowledge; instead, they will look for evidence that you understand the material and ideas your report presents. Your document, then, should not only convey information clearly and

coherently (such as numbers, facts or equations), but should also, where appropriate, detail the logical processes you relied upon (such as interpretation, analysis, or evaluation). This document describes a general format for a short report, which you can adapt to the needs of specific assignments. Bear in mind that a format, however helpful, cannot replace clear thinking and strategic writing. You still need to organize your ideas carefully and express them coherently. Be precise and concise. Typical Components •

Title Page

•

Abstract or Summary

•

Introduction

•

Background

•

Discussion

•

Conclusion

•

Recommendations

•

Attachments

1.

Title Page

The essential information here is your name, the title of the project, and the date. Be aware of any other information your instructor requires. The title of a report can be a statement of the subject. An effective title is informative but reasonably short. Ornamental or misleading titles may annoy readers.

2.Abstract or Summary This section states the report in miniature. It summarizes the whole report in one, concise paragraph of about 100-200 words. It might be useful to think in terms of writing one sentence to summarize each of the traditional report divisions: objective, method, discussion, conclusions. Emphasize the objective (which states the problem) and the

analysis of the results (including recommendations). Avoid the temptation to copy a whole paragraph from elsewhere in your report and make it do double duty. Since the abstract condenses and emphasizes the most important elements of the whole report, you cannot write it until after you have completed the report. Remember, the abstract should be a precise and specific summary -- give details. A technical document is not a mystery novel -- give your conclusion right away. Support it later. This report considers three energy sources and recommends the best one. (Too general) This report compares nuclear plants, fossil fuels, and solar generators, in order to determine which energy source will best meet the nation's needs. The criteria for comparison were the economic, social, and environmental effects of each alternative. The study concludes that nuclear energy is the best of these options, because North America is not self-sufficient in fossil fuels, and solar power is currently too unreliable for industrial use. Although nuclear plants are potentially very dangerous, nuclear energy is still the best short-term solution. (Specific & detailed) 3.

Introduction

3.1. Whereas the abstract summarizes the whole report, the introduction of a technical report identifies the subject, the purpose (or objective), and the plan of development of the report. The subject is the "what", the purpose is the "why", and the plan is the "how." Together these acquaint the reader with the problem you are setting out to solve. 3.2. State the subject and purpose as clearly and concisely as possible, usually in one sentence called the thesis or purpose statement: This report describes the design of a full-scale prototype shrimp trawl that would permit a test of the commercial feasibility of electric trawling during daylight. 3.3. Use the introduction to provide the reader with any background information which the reader will need before you can launch into the body of your paper. You may have to define the terms used in stating the subject and provide background such as theory or history of the subject. For example, the purpose statement quoted above might warrant some explanation of daylight trawling or even of the commercial shrimp industry. Avoid the tendency to use the introduction merely to fill space with sweeping statements that are

unrelated to the specific purpose of your report ("Throughout the ages, human beings have looked up at the stars and wondered about [your topic here]."). 4.

Background

If the introduction requires a large amount of supporting information, such as a review of literature or a description of a process, then the background material should form its own section. This section may include a review of previous research, or formulas the reader needs to understand the problem. In an academic report, it is also the point where you can show your comprehension of the problem. 5.

Discussion

5.1. This section is the most important part of your report. It takes many forms and may have subheadings of its own. Its basic components are methods, findings (or results), and evaluation (or analysis). In a progress report, the methods and findings may dominate; a final report should emphasize evaluation. Most academic assignments should also focus on

your

evaluation

of

the

subject.

5.2. Before you begin writing, ask the journalist's questions: who? when? where? what? why? how? The last three in particular will help you focus analysis. Beyond asking these simple questions, you also need to make decisions such as: How do you interpret the data? What is the significance of your findings? 6.

Conclusion

What knowledge comes out of the report? As you draw a conclusion, you need to explain it in terms of the preceding discussion. Some repetition of the most important ideas you presented there is expected, but you should avoid copying. 7.

Recommendations

What actions does the report call for? The recommendations should be clearly connected to the results of the rest of the report. You may need to make those connections explicit at this point--your reader should not have to guess at what you mean. This section may also include plans for how further research should proceed. In professional writing, this section often comes immediately after the introduction. 8.

Attachments

8.1. These will include references and may include appendices. Any research that you

refer to in the report must also appear in a list of references at the end of the work so that an interested reader can follow up your work. Since the format for references varies across engineering, consult your instructor, or check a style manual for the field. 8.2. Appendices may include raw data, calculations, graphs, and other quantitative materials that were part of the research, but would be distracting to the report itself. Refer to each appendix at the appropriate point (or points) in your report. In industry, a company profile and profile of the professionals involved in a project might also appear as appendices.

Case studies Introduction: Case studies occur frequently in engineering because, by nature, engineering analyzes (studies) situations that already exist (cases). This document explains how to use a basic engineering problem-solving method to structure case studies, but the structure may also apply to other engineering reports (including undergraduate theses). This document focuses on a particular logical structure that is important to engineering. •

understanding the situation being faced;

•

analyzing the specific problem to be tackled;

•

creating, analyzing, and refining a solution;

•

and further evaluating, improving, and implementing. [4]

The method is known as Situation---- Problem ----Solution(s) ---- Evaluation Each of the logical components here consists more of questions than "how-to" because the goal of this web-page is to help you think through the logic structure of this pattern. Situation

Even when a client (or professor) defines a situation, engineers need to understand it in their own terms: •

What are the needs of the client?

•

What are the constraints of the situation (time, resources, laws, technology) ?

•

What are the background facts?

•

What are the key questions that need asking?

Example: What happens when the Client doesn't tell you everything? If an engineer responding to the Request for Proposal (RFP) below did not think through the whole situation, she might end up in big trouble. An RFP asks contractors to bid on a particular project. Getting the job without understanding the situation can be disastrous. This RFP describes the government's responsibilities in a research project to test ABS brakes using an "instrumented car" (a car outfitted with sophisticated measuring equipment): An instrumented vehicle, Pontiac 6000 STE, has been developed and will be provided to the contractor without charge by Transport Canada. A separate contractor has been engaged to perform hardware modifications to the various systems in the vehicle if they are required and approved by the scientific authority. Costs associated with any approved modifications, and the maintenance of the data collection system will be the responsibility of Transport Canada, unless the contractor has been negligent in the use of the system.[9] All of this sounds good at first--someone else is worrying about maintaining the systems inside a rather expensive vehicle--BUT what about systems outside the vehicle? Such things as pop-up stop signs and means of altering the slipperiness of the track will be needed. Since these are outside the car, who pays? If those bidding on this contract do not state their understanding of the situation clearly, they could win a bid but lose a bundle. Showing a clear understanding of the situation is the first step to a clear report. Where it fits: Typically this will fit into the introduction or background sections of a report.

Problem Before you can solve a problem you need to know what it is. Defining a problem clearly is crucial to finding a solution. In defining the problem, you need to explain the factors that affect the problem. Consider not only what the client says the problem is, but what the client might not recognize. Here is a statement of a problem, Original: SunnyBrook's Chronic Pain Clinic experiences two problems: •

In its present mode of operation, it loses money on initial consultations.

•

Patients' waiting times for initial consultations are perceived as being too long and should be shortened without significant expenditure.

Unless the number of consultations can be increased by 15% using the same resources, the pain clinic is in danger of being shut down. This problem statement is not complete. In fact, it is the problem as defined by the client, which is really just the situation. The writer needs to analyze the problem: the problem here might in part be defined as inefficiency in initial consultations. Revised: Sunnybrook's Chronic Pain Clinic loses money on initial consultations and suffers from long patient waiting times for initial consultations. Unless the number of consultations can be increased by 15% using the same resources, the pain clinic is in danger of being shut down. The loss of money and the waiting times are related because two of the four doctors do not manage to see their patients within the allotted one hour consultation. This means not only that these doctors are unable to see as many patients as the other two doctors, but that those they do see have to wait well past their scheduled appointment. The problem, then, is to eliminate inefficiency in initial consultations without compromising the level offer.

Part of defining the problem is seeing it in terms of what has been done before. These questions might help you explain the full background to the problem: •

What are the parameters that have been set for your analysis?

•

What is happening in the situation now?

•

What are the shortcomings of the current or previous ways of handling the

situation? •

What changes have been made in the situation? or are expected?

These questions might lead to an additional paragraph in our example to clarify and refine the definition of the problem. Here the writer goes on to consider how one parameter

physicians' financial

(continued

benefit

from

might affect the

above

current situation.

example)

If inefficiency is a factor, understanding the physicians' relationship to the clinic becomes important. First, financially, the four doctors who provide service in the pain clinic do so out of interest in the field. They derive little financial benefit from their involvement; in fact, they incur a significant opportunity cost for not performing other, more lucrative procedures. Their pay is not proportionally dependent on the number of patients they examine; instead, it is a percentage of the total revenue generated by a pool of twenty-six physicians performing a variety of roles at the hospital.

For this reason,

personal income cannot influence physician behavior. This example is only part of what goes into a problem definition, but it shows how the writer can refine his problem definition by limiting the possible parameters for solutions. Where it fits: Typically, the Problem definition is also the purpose of the report; therefore, it will follow the situation, or sometimes, precede it. Notice that the problem and the situation overlap. This is predictable because the problem arises out of the situation. Solution University assignments often expect you to come up with alternatives; hence,you may need to examine more than one solution. Ultimately, to be effective,any solution must

1.

Solve the problem. Obvious, but explain: How does the solution work?

2.

Explain how the solution can be derived from the available data. How does it fit

with what we know?

3.

Fit clearly into the available research on a topic. What research supports it?

As you might guess, this section could be a huge part of the body of a report. Evaluation Before Engineers can implement a solution, it needs to be refined. The first step in refining any solution is an evaluation. You need to think your way around the solution just as if it were an object you were walking around. Ask as many questions as possible. Here are a few: •

Is the solution you suggest likely to be successful?

•

What limitations might prevent total success? (eg. does it depend on people

being trained?) •

What must a company do to make your solution work? (funding? training?

design? safety measures?) •

If you are proposing more than one solution, which one(s) do you recommend

be implemented? In which order? (short term vs. long term; most important vs. less important; necessary vs. optional) Where it fits: Typically, the evaluation comes just before the recommendations. Once you have evaluated several options, then you can make a recommendation. It may also be incorporated into the recommendations. What is an outline? An outline is a blueprint for your final document. It presents the content of your report in brief, organizing your topics and supporting details in the order you intend to discuss them. Poor organization is by far the most common writing problem that we encounter at the Engineering Writing Centre. An outline is all about organization. If you are afraid

organization means Roman numerals and capital letters, don't panic! Even without such structures, the outline is a useful tool [1]. How does an outline help? It helps you ...by exposing the gaps in your logic and organization early, while you still have time to fill them. It helps your professor or supervisor ...by demonstrating •

that you understand the assignment,

•

that you have clearly focused the topic,

•

that

your

content

is

thorough

and

well-organized,

and, of course, •

that you were thinking about the paper before the deadline.

If your outline gets trashed, don't despair: better the outline than the final draft. •

How to Write an Outline

•

How to Use Your Outline to Create the Final Draft

Outlines for Others: An Illustrative Example This framed web-page provides an illustrative example of a functional outline which is informative, detailed, and brief. The bottom frame contains a "scrolling" commentary on the following outline. Click on the links within the outline to find information on that specific element of the report, which will appear in the bottom frame. The outline addresses this problem statement: As a summer student with Ford Canada, your first assignment as a member of the electrical system design team is to look into the 12V battery standard. This standard is being questioned because every year consumers demand more from the power supply in their cars: powerful air conditioners, power windows, power locks, sophisticated audio systems, power antennas, plugs for cellular phones, plugs for notebook computers.

The

,

and

indicate things that the author has done right, wrong, and questions that need to

be addressed arising from that part of the report, most of which deal with the issues of audience, purpose, organization, and content. Click on these symbols to read the appropriate commentary on

each

section

of

the

report.

Outline for Formal Report: 1. Introduction 1.1 Address the audience (supervisor with limited technical background).

1.2 State Purpose: To determine if the 12 volt battery standard is a sufficient power supply to support the increasing demand for power in todayís automobiles.

1.3 Describe the organization of this report. 2. Principles 2.1

Electrostatic potential: A measurement of work done if

a charge were moved from a to b in a circuit (an extended definition will be given) Electrostatic Potential = a constant (k) x (amount of charge on body 1) (amount of charge on body 2) / (distance between bodies)2 2.2 Kirchoff's Voltage Law: The charges travelling around a circuit transfer energy from one circuit element to another, but do not receive energy themselves. This means energy is conserved, which shows that the energy released by the battery is equal to the energy used by the elements the battery powers. 2.3 The relationship between Electrostatic Potential and Kirchoffís Voltage Law is that the first offers the explanation of stored energy within the circuit, as the

other uses that stored energy and shows how the energy is used by the circuit elements. The battery releases energy at a potential difference of 12 V and each element of the automobile is made to use the 12 volts of energy supplied by the battery. The battery also has an alternator (a charger) which keeps a constant supply of energy entering the battery (through the positive terminal), thus, the energy of the battery cannot be fully used up. 3. Relationship of in-class experiments (based on only one completed class experiment) 3.1 Experiment 1: Shows that changes in voltage are proportional to changes in current. This would reflect the same changes as in a 12 V battery. The current through

the

battery

remains

constant

with

the

constant

voltage

supplied. 4. Advantages and Disadvantages (of creating a higher voltage standard for car batteries) 4.1 Advantages 4.1.1 More power could be available for equipment requiring higher

voltage.

4.1.2 More equipment could be used simultaneously without power drain. 4.2 Disadvantages 4.2.1 The 12 V standard is widely used; it would take too much time and effort to change it. Costs, including re-tooling appliances to take advantages of the new standard, would be too high for the reasons for changing

the

voltage

standard.

4.2.2 Higher energy use is not environmentally friendly, leading to the question: are all these portable appliances really necessary? 4.2.3 More equipment used at the same time would lead to more car

accidents. For example, cellular phone use has been reported to lead to dangerous driving. 5. Recommendations 5.1 The raising of the standard voltage will be deemed unnecessary, largely because

of

the

costs

involved

in

implementing

the

new

standard.

1. Purpose State the purpose of your report at the top of the paper. A clear purpose is the key to good reports. In order to write a clear purpose statement, determine what problem you are facing and from that, determine the goal of the report.

In the above example, the purpose statement is derived directly from the problem From

statement: the

assignment

statement: "[the standard]

12V

battery

is

being ---> questioned because every year consumers demand more from the power supply in their cars."

The Problem Statement: "To determine if the 12 volt battery

standard

is

a

sufficient power supply to support

the

increasing

demand for power in todayís automobiles"

Keep your purpose in mind throughout the paper. Reread it whenever you need to decide what to include and what to cut.

2. Audience State your audience at the top of the paper. Although you may not actually include the statement "the audience for this report is for X, Y, and Z" in the report, it remains important to acknowledge it in the outline because the audience dictates the content and organization of any report. The audience statement serves as a reminder of this important consideration and might change the appearance of the final version. For example:

If you are writing for an However, if you are writing about the same concept engineer you might write:

for non-engineers, you might be better to write it this way: amount of

Epot

= Q1 Q2

k X

d2

Electrostatic = Potential

a constant (k) X

charge on body 1

(distance

amount of x charge on body 2 between

bodies)2 Then you will need to go on and explain just what this means. 3. Organization Deciding where and when to use information is the most important part of the outlining process. It helps to develop This involves several steps:

1.

Identifying the Groups: Sometimes you will have to do a lot of

thinking and shuffling of information to come up with categories; other times they will be obvious (or even assigned). If categories are assigned, you must still understand how the provided topics/categories link together, and what to say about each topic in order to create a coherent report.

2.

Sequencing the Groups:Once you have clustered information

together, arrange it logically. What is "logical" is a sequence that both

makes sense to you and addresses your audience's needs [1]. This may mean that you follow a traditional format [see EWC handbook for various formats]. Regardless of format, a you will still need to think about which ordering pattern (called a rhetorical pattern) is most useful. A single document might use more than one rhetorical pattern. The introduction to this web collection, for example, began with a definition, followed by a process description.

3.

Sequence the Items in a Group: Now you need to organize

each group and subgroup of information into a logical pattern. Again, the rhetorical patterns may help.

4.

Avoid Common Logical Problems: Two major problems are

faulty coordination and faulty subordination. Here's a simple illustration of each. 3.4.1. Faulty Coordination involves 3.4.1.1. equating items that are not of equal value, or not the same level. For example:

o

Citrus Fruits

o

Citrus Fruits



grapefruit



grapefruit



lemon



lemon



lime



lime



mandarin



oranges

orange



mandarin

orange 

navel

orange



navel

orange oranges placed at wrong level

position of oranges corrected

3.4.1.2. creating more than one heading which could logically contain the same item. 3.4.2. Faulty Subordination involves 3.4.2.1. placing an item under a topic where it does not belong In a draft of a fourth year thesis, the writers had the following headings in a chapter: II. Thesis Objectives A.

Scope

B. Cost Function But these are not the objectives at all. The objective was to design a computer program

for

a

telephone

queuing

system. Neither A nor B fit under the heading

given

above.

Cost

was

certainly involved, but was one of two constraints.

The

other

constraint

(useability) never got mentioned in the outline. When they redrafted, "Scope" was moved to the introduction, and the new chapter looked like this: II. Project Constraints A.

Useability

B. Cost 3.4.2.2. listing only one sub-unit under a unit (this is an error because an "A" makes no sense without a "B"). In the above example, for example, the third heading only has one sub unit. In this particular case, the student was

planning to include more information, but at this point

had

only

one

3. Relationship of in-class experiments 3. Relationship of Experiment 1 (based on only one completed class 3.1

experiment)

Experiment

Setup:

equipment and procedures 3.1

Experiment 1: Shows that

used

changes in voltage are proportional

3.2

Results: Shows that

to changes in current. This would

changes

reflect the same changes as in a 12

proportional to changes in

V battery. The current through the

current.

battery remains constant with the

3.3

constant voltage supplied.

Battery : This reflects the

in

voltage

Relationship

are

to

same changes as in a 12 V battery. The current through the battery remains constant with the constant voltage supplied. Sub-headings Only one sub-unit under a unit

clarify

the

nature of the experiment and its relationship to the battery problem.

1.

Make all Entries Grammatically Parallel: Most instructions

for résumés encourage you to use active verbs to describe what you did in your jobs: directed, shipped, served, was responsible for. A résumé is a highly specialized form of an outline. Following a similar principle in every outline (whether you use verbs or nouns) will strengthen the logic of your outline, and prevent haphazardness that may prevent you from recognizing errors in planning or consistency.

2.

Choose a Format for Your Outline: If your outline is going to

be evaluated, you need to use a format that will make reading easy. Two standards are the Traditional Alpha-Numeric Format, or a Decimal Format shown below. In each case, these formats force you to prioritize

ideas, so the secondary ideas are clearly placed under the main point. If you don't want to use these highly regimented systems, you can simply use points that are ordered under headings. Make sure that the headings are of equal weight and that they obey the same logical structure as pointed

out

above.

Traditional Alpha-Numeric Format

Decimal Format

I.

1.0. Main point (or introduction to a

Main A.

point

Support

(or to

1.

Evidence

2.

More

chapter)

main

for

evidence

point

chapter)

point

IA

1.1. First issue in this chapter

for

IA

1.1.1. Evidence for point 1.1

B. Second support for main point 1.

IB

1.2. Second issue in this chapter

a. support for this evidence

1.2.1 Evidence for point 1.2

b. more support for this evidence

1.2.1.1. support for this evidence

2. II.

Evidence

More

for

evidence

Second

main

point

1.1.2. More evidence for 1.1

for

IB

point

1.2.1.2. more support for this evidence

(and so on)

1.2.2 More evidence for point 1.2 2.0. Second main point or chapter

(and so on) A single entry under this system could A single entry under this system could look

like

II.A.1.b.iii.

3.

this:

look

like

this:

2.1.1.2.3. The above example uses the decimal format, but the alpha-

numeric could also have been used. 4. Content The most difficult part of writing an outline for another reader is deciding how much information you want to include. Clearly, you want to be able to show that you've thought considerably about the problem and your response to the problem, but have a limited amount of space in which to demonstrate your expertise.

1.

Provide

adequate

indication

regarding

background

information for the problem at hand: Filling in the background appropriately in the outline provides evidence of thoughtfulness and, as in the report, helps to clarify the

following

points

and

comments.

From the Principles section of the above example: "The

relationship

Electrostatic

between Here, the author develops the

Potential

and background theory which will be

Kirchoffís Voltage Law is that used to explain his decision for or the first offers the explanation against

upgrading

the

12V

of stored energy within the standard. This is the background circuit, as the other uses that required to understand automobile stored energy and shows how battery operation and what is the energy is used by the involved in upgrading the current circuit elements. The battery 12 volt standard. By indicating his releases energy at a potential awareness

of

the

principles

difference of 12 V and each involved in the problem, the author element of the automobile is gives evidence of his expertise, made to use the 12 volts of showing energy

supplied

by

that

alternator

(a

charger)

which keeps a constant supply of energy entering the battery (through

the

is

properly

the equipped to make an appropriate

battery. The battery also has recommendation. an

he

positive

terminal), thus, the energy of the battery cannot be fully used up." 2. Show clear relationships between concepts:

Establishing relationships between concepts helps the outline and, ultimately, the report by giving it a logical flow. Although this involves using certain principles of "organization" (see above), it remains important that these connections be clearly shown and elaborated on.

From the Principles section of the above example: "The relationship between Electrostatic

Here,

the

Potential and Kirchoffís Voltage Law is

establishes

that the first offers the explanation of

Electrostatic

stored energy within the circuit, as the

is the principle behind

other uses that stored energy and shows

Kirchoff's

how the energy is used by the circuit

Law, and both are at

elements. The battery releases energy at

work

a potential difference of 12 V and each

batteries.

in

author that Potential Voltage

automobile

element of the automobile is made to use the 12 volts of energy supplied by the battery. The battery also has an alternator (a charger) which keeps a constant supply of energy entering the battery (through the positive terminal), thus, the energy of the battery cannot be fully used up."

3.Provide

enough

evidence

to

support

your

arguments:

In your outline, showing that you have sufficient evidence to support your points, conclusions, and recommendations, and that you know how to use this evidence is key. It shows that you have really thought through the problem and gives the reader confidence that your actual report will turn out well.

From the Advantages and Disadvantages section from the above example: 4.1 Advantages

Here, the author does provide examples of advantages emerging from a new battery

4.1.1

More power

standard, but are these the only ones? The

could be available for

most important ones? In fact, they are the

equipment requiring

most obvious and important: both emerge

higher

from the fact that the battery supports more

voltage.

4.1.2

More

power usage, so these advantages can be

equipment could be

logically developed from the preceding

used simultaneously

material.

without power drain. 4.2 Disadvantages

As above, are these the only disadvantages?

4.2.1 The 12 V standard is

The most important one? Do they respond

widely used; it would take too

to the above advantages? Note also that the

much time and effort to change

author orders the points so as to show the

it. Costs, including re-tooling

progression from most to less relevant (to

appliances to take advantages of

audience):

the new standard, would be too 1)

Cost

changing the voltage standard.

2)

Environmental

4.2.2 Higher energy use is not

Unfriendliness

environmentally

3) Driver Safety

high

for

the

reasons

for

friendly,

leading to the question: are all these portable appliances really necessary? 4.2.3 More equipment used at the same time would lead to more

car

accidents.

For

example, cellular phone use has been

reported

dangerous driving.

to

lead

to

Secondly, The conclusion must be support by the information provided by the outline.

Given these Advantages and Disadvantages, does the conclusion (recommendation) make sense?

5.1 The raising of the standard

This

voltage

advantages and disadvantages above because:

will

be

deemed

recommendation

follows

from

the

unnecessary, largely because of

1) Cost of implementing the new standard is an

the costs involved in implementing

overbearing concern which outweighs the

the new standard.

benefits. 2) The advantages of being able to run more appliances and run more powerful appliances have been brought into question because of the threat it poses to the environment and the dangers it can present.

The next step is to use your outline to write your final draft.

"Memo writing is technical writing with its sleeves rolled up."

A memo is a no-nonsense professional document, designed to be read quickly and passed along rapidly, often within a company or work group. E-mail messages are by far the most common form of memo. This document describes the basic format for the business and technical memo. Most memos are characteristically brief, but they should follow the other principles of good technical writing as well: know your audience, be clear, and be accurate.

Typical Components •

Header

While a memo generally requests or delivers a quick response to a

•

Purpose

specific question, it may also be a compact version of a short report,

•

Summary

progress report, or lab report. Although section titles may appear

•

Discussion awkward in a very short memo, they allow your readers to scan efficiently and respond quickly.

•

Action Memos are often routed, posted, and forwarded, which means they can reach a lot of people quickly. Effects of careless mistakes compound quickly, since they tend to generate even more memos asking for clarification. Memos also get filed, which means they can come back to haunt you later. In fact, "memo" comes from the Latin memorandum, "a thing which must be remembered."

1. Header The header is a compact block of information at the top of a memo. Different offices may prefer different layouts, but in general you should use an arrangement like the following:

Date: January 24, 1998 To: F. Prefect From: A. Dent cc: T. MacMillan Z. Beeblebrox bcc: D. Adams Subject: My Suggested Revisions to the Local Demolition Schedule

•

Date: Spell it out.

In some countries "12/01/98" means

"December 1, 1998," but in others it means "12 January, 1998." •

To: and From: In general, omit titles such as Professor or Mr.,

but follow the style your organization prefers. Write your initials after your name on the "From" line. Note: The standard memo does not use a salutation ("Dear Mr. Prefect:") or a closing ("Sincerely, Arthur P. Dent"). However, many people do add such lines to e-mail messages. •

cc ("Carbon Copy") and BCC("Blind Carbon Copy"): Although

carbon copy paper is obsolete technology, the term persists. A "blind copy" might go to a person who should be informed of what is going on (such as an office assistant or a secretary), but who is otherwise not directly involved. These headers are optional. The people on the "cc" list do not see the names of the people on the "BCC" list. •

Subject: Be specific.

Annual Report (Too vague) Annual Report Cover Artwork (A little more precise, but there could be many other memos on this same topic) Cost Estimate for Annual Report Cover Artwork Emergency Revisions to Annual Report Cover Artwork • The first two examples are unacceptable because they only state a topic, but the last two are more informative because they also identify the focus -- the particular relationship of this memo to the general topic. 2. Purpose Immediately state your reason for writing. Answer the journalist's questions: who, what, when, where, and why. Mr. Howard has asked me to arrange a working lunch for all members of the writing staff, at the main office, sometime before the end of the month. The purpose of this memo is to request authorization to purchase a sound card and a modem for the computer in the front office. This memo confirms the details of your tour of the new processing plant, as we

discussed over the telephone this morning.

3. Summary The summary should do more than describe the contents of the memo, it should be a miniature version of the memo. A technical document is not a mystery novel, so put all your important information up front. This memo confirms the plans made during the writing staff's working lunch with Mr. Howard. It describes the proposed changes to the Greenfield Power proposal, and explains the procedure by which employees may voice their own opinions. (This passage merely describes the organization of the memo. It does not actually summarize the contents.) During last week's working lunch, Mr. Howard asked the the writing staff to consider two major changes to the Greenfield Power proposal: 1) invite the governor to write a letter of introduction, 2) transpose sections four and five. Mr. Howard will hold an open meeting next Friday at 12, in conference room 2, in order

to

solicit

employee

feedback.

(Some readers, satisfied with the summary, might stop reading here. If so, you have done your job well.)

4.

Discussion

Since your memo may be pulled from a file years from now, your discussion section should include sufficient background information. The background may include the names and titles of the people involved, or the dates of earlier memos related to the one you are writing. The rest of the section should expand on and support all the points you made in your summary. You may employ subheadings similar to those found in larger technical documents: situation, problem, solution, evaluation. Label these subsections. You may choose to arrange the discussion chronologically, from more important to less important, or from the general to the specific. Whatever rhetorical pattern you choose, you should follow these general pointers: •

new.

Start with the old information and work carefully towards the

•

Give your reader a sense of the big picture before you zero in on

the individual parts. Observation A. [Details on A...] Observation B. [Details on B...] Observation C. [Details on C...] Research suggests that factors A, B, and C combine to create problem Y. [Details on Y...] Therefore, conclusion X.

[Details

on

X...]

(An unconnected string of details is often hard to follow.) Problem Y occurs when factors A, B, and C are present. This section explains why we should avoid problem Y, examines each of the contributing factors, and explains why I feel that action X should prevent further instances of problem Y. [Details follow, in the order promised.] (Advance knowledge of how the details fit together makes them easier to •

absorb.) Use active verbs.

•

Use the pronoun "I" when you are talking about your work.

•

Simplify your language. Instead of "somewhere in the proximity

of," write "near". Instead of "at this point in time," write "now." Avoid puffing up your writing to make yourself appear more important. 5. Action Unless the purpose of the memo is simply to inform, you should finish with a clear call for action. Who should do what, and how long do they have to do it? You may need to include alternatives, in the event that your readers disagree with you. Be polite when you ask others to do work for you, especially when they are not under your supervision. You may wish to mention the actions that you plan to take next, and what your own deadlines are, so your reader can gauge how important the project is to you. A canned conclusion such as "If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at 555-1234" is too vague for a statement of action.

Progress reports are common in engineering. As the name suggests, they document ongoing projects. They might be one-page memos or long, formal documents. Such a report is aimed at whoever assigned the project. Its goal is to

enable the manager or sponsor of a project to make informed decisions about the future of the project. Usually, progress reports are stressful. The sponsor wants a job done quickly and cheaply; the engineer needs to ensure accuracy and quality. A sponsor might cancel even a quality job if it is behind or overbudget. As the engineer, you need to please the sponsor and do the job well. Yet, any project of size or significance is bound to encounter snags: additional requirements, miscommunications, problems, delays, or unexpected expenses. A progress report must account for those snags.

Organization The original proposal for the project determines the structure: make use of original milestones or the timeline. With this in mind, the simplest structure is as follows: 1.

Introduction

2.

Work Completed

3.

Work Scheduled

4.

Problems

But a more comprehensive list of components will give you a clearer structure, even if you return to the simpler structure for the report itself. Beer and McMurrey's [8] Detailed Structure: 1. Introduction 2. Project Description 3. Progress Summary 4. Problems Encountered 5. Changes in Requirements 6. Overall Assessment of the Project This document adds: 7. Report Apparatus (titles, references, etc.)

1.

Introduction

As always, first indicate the purpose of the report and its intended audience. Clearly define the time period covered in the report (see also titles). Then, explain the project's objectives and summarize the major issues. Sometimes the summary

can

2.

be

a

separate

section

Project

from

the

introduction

[2].

Description

In very short reports, the introduction might contain this section, but if it is under its own heading, readers who are familiar with the project can skip it. Someone unfamiliar with the project, however, needs summarized details such as purpose and scope of the project, start and completion dates, and names of parties involved [8]. Often this section can be adapted from a proposal or borrowed from a

previous

3.

progress

Progress

report. Summary

This is the substance of the report (so "summary" may be a misnomer). You want to discuss work done, work in progress, and work to be done. You might just use these as subheadings to structure the section. This would be a project-tasks approach. Other approaches are time-periods or a combined approach. •

Project-tasks approach: Focus on the tasks. Defined milestones

can logically organize your discussion into this kind of structure. Also if you are working on a number of semi-independent tasks at the same time, this approach will work well [8]. •

Time-periods approach: Focus on time: the previous period,

the current period, the future. If a timeline (or deadline) is more important than milestones, then use this approach. Also, use it for projects with a simple linear structure. •

Combined approach: The two above approaches could be

combined if, for example, under previous work, you break down what you have done by individual tasks. Or, under the tasks, you focus on what part is complete, what part is in progress, and what part is yet to come.

Your project (and sometimes your sponsor) will determine which of these three you use. If the problems encountered or changes required are time-related, then use the time-periods approach to your advantage; likewise, if the problems or changes relate to specific tasks then use the project-tasks approach. Another item that may be included here is a summary of financial data. This last item could be contained in a table or appendix, or an independent section. 4.

Problems

Encountered

As noted in the opening, snags are expected. Don't hide from them; explain what they are and how they might affect key areas of the job (such as timing, price or quality). If the problem occurred in the past, you can explain how you overcame it. This is least serious; in fact, you look good. If the problem is in front of you (now or in the future), explain how you hope to overcome it, if you can. 5.

Changes

in

Requirements

Here, you record the changes to the project: milestones added, new requirements, or schedule changes (good or bad). Even if these changes have not affected the ultimate goal of the project, you need to tell the sponsor how problems have been accommodated. Note: If changes are a direct result of problems encountered, sections 4 and 5 may be combined. This would lead to a modified organization: first problem and the change it required, then the next problem and change, and so on. 6.

Overall

Assessment

of

the

Project

Since a progress report is not about a finished work, the conclusion needs only to give your professional opinion of how the project is going. Being unrealistically optimistic is as inappropriate as being unduly negative. Beware of promising early completion: a single setback can gobble up much time. Likewise, don't overreact if you are behind schedule. You may also gain time along the way. Far more significant for the engineer is to explain anything that may change the expected quality of the final product. Keeping in mind your purpose can help you focus here: your goal is to enable the manager or sponsor to make informed decisions.

7.

Report

Apparatus

A long progress report will include all the apparatus of formal reports: letter of transmittal, title page, table of contents, abstract, appendices, references. Only the most common will be addressed here. •

Title: whether on a separate page or merely as a header, the title

sends an important message to the reader. It needs to be clear and concise. Sample good title: PROGRESS

REPORT:

Manufacturing Custom Relief Valve Assemblies XYZ Company Reporting Period: April - July 1997 •

Subtitle: Note that the subtitle in the above example

incorporates the dates covered by the report. This makes handy reference for a reader, particularly on a large project where more than one progress report may be necessary. •

Appendices: In a short report (less than 10 pages) keep

appendices to a minimum. It is always appropriate, however, to lodge financial data in an appendix if it does not fit elsewhere in the report. An important guideline is that it is only worth including an appendix if you mention it in the guts of the report. Otherwise, leave it out altogether. References: Systems of referencing vary widely within engineering disciplines. The University of Toronto's Language Across the Curriculum program has a convenient "bibliography builder" for people using the author-date system. The basics of the format can be seen in the reference list below that contains the references used in producing these pages. See also:

MAJOR COMPONENTS 1. Executive Summary (no more than 1 page)

•

Place your piece in the context of the larger project

•

Explain the goal of your part (in relation to the whole project)

•

Explain clearly what stage you are at and how that stage fits with

the expected milestones. Have a look at an example of an executive summary from one of the projects done last year. The project was to develop a new protection circuit to replace the current limiter circuit for an ultrasound machine at Sunnybrook Hospital. The annotations in the left margin should help you see the significant points that you will also need to include. 2. Introduction (1-3 pages) •

more detailed purpose and overview

•

clear "road map" of sections of report

•

any important additions to literature review (ie. work that

influences design) 3. Program Review (5-15 pages) •

Describe the stages in this piece of the project (from the

proposal if they were clearly explained there) •

Explain

each

stage

For completed stages: o

what was done, why, and how does it contribute to

related stages? o

explain significant obstacles especially if they required a

change of plan or of timeline o

if possible, explain how the obstacles have been

overcome.

For incomplete stages o

explain briefly work being done and to be completed

To keep this specific, focus only on your components and points of intersection with those of others. Do not talk about the whole project

at

this

stage.

4. Changes to the Program (0-10 pages) Explain: •

why a change was made

•

what effect it will it have on the outcome

•

how responsibilities are being revised

5. Revised Milestones 6. Revised Division of Responsibilities 7. Appendix Original

Milestones

from

the

Proposal

Original Division of responsibilities from the Proposal 8. References Sample

Executive Executive Summary

Summary: The first paragraph, though

The high-frequency, high-sensitivity transducer is part of

a little rough, places the

the

transducer into the context

protection circuitry for Ultrasound imaging. Current

of the larger ultrasound

ultrasound technology needs this development because

imaging project.

the current limiter circuit causes multiple signal

project

to

design

high-frequency-high-speed

reflections at the high voltages produced by the pulsers. These reflections deteriorate the resolution of the imaging system. A new protection switching circuit will replace the current limiter circuit and will preserve the stimulation pulse in the form it was delivered from the

pulser. The transducer appears at the stage before the limiter The second paragraph is better. It defines what the transducer actually is.

circuit which makes up the main focus of this project. The transducer is activated by a 400V pulse from the pulser and produces a mechanical pulse. This pulse is then reflected by the observed object and transformed back to an electric signal. The goal of the transducer project is to design and build a prototype of a metal-backed transducer based on thin copolymer PVDF (poly (vinylidene fluoride)). This process has three stages:

The third paragraph clearly sets out the purpose and

o

finding an optimal alloy of Lead and Tin that can be cast in a Teflon mold.

milestones. o

designing

the

mold

and

prototype

based

primarily on existing research o

building a prototype.

The project is on schedule, having met the first two milestones. A Pb27%Sn alloy has been selected because of its melting properties [1,2] and because it can easily The

final

paragraph

be cast in the Teflon mold [2,3]. The design will follow

addresses the crucial point

Malloy [1]; however, Malloy used a Pb23%Sn alloy, so

of the report: the progress.

we expect our transducer to be more efficient and

The

third

produce less circuit noise [3]. Arrangements have been

sentences clearly address

made to cast the prototype in the first week of January.

milestones one and two.

Once the casting is complete, the remainder of the

second

and

prototype should be finished on schedule by the end of January when preliminary testing of the whole project is scheduled to begin. Ý

Electronic documents should be...

Better-written technical documents enable people to work with greater speed, accuracy, and comfort. These qualities

1. short,

are measured by the usability factor.

2. top-heavy,

Sun Microsystems researchers applied several simple

3. scannable,

writing strategies to test web pages, improving the usability

4. navigable, and

of a tourism web site by 127%, and a technical web site

5. straightforward.

by 149%. (See "Web Usability Studies").

Note: These strategies are designed to improve informational web pages, but some nontechnical web sites also have value. The Internet has room for writing that creates suspense,

style,

and

poetry.

1. Electronic Documents Should Be Short The shorter, the better. 2. Electronic Documents Should Be Top-heavy The inverted pyramid writing style puts the important information at the top. People do judge books by their cover; and they will judge web pages by what they can see without scrolling. •

If your first few lines satisfy your reader's needs, you will have

done your job well. •

Curious or skeptical readers can keep reading, perhaps following

links deeper into your document. •

Bored or satisfied readers can move on.

Use the inverted pyramid on several levels, whether you are writing a paragraph, a single page, or a multi-page collection. •

Paragraph

o

Begin with the conclusion. (It may be all your visitor

has time to read.) o

Use subsequent sentences to support your conclusion.

o

Use bulleted lists and highlighted keywords to break

up long, boring blocks of text. •

Page o

Begin each page (or posting) with a table of contents, or

a detailed abstract. o

The abstract should provide the Coles Notes version of

your page: "This web page has some neat links and



cool

graphics."

(Vague and completely useless.) "This web page offers links to my favorite



science fiction TV shows and some original computer graphics." (Although slightly improved, this version still lacks any specific details.) "This web page has an annotated list of



links to Canadian Star Trek and Babylon 5 web sites, and graphics that emulate their computer interfaces." 

(This more informative summary helps the

reader evaluate a document without reading it to the end.) •

Collection o

Provide an informative overview, near the top of the

first page (in order to minimize scrolling). o

Different kinds of electronic documents require slightly

different overviews. For example: 

A web home page should contain: 

a statement of purpose



a table of contents



An on-line manual, help file, or FAQ (list of

"Frequently Asked Questions") should contain: 

a condensed, easily-accessible index or

table of contents for those who want a quick overview 

items

arranged

so

that

the

most

common problems are the most easily solved. 

An archive or list of links should begin with: 

a clear description of the selection

criteria 

a summary of contents (the better the

summary, the more useful the collection) 3. Electronic Documents Should Be Scannable

Conventional Text

Scannable Revision

Traditional writing genres, such as the five-

Electronic Documents Should Be Scannable

paragraph essay, or a short story, are usually harder to read on a visually-intensive electronic

People dislike reading long paragraphs of

media such as the World Wide Web, because

electronic text. Technical paragraphs are often

computer users dislike reading long paragraphs.

inefficient

On average, people read electronic 25% slower

information, and electronic text is harder to

than

read.

conventional

text.

Monitors

cause

eyestrain, it takes time for long pages to download, and it is easy to lose your place in an electronic document. Traditional writing modes such as essays and narratives use long blocks of

ways

of

conveying

complex

Users prefer scannable text, so that they can glance over a page and quickly gauge its value. Scannable text uses

text in order to build gradually and inevitably to

•

descriptive subheadings,

a conclusion. This kind of writing assumes a

•

highlighted keywords, and

captive audience -- readers who want to absorb

•

bulleted lists.

every word and idea on the page, in the order that the author presents them. Technical authors cannot make the same assumptions, because

Technical Paragraphs Are Often Inefficient

time is money in the professional world, which means that people will bail out of what looks

More traditional writing genres, such as the

like a boring document, unless they see concrete

five-paragraph essay or the short story, build

signs of useful information. Documents which

gradually and inevitably to a conclusion.

emphasize their most important information

Long paragraphs are acceptable in this kind of

with

writing, because the reader is expected to read

meaningful

subheadings,

highlighted

keywords, and bulleted lists allow readers to scan the document -- to glance over its contents quickly, stopping whenever they encounter something interesting, and skimming ahead when they are bored. People "who surf the 'net" will likely try to surf your document as well, which means that long blocks of plain text will appear to be more trouble than they are worth. The first person who actually reads this far in

every word, in strict sequential order. Technical readers want the conclusion up front. They will bail out quickly, unless they find something interesting. They will scan ahead

in

order

to

predict

a

page's

usefulness, focusing on the words and phrases that jump out at them. Electronic Text Is Harder to Read

the text should e-mail the author to receive a free, autographed picture of the cast from "Full

•

read.

House." Preparing and revising electronic documents according to this principle is a time

•

Many users report eye strain or other discomfort.

consuming project which, judging by the prevalence of text-heavy web sites on the

Electronic text takes 25% longer to

•

Users lose their place when pages are densely packed.

Internet, many people do not want to do; however, the time that you have already invested in doing the work in the first place is

•

Blocks of text can be intimidating.

completely wasted if your users never find it on your site. Analysis Although the paragraph on the left actually contains more information, not all of it would be of interest to the users who come to this page, and there is nothing that would particularly attract the attention of those who might be interested.

The revision on the right highlights the most important details; an author can use hyperlinks to send the reader to related subdocuments or to lower sections of the same

page

in

order

to

provide

more

details.

4. Electronic Documents Should Be Navigable Non-expert users typically depend more heavily on help files, navigation aids, and other supporting features. As more ordinary people encounter electronic media, those elements become more important. As an electronic author, you should generally help a novice use your document. At the same time, too much help slows down the experts. •

•

Use hyperlinks with care. o

Build links using informative text.

o

Avoid extraneous links.

Expect late arrivals and premature departures. o

Any page on your site may be the only page your

reader sees. o

Help your reader navigate efficiently.

Use Hyperlinks With Care In some ways, hypertext frees readers by letting them pick and choose from among several paths through a document At the same time, hypertext restricts readers, because they can follow only the links the author chose to create. As an electronic author, you should build links using informative text, and avoid extraneous links. •

Build links using informative text

Take advantage of the fact that linked text stands out, and use it to highlight the important information you offer. Use the surrounding words to explain why the reader might want to click on the link.

For a web page about plagiarism, click here.

o

(Sloppy writing; the word "here" jumps out, but it means little by itself.) Click on the following link for a web page about

o

plagiarism. (The linked text is more descriptive, but the sentence still offers no good reason for a reader to follow the link; further, since most readers don't need to be told that you click on links to make hypertext work, the instruction wastes time.) All students are required to know the university's

o

official

definition

of

plagiarism.

(The linked words describe what the document is about, and the context clarifies why a reader might want to read it.) •

Avoid extraneous links o

For a reader with a specific goal in mind, link-saturated

paragraphs

can

be

distracting.

My name is Dennis G. Jerz. At present, I work for the Engineering Writing Centre in the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering at the University of Toronto. I am completing my Ph.D. at the Graduate School of English. I am a citizen of the United States of America, although I have been living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada for six years. I received my B.A. and M.A. in English at the University of Virginia. I have recently accepted a job in the Department of English at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. (Many people's first web pages include passages like this. It may be fine for beginners who simply want to play with hyperlinks, but an annotated list is a much more efficient and useful way to organize a series of links.) o

Internal cross-links may fight each other for your

reader's attention. o

Links to external sites may send your reader away

prematurely.

Obviously the solution is not to hide links; rather, offer links that actually help a reader who wants to use your resources to achieve a goal. Expect Late Arrivals and Premature Departures Any page on your site may be the only page your reader sees. Make it as useful as possible. •

Even a Brief Visit Should be Productive o

On the way in... 

Search engines may point users directly to one

of your internal pages. 

Don't assume your visitor has read any of your

other pages.  o

Treat each page as an independent document.

On the way out... 

Users can and will leave your web site. A technical or service-oriented web site



should try to satisfy the user as soon as possible. Do not try to trick them into staying



longer. Aim to send them away satisfied.

 

If you want to keep their interest longer, don't

employ tricks -- write stuff that's more interesting. •

Orient Your Reader Within Each Page o

Provide meaningful navigation aids. 

[

Go

Back

]

(This link would mean nothing to a user who didn't come from the place you want to send them.) 

[

Home

(There are millions of home pages out there.)

]



(While most users of the present web site would probably understand the function of this graphic, to novices, it may seem like just a pretty picture. [Hint: click on it.]) [ Engineering Writing Centre Home ]



(Low-tech, but more informative than the graphic. [So: why does this site use the logo instead? Well... umm... you see, graphics are cool...]) o

Provide navigation alternatives. 

Is your document sequential, with a clear

beginning and ending? That may be good, and it may be bad. 

Novice

users

typically

prefer

a

sequential document, so they can tell when they have finished. 

Expert users may object to tedious

strings of "Go to next page" links. 

A user should be able to change navigation

strategies from moment to moment 

The main navigation bar at the top of

this page clearly reflects a hierarchical arrangement. 

The arrow buttons at the top and

bottom indicate the sequential arrangement of documents in this particular section. 

The arrows appear at the top of

the page for those users who want to click quickly through all the pages, in order to get an idea of what each page contains. 

The arrows also appear at the

bottom of the page because that's

where sequential readers will end up when they make their decision about whether they want to keep reading. 

the

The occasional hyperlink embedded in main

text

indicates

a

thematic

arrangement among various sections Electronic Documents Should Be Straightforward •

Avoid "marketese" o

Click here to see the best web site ever! You

won't

be

sorry!

(Users detest this kind of writing. They end up mistrusting the web page, even feeling insulted by the writer.) •

Avoid pompous and overblown language.

Pompous

Straightforward

At this point in time...

Now...

Due to the fact that...

Because...

It is important to note that...

[cut entirely]

From X, it can be seen that Y is the case.

X proves Y.

•

Don't hide behind words. Say what you mean. o

At this point, the management would like to offer

its most sincere sympathies for any inconvenience that might have been caused by the recent, brief network incident. Our valuable customers should rest assured that we remain committed to offering reliability and affordability blah blah blah... (If this is supposed to make amends to customers who have suffered a great inconvenience, it is a sorry attempt.)

o

We regret the inconvenience caused by the server

crash -- we hate being locked out of the network just as much as you do. The upgrade should be completed by Monday morning. (The informality and directness of this passage is more believable -- a reader would tend to believe that this writer actually did feel bad about the "incident.")