Reno V. Aclu : 521 U S 844

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521 U.S. 844 1 1 7 S.Ct. 2329 1 38 L.Ed.2d 87 4 Janet RENO, Attorney General of the United States, et al., Appellants v. AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION et al. No. 96-51 1 . Supreme Court of t he Unit ed St at es Argued March 19, 1997. Decided June 26, 1997. Syllabus * Two provisions of the Communic ations Dec enc y Ac t of 1996 (CDA or Ac t) seek to protec t minors from harmful material on the Internet, an international network of interc onnec ted c omputers that enables millions of people to c ommunic ate with one another in "c yberspac e'' and to ac c ess vast amounts of information from around the world. Title 47 U.S .C.A. §223(a)(1)(B)(ii) (S upp.1997) c riminaliz es the "knowing'' transmission of "obsc ene or indec ent'' messages to any rec ipient under 18 years of age. S ec tion 223(d) prohibits the "knowin[g]'' sending or displaying to a person under 18 of any message "that, in c ontext, depic ts or desc ribes, in terms patently offensive as measured by c ontemporary c ommunity standards, sexual or exc retory ac tivities or organs.'' Affirmative defenses are provided for those who take "good faith, . . . effec tive . . . ac tions'' to restric t ac c ess by minors to the prohibited c ommunic ations, §223(e)(5)(A), and those who restric t suc h ac c ess by requiring c ertain designated forms of age proof, suc h as a verified c redit c ard or an adult identific ation number, §223(e)(5)(B). A number of plaintiffs filed suit c hallenging the c onstitutionality of §§223(a)(1) and 223(d). After making extensive findings of fac t, a three-judge Distric t Court c onvened pursuant to the Ac t entered a preliminary injunc tion against enforc ement of both c hallenged provisions. The c ourt's judgment enjoins the Government from enforc ing §223(a)(1)(B)'s prohibitions insofar as they relate to "indec ent'' c ommunic ations, but expressly preserves the Government's right to investigate and prosec ute the obsc enity or c hild pornography ac tivities prohibited therein. The injunc tion against enforc ement of §223(d) is unqualified bec ause that sec tion c ontains no separate referenc e to obsc enity or c hild pornography. The Government appealed to this Court under the Ac t's spec ial review provisions, arguing that the Distric t Court erred in holding that the CDA violated both the First Amendment bec ause it is overbroad and the Fifth Amendment bec ause it is vague. Held: The CDA's "indec ent transmission'' and "patently offensive display'' provisions abridge "the freedom of speec h'' protec ted by the First Amendment. Pp. ____-____. (a) Although the CDA's vagueness is relevant to the First Amendment overbreadth inquiry, the judgment should be affirmed without reac hing the Fifth Amendment issue. P. 2341. (b) A c lose look at the prec edents relied on by the Government-Ginsberg v.

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New York, 390 U.S . 629, 88 S .Ct. 1274, 20 L.Ed.2d 195; FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S . 726, 98 S .Ct. 3026, 57 L.Ed.2d 1073; and Renton v. Playtime Theatres, Inc., 475 U.S . 41, 106 S .Ct. 925, 89 L.Ed.2d 29-raises, rather than relieves, doubts about the CDA's c onstitutionality. The CDA differs from the various laws and orders upheld in those c ases in many ways, inc luding that it does not allow parents to c onsent to their c hildren's use of restric ted materials; is not limited to c ommerc ial transac tions; fails to provide any definition of "indec ent'' and omits any requirement that "patently offensive'' material lac k soc ially redeeming value; neither limits its broad c ategoric al prohibitions to partic ular times nor bases them on an evaluation by an agenc y familiar with the medium's unique c harac teristic s; is punitive; applies to a medium that, unlike radio, rec eives full First Amendment protec tion; and c annot be properly analyz ed as a form of time, plac e, and manner regulation bec ause it is a c ontent-based blanket restric tion on speec h. These prec edents, then, do not require the Court to uphold the CDA and are fully c onsistent with the applic ation of the most stringent review of its provisions. Pp. ____-____. (c ) The spec ial fac tors rec ogniz ed in some of the Court's c ases as justifying regulation of the broadc ast media-the history of extensive government regulation of broadc asting, see, e.g., Red Lion Broadcasting Co. v. FCC, 395 U.S . 367, 399-400, 89 S .Ct. 1794, 1811-1812, 23 L.Ed.2d 371; the sc arc ity of available frequenc ies at its inc eption, see, e.g., Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. v. FCC, 512 U.S . 622, 637-638, 114 S .Ct. 2445, 2456-2457, 129 L.Ed.2d 497; and its "invasive'' nature, see Sable Communications of Cal., Inc. v. FCC, 492 U.S . 115, 128, 109 S .Ct. 2829, 2837-2838, 106 L.Ed.2d 93-are not present in c yberspac e. Thus, these c ases provide no basis for qualifying the level of First Amendment sc rutiny that should be applied to the Internet. Pp. ____-____. (d) Regardless of whether the CDA is so vague that it violates the Fifth Amendment, the many ambiguities c onc erning the sc ope of its c overage render it problematic for First Amendment purposes. For instanc e, its use of the undefined terms "indec ent'' and "patently offensive'' will provoke unc ertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to eac h other and just what they mean. The vagueness of suc h a c ontent-based regulation, see, e.g., Gentile v. State Bar of Nev., 501 U.S . 1030, 111 S .Ct. 2720, 115 L.Ed.2d 888, c oupled with its inc reased deterrent effec t as a c riminal statute, see, e.g., Dombrowski v. Pfister, 380 U.S . 479, 85 S .Ct. 1116, 14 L.Ed.2d 22, raise spec ial First Amendment c onc erns bec ause of its obvious c hilling effec t on free speec h. Contrary to the Government's argument, the CDA is not saved from vagueness by the fac t that its "patently offensive'' standard repeats the sec ond part of the three-prong obsc enity test set forth in Miller v. California, 413 U.S . 15, 24, 93 S .Ct. 2607, 2614-2615, 37 L.Ed.2d 419. The sec ond Miller prong reduc es the inherent vagueness of its own "patently offensive'' term by requiring that the prosc ribed material be "spec ific ally defined by the applic able state law.'' In addition, the CDA applies only to "sexual c onduc t,'' whereas, the CDA prohibition extends also to "exc retory ac tivities'' and "organs'' of both a sexual and exc retory nature. Eac h of Miller's other two prongs also c ritic ally limits the unc ertain sweep of the obsc enity definition. Just bec ause a definition inc luding three limitations is not vague, it does not follow that one of those limitations, standing alone, is not vague. The CDA's vagueness undermines the likelihood that it has been c arefully tailored to the c ongressional goal of protec ting minors from potentially harmful materials. Pp. ____-____. (e) The CDA lac ks the prec ision that the First Amendment requires when a statute regulates the c ontent of speec h. Although the Government has an interest in protec ting c hildren from potentially harmful materials, see, e.g., Ginsberg, 390 U.S ., at 639, 88 S .Ct., at 1280, the CDA pursues that interest by suppressing a large amount of speec h that adults have a c onstitutional right

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to send and rec eive, see, e.g., Sable, supra, at 126, 109 S .Ct., at 2836-2837. Its breadth is wholly unprec edented. The CDA's burden on adult speec h is unac c eptable if less restric tive alternatives would be at least as effec tive in ac hieving the Ac t's legitimate purposes. S ee, e.g., Sable, 492 U.S ., at 126, 109 S .Ct., at 2836-2837. The Government has not proved otherwise. On the other hand, the Distric t Court found that c urrently available user-based software suggests that a reasonably effec tive method by whic h parents c an prevent their c hildren from ac c essing material whic h the parents believe is inappropriate will soon be widely available. Moreover, the arguments in this Court referred to possible alternatives suc h as requiring that indec ent material be "tagged'' to fac ilitate parental c ontrol, making exc eptions for messages with artistic or educ ational value, providing some toleranc e for parental c hoic e, and regulating some portions of the Internet differently than others. Partic ularly in the light of the absenc e of any detailed c ongressional findings, or even hearings addressing the CDA's spec ial problems, the Court is persuaded that the CDA is not narrowly tailored. Pp. ____-____. (f) The Government's three additional arguments for sustaining the CDA's affirmative prohibitions are rejec ted. First, the c ontention that the Ac t is c onstitutional bec ause it leaves open ample "alternative c hannels'' of c ommunic ation is unpersuasive bec ause the CDA regulates speec h on the basis of its c ontent, so that a "time, plac e, and manner'' analysis is inapplic able. S ee, e.g., Consolidated Edison Co. of N.Y. v. Public Serv. Comm'n of N.Y., 447 U.S . 530, 536, 100 S .Ct. 2326, 2332-2333, 65 L.Ed.2d 319. S ec ond, the assertion that the CDA's "knowledge'' and "spec ific person'' requirements signific antly restric t its permissible applic ation to c ommunic ations to persons the sender knows to be under 18 is untenable, given that most Internet forums are open to all c omers and that even the strongest reading of the "spec ific person'' requirement would c onfer broad powers of c ensorship, in the form of a "hec kler's veto,'' upon any opponent of indec ent speec h. Finally, there is no textual support for the submission that material having sc ientific , educ ational, or other redeeming soc ial value will nec essarily fall outside the CDA's prohibitions. Pp. ____-____. (g) The §223(e)(5) defenses do not c onstitute the sort of "narrow tailoring'' that would save the CDA. The Government's argument that transmitters may take protec tive "good faith ac tio[n]'' by "tagging'' their indec ent c ommunic ations in a way that would indic ate their c ontents, thus permitting rec ipients to bloc k their rec eption with appropriate software, is illusory, given the requirement that suc h ac tion be "effec tive'': The proposed sc reening software does not c urrently exist, but, even if it did, there would be no way of knowing whether a potential rec ipient would ac tually bloc k the enc oded material. The Government also failed to prove that §223(b)(5)'s verific ation defense would signific antly reduc e the CDA's heavy burden on adult speec h. Although suc h verific ation is ac tually being used by some c ommerc ial providers of sexually explic it material, the Distric t Court's findings indic ate that it is not ec onomic ally feasible for most nonc ommerc ial speakers. Pp. ____-____. (h) The Government's argument that this Court should preserve the CDA's c onstitutionality by honoring its severability c lause, §608, and by c onstruing nonseverable terms narrowly, is ac c eptable in only one respec t. Bec ause obsc ene speec h may be banned totally, see Miller, supra, at 18, 93 S .Ct., at 2611-2612, and §223(a)'s restric tion of "obsc ene'' material enjoys a textual manifestation separate from that for "indec ent'' material, the Court c an sever the term "or indec ent'' from the statute, leaving the rest of §223(a) standing. Pp. ____-____. (i) The Government's argument that its "signific ant'' interest in fostering the Internet's growth provides an independent basis for upholding the CDA's

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c onstitutionality is singularly unpersuasive. The dramatic expansion of this new forum c ontradic ts the fac tual basis underlying this c ontention: that the unregulated availability of "indec ent'' and "patently offensive'' material is driving people away from the Internet. P. 2351. 929 F.S upp. 824, affirmed. S TEVENS , J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in whic h S CALIA, KENNEDY, S OUTER, THOMAS , GINS BURG, and BREYER, JJ., joined. O'CONNOR, J., filed an opinion c onc urring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part, in whic h REHNQUIS T, C. J., joined. S eth P. Waxman, Washington, DC, for appellants. Bruc e J. Ennis, Washington, DC, for appellees. Justic e S TEVENS delivered the opinion of the Court.

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A t issu e is t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t w o st a t u t or y pr ov ision s en a c t ed t o pr ot ec t m in or s fr om "in dec en t '' a n d "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' c om m u n ic a t ion s on t h e In t er n et . Not w it h st a n din g t h e leg it im a c y a n d im por t a n c e of t h e c on g r ession a l g oa l of pr ot ec t in g c h ildr en fr om h a r m fu l m a t er ia ls, w e a g r ee w it h t h e t h r ee-ju dg e Dist r ic t Cou r t t h a t t h e st a t u t e a br idg es "t h e fr eedom of speec h '' pr ot ec t ed by t h e Fir st A m en dm en t . 1

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* T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t m a de ex t en siv e fin din g s of fa c t , m ost of w h ic h w er e ba sed on a det a iled st ipu la t ion pr epa r ed by t h e pa r t ies. See 9 2 9 F. Su pp. 8 2 4 , 8 3 0 -8 4 9 (E. D. Pa . 1 9 9 6 ). 2 T h e fin din g s desc r ibe t h e c h a r a c t er a n d t h e dim en sion s of t h e In t er n et , t h e a v a ila bilit y of sex u a lly ex plic it m a t er ia l in t h a t m ediu m , a n d t h e pr oblem s c on fr on t in g a g e v er ific a t ion for r ec ipien t s of In t er n et c om m u n ic a t ion s. Bec a u se t h ose fin din g s pr ov ide t h e u n der pin n in g s for t h e leg a l issu es, w e beg in w it h a su m m a r y of t h e u n dispu t ed fa c t s. T h e In t er n et

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T h e In t er n et is a n in t er n a t ion a l n et w or k of in t er c on n ec t ed c om pu t er s. It is t h e ou t g r ow t h of w h a t beg a n in 1 9 6 9 a s a m ilit a r y pr og r a m c a lled "A RPA NET , ''3 w h ic h w a s desig n ed t o en a ble c om pu t er s oper a t ed by t h e m ilit a r y , defen se c on t r a c t or s, a n d u n iv er sit ies c on du c t in g defen se-r ela t ed r esea r c h t o c om m u n ic a t e w it h on e a n ot h er by r edu n da n t c h a n n els ev en if som e por t ion s of t h e n et w or k w er e da m a g ed in a w a r . W h ile t h e A RPA NET n o lon g er ex ist s, it pr ov ided a n ex a m ple for t h e dev elopm en t of a n u m ber of c iv ilia n n et w or k s t h a t , ev en t u a lly lin k in g w it h ea c h ot h er , n ow en a ble t en s of m illion s of people t o c om m u n ic a t e w it h on e a n ot h er a n d t o a c c ess v a st a m ou n t s of in for m a t ion fr om a r ou n d t h e w or ld. T h e In t er n et is "a u n iqu e a n d w h olly n ew m ediu m of w or ldw ide h u m a n c om m u n ic a t ion . ''4

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T h e In t er n et h a s ex per ien c ed "ex t r a or din a r y g r ow t h . ''5 T h e n u m ber of "h ost '' c om pu t er s-t h ose t h a t st or e in for m a t ion a n d r ela y c om m u n ic a t ion s-in c r ea sed fr om a bou t 3 0 0 in 1 9 8 1 t o a ppr ox im a t ely 9 , 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 by t h e t im e of t h e t r ia l in 1 9 9 6 . Rou g h ly 6 0 % of t h ese h ost s a r e loc a t ed in t h e Un it ed St a t es. A bou t 4 0 m illion people u sed t h e In t er n et a t t h e t im e of t r ia l, a n u m ber t h a t is ex pec t ed t o m u sh r oom t o

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2 0 0 m illion by 1 9 9 9 . « up

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In div idu a ls c a n obt a in a c c ess t o t h e In t er n et fr om m a n y differ en t sou r c es, g en er a lly h ost s t h em selv es or en t it ies w it h a h ost a ffilia t ion . Most c olleg es a n d u n iv er sit ies pr ov ide a c c ess for t h eir st u den t s a n d fa c u lt y ; m a n y c or por a t ion s pr ov ide t h eir em ploy ees w it h a c c ess t h r ou g h a n offic e n et w or k ; m a n y c om m u n it ies a n d loc a l libr a r ies pr ov ide fr ee a c c ess; a n d a n in c r ea sin g n u m ber of st or efr on t "c om pu t er c offee sh ops'' pr ov ide a c c ess for a sm a ll h ou r ly fee. Sev er a l m a jor n a t ion a l "on lin e ser v ic es'' su c h a s A m er ic a On lin e, Com pu Ser v e, t h e Mic r osoft Net w or k , a n d Pr odig y offer a c c ess t o t h eir ow n ex t en siv e pr opr iet a r y n et w or k s a s w ell a s a lin k t o t h e m u c h la r g er r esou r c es of t h e In t er n et . T h ese c om m er c ia l on lin e ser v ic es h a d a lm ost 1 2 m illion in div idu a l su bsc r iber s a t t h e t im e of t r ia l.

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A n y on e w it h a c c ess t o t h e In t er n et m a y t a k e a dv a n t a g e of a w ide v a r iet y of c om m u n ic a t ion a n d in for m a t ion r et r iev a l m et h ods. T h ese m et h ods a r e c on st a n t ly ev olv in g a n d diffic u lt t o c a t eg or ize pr ec isely . Bu t , a s pr esen t ly c on st it u t ed, t h ose m ost r elev a n t t o t h is c a se a r e elec t r on ic m a il ("e-m a il''), a u t om a t ic m a ilin g list ser v ic es ("m a il ex ploder s, '' som et im es r efer r ed t o a s "list ser v s''), "n ew sg r ou ps, '' "c h a t r oom s, '' a n d t h e "W or ld W ide W eb. '' A ll of t h ese m et h ods c a n be u sed t o t r a n sm it t ex t ; m ost c a n t r a n sm it sou n d, pic t u r es, a n d m ov in g v ideo im a g es. T a k en t og et h er , t h ese t ools c on st it u t e a u n iqu e m ediu m -k n ow n t o it s u ser s a s "c y ber spa c e''-loc a t ed in n o pa r t ic u la r g eog r a ph ic a l loc a t ion bu t a v a ila ble t o a n y on e, a n y w h er e in t h e w or ld, w it h a c c ess t o t h e In t er n et .

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E-m a il en a bles a n in div idu a l t o sen d a n elec t r on ic m essa g e-g en er a lly a k in t o a n ot e or let t er -t o a n ot h er in div idu a l or t o a g r ou p of a ddr essees. T h e m essa g e is g en er a lly st or ed elec t r on ic a lly , som et im es w a it in g for t h e r ec ipien t t o c h ec k h er "m a ilbox '' a n d som et im es m a k in g it s r ec eipt k n ow n t h r ou g h som e t y pe of pr om pt . A m a il ex ploder is a sor t of e-m a il g r ou p. Su bsc r iber s c a n sen d m essa g es t o a c om m on e-m a il a ddr ess, w h ic h t h en for w a r ds t h e m essa g e t o t h e g r ou p's ot h er su bsc r iber s. New sg r ou ps a lso ser v e g r ou ps of r eg u la r pa r t ic ipa n t s, bu t t h ese post in g s m a y be r ea d by ot h er s a s w ell. T h er e a r e t h ou sa n ds of su c h g r ou ps, ea c h ser v in g t o fost er a n ex c h a n g e of in for m a t ion or opin ion on a pa r t ic u la r t opic r u n n in g t h e g a m u t fr om , sa y , t h e m u sic of W a g n er t o Ba lk a n polit ic s t o A IDS pr ev en t ion t o t h e Ch ic a g o Bu lls. A bou t 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 n ew m essa g es a r e post ed ev er y da y . In m ost n ew sg r ou ps, post in g s a r e a u t om a t ic a lly pu r g ed a t r eg u la r in t er v a ls. In a ddit ion t o post in g a m essa g e t h a t c a n be r ea d la t er , t w o or m or e in div idu a ls w ish in g t o c om m u n ic a t e m or e im m edia t ely c a n en t er a c h a t r oom t o en g a g e in r ea l-t im e dia log u e-in ot h er w or ds, by t y pin g m essa g es t o on e a n ot h er t h a t a ppea r a lm ost im m edia t ely on t h e ot h er s' c om pu t er sc r een s. T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d t h a t a t a n y g iv en t im e "t en s of t h ou sa n ds of u ser s a r e en g a g in g in c on v er sa t ion s on a h u g e r a n g e of su bjec t s. ''6 It is "n o ex a g g er a t ion t o c on c lu de t h a t t h e c on t en t on t h e In t er n et is a s div er se a s h u m a n t h ou g h t . ''7

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T h e best k n ow n c a t eg or y of c om m u n ic a t ion ov er t h e In t er n et is t h e W or ld W ide W eb, w h ic h a llow s u ser s t o sea r c h for a n d r et r iev e in for m a t ion st or ed in r em ot e c om pu t er s, a s w ell a s, in som e c a ses, t o

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c om m u n ic a t e ba c k t o desig n a t ed sit es. In c on c r et e t er m s, t h e W eb « up c on sist s of a v a st n u m ber of doc u m en t s st or ed in differ en t c om pu t er s a ll ov er t h e w or ld. Som e of t h ese doc u m en t s a r e sim ply files c on t a in in g in for m a t ion . H ow ev er , m or e ela bor a t e doc u m en t s, c om m on ly k n ow n a s W eb "pa g es, '' a r e a lso pr ev a len t . Ea c h h a s it s ow n a ddr ess-"r a t h er lik e a t eleph on e n u m ber . ''8 W eb pa g es fr equ en t ly c on t a in in for m a t ion a n d som et im es a llow t h e v iew er t o c om m u n ic a t e w it h t h e pa g e's (or "sit e's'') a u t h or . T h ey g en er a lly a lso c on t a in "lin k s'' t o ot h er doc u m en t s c r ea t ed by t h a t sit e's a u t h or or t o ot h er (g en er a lly ) r ela t ed sit es. T y pic a lly , t h e lin k s a r e eit h er blu e or u n der lin ed t ex t -som et im es im a g es. 9

Na v ig a t in g t h e W eb is r ela t iv ely st r a ig h t for w a r d. A u ser m a y eit h er t y pe t h e a ddr ess of a k n ow n pa g e or en t er on e or m or e k ey w or ds in t o a c om m er c ia l "sea r c h en g in e'' in a n effor t t o loc a t e sit es on a su bjec t of in t er est . A pa r t ic u la r W eb pa g e m a y c on t a in t h e in for m a t ion sou g h t by t h e "su r fer , '' or , t h r ou g h it s lin k s, it m a y be a n a v en u e t o ot h er doc u m en t s loc a t ed a n y w h er e on t h e In t er n et . User s g en er a lly ex plor e a g iv en W eb pa g e, or m ov e t o a n ot h er , by c lic k in g a c om pu t er "m ou se'' on on e of t h e pa g e's ic on s or lin k s. A c c ess t o m ost W eb pa g es is fr eely a v a ila ble, bu t som e a llow a c c ess on ly t o t h ose w h o h a v e pu r c h a sed t h e r ig h t fr om a c om m er c ia l pr ov ider . T h e W eb is t h u s c om pa r a ble, fr om t h e r ea der s' v iew poin t , t o bot h a v a st libr a r y in c lu din g m illion s of r ea dily a v a ila ble a n d in dex ed pu blic a t ion s a n d a spr a w lin g m a ll offer in g g oods a n d ser v ic es.

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Fr om t h e pu blish er s' poin t of v iew , it c on st it u t es a v a st pla t for m fr om w h ic h t o a ddr ess a n d h ea r fr om a w or ld-w ide a u dien c e of m illion s of r ea der s, v iew er s, r esea r c h er s, a n d bu y er s. A n y per son or or g a n iza t ion w it h a c om pu t er c on n ec t ed t o t h e In t er n et c a n "pu blish '' in for m a t ion . Pu blish er s in c lu de g ov er n m en t a g en c ies, edu c a t ion a l in st it u t ion s, c om m er c ia l en t it ies, a dv oc a c y g r ou ps, a n d in div idu a ls. 9 Pu blish er s m a y eit h er m a k e t h eir m a t er ia l a v a ila ble t o t h e en t ir e pool of In t er n et u ser s, or c on fin e a c c ess t o a selec t ed g r ou p, su c h a s t h ose w illin g t o pa y for t h e pr iv ileg e. "No sin g le or g a n iza t ion c on t r ols a n y m em ber sh ip in t h e W eb, n or is t h er e a n y c en t r a lized poin t fr om w h ic h in div idu a l W eb sit es or ser v ic es c a n be bloc k ed fr om t h e W eb. ''10 Sex u a lly Ex plic it Ma t er ia l

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Sex u a lly ex plic it m a t er ia l on t h e In t er n et in c lu des t ex t , pic t u r es, a n d c h a t a n d "ex t en ds fr om t h e m odest ly t it illa t in g t o t h e h a r dest c or e. ''11 T h ese files a r e c r ea t ed, n a m ed, a n d post ed in t h e sa m e m a n n er a s m a t er ia l t h a t is n ot sex u a lly ex plic it , a n d m a y be a c c essed eit h er deliber a t ely or u n in t en t ion a lly du r in g t h e c ou r se of a n im pr ec ise sea r c h . "On c e a pr ov ider post s it s c on t en t on t h e In t er n et , it c a n n ot pr ev en t t h a t c on t en t fr om en t er in g a n y c om m u n it y . ''12 T h u s, for ex a m ple,

12

"w h en t h e UCR/Ca lifor n ia Mu seu m of Ph ot og r a ph y post s t o it s W eb sit e n u des by Edw a r d W est on a n d Rober t Ma pplet h or pe t o a n n ou n c e t h a t it s n ew ex h ibit w ill t r a v el t o Ba lt im or e a n d New Y or k Cit y , t h ose im a g es a r e a v a ila ble n ot on ly in Los A n g eles, Ba lt im or e, a n d New Y or k Cit y , bu t a lso in Cin c in n a t i, Mobile, or Beijin g -w h er ev er In t er n et u ser s

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liv e. Sim ila r ly , t h e sa fer sex in st r u c t ion s t h a t Cr it ic a l Pa t h post s t o it s « up W eb sit e, w r it t en in st r eet la n g u a g e so t h a t t h e t een a g e r ec eiv er c a n u n der st a n d t h em , a r e a v a ila ble n ot ju st in Ph ila delph ia , bu t a lso in Pr ov o a n d Pr a g u e. ''13 13

Som e of t h e c om m u n ic a t ion s ov er t h e In t er n et t h a t or ig in a t e in for eig n c ou n t r ies a r e a lso sex u a lly ex plic it . 14

14

T h ou g h su c h m a t er ia l is w idely a v a ila ble, u ser s seldom en c ou n t er su c h c on t en t a c c iden t a lly . "A doc u m en t 's t it le or a desc r ipt ion of t h e doc u m en t w ill u su a lly a ppea r befor e t h e doc u m en t it self . . . a n d in m a n y c a ses t h e u ser w ill r ec eiv e det a iled in for m a t ion a bou t a sit e's c on t en t befor e h e or sh e n eed t a k e t h e st ep t o a c c ess t h e doc u m en t . A lm ost a ll sex u a lly ex plic it im a g es a r e pr ec eded by w a r n in g s a s t o t h e c on t en t . ''15 For t h a t r ea son , t h e "odds a r e slim '' t h a t a u ser w ou ld en t er a sex u a lly ex plic it sit e by a c c iden t . 16 Un lik e c om m u n ic a t ion s r ec eiv ed by r a dio or t elev ision , "t h e r ec eipt of in for m a t ion on t h e In t er n et r equ ir es a ser ies of a ffir m a t iv e st eps m or e deliber a t e a n d dir ec t ed t h a n m er ely t u r n in g a dia l. A c h ild r equ ir es som e soph ist ic a t ion a n d som e a bilit y t o r ea d t o r et r iev e m a t er ia l a n d t h er eby t o u se t h e In t er n et u n a t t en ded. ''17

15

Sy st em s h a v e been dev eloped t o h elp pa r en t s c on t r ol t h e m a t er ia l t h a t m a y be a v a ila ble on a h om e c om pu t er w it h In t er n et a c c ess. A sy st em m a y eit h er lim it a c om pu t er 's a c c ess t o a n a ppr ov ed list of sou r c es t h a t h a v e been iden t ified a s c on t a in in g n o a du lt m a t er ia l, it m a y bloc k desig n a t ed in a ppr opr ia t e sit es, or it m a y a t t em pt t o bloc k m essa g es c on t a in in g iden t ifia ble objec t ion a ble fea t u r es. "A lt h ou g h pa r en t a l c on t r ol soft w a r e c u r r en t ly c a n sc r een for c er t a in su g g est iv e w or ds or for k n ow n sex u a lly ex plic it sit es, it c a n n ot n ow sc r een for sex u a lly ex plic it im a g es. ''18 Nev er t h eless, t h e ev iden c e in dic a t es t h a t "a r ea son a bly effec t iv e m et h od by w h ic h pa r en t s c a n pr ev en t t h eir c h ildr en fr om a c c essin g sex u a lly ex plic it a n d ot h er m a t er ia l w h ic h pa r en t s m a y believ e is in a ppr opr ia t e for t h eir c h ildr en w ill soon be a v a ila ble. ''19 A g e V er ific a t ion

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T h e pr oblem of a g e v er ific a t ion differ s for differ en t u ses of t h e In t er n et . T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t c a t eg or ic a lly det er m in ed t h a t t h er e "is n o effec t iv e w a y t o det er m in e t h e iden t it y or t h e a g e of a u ser w h o is a c c essin g m a t er ia l t h r ou g h e-m a il, m a il ex ploder s, n ew sg r ou ps or c h a t r oom s. ''20 T h e G ov er n m en t offer ed n o ev iden c e t h a t t h er e w a s a r elia ble w a y t o sc r een r ec ipien t s a n d pa r t ic ipa n t s in su c h for a for a g e. Mor eov er , ev en if it w er e t ec h n olog ic a lly fea sible t o bloc k m in or s' a c c ess t o n ew sg r ou ps a n d c h a t r oom s c on t a in in g disc u ssion s of a r t , polit ic s or ot h er su bjec t s t h a t pot en t ia lly elic it "in dec en t '' or "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' c on t r ibu t ion s, it w ou ld n ot be possible t o bloc k t h eir a c c ess t o t h a t m a t er ia l a n d "st ill a llow t h em a c c ess t o t h e r em a in in g c on t en t , ev en if t h e ov er w h elm in g m a jor it y of t h a t c on t en t w a s n ot in dec en t . ''21

17

T ec h n olog y ex ist s by w h ic h a n oper a t or of a W eb sit e m a y c on dit ion a c c ess on t h e v er ific a t ion of r equ est ed in for m a t ion su c h a s a c r edit c a r d n u m ber or a n a du lt pa ssw or d. Cr edit c a r d v er ific a t ion is on ly fea sible, 09/06/2008 07:57 PM

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h ow ev er , eit h er in c on n ec t ion w it h a c om m er c ia l t r a n sa c t ion in w h ic h « up t h e c a r d is u sed, or by pa y m en t t o a v er ific a t ion a g en c y . Usin g c r edit c a r d possession a s a su r r og a t e for pr oof of a g e w ou ld im pose c ost s on n on -c om m er c ia l W eb sit es t h a t w ou ld r equ ir e m a n y of t h em t o sh u t dow n . For t h a t r ea son , a t t h e t im e of t h e t r ia l, c r edit c a r d v er ific a t ion w a s "effec t iv ely u n a v a ila ble t o a su bst a n t ia l n u m ber of In t er n et c on t en t pr ov ider s. '' Id. , a t 8 4 6 (fin din g 1 0 2 ). Mor eov er , t h e im posit ion of su c h a r equ ir em en t "w ou ld c om plet ely ba r a du lt s w h o do n ot h a v e a c r edit c a r d a n d la c k t h e r esou r c es t o obt a in on e fr om a c c essin g a n y bloc k ed m a t er ia l. ''22 18

Com m er c ia l por n og r a ph ic sit es t h a t c h a r g e t h eir u ser s for a c c ess h a v e a ssig n ed t h em pa ssw or ds a s a m et h od of a g e v er ific a t ion . T h e r ec or d does n ot c on t a in a n y ev iden c e c on c er n in g t h e r elia bilit y of t h ese t ec h n olog ies. Ev en if pa ssw or ds a r e effec t iv e for c om m er c ia l pu r v ey or s of in dec en t m a t er ia l, t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d t h a t a n a du lt pa ssw or d r equ ir em en t w ou ld im pose sig n ific a n t bu r den s on n on c om m er c ia l sit es, bot h bec a u se t h ey w ou ld disc ou r a g e u ser s fr om a c c essin g t h eir sit es a n d bec a u se t h e c ost of c r ea t in g a n d m a in t a in in g su c h sc r een in g sy st em s w ou ld be "bey on d t h eir r ea c h . ''23 In su m , t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d:

19

"Ev en if c r edit c a r d v er ific a t ion or a du lt pa ssw or d v er ific a t ion w er e im plem en t ed, t h e G ov er n m en t pr esen t ed n o t est im on y a s t o h ow su c h sy st em s c ou ld en su r e t h a t t h e u ser of t h e pa ssw or d or c r edit c a r d is in fa c t ov er 1 8 . T h e bu r den s im posed by c r edit c a r d v er ific a t ion a n d a du lt pa ssw or d v er ific a t ion sy st em s m a k e t h em effec t iv ely u n a v a ila ble t o a su bst a n t ia l n u m ber of In t er n et c on t en t pr ov ider s. '' Ibid. (fin din g 1 0 7 ). II

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T h e T elec om m u n ic a t ion s A c t of 1 9 9 6 , Pu b. L. 1 0 4 -1 0 4 , 1 1 0 St a t . 5 6 , w a s a n u n u su a lly im por t a n t leg isla t iv e en a c t m en t . A s st a t ed on t h e fir st of it s 1 0 3 pa g es, it s pr im a r y pu r pose w a s t o r edu c e r eg u la t ion a n d en c ou r a g e "t h e r a pid deploy m en t of n ew t elec om m u n ic a t ion s t ec h n olog ies. '' T h e m a jor c om pon en t s of t h e st a t u t e h a v e n ot h in g t o do w it h t h e In t er n et ; t h ey w er e desig n ed t o pr om ot e c om pet it ion in t h e loc a l t eleph on e ser v ic e m a r k et , t h e m u lt ic h a n n el v ideo m a r k et , a n d t h e m a r k et for ov er -t h e-a ir br oa dc a st in g . T h e A c t in c lu des sev en T it les, six of w h ic h a r e t h e pr odu c t of ex t en siv e c om m it t ee h ea r in g s a n d t h e su bjec t of disc u ssion in Repor t s pr epa r ed by Com m it t ees of t h e Sen a t e a n d t h e H ou se of Repr esen t a t iv es. By c on t r a st , T it le V -k n ow n a s t h e "Com m u n ic a t ion s Dec en c y A c t of 1 9 9 6 '' (CDA )-c on t a in s pr ov ision s t h a t w er e eit h er a dded in ex ec u t iv e c om m it t ee a ft er t h e h ea r in g s w er e c on c lu ded or a s a m en dm en t s offer ed du r in g floor deba t e on t h e leg isla t ion . A n a m en dm en t offer ed in t h e Sen a t e w a s t h e sou r c e of t h e t w o st a t u t or y pr ov ision s c h a llen g ed in t h is c a se. 24 T h ey a r e in for m a lly desc r ibed a s t h e "in dec en t t r a n sm ission '' pr ov ision a n d t h e "pa t en t ly offen siv e displa y '' pr ov ision . 25

21

T h e fir st , 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a ) (Su pp. 1 9 9 7 ), pr oh ibit s t h e k n ow in g t r a n sm ission of obsc en e or in dec en t m essa g es t o a n y r ec ipien t u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e. It pr ov ides in per t in en t pa r t : 09/06/2008 07:57 PM

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22 « up " (a ) W h oev er 23

" (1 ) in in t er st a t e or for eig n c om m u n ic a t ion s-

24

.....

25

" (B) by m ea n s of a t elec om m u n ic a t ion s dev ic e k n ow in g ly -

26

" (i) m a k es, c r ea t es, or solic it s, a n d

27

" (ii) in it ia t es t h e t r a n sm ission of,

28

29

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"a n y c om m en t , r equ est , su g g est ion , pr oposa l, im a g e, or ot h er c om m u n ic a t ion w h ic h is obsc en e or in dec en t , k n ow in g t h a t t h e r ec ipien t of t h e c om m u n ic a t ion is u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e, r eg a r dless of w h et h er t h e m a k er of su c h c om m u n ic a t ion pla c ed t h e c a ll or in it ia t ed t h e c om m u n ic a t ion ; .....

30

" (2 ) k n ow in g ly per m it s a n y t elec om m u n ic a t ion s fa c ilit y u n der h is c on t r ol t o be u sed for a n y a c t iv it y pr oh ibit ed by pa r a g r a ph (1 ) w it h t h e in t en t t h a t it be u sed for su c h a c t iv it y ,

31

"sh a ll be fin ed u n der T it le 1 8 , or im pr ison ed n ot m or e t h a n t w o y ea r s, or bot h . ''

32

T h e sec on d pr ov ision , §2 2 3 (d), pr oh ibit s t h e k n ow in g sen din g or displa y in g of pa t en t ly offen siv e m essa g es in a m a n n er t h a t is a v a ila ble t o a per son u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e. It pr ov ides:

33

" (d) W h oev er -

34

" (1 ) in in t er st a t e or for eig n c om m u n ic a t ion s k n ow in g ly -

35

" (A ) u ses a n in t er a c t iv e c om pu t er ser v ic e t o sen d t o a spec ific per son or per son s u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e, or

36

" (B) u ses a n y in t er a c t iv e c om pu t er ser v ic e t o displa y in a m a n n er a v a ila ble t o a per son u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e,

37

"a n y c om m en t , r equ est , su g g est ion , pr oposa l, im a g e, or ot h er c om m u n ic a t ion t h a t , in c on t ex t , depic t s or desc r ibes, in t er m s pa t en t ly offen siv e a s m ea su r ed by c on t em por a r y c om m u n it y st a n da r ds, sex u a l or ex c r et or y a c t iv it ies or or g a n s, r eg a r dless of w h et h er t h e u ser of su c h ser v ic e pla c ed t h e c a ll or in it ia t ed t h e c om m u n ic a t ion ; or

38

" (2 ) k n ow in g ly per m it s a n y t elec om m u n ic a t ion s fa c ilit y u n der su c h per son 's c on t r ol t o be u sed for a n a c t iv it y pr oh ibit ed by pa r a g r a ph (1 ) w it h t h e in t en t t h a t it be u sed for su c h a c t iv it y ,

39

"sh a ll be fin ed u n der T it le 1 8 , or im pr ison ed n ot m or e t h a n t w o y ea r s, or bot h . ''

40

T h e br ea dt h of t h ese pr oh ibit ion s is qu a lified by t w o a ffir m a t iv e defen ses. See §2 2 3 (e)(5 ). 26 On e c ov er s t h ose w h o t a k e "g ood fa it h , r ea son a ble, effec t iv e, a n d a ppr opr ia t e a c t ion s'' t o r est r ic t a c c ess by m in or s t o t h e pr oh ibit ed c om m u n ic a t ion s. §2 2 3 (e)(5 )(A ). T h e ot h er 09/06/2008 07:57 PM

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c ov er s t h ose w h o r est r ic t a c c ess t o c ov er ed m a t er ia l by r equ ir in g « up c er t a in desig n a t ed for m s of a g e pr oof, su c h a s a v er ified c r edit c a r d or a n a du lt iden t ific a t ion n u m ber or c ode. §2 2 3 (e)(5 )(B). III

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On Febr u a r y 8 , 1 9 9 6 , im m edia t ely a ft er t h e Pr esiden t sig n ed t h e st a t u t e, 2 0 pla in t iffs 27 filed su it a g a in st t h e A t t or n ey G en er a l of t h e Un it ed St a t es a n d t h e Depa r t m en t of Ju st ic e c h a llen g in g t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of §§2 2 3 (a )(1 ) a n d 2 2 3 (d). A w eek la t er , ba sed on h is c on c lu sion t h a t t h e t er m "in dec en t '' w a s t oo v a g u e t o pr ov ide t h e ba sis for a c r im in a l pr osec u t ion , Dist r ic t Ju dg e Bu c k w a lt er en t er ed a t em por a r y r est r a in in g or der a g a in st en for c em en t of §2 2 3 (a )(1 )(B)(ii) in sofa r a s it a pplies t o in dec en t c om m u n ic a t ion s. A sec on d su it w a s t h en filed by 2 7 a ddit ion a l pla in t iffs, 28 t h e t w o c a ses w er e c on solida t ed, a n d a t h r ee-ju dg e Dist r ic t Cou r t w a s c on v en ed pu r su a n t t o §5 6 1 of t h e A c t . 29 A ft er a n ev iden t ia r y h ea r in g , t h a t Cou r t en t er ed a pr elim in a r y in ju n c t ion a g a in st en for c em en t of bot h of t h e c h a llen g ed pr ov ision s. Ea c h of t h e t h r ee ju dg es w r ot e a sepa r a t e opin ion , bu t t h eir ju dg m en t w a s u n a n im ou s.

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Ch ief Ju dg e Slov it er dou bt ed t h e st r en g t h of t h e G ov er n m en t 's in t er est in r eg u la t in g "t h e v a st r a n g e of on lin e m a t er ia l c ov er ed or pot en t ia lly c ov er ed by t h e CDA , '' bu t a c k n ow ledg ed t h a t t h e in t er est w a s "c om pellin g '' w it h r espec t t o som e of t h a t m a t er ia l. 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 5 3 . Sh e c on c lu ded, n on et h eless, t h a t t h e st a t u t e "sw eeps m or e br oa dly t h a n n ec essa r y a n d t h er eby c h ills t h e ex pr ession of a du lt s'' a n d t h a t t h e t er m s "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a n d "in dec en t '' w er e "in h er en t ly v a g u e. '' Id. , a t 8 5 4 . Sh e a lso det er m in ed t h a t t h e a ffir m a t iv e defen ses w er e n ot "t ec h n olog ic a lly or ec on om ic a lly fea sible for m ost pr ov ider s, '' spec ific a lly c on sider in g a n d r ejec t in g a n a r g u m en t t h a t pr ov ider s c ou ld a v oid lia bilit y by "t a g g in g '' t h eir m a t er ia l in a m a n n er t h a t w ou ld a llow pot en t ia l r ea der s t o sc r een ou t u n w a n t ed t r a n sm ission s. Id. , a t 8 5 6 . Ch ief Ju dg e Slov it er a lso r ejec t ed t h e G ov er n m en t 's su g g est ion t h a t t h e sc ope of t h e st a t u t e c ou ld be n a r r ow ed by c on st r u in g it t o a pply on ly t o c om m er c ia l por n og r a ph er s. Id. , a t 8 5 4 -8 5 5 .

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Ju dg e Bu c k w a lt er c on c lu ded t h a t t h e w or d "in dec en t '' in §2 2 3 (a ) (1 )(B) a n d t h e t er m s "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a n d "in c on t ex t '' in §2 2 3 (d)(1 ) w er e so v a g u e t h a t c r im in a l en for c em en t of eit h er sec t ion w ou ld v iola t e t h e "fu n da m en t a l c on st it u t ion a l pr in c iple'' of "sim ple fa ir n ess, '' id. , a t 8 6 1 , a n d t h e spec ific pr ot ec t ion s of t h e Fir st a n d Fift h A m en dm en t s, id. , a t 8 5 8 . H e fou n d n o st a t u t or y ba sis for t h e G ov er n m en t 's a r g u m en t t h a t t h e c h a llen g ed pr ov ision s w ou ld be a pplied on ly t o "por n og r a ph ic '' m a t er ia ls, n ot in g t h a t , u n lik e obsc en it y , "in dec en c y h a s no t been defin ed t o ex c lu de w or k s of ser iou s lit er a r y , a r t ist ic , polit ic a l or sc ien t ific v a lu e. '' Id. , a t 8 6 3 . Mor eov er , t h e G ov er n m en t 's c la im t h a t t h e w or k m u st be c on sider ed pa t en t ly offen siv e "in c on t ex t '' w a s it self v a g u e bec a u se t h e r elev a n t c on t ex t m ig h t "r efer t o, a m on g ot h er t h in g s, t h e n a t u r e of t h e c om m u n ic a t ion a s a w h ole, t h e t im e of da y it w a s c on v ey ed, t h e m ediu m u sed, t h e iden t it y of t h e spea k er , or w h et h er or n ot it is a c c om pa n ied by a ppr opr ia t e w a r n in g s. '' Id. , a t 8 6 4 . H e believ ed t h a t t h e u n iqu e n a t u r e

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of t h e In t er n et a g g r a v a t ed t h e v a g u en ess of t h e st a t u t e. Id. , a t 8 6 5 , n . « up 9. 44

Ju dg e Da lzell's r ev iew of "t h e spec ia l a t t r ibu t es of In t er n et c om m u n ic a t ion '' disc losed by t h e ev iden c e c on v in c ed h im t h a t t h e Fir st A m en dm en t den ies Con g r ess t h e pow er t o r eg u la t e t h e c on t en t of pr ot ec t ed speec h on t h e In t er n et . Id. , a t 8 6 7 . H is opin ion ex pla in ed a t len g t h w h y h e believ ed t h e A c t w ou ld a br idg e sig n ific a n t pr ot ec t ed speec h , pa r t ic u la r ly by n on c om m er c ia l spea k er s, w h ile " [p]er v er sely , c om m er c ia l por n og r a ph er s w ou ld r em a in r ela t iv ely u n a ffec t ed. '' Id. , a t 8 7 9 . H e c on st r u ed ou r c a ses a s r equ ir in g a "m ediu m -spec ific '' a ppr oa c h t o t h e a n a ly sis of t h e r eg u la t ion of m a ss c om m u n ic a t ion , id. , a t 8 7 3 , a n d c on c lu ded t h a t t h e In t er n et -a s "t h e m ost pa r t ic ipa t or y for m of m a ss speec h y et dev eloped, '' id. , a t 8 8 3 -is en t it led t o "t h e h ig h est pr ot ec t ion fr om g ov er n m en t a l in t r u sion , '' ibid. 30

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T h e ju dg m en t of t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t en join s t h e G ov er n m en t fr om en for c in g t h e pr oh ibit ion s in §2 2 3 (a )(1 )(B) in sofa r a s t h ey r ela t e t o "in dec en t '' c om m u n ic a t ion s, bu t ex pr essly pr eser v es t h e G ov er n m en t 's r ig h t t o in v est ig a t e a n d pr osec u t e t h e obsc en it y or c h ild por n og r a ph y a c t iv it ies pr oh ibit ed t h er ein . T h e in ju n c t ion a g a in st en for c em en t of §§2 2 3 (d)(1 ) a n d (2 ) is u n qu a lified bec a u se t h ose pr ov ision s c on t a in n o sepa r a t e r efer en c e t o obsc en it y or c h ild por n og r a ph y .

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T h e G ov er n m en t a ppea led u n der t h e A c t 's spec ia l r ev iew pr ov ision s, §5 6 1 , 1 1 0 St a t . 1 4 2 -1 4 3 , a n d w e n ot ed pr oba ble ju r isdic t ion , see 5 1 9 U. S. ----, 1 1 7 S. Ct . 5 5 4 , 1 3 6 L. Ed. 2 d 4 3 6 (1 9 9 6 ). In it s a ppea l, t h e G ov er n m en t a r g u es t h a t t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t er r ed in h oldin g t h a t t h e CDA v iola t ed bot h t h e Fir st A m en dm en t bec a u se it is ov er br oa d a n d t h e Fift h A m en dm en t bec a u se it is v a g u e. W h ile w e disc u ss t h e v a g u en ess of t h e CDA bec a u se of it s r elev a n c e t o t h e Fir st A m en dm en t ov er br ea dt h in qu ir y , w e c on c lu de t h a t t h e ju dg m en t sh ou ld be a ffir m ed w it h ou t r ea c h in g t h e Fift h A m en dm en t issu e. W e beg in ou r a n a ly sis by r ev iew in g t h e pr in c ipa l a u t h or it ies on w h ic h t h e G ov er n m en t r elies. T h en , a ft er desc r ibin g t h e ov er br ea dt h of t h e CDA , w e c on sider t h e G ov er n m en t 's spec ific c on t en t ion s, in c lu din g it s su bm ission t h a t w e sa v e por t ion s of t h e st a t u t e eit h er by sev er a n c e or by fa sh ion in g ju dic ia l lim it a t ion s on t h e sc ope of it s c ov er a g e. IV

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In a r g u in g for r ev er sa l, t h e G ov er n m en t c on t en ds t h a t t h e CDA is pla in ly c on st it u t ion a l u n der t h r ee of ou r pr ior dec ision s: (1 ) Gins berg v . New Y o rk , 3 9 0 U. S. 6 2 9 , 8 8 S. Ct . 1 2 7 4 , 2 0 L. Ed. 2 d 1 9 5 (1 9 6 8 ); (2 ) FCC v . Pac ific a Fo undatio n, 4 3 8 U. S. 7 2 6 , 9 8 S. Ct . 3 0 2 6 , 5 7 L. Ed. 2 d 1 0 7 3 (1 9 7 8 ); a n d (3 ) Rento n v . Playtim e Theatres , Inc . , 4 7 5 U. S. 4 1 , 1 0 6 S. Ct . 9 2 5 , 8 9 L. Ed. 2 d 2 9 (1 9 8 6 ). A c lose look a t t h ese c a ses, h ow ev er , r a ises-r a t h er t h a n r eliev es-dou bt s c on c er n in g t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t h e CDA .

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In Gins berg, w e u ph eld t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of a New Y or k st a t u t e t h a t pr oh ibit ed sellin g t o m in or s u n der 1 7 y ea r s of a g e m a t er ia l t h a t w a s c on sider ed obsc en e a s t o t h em ev en if n ot obsc en e a s t o a du lt s. W e r ejec t ed t h e defen da n t 's br oa d su bm ission t h a t "t h e sc ope of t h e c on st it u t ion a l fr eedom of ex pr ession sec u r ed t o a c it izen t o r ea d or see 09/06/2008 07:57 PM

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m a t er ia l c on c er n ed w it h sex c a n n ot be m a de t o depen d on w h et h er t h e « up c it izen is a n a du lt or a m in or . '' 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 6 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 9 . In r ejec t in g t h a t c on t en t ion , w e r elied n ot on ly on t h e St a t e's in depen den t in t er est in t h e w ell-bein g of it s y ou t h , bu t a lso on ou r c on sist en t r ec og n it ion of t h e pr in c iple t h a t "t h e pa r en t s' c la im t o a u t h or it y in t h eir ow n h ou seh old t o dir ec t t h e r ea r in g of t h eir c h ildr en is ba sic in t h e st r u c t u r e of ou r soc iet y . ''31

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In fou r im por t a n t r espec t s, t h e st a t u t e u ph eld in Gins berg w a s n a r r ow er t h a n t h e CDA . Fir st , w e n ot ed in Gins berg t h a t "t h e pr oh ibit ion a g a in st sa les t o m in or s does n ot ba r pa r en t s w h o so desir e fr om pu r c h a sin g t h e m a g a zin es for t h eir c h ildr en . '' Id. , a t 6 3 9 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 8 0 . Un der t h e CDA , by c on t r a st , n eit h er t h e pa r en t s' c on sen t -n or ev en t h eir pa r t ic ipa t ion -in t h e c om m u n ic a t ion w ou ld a v oid t h e a pplic a t ion of t h e st a t u t e. 32 Sec on d, t h e New Y or k st a t u t e a pplied on ly t o c om m er c ia l t r a n sa c t ion s, id. , a t 6 4 7 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 8 4 -1 2 8 5 , w h er ea s t h e CDA c on t a in s n o su c h lim it a t ion . T h ir d, t h e New Y or k st a t u t e c a bin ed it s defin it ion of m a t er ia l t h a t is h a r m fu l t o m in or s w it h t h e r equ ir em en t t h a t it be "u t t er ly w it h ou t r edeem in g soc ia l im por t a n c e for m in or s. '' Id. , a t 6 4 6 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 8 4 . T h e CDA fa ils t o pr ov ide u s w it h a n y defin it ion of t h e t er m "in dec en t '' a s u sed in §2 2 3 (a )(1 ) a n d, im por t a n t ly , om it s a n y r equ ir em en t t h a t t h e "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' m a t er ia l c ov er ed by §2 2 3 (d) la c k ser iou s lit er a r y , a r t ist ic , polit ic a l, or sc ien t ific v a lu e. Fou r t h , t h e New Y or k st a t u t e defin ed a m in or a s a per son u n der t h e a g e of 1 7 , w h er ea s t h e CDA , in a pply in g t o a ll t h ose u n der 1 8 y ea r s, in c lu des a n a ddit ion a l y ea r of t h ose n ea r est m a jor it y .

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In Pac ific a, w e u ph eld a dec la r a t or y or der of t h e Feder a l Com m u n ic a t ion s Com m ission , h oldin g t h a t t h e br oa dc a st of a r ec or din g of a 1 2 -m in u t e m on olog u e en t it led "Filt h y W or ds'' t h a t h a d pr ev iou sly been deliv er ed t o a liv e a u dien c e "c ou ld h a v e been t h e su bjec t of a dm in ist r a t iv e sa n c t ion s. '' 4 3 8 U. S. , a t 7 3 0 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 0 (in t er n a l qu ot a t ion s om it t ed). T h e Com m ission h a d fou n d t h a t t h e r epet it iv e u se of c er t a in w or ds r efer r in g t o ex c r et or y or sex u a l a c t iv it ies or or g a n s "in a n a ft er n oon br oa dc a st w h en c h ildr en a r e in t h e a u dien c e w a s pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a n d c on c lu ded t h a t t h e m on olog u e w a s in dec en t "a s br oa dc a st . '' Id. , a t 7 3 5 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 3 . T h e r espon den t did n ot qu a r r el w it h t h e fin din g t h a t t h e a ft er n oon br oa dc a st w a s pa t en t ly offen siv e, bu t c on t en ded t h a t it w a s n ot "in dec en t '' w it h in t h e m ea n in g of t h e r elev a n t st a t u t es bec a u se it c on t a in ed n o pr u r ien t a ppea l. A ft er r ejec t in g r espon den t 's st a t u t or y a r g u m en t s, w e c on fr on t ed it s t w o c on st it u t ion a l a r g u m en t s: (1 ) t h a t t h e Com m ission 's c on st r u c t ion of it s a u t h or it y t o ba n in dec en t speec h w a s so br oa d t h a t it s or der h a d t o be set a side ev en if t h e br oa dc a st a t issu e w a s u n pr ot ec t ed; a n d (2 ) t h a t sin c e t h e r ec or din g w a s n ot obsc en e, t h e Fir st A m en dm en t for ba de a n y a br idg em en t of t h e r ig h t t o br oa dc a st it on t h e r a dio.

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In t h e por t ion of t h e lea d opin ion n ot join ed by Ju st ic es Pow ell a n d Bla c k m u n , t h e plu r a lit y st a t ed t h a t t h e Fir st A m en dm en t does n ot pr oh ibit a ll g ov er n m en t a l r eg u la t ion t h a t depen ds on t h e c on t en t of speec h . Id. , a t 7 4 2 -7 4 3 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 6 -3 0 3 7 . A c c or din g ly , t h e a v a ila bilit y of c on st it u t ion a l pr ot ec t ion for a v u lg a r a n d offen siv e

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m on olog u e t h a t w a s n ot obsc en e depen ded on t h e c on t ex t of t h e « up br oa dc a st . Id. , a t 7 4 4 -7 4 8 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 7 -3 0 4 0 . Rely in g on t h e pr em ise t h a t "of a ll for m s of c om m u n ic a t ion '' br oa dc a st in g h a d r ec eiv ed t h e m ost lim it ed Fir st A m en dm en t pr ot ec t ion , id. , a t 7 4 8 -7 4 9 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 9 -3 0 4 0 , t h e Cou r t c on c lu ded t h a t t h e ea se w it h w h ic h c h ildr en m a y obt a in a c c ess t o br oa dc a st s, "c ou pled w it h t h e c on c er n s r ec og n ized in Gins berg, '' ju st ified spec ia l t r ea t m en t of in dec en t br oa dc a st in g . Id. , a t 7 4 9 -7 5 0 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 4 0 -3 0 4 1 .

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A s w it h t h e New Y or k st a t u t e a t issu e in Gins berg, t h er e a r e sig n ific a n t differ en c es bet w een t h e or der u ph eld in Pac ific a a n d t h e CDA . Fir st , t h e or der in Pac ific a, issu ed by a n a g en c y t h a t h a d been r eg u la t in g r a dio st a t ion s for dec a des, t a r g et ed a spec ific br oa dc a st t h a t r epr esen t ed a r a t h er dr a m a t ic depa r t u r e fr om t r a dit ion a l pr og r a m c on t en t in or der t o desig n a t e w h en -r a t h er t h a n w h et h er -it w ou ld be per m issible t o a ir su c h a pr og r a m in t h a t pa r t ic u la r m ediu m . T h e CDA 's br oa d c a t eg or ic a l pr oh ibit ion s a r e n ot lim it ed t o pa r t ic u la r t im es a n d a r e n ot depen den t on a n y ev a lu a t ion by a n a g en c y fa m ilia r w it h t h e u n iqu e c h a r a c t er ist ic s of t h e In t er n et . Sec on d, u n lik e t h e CDA , t h e Com m ission 's dec la r a t or y or der w a s n ot pu n it iv e; w e ex pr essly r efu sed t o dec ide w h et h er t h e in dec en t br oa dc a st "w ou ld ju st ify a c r im in a l pr osec u t ion . '' Id. , a t 7 5 0 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 4 1 . Fin a lly , t h e Com m ission 's or der a pplied t o a m ediu m w h ic h a s a m a t t er of h ist or y h a d "r ec eiv ed t h e m ost lim it ed Fir st A m en dm en t pr ot ec t ion , '' id. , a t 7 4 8 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 4 0 , in la r g e pa r t bec a u se w a r n in g s c ou ld n ot a dequ a t ely pr ot ec t t h e list en er fr om u n ex pec t ed pr og r a m c on t en t . T h e In t er n et , h ow ev er , h a s n o c om pa r a ble h ist or y . Mor eov er , t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d t h a t t h e r isk of en c ou n t er in g in dec en t m a t er ia l by a c c iden t is r em ot e bec a u se a ser ies of a ffir m a t iv e st eps is r equ ir ed t o a c c ess spec ific m a t er ia l.

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In Rento n, w e u ph eld a zon in g or din a n c e t h a t k ept a du lt m ov ie t h ea t r es ou t of r esiden t ia l n eig h bor h oods. T h e or din a n c e w a s a im ed, n ot a t t h e c on t en t of t h e film s sh ow n in t h e t h ea t er s, bu t r a t h er a t t h e "sec on da r y effec t s''-su c h a s c r im e a n d det er ior a t in g pr oper t y v a lu es-t h a t t h ese t h ea t er s fost er ed: ""It is t h [e] sec on da r y effec t w h ic h t h ese zon in g or din a n c es a t t em pt t o a v oid, n ot t h e dissem in a t ion of "offen siv e'' speec h . ''' 4 7 5 U. S. , a t 4 9 , 1 0 6 S. Ct . , a t 9 3 0 (qu ot in g Y o ung v . Am eric an Mini Theatres , Inc . , 4 2 7 U. S. 5 0 , 7 1 , n . 3 4 , 9 6 S. Ct . 2 4 4 0 , 2 4 5 3 , n . 3 4 , 4 9 L. Ed. 2 d 3 1 0 (1 9 7 6 )). A c c or din g t o t h e G ov er n m en t , t h e CDA is c on st it u t ion a l bec a u se it c on st it u t es a sor t of "c y ber zon in g '' on t h e In t er n et . Bu t t h e CDA a pplies br oa dly t o t h e en t ir e u n iv er se of c y ber spa c e. A n d t h e pu r pose of t h e CDA is t o pr ot ec t c h ildr en fr om t h e pr im a r y effec t s of "in dec en t '' a n d "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' speec h , r a t h er t h a n a n y "sec on da r y '' effec t of su c h speec h . T h u s, t h e CDA is a c on t en t -ba sed bla n k et r est r ic t ion on speec h , a n d, a s su c h , c a n n ot be "pr oper ly a n a ly zed a s a for m of t im e, pla c e, a n d m a n n er r eg u la t ion . '' 4 7 5 U. S. , a t 4 6 , 1 0 6 S. Ct . , a t 9 2 8 . See a lso Bo o s v . Barry, 4 8 5 U. S. 3 1 2 , 3 2 1 , 1 0 8 S. Ct . 1 1 5 7 , 1 1 6 3 , 9 9 L. Ed. 2 d 3 3 3 (1 9 8 8 ) ("Reg u la t ion s t h a t foc u s on t h e dir ec t im pa c t of speec h on it s a u dien c e'' a r e n ot pr oper ly a n a ly zed u n der Rento n); Fo rs yth Co unty v . Natio nalis t Mo v em ent, 5 0 5 U. S. 1 2 3 , 1 3 4 , 1 1 2 S. Ct . 2 3 9 5 , 2 4 0 3 , 1 2 0 L. Ed.2 d 1 0 1 (1 9 9 2 ) ("List en er s' r ea c t ion t o speec h is n ot a c on t en t -n eu t r a l ba sis for r eg u la t ion '').

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54 « up T h ese pr ec eden t s, t h en , su r ely do n ot r equ ir e u s t o u ph old t h e CDA a n d a r e fu lly c on sist en t w it h t h e a pplic a t ion of t h e m ost st r in g en t r ev iew of it s pr ov ision s. V

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In So utheas tern Pro m o tio ns , Ltd. v . Co nrad, 4 2 0 U. S. 5 4 6 , 5 5 7 , 9 5 S. Ct . 1 2 3 9 , 1 2 4 5 -1 2 4 6 , 4 3 L. Ed. 2 d 4 4 8 (1 9 7 5 ), w e obser v ed t h a t " [e]a c h m ediu m of ex pr ession . . . m a y pr esen t it s ow n pr oblem s. '' T h u s, som e of ou r c a ses h a v e r ec og n ized spec ia l ju st ific a t ion s for r eg u la t ion of t h e br oa dc a st m edia t h a t a r e n ot a pplic a ble t o ot h er spea k er s, see Red Lio n Bro adc as ting Co . v . FCC, 3 9 5 U. S. 3 6 7 , 8 9 S. Ct . 1 7 9 4 , 2 3 L. Ed. 2 d 3 7 1 (1 9 6 9 ); FCC v . Pac ific a Fo undatio n, 4 3 8 U. S. 7 2 6 , 9 8 S. Ct . 3 0 2 6 , 5 7 L. Ed. 2 d 1 0 7 3 (1 9 7 8 ). In t h ese c a ses, t h e Cou r t r elied on t h e h ist or y of ex t en siv e g ov er n m en t r eg u la t ion of t h e br oa dc a st m ediu m , see, e. g. , Red Lio n, 3 9 5 U. S. , a t 3 9 9 -4 0 0 , 8 9 S. Ct . , a t 1 8 1 1 -1 8 1 2 ; t h e sc a r c it y of a v a ila ble fr equ en c ies a t it s in c ept ion , see, e. g. , Turner Bro adc as ting Sys tem , Inc . v . FCC, 5 1 2 U. S. 6 2 2 , 6 3 7 -6 3 8 , 1 1 4 S. Ct . 2 4 4 5 , 2 4 5 6 -2 4 5 7 , 1 2 9 L. Ed. 2 d 4 9 7 (1 9 9 4 ); a n d it s "in v a siv e'' n a t u r e, see Sable Co m m unic atio ns o f Cal. , Inc . v . FCC, 4 9 2 U. S. 1 1 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . 2 8 2 9 , 2 8 3 7 -2 8 3 8 , 1 0 6 L. Ed. 2 d 9 3 (1 9 8 9 ).

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T h ose fa c t or s a r e n ot pr esen t in c y ber spa c e. Neit h er befor e n or a ft er t h e en a c t m en t of t h e CDA h a v e t h e v a st dem oc r a t ic for a of t h e In t er n et been su bjec t t o t h e t y pe of g ov er n m en t su per v ision a n d r eg u la t ion t h a t h a s a t t en ded t h e br oa dc a st in du st r y . 33 Mor eov er , t h e In t er n et is n ot a s "in v a siv e'' a s r a dio or t elev ision . T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t spec ific a lly fou n d t h a t " [c ]om m u n ic a t ion s ov er t h e In t er n et do n ot "in v a de' a n in div idu a l's h om e or a ppea r on on e's c om pu t er sc r een u n bidden . User s seldom en c ou n t er c on t en t "by a c c iden t . ''' 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 4 (fin din g 8 8 ). It a lso fou n d t h a t " [a ]lm ost a ll sex u a lly ex plic it im a g es a r e pr ec eded by w a r n in g s a s t o t h e c on t en t , '' a n d c it ed t est im on y t h a t ""odds a r e slim ' t h a t a u ser w ou ld c om e a c r oss a sex u a lly ex plic it sig h t by a c c iden t . '' Ibid.

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W e dist in g u ish ed Pac ific a in Sable, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 8 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 -2 8 3 8 , on ju st t h is ba sis. In Sable, a c om pa n y en g a g ed in t h e bu sin ess of offer in g sex u a lly or ien t ed pr er ec or ded t eleph on e m essa g es (popu la r ly k n ow n a s "dia l-a -por n '') c h a llen g ed t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of a n a m en dm en t t o t h e Com m u n ic a t ion s A c t t h a t im posed a bla n k et pr oh ibit ion on in dec en t a s w ell a s obsc en e in t er st a t e c om m er c ia l t eleph on e m essa g es. W e h eld t h a t t h e st a t u t e w a s c on st it u t ion a l in sofa r a s it a pplied t o obsc en e m essa g es bu t in v a lid a s a pplied t o in dec en t m essa g es. In a t t em pt in g t o ju st ify t h e c om plet e ba n a n d c r im in a liza t ion of in dec en t c om m er c ia l t eleph on e m essa g es, t h e G ov er n m en t r elied on Pac ific a, a r g u in g t h a t t h e ba n w a s n ec essa r y t o pr ev en t c h ildr en fr om g a in in g a c c ess t o su c h m essa g es. W e a g r eed t h a t "t h er e is a c om pellin g in t er est in pr ot ec t in g t h e ph y sic a l a n d psy c h olog ic a l w ell-bein g of m in or s'' w h ic h ex t en ded t o sh ieldin g t h em fr om in dec en t m essa g es t h a t a r e n ot obsc en e by a du lt st a n da r ds, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 6 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 6 -2 8 3 7 , bu t dist in g u ish ed ou r "em ph a t ic a lly n a r r ow h oldin g '' in Pac ific a bec a u se it did n ot in v olv e a c om plet e ba n a n d bec a u se it in v olv ed a differ en t m ediu m of c om m u n ic a t ion , id. , a t 1 2 7 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 . W e ex pla in ed t h a t "t h e

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dia l-it m ediu m r equ ir es t h e list en er t o t a k e a ffir m a t iv e st eps t o r ec eiv e « up t h e c om m u n ic a t ion . '' Id. , a t 1 2 7 -1 2 8 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 . "Pla c in g a t eleph on e c a ll, '' w e c on t in u ed, "is n ot t h e sa m e a s t u r n in g on a r a dio a n d bein g t a k en by su r pr ise by a n in dec en t m essa g e. '' Id. , a t 1 2 8 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 . 58

Fin a lly , u n lik e t h e c on dit ion s t h a t pr ev a iled w h en Con g r ess fir st a u t h or ized r eg u la t ion of t h e br oa dc a st spec t r u m , t h e In t er n et c a n h a r dly be c on sider ed a "sc a r c e'' ex pr essiv e c om m odit y . It pr ov ides r ela t iv ely u n lim it ed, low -c ost c a pa c it y for c om m u n ic a t ion of a ll k in ds. T h e G ov er n m en t est im a t es t h a t " [a ]s m a n y a s 4 0 m illion people u se t h e In t er n et t oda y , a n d t h a t fig u r e is ex pec t ed t o g r ow t o 2 0 0 m illion by 1 9 9 9 . ''34 T h is dy n a m ic , m u lt ifa c et ed c a t eg or y of c om m u n ic a t ion in c lu des n ot on ly t r a dit ion a l pr in t a n d n ew s ser v ic es, bu t a lso a u dio, v ideo, a n d st ill im a g es, a s w ell a s in t er a c t iv e, r ea l-t im e dia log u e. T h r ou g h t h e u se of c h a t r oom s, a n y per son w it h a ph on e lin e c a n bec om e a t ow n c r ier w it h a v oic e t h a t r eson a t es fa r t h er t h a n it c ou ld fr om a n y soa pbox . T h r ou g h t h e u se of W eb pa g es, m a il ex ploder s, a n d n ew sg r ou ps, t h e sa m e in div idu a l c a n bec om e a pa m ph let eer . A s t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d, "t h e c on t en t on t h e In t er n et is a s div er se a s h u m a n t h ou g h t . '' 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 2 (fin din g 7 4 ). W e a g r ee w it h it s c on c lu sion t h a t ou r c a ses pr ov ide n o ba sis for qu a lify in g t h e lev el of Fir st A m en dm en t sc r u t in y t h a t sh ou ld be a pplied t o t h is m ediu m . VI

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Reg a r dless of w h et h er t h e CDA is so v a g u e t h a t it v iola t es t h e Fift h A m en dm en t , t h e m a n y a m big u it ies c on c er n in g t h e sc ope of it s c ov er a g e r en der it pr oblem a t ic for pu r poses of t h e Fir st A m en dm en t . For in st a n c e, ea c h of t h e t w o pa r t s of t h e CDA u ses a differ en t lin g u ist ic for m . T h e fir st u ses t h e w or d "in dec en t , '' 4 7 U. S. C . A . §2 2 3 (a ) (Su pp. 1 9 9 7 ), w h ile t h e sec on d spea k s of m a t er ia l t h a t "in c on t ex t , depic t s or desc r ibes, in t er m s pa t en t ly offen siv e a s m ea su r ed by c on t em por a r y c om m u n it y st a n da r ds, sex u a l or ex c r et or y a c t iv it ies or or g a n s, '' §2 2 3 (d). G iv en t h e a bsen c e of a defin it ion of eit h er t er m , 35 t h is differ en c e in la n g u a g e w ill pr ov ok e u n c er t a in t y a m on g spea k er s a bou t h ow t h e t w o st a n da r ds r ela t e t o ea c h ot h er 36 a n d ju st w h a t t h ey m ea n . 37 Cou ld a spea k er c on fiden t ly a ssu m e t h a t a ser iou s disc u ssion a bou t bir t h c on t r ol pr a c t ic es, h om osex u a lit y , t h e Fir st A m en dm en t issu es r a ised by t h e A ppen dix t o ou r Pac ific a opin ion , or t h e c on sequ en c es of pr ison r a pe w ou ld n ot v iola t e t h e C DA ? T h is u n c er t a in t y u n der m in es t h e lik elih ood t h a t t h e CDA h a s been c a r efu lly t a ilor ed t o t h e c on g r ession a l g oa l of pr ot ec t in g m in or s fr om pot en t ia lly h a r m fu l m a t er ia ls.

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T h e v a g u en ess of t h e CDA is a m a t t er of spec ia l c on c er n for t w o r ea son s. Fir st , t h e CDA is a c on t en t -ba sed r eg u la t ion of speec h . T h e v a g u en ess of su c h a r eg u la t ion r a ises spec ia l Fir st A m en dm en t c on c er n s bec a u se of it s obv iou s c h illin g effec t on fr ee speec h . See, e. g. , Gentile v . State Bar o f Nev . , 5 0 1 U. S. 1 0 3 0 , 1 0 4 8 -1 0 5 1 , 1 1 1 S. Ct . 2 7 2 0 , 2 7 3 1 -2 7 3 3 , 1 1 5 L. Ed. 2 d 8 8 8 (1 9 9 1 ). Sec on d, t h e CDA is a c r im in a l st a t u t e. In a ddit ion t o t h e oppr obr iu m a n d st ig m a of a c r im in a l c on v ic t ion , t h e CDA t h r ea t en s v iola t or s w it h pen a lt ies in c lu din g u p t o t w o y ea r s in pr ison for ea c h a c t of v iola t ion . T h e sev er it y of c r im in a l

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sa n c t ion s m a y w ell c a u se spea k er s t o r em a in silen t r a t h er t h a n « up c om m u n ic a t e ev en a r g u a bly u n la w fu l w or ds, idea s, a n d im a g es. See, e. g. , Do m bro w s k i v . Pfis ter, 3 8 0 U. S. 4 7 9 , 4 9 4 , 8 5 S. Ct . 1 1 1 6 , 1 1 2 5 , 1 4 L. Ed. 2 d 2 2 (1 9 6 5 ). A s a pr a c t ic a l m a t t er , t h is in c r ea sed det er r en t effec t , c ou pled w it h t h e "r isk of disc r im in a t or y en for c em en t '' of v a g u e r eg u la t ion s, poses g r ea t er Fir st A m en dm en t c on c er n s t h a n t h ose im plic a t ed by t h e c iv il r eg u la t ion r ev iew ed in Denv er Area Ed. Telec o m m unic atio ns Co ns o rtium , Inc . v . FCC, 5 1 8 U. S. ----, 1 1 6 S. Ct . 2 3 7 4 , 1 3 5 L. Ed. 2 d 8 8 8 (1 9 9 6 ).

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T h e G ov er n m en t a r g u es t h a t t h e st a t u t e is n o m or e v a g u e t h a n t h e obsc en it y st a n da r d t h is Cou r t est a blish ed in Miller v . Califo rnia, 4 1 3 U. S. 1 5 , 9 3 S. Ct . 2 6 0 7 , 3 7 L. Ed. 2 d 4 1 9 (1 9 7 3 ). Bu t t h a t is n ot so. In Miller, t h is Cou r t r ev iew ed a c r im in a l c on v ic t ion a g a in st a c om m er c ia l v en dor w h o m a iled br oc h u r es c on t a in in g pic t u r es of sex u a lly ex plic it a c t iv it ies t o in div idu a ls w h o h a d n ot r equ est ed su c h m a t er ia ls. Id. , a t 1 8 , 9 3 S. Ct . , a t 2 6 1 1 -2 6 1 2 . H a v in g st r u g g led for som e t im e t o est a blish a defin it ion of obsc en it y , w e set for t h in Miller t h e t est for obsc en it y t h a t c on t r ols t o t h is da y :

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" (a ) w h et h er t h e a v er a g e per son , a pply in g c on t em por a r y c om m u n it y st a n da r ds w ou ld fin d t h a t t h e w or k , t a k en a s a w h ole, a ppea ls t o t h e pr u r ien t in t er est ; (b) w h et h er t h e w or k depic t s or desc r ibes, in a pa t en t ly offen siv e w a y , sex u a l c on du c t spec ific a lly defin ed by t h e a pplic a ble st a t e la w ; a n d (c ) w h et h er t h e w or k , t a k en a s a w h ole, la c k s ser iou s lit er a r y , a r t ist ic , polit ic a l, or sc ien t ific v a lu e. '' Id. , a t 2 4 , 9 3 S. Ct . , a t 2 6 1 5 (in t er n a l qu ot a t ion m a r k s a n d c it a t ion s om it t ed).

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Bec a u se t h e CDA 's "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' st a n da r d (a n d, w e a ssu m e arguendo , it s sy n on y m ou s "in dec en t '' st a n da r d) is on e pa r t of t h e t h r ee-pr on g Miller t est , t h e G ov er n m en t r ea son s, it c a n n ot be u n c on st it u t ion a lly v a g u e.

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T h e G ov er n m en t 's a sser t ion is in c or r ec t a s a m a t t er of fa c t . T h e sec on d pr on g of t h e Miller t est -t h e pu r por t edly a n a log ou s st a n da r dc on t a in s a c r it ic a l r equ ir em en t t h a t is om it t ed fr om t h e CDA : t h a t t h e pr osc r ibed m a t er ia l be "spec ific a lly defin ed by t h e a pplic a ble st a t e la w . '' T h is r equ ir em en t r edu c es t h e v a g u en ess in h er en t in t h e open -en ded t er m "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a s u sed in t h e CDA . Mor eov er , t h e Miller defin it ion is lim it ed t o "sex u a l c on du c t , '' w h er ea s t h e CDA ex t en ds a lso t o in c lu de (1 ) "ex c r et or y a c t iv it ies'' a s w ell a s (2 ) "or g a n s'' of bot h a sex u a l a n d ex c r et or y n a t u r e.

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T h e G ov er n m en t 's r ea son in g is a lso fla w ed. Ju st bec a u se a defin it ion in c lu din g t h r ee lim it a t ion s is n ot v a g u e, it does n ot follow t h a t on e of t h ose lim it a t ion s, st a n din g by it self, is n ot v a g u e. 38 Ea c h of Miller's a ddit ion a l t w o pr on g s- (1 ) t h a t , t a k en a s a w h ole, t h e m a t er ia l a ppea l t o t h e "pr u r ien t '' in t er est , a n d (2 ) t h a t it "la c [k ] ser iou s lit er a r y , a r t ist ic , polit ic a l, or sc ien t ific v a lu e''-c r it ic a lly lim it s t h e u n c er t a in sw eep of t h e obsc en it y defin it ion . T h e sec on d r equ ir em en t is pa r t ic u la r ly im por t a n t bec a u se, u n lik e t h e "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a n d "pr u r ien t in t er est '' c r it er ia , it is n ot ju dg ed by c on t em por a r y c om m u n it y st a n da r ds. See Po pe v . Illino is , 4 8 1 U. S. 4 9 7 , 5 0 0 , 1 0 7

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S. Ct . 1 9 1 8 , 1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 1 , 9 5 L. Ed. 2 d 4 3 9 (1 9 8 7 ). T h is "soc iet a l v a lu e'' « up r equ ir em en t , a bsen t in t h e CDA , a llow s a ppella t e c ou r t s t o im pose som e lim it a t ion s a n d r eg u la r it y on t h e defin it ion by set t in g , a s a m a t t er of la w , a n a t ion a l floor for soc ia lly r edeem in g v a lu e. T h e G ov er n m en t 's c on t en t ion t h a t c ou r t s w ill be a ble t o g iv e su c h leg a l lim it a t ion s t o t h e CDA 's st a n da r ds is belied by Miller's ow n r a t ion a le for h a v in g ju r ies det er m in e w h et h er m a t er ia l is "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a c c or din g t o c om m u n it y st a n da r ds: t h a t su c h qu est ion s a r e essen t ia lly on es of fac t. 39 66

In c on t r a st t o Miller a n d ou r ot h er pr ev iou s c a ses, t h e CDA t h u s pr esen t s a g r ea t er t h r ea t of c en sor in g speec h t h a t , in fa c t , fa lls ou t side t h e st a t u t e's sc ope. G iv en t h e v a g u e c on t ou r s of t h e c ov er a g e of t h e st a t u t e, it u n qu est ion a bly silen c es som e spea k er s w h ose m essa g es w ou ld be en t it led t o c on st it u t ion a l pr ot ec t ion . T h a t da n g er pr ov ides fu r t h er r ea son for in sist in g t h a t t h e st a t u t e n ot be ov er ly br oa d. T h e CDA 's bu r den on pr ot ec t ed speec h c a n n ot be ju st ified if it c ou ld be a v oided by a m or e c a r efu lly dr a ft ed st a t u t e. V II

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W e a r e per su a ded t h a t t h e CDA la c k s t h e pr ec ision t h a t t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r equ ir es w h en a st a t u t e r eg u la t es t h e c on t en t of speec h . In or der t o den y m in or s a c c ess t o pot en t ia lly h a r m fu l speec h , t h e CDA effec t iv ely su ppr esses a la r g e a m ou n t of speec h t h a t a du lt s h a v e a c on st it u t ion a l r ig h t t o r ec eiv e a n d t o a ddr ess t o on e a n ot h er . T h a t bu r den on a du lt speec h is u n a c c ept a ble if less r est r ic t iv e a lt er n a t iv es w ou ld be a t lea st a s effec t iv e in a c h iev in g t h e leg it im a t e pu r pose t h a t t h e st a t u t e w a s en a c t ed t o ser v e.

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In ev a lu a t in g t h e fr ee speec h r ig h t s of a du lt s, w e h a v e m a de it per fec t ly c lea r t h a t " [s]ex u a l ex pr ession w h ic h is in dec en t bu t n ot obsc en e is pr ot ec t ed by t h e Fir st A m en dm en t . '' Sable, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 6 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 6 . See a lso Carey v . Po pulatio n Serv ic es Int'l, 4 3 1 U. S. 6 7 8 , 7 0 1 , 9 7 S. Ct . 2 0 1 0 , 2 0 2 4 , 5 2 L. Ed. 2 d 6 7 5 (1 9 7 7 ) (" [W ]h er e obsc en it y is n ot in v olv ed, w e h a v e c on sist en t ly h eld t h a t t h e fa c t t h a t pr ot ec t ed speec h m a y be offen siv e t o som e does n ot ju st ify it s su ppr ession ''). In deed, Pac ific a it self a dm on ish ed t h a t "t h e fa c t t h a t soc iet y m a y fin d speec h offen siv e is n ot a su ffic ien t r ea son for su ppr essin g it . '' 4 3 8 U. S. , a t 7 4 5 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 3 8 .

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It is t r u e t h a t w e h a v e r epea t edly r ec og n ized t h e g ov er n m en t a l in t er est in pr ot ec t in g c h ildr en fr om h a r m fu l m a t er ia ls. See Gins berg, 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 9 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 8 0 ; Pac ific a, 4 3 8 U. S. , a t 7 4 9 , 9 8 S. Ct . , a t 3 0 4 0 . Bu t t h a t in t er est does n ot ju st ify a n u n n ec essa r ily br oa d su ppr ession of speec h a ddr essed t o a du lt s. A s w e h a v e ex pla in ed, t h e G ov er n m en t m a y n ot "r edu c [e] t h e a du lt popu la t ion . . . t o . . . on ly w h a t is fit for c h ildr en . '' Denv er, 5 1 8 U. S. , a t ----, 1 1 6 S. Ct . , a t 2 3 9 3 (in t er n a l qu ot a t ion m a r k s om it t ed) (qu ot in g Sable, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 8 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 -2 8 3 8 ). 40 " [R]eg a r dless of t h e st r en g t h of t h e g ov er n m en t 's in t er est '' in pr ot ec t in g c h ildr en , " [t ]h e lev el of disc ou r se r ea c h in g a m a ilbox sim ply c a n n ot be lim it ed t o t h a t w h ic h w ou ld be su it a ble for a sa n dbox . '' Bo lger v . Y o ungs Drug Pro duc ts Co rp. , 4 6 3 U. S. 6 0 , 7 4 -7 5 , 1 0 3 S. Ct . 2 8 7 5 , 2 8 8 4 -2 8 8 5 , 7 7 L. Ed. 2 d 4 6 9 (1 9 8 3 ).

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70 « up T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t w a s c or r ec t t o c on c lu de t h a t t h e CDA effec t iv ely r esem bles t h e ba n on "dia l-a -por n '' in v a lida t ed in Sable. 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 5 4 . In Sable, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 9 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 8 , t h is Cou r t r ejec t ed t h e a r g u m en t t h a t w e sh ou ld defer t o t h e c on g r ession a l ju dg m en t t h a t n ot h in g less t h a n a t ot a l ba n w ou ld be effec t iv e in pr ev en t in g en t er pr isin g y ou n g st er s fr om g a in in g a c c ess t o in dec en t c om m u n ic a t ion s. Sable t h u s m a de c lea r t h a t t h e m er e fa c t t h a t a st a t u t or y r eg u la t ion of speec h w a s en a c t ed for t h e im por t a n t pu r pose of pr ot ec t in g c h ildr en fr om ex posu r e t o sex u a lly ex plic it m a t er ia l does n ot for ec lose in qu ir y in t o it s v a lidit y . 41 A s w e poin t ed ou t la st T er m , t h a t in qu ir y em bodies a n "ov er -a r c h in g c om m it m en t '' t o m a k e su r e t h a t Con g r ess h a s desig n ed it s st a t u t e t o a c c om plish it s pu r pose "w it h ou t im posin g a n u n n ec essa r ily g r ea t r est r ic t ion on speec h . '' Denv er, 5 1 8 U. S. , a t ----, 1 1 6 S. Ct . , a t 2 3 8 5 .

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In a r g u in g t h a t t h e CDA does n ot so dim in ish a du lt c om m u n ic a t ion , t h e G ov er n m en t r elies on t h e in c or r ec t fa c t u a l pr em ise t h a t pr oh ibit in g a t r a n sm ission w h en ev er it is k n ow n t h a t on e of it s r ec ipien t s is a m in or w ou ld n ot in t er fer e w it h a du lt -t o-a du lt c om m u n ic a t ion . T h e fin din g s of t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t m a k e c lea r t h a t t h is pr em ise is u n t en a ble. G iv en t h e size of t h e pot en t ia l a u dien c e for m ost m essa g es, in t h e a bsen c e of a v ia ble a g e v er ific a t ion pr oc ess, t h e sen der m u st be c h a r g ed w it h k n ow in g t h a t on e or m or e m in or s w ill lik ely v iew it . Kn ow ledg e t h a t , for in st a n c e, on e or m or e m em ber s of a 1 0 0 -per son c h a t g r ou p w ill be m in or -a n d t h er efor e t h a t it w ou ld be a c r im e t o sen d t h e g r ou p a n in dec en t m essa g e-w ou ld su r ely bu r den c om m u n ic a t ion a m on g a du lt s. 42

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T h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d t h a t a t t h e t im e of t r ia l ex ist in g t ec h n olog y did n ot in c lu de a n y effec t iv e m et h od for a sen der t o pr ev en t m in or s fr om obt a in in g a c c ess t o it s c om m u n ic a t ion s on t h e In t er n et w it h ou t a lso den y in g a c c ess t o a du lt s. T h e Cou r t fou n d n o effec t iv e w a y t o det er m in e t h e a g e of a u ser w h o is a c c essin g m a t er ia l t h r ou g h e-m a il, m a il ex ploder s, n ew sg r ou ps, or c h a t r oom s. 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 5 (fin din g s 9 0 -9 4 ). A s a pr a c t ic a l m a t t er , t h e Cou r t a lso fou n d t h a t it w ou ld be pr oh ibit iv ely ex pen siv e for n on c om m er c ia l-a s w ell a s som e c om m er c ia l-spea k er s w h o h a v e W eb sit es t o v er ify t h a t t h eir u ser s a r e a du lt s. Id. , a t 8 4 5 -8 4 8 (fin din g s 9 5 -1 1 6 ). 43 T h ese lim it a t ion s m u st in ev it a bly c u r t a il a sig n ific a n t a m ou n t of a du lt c om m u n ic a t ion on t h e In t er n et . By c on t r a st , t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t fou n d t h a t " [d]espit e it s lim it a t ion s, c u r r en t ly a v a ila ble us er-bas ed soft w a r e su g g est s t h a t a r ea son a bly effec t iv e m et h od by w h ic h parents c a n pr ev en t t h eir c h ildr en fr om a c c essin g sex u a lly ex plic it a n d ot h er m a t er ia l w h ic h parents m a y believ e is in a ppr opr ia t e for t h eir c h ildr en w ill soon be w idely a v a ila ble. '' Id. , a t 8 4 2 (fin din g 7 3 ) (em ph a ses a dded).

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T h e br ea dt h of t h e CDA 's c ov er a g e is w h olly u n pr ec eden t ed. Un lik e t h e r eg u la t ion s u ph eld in Gins berg a n d Pac ific a, t h e sc ope of t h e CDA is n ot lim it ed t o c om m er c ia l speec h or c om m er c ia l en t it ies. It s open -en ded pr oh ibit ion s em br a c e a ll n on pr ofit en t it ies a n d in div idu a ls post in g in dec en t m essa g es or displa y in g t h em on t h eir ow n c om pu t er s in t h e pr esen c e of m in or s. T h e g en er a l, u n defin ed t er m s "in dec en t '' a n d "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' c ov er la r g e a m ou n t s of n on por n og r a ph ic m a t er ia l w it h ser iou s edu c a t ion a l or ot h er v a lu e. 44 Mor eov er , t h e "c om m u n it y

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st a n da r ds'' c r it er ion a s a pplied t o t h e In t er n et m ea n s t h a t a n y « up c om m u n ic a t ion a v a ila ble t o a n a t ion -w ide a u dien c e w ill be ju dg ed by t h e st a n da r ds of t h e c om m u n it y m ost lik ely t o be offen ded by t h e m essa g e. 45 T h e r eg u la t ed su bjec t m a t t er in c lu des a n y of t h e sev en "dir t y w or ds'' u sed in t h e Pa c ific a m on olog u e, t h e u se of w h ic h t h e G ov er n m en t 's ex per t a c k n ow ledg ed c ou ld c on st it u t e a felon y . See Olsen T est . , T r . V ol. V , 5 3 :1 6 -5 4 :1 0 . It m a y a lso ex t en d t o disc u ssion s a bou t pr ison r a pe or sa fe sex u a l pr a c t ic es, a r t ist ic im a g es t h a t in c lu de n u de su bjec t s, a n d a r g u a bly t h e c a r d c a t a log u e of t h e Ca r n eg ie Libr a r y . 74

For t h e pu r poses of ou r dec ision , w e n eed n eit h er a c c ept n or r ejec t t h e G ov er n m en t 's su bm ission t h a t t h e Fir st A m en dm en t does n ot for bid a bla n k et pr oh ibit ion on a ll "in dec en t '' a n d "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' m essa g es c om m u n ic a t ed t o a 1 7 -y ea r old-n o m a t t er h ow m u c h v a lu e t h e m essa g e m a y c on t a in a n d r eg a r dless of pa r en t a l a ppr ov a l. It is a t lea st c lea r t h a t t h e st r en g t h of t h e G ov er n m en t 's in t er est in pr ot ec t in g m in or s is n ot equ a lly st r on g t h r ou g h ou t t h e c ov er a g e of t h is br oa d st a t u t e. Un der t h e CDA , a pa r en t a llow in g h er 1 7 -y ea r -old t o u se t h e fa m ily c om pu t er t o obt a in in for m a t ion on t h e In t er n et t h a t sh e, in h er pa r en t a l ju dg m en t , deem s a ppr opr ia t e c ou ld fa c e a len g t h y pr ison t er m . See 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a )(2 ) (Su pp. 1 9 9 7 ). Sim ila r ly , a pa r en t w h o sen t h is 1 7 -y ea r -old c olleg e fr esh m a n in for m a t ion on bir t h c on t r ol v ia e-m a il c ou ld be in c a r c er a t ed ev en t h ou g h n eit h er h e, h is c h ild, n or a n y on e in t h eir h om e c om m u n it y , fou n d t h e m a t er ia l "in dec en t '' or "pa t en t ly offen siv e, '' if t h e c olleg e t ow n 's c om m u n it y t h ou g h t ot h er w ise.

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T h e br ea dt h of t h is c on t en t -ba sed r est r ic t ion of speec h im poses a n espec ia lly h ea v y bu r den on t h e G ov er n m en t t o ex pla in w h y a less r est r ic t iv e pr ov ision w ou ld n ot be a s effec t iv e a s t h e CDA . It h a s n ot don e so. T h e a r g u m en t s in t h is Cou r t h a v e r efer r ed t o possible a lt er n a t iv es su c h a s r equ ir in g t h a t in dec en t m a t er ia l be "t a g g ed'' in a w a y t h a t fa c ilit a t es pa r en t a l c on t r ol of m a t er ia l c om in g in t o t h eir h om es, m a k in g ex c ept ion s for m essa g es w it h a r t ist ic or edu c a t ion a l v a lu e, pr ov idin g som e t oler a n c e for pa r en t a l c h oic e, a n d r eg u la t in g som e por t ion s of t h e In t er n et -su c h a s c om m er c ia l w eb sit es-differ en t ly t h a n ot h er s, su c h a s c h a t r oom s. Pa r t ic u la r ly in t h e lig h t of t h e a bsen c e of a n y det a iled fin din g s by t h e Con g r ess, or ev en h ea r in g s a ddr essin g t h e spec ia l pr oblem s of t h e CDA , w e a r e per su a ded t h a t t h e CDA is n ot n a r r ow ly t a ilor ed if t h a t r equ ir em en t h a s a n y m ea n in g a t a ll. V III

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In a n a t t em pt t o c u r t a il t h e CDA 's fa c ia l ov er br ea dt h , t h e G ov er n m en t a dv a n c es t h r ee a ddit ion a l a r g u m en t s for su st a in in g t h e A c t 's a ffir m a t iv e pr oh ibit ion s: (1 ) t h a t t h e CDA is c on st it u t ion a l bec a u se it lea v es open a m ple "a lt er n a t iv e c h a n n els'' of c om m u n ic a t ion ; (2 ) t h a t t h e pla in m ea n in g of t h e A c t 's "k n ow ledg e'' a n d "spec ific per son '' r equ ir em en t sig n ific a n t ly r est r ic t s it s per m issible a pplic a t ion s; a n d (3 ) t h a t t h e A c t 's pr oh ibit ion s a r e "a lm ost a lw a y s'' lim it ed t o m a t er ia l la c k in g r edeem in g soc ia l v a lu e. T h e G ov er n m en t fir st c on t en ds t h a t , ev en t h ou g h t h e CDA

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effec t iv ely c en sor s disc ou r se on m a n y of t h e In t er n et 's m oda lit ies-su c h « up a s c h a t g r ou ps, n ew sg r ou ps, a n d m a il ex ploder s-it is n on et h eless c on st it u t ion a l bec a u se it pr ov ides a "r ea son a ble oppor t u n it y '' for spea k er s t o en g a g e in t h e r est r ic t ed speec h on t h e W or ld W ide W eb. Br ief for A ppella n t s 3 9 . T h is a r g u m en t is u n per su a siv e bec a u se t h e CDA r eg u la t es speec h on t h e ba sis of it s c on t en t . A "t im e, pla c e, a n d m a n n er '' a n a ly sis is t h er efor e in a pplic a ble. See Co ns o lidated Edis o n Co . o f N. Y . v . Public Serv . Co m m 'n o f N. Y . , 4 4 7 U. S. 5 3 0 , 5 3 6 , 1 0 0 S. Ct . 2 3 2 6 , 2 3 3 2 -2 3 3 3 , 6 5 L. Ed. 2 d 3 1 9 (1 9 8 0 ). It is t h u s im m a t er ia l w h et h er su c h speec h w ou ld be fea sible on t h e W eb (w h ic h , a s t h e G ov er n m en t 's ow n ex per t a c k n ow ledg ed, w ou ld c ost u p t o $1 0 , 0 0 0 if t h e spea k er 's in t er est s w er e n ot a c c om m oda t ed by a n ex ist in g W eb sit e, n ot in c lu din g c ost s for da t a ba se m a n a g em en t a n d a g e v er ific a t ion ). T h e G ov er n m en t 's posit ion is equ iv a len t t o a r g u in g t h a t a st a t u t e c ou ld ba n lea flet s on c er t a in su bjec t s a s lon g a s in div idu a ls a r e fr ee t o pu blish book s. In in v a lida t in g a n u m ber of la w s t h a t ba n n ed lea flet t in g on t h e st r eet s regardles s o f t h eir c on t en t -w e ex pla in ed t h a t "on e is n ot t o h a v e t h e ex er c ise of h is liber t y of ex pr ession in a ppr opr ia t e pla c es a br idg ed on t h e plea t h a t it m a y be ex er c ised in som e ot h er pla c e. '' Sc hneider v . State o f N. J. (To w n o f Irv ingto n), 3 0 8 U. S. 1 4 7 , 1 6 3 , 6 0 S. Ct . 1 4 6 , 1 5 1 -1 5 2 , 8 4 L. Ed. 1 5 5 (1 9 3 9 ). 78

T h e G ov er n m en t a lso a sser t s t h a t t h e "k n ow ledg e'' r equ ir em en t of bot h §§2 2 3 (a ) a n d (d), espec ia lly w h en c ou pled w it h t h e "spec ific c h ild'' elem en t fou n d in §2 2 3 (d), sa v es t h e CDA fr om ov er br ea dt h . Bec a u se bot h sec t ion s pr oh ibit t h e dissem in a t ion of in dec en t m essa g es on ly t o per son s k n ow n t o be u n der 1 8 , t h e G ov er n m en t a r g u es, it does n ot r equ ir e t r a n sm it t er s t o "r efr a in fr om c om m u n ic a t in g in dec en t m a t er ia l t o a du lt s; t h ey n eed on ly r efr a in fr om dissem in a t in g su c h m a t er ia ls t o per son s t h ey k n ow t o be u n der 1 8 . '' Br ief for A ppella n t s 2 4 .

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T h is a r g u m en t ig n or es t h e fa c t t h a t m ost In t er n et for a -in c lu din g c h a t r oom s, n ew sg r ou ps, m a il ex ploder s, a n d t h e W eb-a r e open t o a ll c om er s. T h e G ov er n m en t 's a sser t ion t h a t t h e k n ow ledg e r equ ir em en t som eh ow pr ot ec t s t h e c om m u n ic a t ion s of a du lt s is t h er efor e u n t en a ble. Ev en t h e st r on g est r ea din g of t h e "spec ific per son '' r equ ir em en t of §2 2 3 (d) c a n n ot sa v e t h e st a t u t e. It w ou ld c on fer br oa d pow er s of c en sor sh ip, in t h e for m of a "h ec k ler 's v et o, '' u pon a n y oppon en t of in dec en t speec h w h o m ig h t sim ply log on a n d in for m t h e w ou ld-be disc ou r ser s t h a t h is 1 7 -y ea r -old c h ild-a "spec ific per son . . . u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e, '' 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (d)(1 )(A ) (Su pp. 1 9 9 7 )- w ou ld be pr esen t .

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Fin a lly , w e fin d n o t ex t u a l su ppor t for t h e G ov er n m en t 's su bm ission t h a t m a t er ia l h a v in g sc ien t ific , edu c a t ion a l, or ot h er r edeem in g soc ia l v a lu e w ill n ec essa r ily fa ll ou t side t h e CDA 's "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' a n d "in dec en t '' pr oh ibit ion s. See a lso n . 3 7 , s upra. IX

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T h e G ov er n m en t 's t h r ee r em a in in g a r g u m en t s foc u s on t h e defen ses pr ov ided in §2 2 3 (e)(5 ). 46 Fir st , r ely in g on t h e "g ood fa it h , r ea son a ble, effec t iv e, a n d a ppr opr ia t e a c t ion s'' pr ov ision , t h e G ov er n m en t su g g est s t h a t "t a g g in g '' pr ov ides a defen se t h a t sa v es t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t h e

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A c t . T h e su g g est ion a ssu m es t h a t t r a n sm it t er s m a y en c ode t h eir « up in dec en t c om m u n ic a t ion s in a w a y t h a t w ou ld in dic a t e t h eir c on t en t s, t h u s per m it t in g r ec ipien t s t o bloc k t h eir r ec ept ion w it h a ppr opr ia t e soft w a r e. It is t h e r equ ir em en t t h a t t h e g ood fa it h a c t ion m u st be "effec t iv e'' t h a t m a k es t h is defen se illu sor y . T h e G ov er n m en t r ec og n izes t h a t it s pr oposed sc r een in g soft w a r e does n ot c u r r en t ly ex ist . Ev en if it did, t h er e is n o w a y t o k n ow w h et h er a pot en t ia l r ec ipien t w ill a c t u a lly bloc k t h e en c oded m a t er ia l. W it h ou t t h e im possible k n ow ledg e t h a t ev er y g u a r dia n in A m er ic a is sc r een in g for t h e "t a g , '' t h e t r a n sm it t er c ou ld n ot r ea son a bly r ely on it s a c t ion t o be "effec t iv e. '' 82

For it s sec on d a n d t h ir d a r g u m en t s c on c er n in g defen ses-w h ic h w e c a n c on sider t og et h er -t h e G ov er n m en t r elies on t h e la t t er h a lf of §2 2 3 (e)(5 ), w h ic h a pplies w h en t h e t r a n sm it t er h a s r est r ic t ed a c c ess by r equ ir in g u se of a v er ified c r edit c a r d or a du lt iden t ific a t ion . Su c h v er ific a t ion is n ot on ly t ec h n olog ic a lly a v a ila ble bu t a c t u a lly is u sed by c om m er c ia l pr ov ider s of sex u a lly ex plic it m a t er ia l. T h ese pr ov ider s, t h er efor e, w ou ld be pr ot ec t ed by t h e defen se. Un der t h e fin din g s of t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t , h ow ev er , it is n ot ec on om ic a lly fea sible for m ost n on c om m er c ia l spea k er s t o em ploy su c h v er ific a t ion . A c c or din g ly , t h is defen se w ou ld n ot sig n ific a n t ly n a r r ow t h e st a t u t e's bu r den on n on c om m er c ia l speec h . Ev en w it h r espec t t o t h e c om m er c ia l por n og r a ph er s t h a t w ou ld be pr ot ec t ed by t h e defen se, t h e G ov er n m en t fa iled t o a ddu c e a n y ev iden c e t h a t t h ese v er ific a t ion t ec h n iqu es a c t u a lly pr ec lu de m in or s fr om posin g a s a du lt s. 47 G iv en t h a t t h e r isk of c r im in a l sa n c t ion s "h ov er s ov er ea c h c on t en t pr ov ider , lik e t h e pr ov er bia l sw or d of Da m oc les, ''48 t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t c or r ec t ly r efu sed t o r ely on u n pr ov en fu t u r e t ec h n olog y t o sa v e t h e st a t u t e. T h e G ov er n m en t t h u s fa iled t o pr ov e t h a t t h e pr offer ed defen se w ou ld sig n ific a n t ly r edu c e t h e h ea v y bu r den on a du lt speec h pr odu c ed by t h e pr oh ibit ion on offen siv e displa y s.

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W e a g r ee w it h t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t 's c on c lu sion t h a t t h e CDA pla c es a n u n a c c ept a bly h ea v y bu r den on pr ot ec t ed speec h , a n d t h a t t h e defen ses do n ot c on st it u t e t h e sor t of "n a r r ow t a ilor in g '' t h a t w ill sa v e a n ot h er w ise pa t en t ly in v a lid u n c on st it u t ion a l pr ov ision . In Sable, 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 7 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 7 , w e r em a r k ed t h a t t h e speec h r est r ic t ion a t issu e t h er e a m ou n t ed t o ""bu r n [in g ] t h e h ou se t o r oa st t h e pig . ''' T h e CDA , c a st in g a fa r da r k er sh a dow ov er fr ee speec h , t h r ea t en s t o t or c h a la r g e seg m en t of t h e In t er n et c om m u n it y . X

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A t or a l a r g u m en t , t h e G ov er n m en t r elied h ea v ily on it s u lt im a t e fa ll-ba c k posit ion : If t h is Cou r t sh ou ld c on c lu de t h a t t h e CDA is in su ffic ien t ly t a ilor ed, it u r g ed, w e sh ou ld sa v e t h e st a t u t e's c on st it u t ion a lit y by h on or in g t h e sev er a bilit y c la u se, see 4 7 U. S. C. §6 0 8 , a n d c on st r u in g n on sev er a ble t er m s n a r r ow ly . In on ly on e r espec t is t h is a r g u m en t a c c ept a ble.

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A sev er a bilit y c la u se r equ ir es t ex t u a l pr ov ision s t h a t c a n be sev er ed. W e w ill follow §6 0 8 's g u ida n c e by lea v in g c on st it u t ion a l t ex t u a l elem en t s of t h e st a t u t e in t a c t in t h e on e pla c e w h er e t h ey a r e, in fa c t , sev er a ble. T h e "in dec en c y '' pr ov ision , 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a )

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(Su pp. 1 9 9 7 ), a pplies t o "a n y c om m en t , r equ est , su g g est ion , pr oposa l, « up im a g e, or ot h er c om m u n ic a t ion w h ic h is o bs c ene o r indec ent. '' —(Em ph a sis a dded. ) A ppellees do n ot c h a llen g e t h e a pplic a t ion of t h e st a t u t e t o obsc en e speec h , w h ic h , t h ey a c k n ow ledg e, c a n be ba n n ed t ot a lly bec a u se it en joy s n o Fir st A m en dm en t pr ot ec t ion . See Miller, 4 1 3 U. S. , a t 1 8 , 9 3 S. Ct . , a t 2 6 1 1 -2 6 1 2 . A s set for t h by t h e st a t u t e, t h e r est r ic t ion of "obsc en e'' m a t er ia l en joy s a t ex t u a l m a n ifest a t ion sepa r a t e fr om t h a t for "in dec en t '' m a t er ia l, w h ic h w e h a v e h eld u n c on st it u t ion a l. T h er efor e, w e w ill sev er t h e t er m "or in dec en t '' fr om t h e st a t u t e, lea v in g t h e r est of §2 2 3 (a ) st a n din g . In n o ot h er r espec t , h ow ev er , c a n §2 2 3 (a ) or §2 2 3 (d) be sa v ed by su c h a t ex t u a l su r g er y .

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T h e G ov er n m en t a lso dr a w s on a n a ddit ion a l, less t r a dit ion a l a spec t of t h e CDA 's sev er a bilit y c la u se, 4 7 U. S. C. , §6 0 8 , w h ic h a sk s a n y r ev iew in g c ou r t t h a t h olds t h e st a t u t e fa c ia lly u n c on st it u t ion a l n ot t o in v a lida t e t h e CDA in a pplic a t ion t o "ot h er per son s or c ir c u m st a n c es'' t h a t m ig h t be c on st it u t ion a lly per m issible. It fu r t h er in v ok es t h is Cou r t 's a dm on it ion t h a t , a bsen t "c ou n t er v a ilin g c on sider a t ion s, '' a st a t u t e sh ou ld "be dec la r ed in v a lid t o t h e ex t en t it r ea c h es t oo fa r , bu t ot h er w ise left in t a c t . '' Bro c k ett v . Spo k ane Arc ades , Inc . , 4 7 2 U. S. 4 9 1 , 5 0 3 -5 0 4 , 1 0 5 S. Ct . 2 7 9 4 , 2 8 0 1 -2 8 0 2 , 8 6 L. Ed. 2 d 3 9 4 (1 9 8 5 ). T h er e a r e t w o fla w s in t h is a r g u m en t .

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Fir st , t h e st a t u t e t h a t g r a n t s ou r ju r isdic t ion for t h is ex pedit ed r ev iew , 4 7 U. S. C. A . §5 6 1 (Su pp. 1 9 9 7 ), lim it s t h a t ju r isdic t ion a l g r a n t t o a c t ion s c h a llen g in g t h e CDA "on it s fa c e. '' Con sist en t w it h §5 6 1 , t h e pla in t iffs w h o br ou g h t t h is su it a n d t h e t h r ee-ju dg e pa n el t h a t dec ided it t r ea t ed it a s a fa c ia l c h a llen g e. W e h a v e n o a u t h or it y , in t h is pa r t ic u la r post u r e, t o c on v er t t h is lit ig a t ion in t o a n "a s-a pplied'' c h a llen g e. Nor , g iv en t h e v a st a r r a y of pla in t iffs, t h e r a n g e of t h eir ex pr essiv e a c t iv it ies, a n d t h e v a g u en ess of t h e st a t u t e, w ou ld it be pr a c t ic a ble t o lim it ou r h oldin g t o a ju dic ia lly defin ed set of spec ific a pplic a t ion s.

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Sec on d, on e of t h e "c ou n t er v a ilin g c on sider a t ion s'' m en t ion ed in Bro c k ett is pr esen t h er e. In c on sider in g a fa c ia l c h a llen g e, t h is Cou r t m a y im pose a lim it in g c on st r u c t ion on a st a t u t e on ly if it is "r ea dily su sc ept ible'' t o su c h a c on st r u c t ion . Virginia v . Am eric an Bo o k s eller's As s n. , Inc . , 4 8 4 U. S. 3 8 3 , 3 9 7 , 1 0 8 S. Ct . 6 3 6 , 6 4 5 , 9 8 L. Ed. 2 d 7 8 2 (1 9 8 8 ). See a lso Erz no z nik , v . Jac k s o nv ille, 4 2 2 U. S. 2 0 5 , 2 1 6 , 9 5 S. Ct . 2 2 6 8 , 2 2 7 6 , 4 5 L. Ed. 2 d 1 2 5 (1 9 7 5 ) ("r ea dily su bjec t '' t o n a r r ow in g c on st r u c t ion ). T h e open -en ded c h a r a c t er of t h e CDA pr ov ides n o g u ida n c e w h a t ev er for lim it in g it s c ov er a g e.

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T h is c a se is t h er efor e u n lik e t h ose in w h ic h w e h a v e c on st r u ed a st a t u t e n a r r ow ly bec a u se t h e t ex t or ot h er sou r c e of c on g r ession a l in t en t iden t ified a c lea r lin e t h a t t h is Cou r t c ou ld dr a w . Cf. , e. g. , Bro c k ett, 4 7 2 U. S. , a t 5 0 4 -5 0 5 , 1 0 5 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 0 2 (in v a lida t in g obsc en it y st a t u t e on ly t o t h e ex t en t t h a t w or d "lu st '' w a s a c t u a lly or effec t iv ely ex c ised fr om st a t u t e); United States v . Grac e, 4 6 1 U. S. 1 7 1 , 1 8 0 -1 8 3 , 1 0 3 S. Ct . 1 7 0 2 , 1 7 0 8 -1 7 1 0 , 7 5 L. Ed. 2 d 7 3 6 (1 9 8 3 ) (in v a lida t in g feder a l st a t u t e ba n n in g ex pr essiv e displa y s on ly in sofa r a s it ex t en ded t o pu blic sidew a lk s w h en c lea r lin e c ou ld be dr a w n bet w een sidew a lk s a n d ot h er g r ou n ds t h a t c om por t ed w it h

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c on g r ession a l pu r pose of pr ot ec t in g t h e bu ildin g , g r ou n ds, a n d people « up t h er ein ). Ra t h er , ou r dec ision in United States v . Natio nal Treas ury Em plo yees Unio n, 5 1 3 U. S. 4 5 4 , 4 7 9 , n . 2 6 , 1 1 5 S. Ct . 1 0 0 3 , 1 0 1 9 , n . 2 6 , 1 3 0 L. Ed. 2 d 9 6 4 (1 9 9 5 ), is a pplic a ble. In t h a t c a se, w e dec lin ed t o "dr a [w ] on e or m or e lin es bet w een c a t eg or ies of speec h c ov er ed by a n ov er ly br oa d st a t u t e, w h en Con g r ess h a s sen t in c on sist en t sig n a ls a s t o w h er e t h e n ew lin e or lin es sh ou ld be dr a w n '' bec a u se doin g so "in v olv es a fa r m or e ser iou s in v a sion of t h e leg isla t iv e dom a in . ''49 T h is Cou r t "w ill n ot r ew r it e a . . . la w t o c on for m it t o c on st it u t ion a l r equ ir em en t s. '' Am eric an Bo o k s ellers , 4 8 4 U. S. , a t 3 9 7 , 1 0 8 S. Ct . , a t 6 4 5 . 50 XI 90

In t h is Cou r t , t h ou g h n ot in t h e Dist r ic t Cou r t , t h e G ov er n m en t a sser t s t h a t -in a ddit ion t o it s in t er est in pr ot ec t in g c h ildr en -it s " [e]qu a lly sig n ific a n t '' in t er est in fost er in g t h e g r ow t h of t h e In t er n et pr ov ides a n in depen den t ba sis for u ph oldin g t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t h e CDA . Br ief for A ppella n t s 1 9 . T h e G ov er n m en t a ppa r en t ly a ssu m es t h a t t h e u n r eg u la t ed a v a ila bilit y of "in dec en t '' a n d "pa t en t ly offen siv e'' m a t er ia l on t h e In t er n et is dr iv in g c ou n t less c it izen s a w a y fr om t h e m ediu m bec a u se of t h e r isk of ex posin g t h em selv es or t h eir c h ildr en t o h a r m fu l m a t er ia l.

91

W e fin d t h is a r g u m en t sin g u la r ly u n per su a siv e. T h e dr a m a t ic ex pa n sion of t h is n ew m a r k et pla c e of idea s c on t r a dic t s t h e fa c t u a l ba sis of t h is c on t en t ion . T h e r ec or d dem on st r a t es t h a t t h e g r ow t h of t h e In t er n et h a s been a n d c on t in u es t o be ph en om en a l. A s a m a t t er of c on st it u t ion a l t r a dit ion , in t h e a bsen c e of ev iden c e t o t h e c on t r a r y , w e pr esu m e t h a t g ov er n m en t a l r eg u la t ion of t h e c on t en t of speec h is m or e lik ely t o in t er fer e w it h t h e fr ee ex c h a n g e of idea s t h a n t o en c ou r a g e it . T h e in t er est in en c ou r a g in g fr eedom of ex pr ession in a dem oc r a t ic soc iet y ou t w eig h s a n y t h eor et ic a l bu t u n pr ov en ben efit of c en sor sh ip.

92

For t h e for eg oin g r ea son s, t h e ju dg m en t of t h e dist r ic t c ou r t is a ffir m ed.

93

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It is s o o rdered.

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Ju st ic e O'CONNOR, w it h w h om T H E CH IEF JUST ICE join s, c on c u r r in g in t h e ju dg m en t in pa r t a n d dissen t in g in pa r t .

95

I w r it e sepa r a t ely t o ex pla in w h y I v iew t h e Com m u n ic a t ion s Dec en c y A c t of 1 9 9 6 (CDA ) a s lit t le m or e t h a n a n a t t em pt by Con g r ess t o c r ea t e "a du lt zon es'' on t h e In t er n et . Ou r pr ec eden t in dic a t es t h a t t h e c r ea t ion of su c h zon es c a n be c on st it u t ion a lly sou n d. Despit e t h e sou n dn ess of it s pu r pose, h ow ev er , por t ion s of t h e CDA a r e u n c on st it u t ion a l bec a u se t h ey st r a y fr om t h e blu epr in t ou r pr ior c a ses h a v e dev eloped for c on st r u c t in g a "zon in g la w '' t h a t pa sses c on st it u t ion a l m u st er .

96

A ppellees br in g a fa c ia l c h a llen g e t o t h r ee pr ov ision s of t h e CDA . T h e fir st , w h ic h t h e Cou r t desc r ibes a s t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' pr ov ision , m a k es it a c r im e t o k n ow in g ly t r a n sm it a n obsc en e or in dec en t m essa g e or im a g e t o a per son t h e sen der k n ow s is u n der 1 8

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y ea r s old. 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a )(1 )(B) (Ma y 1 9 9 6 Su pp. ). W h a t t h e « up Cou r t c la ssifies a s a sin g le ""pa t en t ly offen siv e displa y ''' pr ov ision , see ante, a t __, is in r ea lit y t w o sepa r a t e pr ov ision s. T h e fir st of t h ese m a k es it a c r im e t o k n ow in g ly sen d a pa t en t ly offen siv e m essa g e or im a g e t o a spec ific per son u n der t h e a g e of 1 8 ("spec ific per son '' pr ov ision ). §2 2 3 (d)(1 )(A ). T h e sec on d c r im in a lizes t h e displa y of pa t en t ly offen siv e m essa g es or im a g es "in a [n y ] m a n n er a v a ila ble'' t o m in or s ("displa y '' pr ov ision ). §2 2 3 (d)(1 )(B). Non e of t h ese pr ov ision s pu r por t s t o k eep in dec en t (or pa t en t ly offen siv e) m a t er ia l a w a y fr om a du lt s, w h o h a v e a Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t t o obt a in t h is speec h . Sable Co m m unic atio ns o f Cal. , Inc . v . FCC, 4 9 2 U. S. 1 1 5 , 1 2 6 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . 2 8 2 9 , 2 8 3 6 , 1 0 6 L. Ed. 2 d 9 3 (1 9 8 9 ) ("Sex u a l ex pr ession w h ic h is in dec en t bu t n ot obsc en e is pr ot ec t ed by t h e Fir st A m en dm en t ''). T h u s, t h e u n den ia ble pu r pose of t h e CDA is t o seg r eg a t e in dec en t m a t er ia l on t h e In t er n et in t o c er t a in a r ea s t h a t m in or s c a n n ot a c c ess. See S. Con f. Rep. No. 1 0 4 -2 3 0 , p. 1 8 9 (1 9 9 6 ) (CDA im poses "a c c ess r est r ic t ion s . . . t o pr ot ec t m in or s fr om ex posu r e t o in dec en t m a t er ia l'').

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T h e c r ea t ion of "a du lt zon es'' is by n o m ea n s a n ov el c on c ept . St a t es h a v e lon g den ied m in or s a c c ess t o c er t a in est a blish m en t s fr equ en t ed by a du lt s. 1 St a t es h a v e a lso den ied m in or s a c c ess t o speec h deem ed t o be "h a r m fu l t o m in or s. ''2 T h e Cou r t h a s pr ev iou sly su st a in ed su c h zon in g la w s, bu t on ly if t h ey r espec t t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t s of a du lt s a n d m in or s. T h a t is t o sa y , a zon in g la w is v a lid if (i) it does n ot u n du ly r est r ic t a du lt a c c ess t o t h e m a t er ia l; a n d (ii) m in or s h a v e n o Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t t o r ea d or v iew t h e ba n n ed m a t er ia l. A s a pplied t o t h e In t er n et a s it ex ist s in 1 9 9 7 , t h e "displa y '' pr ov ision a n d som e a pplic a t ion s of t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s fa il t o a dh er e t o t h e fir st of t h ese lim it in g pr in c iples by r est r ic t in g a du lt s' a c c ess t o pr ot ec t ed m a t er ia ls in c er t a in c ir c u m st a n c es. Un lik e t h e Cou r t , h ow ev er , I w ou ld in v a lida t e t h e pr ov ision s on ly in t h ose c ir c u m st a n c es.

98

* Ou r c a ses m a k e c lea r t h a t a "zon in g '' la w is v a lid on ly if a du lt s a r e st ill a ble t o obt a in t h e r eg u la t ed speec h . If t h ey c a n n ot , t h e la w does m or e t h a n sim ply k eep c h ildr en a w a y fr om speec h t h ey h a v e n o r ig h t t o obt a in -it in t er fer es w it h t h e r ig h t s of a du lt s t o obt a in c on st it u t ion a lly pr ot ec t ed speec h a n d effec t iv ely "r edu c e[s] t h e a du lt popu la t ion . . . t o r ea din g on ly w h a t is fit for c h ildr en . '' Butler v . Mic higan, 3 5 2 U. S. 3 8 0 , 3 8 3 , 7 7 S. Ct . 5 2 4 , 5 2 6 , 1 L. Ed. 2 d 4 1 2 (1 9 5 7 ). T h e Fir st A m en dm en t does n ot t oler a t e su c h in t er fer en c e. See id. , a t 3 8 3 , 7 7 S. Ct . , a t 5 2 6 (st r ik in g dow n a Mic h ig a n c r im in a l la w ba n n in g sa le of book s-t o m in or s or a du lt s-t h a t c on t a in ed w or ds or pic t u r es t h a t ""t en de[d] t o . . . c or r u p[t ] t h e m or a ls of y ou t h '''); Sable Co m m unic atio ns , s upra (in v a lida t in g feder a l la w t h a t m a de it a c r im e t o t r a n sm it in dec en t , bu t n on obsc en e, c om m er c ia l t eleph on e m essa g es t o m in or s a n d a du lt s); Bo lger v . Y o ungs Drug Pro duc ts Co rp. , 4 6 3 U. S. 6 0 , 7 4 , 1 0 3 S. Ct . 2 8 7 5 , 2 8 8 4 , 7 7 L. Ed. 2 d 4 6 9 (1 9 8 3 ) (st r ik in g dow n a feder a l la w pr oh ibit in g t h e m a ilin g of u n solic it ed a dv er t isem en t s for c on t r a c ept iv es). If t h e la w does n ot u n du ly r est r ic t a du lt s' a c c ess t o c on st it u t ion a lly pr ot ec t ed speec h , h ow ev er , it m a y be v a lid. In Gins berg v . New Y o rk , 3 9 0 U. S. 6 2 9 , 6 3 4 , 8 8 S. Ct . 1 2 7 4 , 1 2 7 7 -1 2 7 8 , 2 0 L. Ed. 2 d 1 9 5 (1 9 6 8 ), for ex a m ple, t h e Cou r t su st a in ed a New Y or k la w t h a t ba r r ed st or e ow n er s fr om sellin g por n og r a ph ic m a g a zin es t o 09/06/2008 07:57 PM

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m in or s in pa r t bec a u se a du lt s c ou ld st ill bu y t h ose m a g a zin es. « up 99

T h e Cou r t in Gins berg c on c lu ded t h a t t h e New Y or k la w c r ea t ed a c on st it u t ion a lly a dequ a t e a du lt zon e sim ply bec a u se, on it s fa c e, it den ied a c c ess on ly t o m in or s. T h e Cou r t did n ot qu est ion -a n d t h er efor e n ec essa r ily a ssu m ed-t h a t a n a du lt zon e, on c e c r ea t ed, w ou ld su c c eed in pr eser v in g a du lt s' a c c ess w h ile den y in g m in or s' a c c ess t o t h e r eg u la t ed speec h . Befor e t oda y , t h er e w a s n o r ea son t o qu est ion t h is a ssu m pt ion , for t h e Cou r t h a s pr ev iou sly on ly c on sider ed la w s t h a t oper a t ed in t h e ph y sic a l w or ld, a w or ld t h a t w it h t w o c h a r a c t er ist ic s t h a t m a k e it possible t o c r ea t e "a du lt zon es'': g eog r a ph y a n d iden t it y . See Lessig , Rea din g t h e Con st it u t ion in Cy ber spa c e, 4 5 Em or y L. J. 8 6 9 , 8 8 6 (1 9 9 6 ). A m in or c a n see a n a du lt da n c e sh ow on ly if h e en t er s a n est a blish m en t t h a t pr ov ides su c h en t er t a in m en t . A n d sh ou ld h e a t t em pt t o do so, t h e m in or w ill n ot be a ble t o c on c ea l c om plet ely h is iden t it y (or , c on sequ en t ly , h is a g e). T h u s, t h e t w in c h a r a c t er ist ic s of g eog r a ph y a n d iden t it y en a ble t h e est a blish m en t 's pr opr iet or t o pr ev en t c h ildr en fr om en t er in g t h e est a blish m en t , bu t t o let a du lt s in side.

100

T h e elec t r on ic w or ld is fu n da m en t a lly differ en t . Bec a u se it is n o m or e t h a n t h e in t er c on n ec t ion of elec t r on ic pa t h w a y s, c y ber spa c e a llow s spea k er s a n d list en er s t o m a sk t h eir iden t it ies. Cy ber spa c e u n den ia bly r eflec t s som e for m of g eog r a ph y ; c h a t r oom s a n d W eb sit es, for ex a m ple, ex ist a t fix ed "loc a t ion s'' on t h e In t er n et . Sin c e u ser s c a n t r a n sm it a n d r ec eiv e m essa g es on t h e In t er n et w it h ou t r ev ea lin g a n y t h in g a bou t t h eir iden t it ies or a g es, see Lessig , s upra, a t 9 0 1 , h ow ev er , it is n ot c u r r en t ly possible t o ex c lu de per son s fr om a c c essin g c er t a in m essa g es on t h e ba sis of t h eir iden t it y .

101

Cy ber spa c e differ s fr om t h e ph y sic a l w or ld in a n ot h er ba sic w a y : Cy ber spa c e is m a llea ble. T h u s, it is possible t o c on st r u c t ba r r ier s in c y ber spa c e a n d u se t h em t o sc r een for iden t it y , m a k in g c y ber spa c e m or e lik e t h e ph y sic a l w or ld a n d, c on sequ en t ly , m or e a m en a ble t o zon in g la w s. T h is t r a n sfor m a t ion of c y ber spa c e is a lr ea dy u n der w a y . Lessig , s upra, a t 8 8 8 -8 8 9 . Id. , a t 8 8 7 (c y ber spa c e "is m ov in g . . . fr om a r ela t iv ely u n zon ed pla c e t o a u n iv er se t h a t is ex t r a or din a r ily w ell zon ed''). In t er n et spea k er s (u ser s w h o post m a t er ia l on t h e In t er n et ) h a v e beg u n t o zon e c y ber spa c e it self t h r ou g h t h e u se of "g a t ew a y '' t ec h n olog y . Su c h t ec h n olog y r equ ir es In t er n et u ser s t o en t er in for m a t ion a bou t t h em selv es-per h a ps a n a du lt iden t ific a t ion n u m ber or a c r edit c a r d n u m ber -befor e t h ey c a n a c c ess c er t a in a r ea s of c y ber spa c e, 9 2 9 F. Su pp. 8 2 4 , 8 4 5 (E. D. Pa . 1 9 9 6 ), m u c h lik e a bou n c er c h ec k s a per son 's dr iv er 's lic en se befor e a dm it t in g h im t o a n ig h t c lu b. In t er n et u ser s w h o a c c ess in for m a t ion h a v e n ot a t t em pt ed t o zon e c y ber spa c e it self, bu t h a v e t r ied t o lim it t h eir ow n pow er t o a c c ess in for m a t ion in c y ber spa c e, m u c h a s a pa r en t c on t r ols w h a t h er c h ildr en w a t c h on t elev ision by in st a llin g a loc k box . T h is u ser -ba sed zon in g is a c c om plish ed t h r ou g h t h e u se of sc r een in g soft w a r e (su c h a s Cy ber Pa t r ol or Su r fW a t c h ) or br ow ser s w it h sc r een in g c a pa bilit ies, bot h of w h ic h sea r c h a ddr esses a n d t ex t for k ey w or ds t h a t a r e a ssoc ia t ed w it h "a du lt '' sit es a n d, if t h e u ser w ish es, bloc k s a c c ess t o su c h sit es. Id. , a t 8 3 9 -8 4 2 . T h e Pla t for m for In t er n et Con t en t Selec t ion (PICS) pr ojec t is desig n ed t o fa c ilit a t e u ser -ba sed zon in g by

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en c ou r a g in g In t er n et spea k er s t o r a t e t h e c on t en t of t h eir speec h u sin g « up c odes r ec og n ized by a ll sc r een in g pr og r a m s. Id. , a t 8 3 8 -8 3 9 . 102

Despit e t h is pr og r ess, t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion of c y ber spa c e is n ot c om plet e. A lt h ou g h g a t ew a y t ec h n olog y h a s been a v a ila ble on t h e W or ld W ide W eb for som e t im e n ow , id. , a t 8 4 5 ; Shea v . Reno , 9 3 0 F. Su pp. 9 1 6 , 9 3 3 -9 3 4 (S. D. N. Y . 1 9 9 6 ), it is n ot a v a ila ble t o all W eb spea k er s, 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 5 -8 4 6 , a n d is ju st n ow bec om in g t ec h n olog ic a lly fea sible for c h a t r oom s a n d USENET n ew sg r ou ps, Br ief for Feder a l Pa r t ies 3 7 -3 8 . G a t ew a y t ec h n olog y is n ot u biqu it ou s in c y ber spa c e, a n d bec a u se w it h ou t it "t h er e is n o m ea n s of a g e v er ific a t ion , '' c y ber spa c e st ill r em a in s la r g ely u n zon ed-a n d u n zon ea ble. 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 6 ; Shea, s upra, a t 9 3 4 . User -ba sed zon in g is a lso in it s in fa n c y . For it t o be effec t iv e, (i) a n a g r eed-u pon c ode (or "t a g '') w ou ld h a v e t o ex ist ; (ii) sc r een in g soft w a r e or br ow ser s w it h sc r een in g c a pa bilit ies w ou ld h a v e t o be a ble t o r ec og n ize t h e "t a g ''; a n d (iii) t h ose pr og r a m s w ou ld h a v e t o be w idely a v a ila ble-a n d w idely u sed-by In t er n et u ser s. A t pr esen t , n on e of t h ese c on dit ion s is t r u e. Sc r een in g soft w a r e "is n ot in w ide u se t oda y '' a n d "on ly a h a n dfu l of br ow ser s h a v e sc r een in g c a pa bilit ies. '' Shea, s upra, a t 9 4 5 -9 4 6 . T h er e is, m or eov er , n o a g r eed-u pon "t a g '' for t h ose pr og r a m s t o r ec og n ize. 9 2 9 F. Su pp. , a t 8 4 8 ; Shea, s upra, a t 9 4 5 .

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A lt h ou g h t h e pr ospec t s for t h e ev en t u a l zon in g of t h e In t er n et a ppea r pr om isin g , I a g r ee w it h t h e Cou r t t h a t w e m u st ev a lu a t e t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t h e CDA a s it a pplies t o t h e In t er n et a s it ex ist s t oda y . Ante, a t __. G iv en t h e pr esen t st a t e of c y ber spa c e, I a g r ee w it h t h e Cou r t t h a t t h e "displa y '' pr ov ision c a n n ot pa ss m u st er . Un t il g a t ew a y t ec h n olog y is a v a ila ble t h r ou g h ou t c y ber spa c e, a n d it is n ot in 1 9 9 7 , a spea k er c a n n ot be r ea son a bly a ssu r ed t h a t t h e speec h h e displa y s w ill r ea c h on ly a du lt s bec a u se it is im possible t o c on fin e speec h t o a n "a du lt zon e. '' T h u s, t h e on ly w a y for a spea k er t o a v oid lia bilit y u n der t h e CDA is t o r efr a in c om plet ely fr om u sin g in dec en t speec h . Bu t t h is for c ed silen c e im pin g es on t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t of a du lt s t o m a k e a n d obt a in t h is speec h a n d, for a ll in t en t s a n d pu r poses, "r edu c e[s] t h e a du lt popu la t ion [on t h e In t er n et ] t o r ea din g on ly w h a t is fit for c h ildr en . '' Butler, 3 5 2 U. S. , a t 3 8 3 , 7 7 S. Ct . , a t 5 2 6 . A s a r esu lt , t h e "displa y '' pr ov ision c a n n ot w it h st a n d sc r u t in y . A c c or d, Sable Co m m unic atio ns , 4 9 2 U. S. , a t 1 2 6 -1 3 1 , 1 0 9 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 3 6 -2 8 3 9 ; Bo lger v . Y o ungs Drug Pro duc ts Co rp. , 4 6 3 U. S. , a t 7 3 -7 5 , 1 0 3 S. Ct . , a t 2 8 8 3 -2 8 8 5 .

104

T h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s pr esen t a c loser issu e, for t h ey a r e n ot u n c on st it u t ion a l in a ll of t h eir a pplic a t ion s. A s disc u ssed a bov e, t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' pr ov ision m a k es it a c r im e t o t r a n sm it k n ow in g ly a n in dec en t m essa g e t o a per son t h e sen der k n ow s is u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e. 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a )(1 )(B) (Ma y 1 9 9 6 Su pp. ). T h e "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision pr osc r ibes t h e sa m e c on du c t , a lt h ou g h it does n ot a s ex plic it ly r equ ir e t h e sen der t o k n ow t h a t t h e in t en ded r ec ipien t of h is in dec en t m essa g e is a m in or . §2 2 3 (d)(1 )(A ). A ppella n t u r g es t h e Cou r t t o c on st r u e t h e pr ov ision t o im pose su c h a k n ow ledg e r equ ir em en t , see Br ief for Feder a l Pa r t ies 2 5 -2 7 , a n d I w ou ld do so. See Edw ard J. DeBarto lo Co rp. v . Flo rida Gulf Co as t Building & Co ns tr. Trades Co unc il, 4 8 5 U. S. 5 6 8 , 5 7 5 ,

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1 0 8 S. Ct . 1 3 9 2 , 1 3 9 7 , 9 9 L. Ed. 2 d 6 4 5 (1 9 8 8 ) (" [W ]h er e a n ot h er w ise « up a c c ept a ble c on st r u c t ion of a st a t u t e w ou ld r a ise ser iou s c on st it u t ion a l pr oblem s, t h e Cou r t w ill c on st r u e t h e st a t u t e t o a v oid su c h pr oblem s u n less su c h c on st r u c t ion is pla in ly c on t r a r y t o t h e in t en t of Con g r ess''). 105

So c on st r u ed, bot h pr ov ision s a r e c on st it u t ion a l a s a pplied t o a c on v er sa t ion in v olv in g on ly a n a du lt a n d on e or m or e m in or s-e. g. , w h en a n a du lt spea k er sen ds a n e-m a il k n ow in g t h e a ddr essee is a m in or , or w h en a n a du lt a n d m in or c on v er se by t h em selv es or w it h ot h er m in or s in a c h a t r oom . In t h is c on t ex t , t h ese pr ov ision s a r e n o differ en t fr om t h e la w w e su st a in ed in Gins berg. Rest r ic t in g w h a t t h e a du lt m a y sa y t o t h e m in or s in n o w a y r est r ic t s t h e a du lt 's a bilit y t o c om m u n ic a t e w it h ot h er a du lt s. H e is n ot pr ev en t ed fr om spea k in g in dec en t ly t o ot h er a du lt s in a c h a t r oom (bec a u se t h er e a r e n o ot h er a du lt s pa r t ic ipa t in g in t h e c on v er sa t ion ) a n d h e r em a in s fr ee t o sen d in dec en t e-m a ils t o ot h er a du lt s. T h e r elev a n t u n iv er se c on t a in s on ly on e a du lt , a n d t h e a du lt in t h a t u n iv er se h a s t h e pow er t o r efr a in fr om u sin g in dec en t speec h a n d c on sequ en t ly t o k eep a ll su c h speec h w it h in t h e r oom in a n "a du lt '' zon e.

106

T h e a n a log y t o Gins berg br ea k s dow n , h ow ev er , w h en m or e t h a n on e a du lt is a pa r t y t o t h e c on v er sa t ion . If a m in or en t er s a c h a t r oom ot h er w ise oc c u pied by a du lt s, t h e CDA effec t iv ely r equ ir es t h e a du lt s in t h e r oom t o st op u sin g in dec en t speec h . If t h ey did n ot , t h ey c ou ld be pr osec u t ed u n der t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s for a n y in dec en t st a t em en t s t h ey m a k e t o t h e g r ou p, sin c e t h ey w ou ld be t r a n sm it t in g a n in dec en t m essa g e t o spec ific per son s, on e of w h om is a m in or . A c c or d, ante, a t __. T h e CDA is t h er efor e a k in t o a la w t h a t m a k es it a c r im e for a book st or e ow n er t o sell por n og r a ph ic m a g a zin es t o a n y on e on c e a m in or en t er s h is st or e. Ev en a ssu m in g su c h a la w m ig h t be c on st it u t ion a l in t h e ph y sic a l w or ld a s a r ea son a ble a lt er n a t iv e t o ex c lu din g m in or s c om plet ely fr om t h e st or e, t h e a bsen c e of a n y m ea n s of ex c lu din g m in or s fr om c h a t r oom s in c y ber spa c e r est r ic t s t h e r ig h t s of a du lt s t o en g a g e in in dec en t speec h in t h ose r oom s. T h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s sh a r e t h is defec t .

107

Bu t t h ese t w o pr ov ision s do n ot in fr in g e on a du lt s' speec h in all sit u a t ion s. A n d a s disc u ssed below , I do n ot fin d t h a t t h e pr ov ision s a r e ov er br oa d in t h e sen se t h a t t h ey r est r ic t m in or s' a c c ess t o a su bst a n t ia l a m ou n t of speec h t h a t m in or s h a v e t h e r ig h t t o r ea d a n d v iew . A c c or din g ly , t h e CDA c a n be a pplied c on st it u t ion a lly in som e sit u a t ion s. Nor m a lly , t h is fa c t w ou ld r equ ir e t h e C ou r t t o r ejec t a dir ec t fa c ia l c h a llen g e. United States v . Salerno , 4 8 1 U. S. 7 3 9 , 7 4 5 , 1 0 7 S. Ct . 2 0 9 5 , 2 1 0 0 , 9 5 L. Ed. 2 d 6 9 7 (1 9 8 7 ) ("A fa c ia l c h a llen g e t o a leg isla t iv e A c t [su c c eeds on ly if] t h e c h a llen g er . . . est a blish [es] t h a t n o set of c ir c u m st a n c es ex ist s u n der w h ic h t h e A c t w ou ld be v a lid''). A ppellees' c la im a r ises u n der t h e Fir st A m en dm en t , h ow ev er , a n d t h ey a r g u e t h a t t h e CDA is fa c ia lly in v a lid bec a u se it is "su bst a n t ia lly ov er br oa d''-t h a t is, it "sw eeps t oo br oa dly . . . [a n d] pen a liz[es] a su bst a n t ia l a m ou n t of speec h t h a t is c on st it u t ion a lly pr ot ec t ed, '' Fo rs yth Co unty v . Natio nalis t Mo v em ent, 5 0 5 U. S. 1 2 3 , 1 3 0 , 1 1 2 S. Ct . 2 3 9 5 , 2 4 0 1 , 1 2 0 L. Ed. 2 d 1 0 1 (1 9 9 2 ). See Br ief for A ppellees A m er ic a n Libr a r y A ssoc ia t ion et a l. 4 8 ; Br ief for A ppellees A m er ic a n Civ il

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Liber t ies Un ion et a l. 3 9 -4 1 . I a g r ee w it h t h e Cou r t t h a t t h e pr ov ision s « up a r e ov er br oa d in t h a t t h ey c ov er a n y a n d a ll c om m u n ic a t ion s bet w een a du lt s a n d m in or s, r eg a r dless of h ow m a n y a du lt s m ig h t be pa r t of t h e a u dien c e t o t h e c om m u n ic a t ion . 108

T h is c on c lu sion does n ot en d t h e m a t t er , h ow ev er . W h er e, a s h er e, "t h e pa r t ies c h a llen g in g t h e st a t u t e a r e t h ose w h o desir e t o en g a g e in pr ot ec t ed speec h t h a t t h e ov er br oa d st a t u t e pu r por t s t o pu n ish . . . [t ]h e st a t u t e m a y for t h w it h be dec la r ed in v a lid t o t h e ex t en t t h a t it r ea c h es t oo fa r , bu t ot h er w ise left in t a c t . '' Bro c k ett v . Spo k ane Arc ades , Inc . , 4 7 2 U. S. 4 9 1 , 5 0 4 , 1 0 5 S. Ct . 2 7 9 4 , 2 8 0 2 , 8 6 L. Ed. 2 d 3 9 4 (1 9 8 5 ). T h er e is n o qu est ion t h a t Con g r ess in t en ded t o pr oh ibit c er t a in c om m u n ic a t ion s bet w een on e a du lt a n d on e or m or e m in or s. See 4 7 U. S. C. A . §2 2 3 (a )(1 )(B) (Ma y 1 9 9 6 Su pp. ) (pu n ish in g " [w ]h oev er . . . in it ia t es t h e t r a n sm ission of [a n y in dec en t c om m u n ic a t ion ] k n ow in g ly t h a t t h e r ec ipien t of t h e c om m u n ic a t ion is u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e''); §2 2 3 (d)(1 )(A ) (pu n ish in g " [w ]h oev er . . . sen d[s] t o a spec ific per son or per son s u n der 1 8 y ea r s of a g e [a pa t en t ly offen siv e m essa g e]''). T h er e is a lso n o qu est ion t h a t Con g r ess w ou ld h a v e en a c t ed a n a r r ow er v er sion of t h ese pr ov ision s h a d it k n ow n a br oa der v er sion w ou ld be dec la r ed u n c on st it u t ion a l. 4 7 U. S. C. §6 0 8 ("If . . . t h e a pplic a t ion [of a n y pr ov ision of t h e CDA ] t o a n y per son or c ir c u m st a n c e is h eld in v a lid, . . . t h e a pplic a t ion of su c h pr ov ision t o ot h er per son s or c ir c u m st a n c es sh a ll n ot be a ffec t ed t h er eby ''). I w ou ld t h er efor e su st a in t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s t o t h e ex t en t t h ey a pply t o t h e t r a n sm ission of In t er n et c om m u n ic a t ion s w h er e t h e pa r t y in it ia t in g t h e c om m u n ic a t ion k n ow s t h a t a ll of t h e r ec ipien t s a r e m in or s. II

109

W h et h er t h e CDA su bst a n t ia lly in t er fer es w it h t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t s of m in or s, a n d t h er eby r u n s a fou l of t h e sec on d c h a r a c t er ist ic of v a lid zon in g la w s, pr esen t s a c loser qu est ion . In Gins berg, t h e New Y or k la w w e su st a in ed pr oh ibit ed t h e sa le t o m in or s of m a g a zin es t h a t w er e "h a r m fu l t o m in or s. '' Un der t h a t la w , a m a g a zin e w a s "h a r m fu l t o m in or s'' on ly if it w a s obsc en e a s t o m in or s. 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 2 -6 3 3 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 6 -1 2 7 7 . Not in g t h a t obsc en e speec h is n ot pr ot ec t ed by t h e Fir st A m en dm en t , Ro th v . United States , 3 5 4 U. S. 4 7 6 , 4 8 5 , 7 7 S. Ct . 1 3 0 4 , 1 3 0 9 , 1 L. Ed. 2 d 1 4 9 8 (1 9 5 7 ), a n d t h a t New Y or k w a s c on st it u t ion a lly fr ee t o a dju st t h e defin it ion of obsc en it y for m in or s, 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 8 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 9 -1 2 8 0 , t h e Cou r t c on c lu ded t h a t t h e la w did n ot "in v a d[e] t h e a r ea of fr eedom of ex pr ession c on st it u t ion a lly sec u r ed t o m in or s. '' Id. , a t 6 3 7 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 9 . New Y or k t h er efor e did n ot in fr in g e u pon t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t s of m in or s. Cf. Erz no z nik v . Jac k s o nv ille, 4 2 2 U. S. 2 0 5 , 2 1 3 , 9 5 S. Ct . 2 2 6 8 , 2 2 7 4 -2 2 7 5 , 4 5 L. Ed. 2 d 1 2 5 (1 9 7 5 ) (st r ik in g dow n c it y or din a n c e t h a t ba n n ed n u dit y t h a t w a s n ot "obsc en e ev en a s t o m in or s'').

110

T h e Cou r t n eit h er "a c c ept [s] n or r ejec t [s]'' t h e a r g u m en t t h a t t h e CDA is fa c ia lly ov er br oa d bec a u se it su bst a n t ia lly in t er fer es w it h t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t s of m in or s. Ante, a t __. I w ou ld r ejec t it . Gins berg est a blish ed t h a t m in or s m a y c on st it u t ion a lly be den ied a c c ess

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t o m a t er ia l t h a t is obsc en e a s t o m in or s. A s Gins berg ex pla in ed, « up m a t er ia l is obsc en e a s t o m in or s if it (i) is "pa t en t ly offen siv e t o pr ev a ilin g st a n da r ds in t h e a du lt c om m u n it y a s a w h ole w it h r espec t t o w h a t is su it a ble . . . for m in or s''; (ii) a ppea ls t o t h e pr u r ien t in t er est of m in or s; a n d (iii) is "u t t er ly w it h ou t r edeem in g soc ia l im por t a n c e for m in or s. '' 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 3 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 6 . Bec a u se t h e CDA den ies m in or s t h e r ig h t t o obt a in m a t er ia l t h a t is "pa t en t ly offen siv e''-ev en if it h a s som e r edeem in g v a lu e for m in or s a n d ev en if it does n ot a ppea l t o t h eir pr u r ien t in t er est s-Con g r ess' r ejec t ion of t h e Gins berg "h a r m fu l t o m in or s'' st a n da r d m ea n s t h a t t h e CDA c ou ld ba n som e speec h t h a t is "in dec en t '' (i. e. , "pa t en t ly offen siv e'') bu t t h a t is n ot obsc en e a s t o m in or s. 111

I do n ot den y t h is possibilit y , bu t t o pr ev a il in a fa c ia l c h a llen g e, it is n ot en ou g h for a pla in t iff t o sh ow "som e'' ov er br ea dt h . Ou r c a ses r equ ir e a pr oof of "r ea l'' a n d "su bst a n t ia l'' ov er br ea dt h , Bro adric k v . O k laho m a, 4 1 3 U. S. 6 0 1 , 6 1 5 , 9 3 S. Ct . 2 9 0 8 , 2 9 1 7 -2 9 1 8 , 3 7 L.Ed. 2 d 8 3 0 (1 9 7 3 ), a n d a ppellees h a v e n ot c a r r ied t h eir bu r den in t h is c a se. In m y v iew , t h e u n iv er se of speec h c on st it u t ion a lly pr ot ec t ed a s t o m in or s bu t ba n n ed by t h e CDA -i. e. , t h e u n iv er se of m a t er ia l t h a t is "pa t en t ly offen siv e, '' bu t w h ic h n on et h eless h a s som e r edeem in g v a lu e for m in or s or does n ot a ppea l t o t h eir pr u r ien t in t er est -is a v er y sm a ll on e. A ppellees c it e n o ex a m ples of speec h fa llin g w it h in t h is u n iv er se a n d do n ot a t t em pt t o ex pla in w h y t h a t u n iv er se is su bst a n t ia l "in r ela t ion t o t h e st a t u t e's pla in ly leg it im a t e sw eep. '' Ibid. T h a t t h e CDA m ig h t den y m in or s t h e r ig h t t o obt a in m a t er ia l t h a t h a s som e "v a lu e, '' see ante, a t __-__, is la r g ely beside t h e poin t . W h ile disc u ssion s a bou t pr ison r a pe or n u de a r t , see ibid. , m a y h a v e som e r edeem in g edu c a t ion v a lu e for adults , t h ey do n ot n ec essa r ily h a v e a n y su c h v a lu e for m ino rs , a n d u n der Gins berg, m in or s on ly h a v e a Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t t o obt a in pa t en t ly offen siv e m a t er ia l t h a t h a s "r edeem in g soc ia l im por t a n c e fo r m ino rs , '' 3 9 0 U. S. , a t 6 3 3 , 8 8 S. Ct . , a t 1 2 7 6 (em ph a sis a dded). T h er e is a lso n o ev iden c e in t h e r ec or d t o su ppor t t h e c on t en t ion t h a t "m a n y [e]-m a il t r a n sm ission s fr om a n a du lt t o a m in or a r e c on v er sa t ion s bet w een fa m ily m em ber s, '' ante, a t __, n . 3 2 , a n d n o su ppor t for t h e leg a l pr oposit ion t h a t su c h speec h is a bsolu t ely im m u n e fr om r eg u la t ion . A c c or din g ly , in m y v iew , t h e CDA does n ot bu r den a su bst a n t ia l a m ou n t of m in or s' c on st it u t ion a lly pr ot ec t ed speec h .

112

T h u s, t h e c on st it u t ion a lit y of t h e CDA a s a zon in g la w h in g es on t h e ex t en t t o w h ic h it su bst a n t ia lly in t er fer es w it h t h e Fir st A m en dm en t r ig h t s of a du lt s. Bec a u se t h e r ig h t s of a du lt s a r e in fr in g ed on ly by t h e "displa y '' pr ov ision a n d by t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s a s a pplied t o c om m u n ic a t ion s in v olv in g m or e t h a n on e a du lt , I w ou ld in v a lida t e t h e CDA on ly t o t h a t ex t en t . In sofa r a s t h e "in dec en c y t r a n sm ission '' a n d "spec ific per son '' pr ov ision s pr oh ibit t h e u se of in dec en t speec h in c om m u n ic a t ion s bet w een a n a du lt a n d on e or m or e m in or s, h ow ev er , t h ey c a n a n d sh ou ld be su st a in ed. T h e Cou r t r ea c h es a c on t r a r y c on c lu sion , a n d fr om t h a t h oldin g t h a t I r espec t fu lly dissen t . *

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Th e sy l l a bu s con sti tu tes n o pa r t of th e opi n i on of th e Cou r t bu t h a s been pr epa r ed by th e R epor ter of Deci si on s for th e con v en i en ce of th e r ea der . See

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Unite d S tate s v. De troit Timbe r & Lumbe r Co., 200 U.S. 321, 337 , 26 S.Ct. 282, 287 , 50 L.Ed. 499.

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1

" Con g r ess sh a l l m a ke n o l a w . . . a br i dg i n g th e fr eedom of speech .'' U.S. Con st., A m dt. 1.

2

Th e Cou r t m a de 410 fi n di n g s, i n cl u di n g 356 pa r a g r a ph s of th e pa r ti es' sti pu l a ti on a n d 54 fi n di n g s ba sed on ev i den ce r ecei v ed i n open cou r t. See 929 F.Su pp. a t 830, n . 9, 842, n . 15.

3

A n a cr on y m for th e n etwor k dev el oped by th e A dv a n ced R esea r ch P r oject A g en cy .

4

I d., a t 844 (fi n di n g 81).

5

I d., a t 831 (fi n di n g 3).

6

I d., a t 835 (fi n di n g 27 ).

7

I d., a t 842 (fi n di n g 7 4).

8

I d., a t 836 (fi n di n g 36).

9

" Web pu bl i sh i n g i s si m pl e en ou g h th a t th ou sa n ds of i n di v i du a l u ser s a n d sm a l l com m u n i ty or g a n i za ti on s a r e u si n g th e Web to pu bl i sh th ei r own per son a l "h om e pa g es,' th e equ i v a l en t of i n di v i du a l i zed n ewsl etter s a bou t th e per son or or g a n i za ti on , wh i ch a r e a v a i l a bl e to ev er y on e on th e Web.'' I d., a t 837 (fi n di n g 42).

10

I d., a t 838 (fi n di n g 46).

11

I d., a t 844 (fi n di n g 82).

12

I bid. (fi n di n g 86).

13

I bid. (fi n di n g 85).

14

I d., a t 848 (fi n di n g 117 ).

15

I d., a t 844-845 (fi n di n g 88).

16

I bid.

17

I d., a t 845 (fi n di n g 89).

18

I d., a t 842 (fi n di n g 7 2).

19

I bid. (fi n di n g 7 3).

20

I d., a t 845 (fi n di n g 90): "A n e-m a i l a ddr ess pr ov i des n o a u th or i ta ti v e i n for m a ti on a bou t th e a ddr essee, wh o m a y u se a n e-m a i l "a l i a s' or a n a n on y m ou s r em a i l er . Th er e i s a l so n o u n i v er sa l or r el i a bl e l i sti n g of e-m a i l a ddr esses a n d cor r espon di n g n a m es or tel eph on e n u m ber s, a n d a n y su ch

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l i sti n g wou l d be or r a pi dl y becom e i n com pl ete. For th ese r ea son s, th er e i s n o r el i a bl e wa y i n m a n y i n sta n ces for a sen der to kn ow i f th e e-m a i l r eci pi en t i s a n a du l t or a m i n or . Th e di ffi cu l ty of e-m a i l a g e v er i fi ca ti on i s com pou n ded for m a i l ex pl oder s su ch a s l i stser v s, wh i ch a u tom a ti ca l l y sen d i n for m a ti on to a l l e-m a i l a ddr esses on a sen der 's l i st. Gov er n m en t ex per t Dr . Ol sen a g r eed th a t n o cu r r en t tech n ol og y cou l d g i v e a spea ker a ssu r a n ce th a t on l y a du l ts wer e l i sted i n a pa r ti cu l a r m a i l ex pl oder 's m a i l i n g l i st.''

« up

21

I bid. (fi n di n g 93).

22

I d., a t 846 (fi n di n g 102).

23

I d., a t 847 (fi n di n g s 104-106): "A t l ea st som e, i f n ot a l m ost a l l , n on -com m er ci a l or g a n i za ti on s, su ch a s th e A CLU, Stop P r i son er R a pe or Cr i ti ca l P a th A IDS P r oject, r eg a r d ch a r g i n g l i sten er s to a ccess th ei r speech a s con tr a r y to th ei r g oa l s of m a ki n g th ei r m a ter i a l s a v a i l a bl e to a wi de a u di en ce fr ee of ch a r g e. ... Th er e i s ev i den ce su g g esti n g th a t a du l t u ser s, pa r ti cu l a r l y ca su a l Web br owser s, wou l d be di scou r a g ed fr om r etr i ev i n g i n for m a ti on th a t r equ i r ed u se of a cr edi t ca r d or pa sswor d. A n dr ew A n ker testi fi ed th a t HotWi r ed h a s r ecei v ed m a n y com pl a i n ts fr om i ts m em ber s a bou t HotWi r ed's r eg i str a ti on sy stem , wh i ch r equ i r es on l y th a t a m em ber su ppl y a n a m e, e-m a i l a ddr ess a n d sel f-cr ea ted pa sswor d. Th er e i s con cer n by com m er ci a l con ten t pr ov i der s th a t a g e v er i fi ca ti on r equ i r em en ts wou l d decr ea se a dv er ti si n g a n d r ev en u e beca u se a dv er ti ser s depen d on a dem on str a ti on th a t th e si tes a r e wi del y a v a i l a bl e a n d fr equ en tl y v i si ted.''

24

See Ex on A m en dm en t N o. 1268, 141 Con g . R ec. S8120 (Ju n e 9, 1995). See a l so id., a t S8087 . Th i s a m en dm en t, a s r ev i sed, beca m e §502 of th e Com m u n i ca ti on s A ct of 1996, 110 Sta t. 133, 47 U.S.C.A . §§223(a )-(e) (Su pp.1997 ). Som e Mem ber s of th e Hou se of R epr esen ta ti v es opposed th e Ex on A m en dm en t beca u se th ey th ou g h t i t "possi bl e for ou r pa r en ts n ow to ch i l d-pr oof th e fa m i l y com pu ter wi th th ese pr odu cts a v a i l a bl e i n th e pr i v a te sector .'' Th ey a l so th ou g h t th e Sen a te's a ppr oa ch wou l d "i n v ol v e th e Feder a l Gov er n m en t spen di n g v a st su m s of m on ey tr y i n g to defi n e el u si v e ter m s th a t a r e g oi n g to l ea d to a fl ood of l eg a l ch a l l en g es wh i l e ou r ki ds a r e u n pr otected.'' Th ese Mem ber s offer ed a n a m en dm en t i n ten ded a s a su bsti tu te for th e Ex on A m en dm en t, bu t i n stea d en a cted a s a n a ddi ti on a l secti on of th e A ct en ti tl ed "On l i n e Fa m i l y Em power m en t.'' See 110 Sta t. 137 , 47 U.S.C.A . §230 (Su pp.1997 ); 141 Con g . R ec. H8468-H847 2. N o h ea r i n g s wer e h el d on th e pr ov i si on s th a t beca m e l a w. See S.R ep. N o. 104-23 (1995), p. 9. A fter th e Sen a te a dopted th e Ex on a m en dm en t, h owev er , i ts Ju di ci a r y Com m i ttee di d con du ct a on e-da y h ea r i n g on "Cy ber por n a n d Ch i l dr en .'' In h i s open i n g sta tem en t a t th a t h ea r i n g , Sen a tor Lea h y obser v ed: It r ea l l y str u ck m e i n y ou r open i n g sta tem en t wh en y ou m en ti on ed, Mr . Ch a i r m a n , th a t i t i s th e fi r st ev er h ea r i n g , a n d y ou a r e a bsol u tel y r i g h t. A n d y et we h a d a m a jor deba te on th e fl oor , pa ssed l eg i sl a ti on ov er wh el m i n g l y on a su bject i n v ol v i n g th e In ter n et, l eg i sl a ti on th a t cou l d dr a m a ti ca l l y ch a n g e-som e wou l d sa y ev en wr ea k h a v oc-on th e In ter n et. Th e Sen a te wen t i n wi l l y -n i l l y , pa ssed l eg i sl a ti on , a n d n ev er on ce h a d a h ea r i n g , n ev er on ce h a d a di scu ssi on oth er th a n a n h ou r or so on th e fl oor .'' Cy ber por n a n d Ch i l dr en : Th e Scope of th e P r obl em , Th e Sta te of th e Tech n ol og y , a n d th e N eed for Con g r essi on a l A cti on , Hea r i n g on S. 892 befor e th e Sen a te Com m i ttee on th e Ju di ci a r y , 104th Con g ., 1st Sess., 7 -8 (1995).

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25

A l th ou g h th e Gov er n m en t a n d th e di ssen t br ea k §223(d)(1) i n to two sepa r a te "pa ten tl y offen si v e'' a n d "di spl a y '' pr ov i si on s, we fol l ow th e con v en ti on of both pa r ti es bel ow, a s wel l th e Di str i ct Cou r t's or der a n d opi n i on , i n descr i bi n g §223(d)(1) a s on e pr ov i si on .

26

In fu l l , §223(e)(5) pr ov i des: (5) It i s a defen se to a pr osecu ti on u n der su bsecti on (a )(1)(B) or (d) of th i s secti on , or u n der su bsecti on (a )(2) of th i s secti on wi th r espect to th e u se of a fa ci l i ty for a n a cti v i ty u n der su bsecti on (a )(1)(B) of th i s secti on th a t a per son (A ) h a s ta ken , i n g ood fa i th , r ea son a bl e, effecti v e, a n d a ppr opr i a te a cti on s u n der th e ci r cu m sta n ces to r estr i ct or pr ev en t a ccess by m i n or s to a com m u n i ca ti on speci fi ed i n su ch su bsecti on s, wh i ch m a y i n v ol v e a n y a ppr opr i a te m ea su r es to r estr i ct m i n or s fr om su ch com m u n i ca ti on s, i n cl u di n g a n y m eth od wh i ch i s fea si bl e u n der a v a i l a bl e tech n ol og y ; or (B) h a s r estr i cted a ccess to su ch com m u n i ca ti on by r equ i r i n g u se of a v er i fi ed cr edi t ca r d, debi t a ccou n t, a du l t a ccess code, or a du l t per son a l i den ti fi ca ti on n u m ber .''

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A m er i ca n Ci v i l Li ber ti es Un i on ; Hu m a n R i g h ts Wa tch ; El ectr on i c P r i v a cy In for m a ti on Cen ter ; El ectr on i c Fr on ti er Fou n da ti on ; Jou r n a l i sm Edu ca ti on A ssoci a ti on ; Com pu ter P r ofessi on a l s for Soci a l R espon si bi l i ty ; N a ti on a l Wr i ter s Un i on ; Cl a r i n et Com m u n i ca ti on s Cor p.; In sti tu te for Gl oba l Com m u n i ca ti on s; Stop P r i son er R a pe; A IDS Edu ca ti on Gl oba l In for m a ti on Sy stem ; Bi bl i oby tes; Qu eer R esou r ces Di r ector y ; Cr i ti ca l P a th A IDS P r oject, In c.; Wi l dca t P r ess, In c.; Decl a n McCu l l a g h dba Ju sti ce on Ca m pu s; Br ock Meeks dba Cy ber wi r e Di spa tch ; Joh n Tr oy er dba Th e Sa fer Sex P a g e; Jon a th a n Wa l l a ce dba Th e Eth i ca l Specta cl e; a n d P l a n n ed P a r en th ood Feder a ti on of A m er i ca , In c.

28

A m er i ca n Li br a r y A ssoci a ti on ; A m er i ca On l i n e, In c.; A m er i ca n Booksel l er s A ssoci a ti on , In c.; A m er i ca n Booksel l er s Fou n da ti on for Fr ee Ex pr essi on ; A m er i ca n Soci ety of N ewspa per Edi tor s; A ppl e Com pu ter , In c.; A ssoci a ti on of A m er i ca n P u bl i sh er s, In c.; A ssoci a ti on of P u bl i sh er s, Edi tor s a n d Wr i ter s; Ci ti zen s In ter n et Em power m en t Coa l i ti on ; Com m er ci a l In ter n et Ex ch a n g e A ssoci a ti on ; Com pu Ser v e In cor por a ted; Fa m i l i es A g a i n st In ter n et Cen sor sh i p; Fr eedom to R ea d Fou n da ti on , In c.; Hea l th Sci en ces Li br a r i es Con sor ti u m ; Hotwi r ed V en tu r es LLC; In ter a cti v e Di g i ta l Softwa r e A ssoci a ti on ; In ter a cti v e Ser v i ces A ssoci a ti on ; Ma g a zi n e P u bl i sh er s of A m er i ca ; Mi cr osoft Cor por a ti on ; Th e Mi cr osoft N etwor k, L.L. C.; N a ti on a l P r ess P h otog r a ph er s A ssoci a ti on ; N etcom On -Li n e Com m u n i ca ti on Ser v i ces, In c.; N ewspa per A ssoci a ti on of A m er i ca ; Opn et, In c.; P r odi g y Ser v i ces Com pa n y ; Soci ety of P r ofessi on a l Jou r n a l i sts; Wi r ed V en tu r es, Ltd.

29

110 Sta t. 142-143, n ote fol l owi n g 47 U.S.C.A . §223 (Su pp.1997 ).

30

See a l so 929 F.Su pp., a t 87 7 : "Fou r r el a ted ch a r a cter i sti cs of In ter n et com m u n i ca ti on h a v e a tr a n scen den t i m por ta n ce to ou r sh a r ed h ol di n g th a t th e CDA i s u n con sti tu ti on a l on i ts fa ce. We ex pl a i n th ese ch a r a cter i sti cs i n ou r Fi n di n g s of fa ct a bov e, a n d I on l y r eh ea r se th em br i efl y h er e. Fi r st, th e In ter n et pr esen ts v er y l ow ba r r i er s to en tr y . Secon d, th ese ba r r i er s to en tr y a r e i den ti ca l for both spea ker s a n d l i sten er s. Th i r d, a s a r esu l t of th ese l ow ba r r i er s, a stou n di n g l y di v er se con ten t i s a v a i l a bl e on th e In ter n et. Fou r th , th e In ter n et pr ov i des si g n i fi ca n t a ccess to a l l wh o wi sh to spea k i n th e m edi u m , a n d ev en cr ea tes a r el a ti v e pa r i ty a m on g spea ker s.'' A ccor di n g to Ju dg e Da l zel l , th ese ch a r a cter i sti cs a n d th e r est of th e Di str i ct Cou r t's fi n di n g s "l ea d to th e

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con cl u si on th a t Con g r ess m a y n ot r eg u l a te i n decen cy on th e In ter n et a t a l l .'' I bid. Beca u se a ppel l ees do n ot pr ess th i s a r g u m en t befor e th i s Cou r t, we do n ot con si der i t. A ppel l ees a l so do n ot di spu te th a t th e Gov er n m en t g en er a l l y h a s a com pel l i n g i n ter est i n pr otecti n g m i n or s fr om "i n decen t'' a n d "pa ten tl y offen si v e'' speech .

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31

390 U.S., a t 639, 88 S.Ct., a t 1280. We qu oted fr om Prince v. Massachuse tts, 321 U.S. 158, 166, 64 S.Ct. 438, 442, 88 L.Ed. 645 (1944): "It i s ca r di n a l wi th u s th a t th e cu stody , ca r e a n d n u r tu r e of th e ch i l d r esi de fi r st i n th e pa r en ts, wh ose pr i m a r y fu n cti on a n d fr eedom i n cl u de pr epa r a ti on for obl i g a ti on s th e sta te ca n n ei th er su ppl y n or h i n der .''

32

Gi v en th e l i kel i h ood th a t m a n y E-m a i l tr a n sm i ssi on s fr om a n a du l t to a m i n or a r e con v er sa ti on s between fa m i l y m em ber s, i t i s th er efor e i n cor r ect for th e di ssen t to su g g est th a t th e pr ov i si on s of th e CDA , ev en i n th i s n a r r ow a r ea , "a r e n o di ffer en t fr om th e l a w we su sta i n ed i n Ginsbe rg. '' Post, a t __.

33

Cf. Pacifica Foundation v. FCC, 556 F.2d 9, 36 (C.A .D.C.197 7 ) (Lev a n th a l , J., di ssen ti n g ), r ev 'd, FCC v. Pacifica Foundation, 438 U.S. 7 26, 98 S.Ct. 3026, 57 L.Ed.2d 107 3 (197 8). Wh en Pacifica wa s deci ded, g i v en th a t r a di o sta ti on s wer e a l l owed to oper a te on l y pu r su a n t to feder a l l i cen se, a n d th a t Con g r ess h a d en a cted l eg i sl a ti on pr oh i bi ti n g l i cen sees fr om br oa dca sti n g i n decen t speech , th er e wa s a r i sk th a t m em ber s of th e r a di o a u di en ce m i g h t i n fer som e sor t of offi ci a l or soci eta l a ppr ov a l of wh a tev er wa s h ea r d ov er th e r a di o, see 556 F.2d, a t 37 , n . 18. N o su ch r i sk a tten ds m essa g es r ecei v ed th r ou g h th e In ter n et, wh i ch i s n ot su per v i sed by a n y feder a l a g en cy .

34

Ju r i s. Sta tem en t 3 (ci ti n g 929 F.Su pp., a t 831 (fi n di n g 3)).

35

" In decen t'' does n ot ben efi t fr om a n y tex tu a l em bel l i sh m en t a t a l l . "P a ten tl y offen si v e'' i s qu a l i fi ed on l y to th e ex ten t th a t i t i n v ol v es "sex u a l or ex cr etor y a cti v i ti es or or g a n s'' ta ken "i n con tex t'' a n d "m ea su r ed by con tem por a r y com m u n i ty sta n da r ds.''

36

See Gozlon-Pe re tz v. Unite d S tate s, 498 U.S. 395, 404, 111 S.Ct. 840, 846-847 , 112 L.Ed.2d 919 (1991) ("Wh er e Con g r ess i n cl u des pa r ti cu l a r l a n g u a g e i n on e secti on of a sta tu te bu t om i ts i t i n a n oth er secti on of th e sa m e A ct, i t i s g en er a l l y pr esu m ed th a t Con g r ess a cts i n ten ti on a l l y a n d pu r posel y i n th e di spa r a te i n cl u si on a n d ex cl u si on '') (i n ter n a l qu ota ti on m a r ks om i tted).

37

Th e sta tu te does n ot i n di ca te wh eth er th e "pa ten tl y offen si v e'' a n d "i n decen t'' deter m i n a ti on s sh ou l d be m a de wi th r espect to m i n or s or th e popu l a ti on a s a wh ol e. Th e Gov er n m en t a sser ts th a t th e a ppr opr i a te sta n da r d i s "wh a t i s su i ta bl e m a ter i a l for m i n or s.'' R epl y Br i ef for A ppel l a n ts 18, n . 13 (ci ti n g Ginsbe rg v. Ne w Y ork, 390 U.S. 629, 633, 88 S.Ct. 127 4, 127 6-127 7 , 20 L.Ed.2d 195 (1968)). Bu t th e Con fer ees ex pr essl y r ejected a m en dm en ts th a t wou l d h a v e i m posed su ch a "h a r m fu l to m i n or s'' sta n da r d. See S. Con f. R ep. N o. 104-230, p. 189 (1996) (S.Con f.R ep.), 142 Con g . R ec. H1145, H1165-1166 (Feb. 1, 1996). Th e Con fer ees a l so r ejected a m en dm en ts th a t wou l d h a v e l i m i ted th e pr oscr i bed m a ter i a l s to th ose l a cki n g r edeem i n g v a l u e. See S. Con f. R ep., a t 189, 142 Con g . R ec. H1165-1166 (Feb. 1, 1996).

38

Ev en th ou g h th e wor d "tr u n k,'' sta n di n g a l on e, m i g h t r efer to l u g g a g e, a swi m m i n g su i t, th e ba se of a tr ee, or th e l on g n ose of a n a n i m a l , i ts m ea n i n g i s cl ea r wh en i t i s on e pr on g of a th r ee-pa r t descr i pti on of a speci es of g r a y a n i m a l s.

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413 U.S., a t 30, 93 S.Ct., a t 2618 (Deter m i n a ti on s of "wh a t a ppea l s to th e "pr u r i en t i n ter est' or i s "pa ten tl y offen si v e' . . . . a r e essen ti a l l y qu esti on s of fa ct, a n d ou r N a ti on i s si m pl y too bi g a n d too di v er se for th i s Cou r t to r ea son a bl y ex pect th a t su ch sta n da r ds cou l d be a r ti cu l a ted for a l l 50 Sta tes i n a si n g l e for m u l a ti on , ev en a ssu m i n g th e pr er equ i si te con sen su s ex i sts''). Th e CDA , wh i ch i m pl em en ts th e "con tem por a r y com m u n i ty sta n da r ds'' l a n g u a g e of Mille r, th u s con fl i cts wi th th e Con fer ees' own a sser ti on th a t th e CDA wa s i n ten ded "to esta bl i sh a u n i for m n a ti on a l sta n da r d of con ten t r eg u l a ti on .'' S. Con f. R ep., a t 191.

40

A ccor d, Butle r v. Michigan, 352 U.S. 380, 383, 7 7 S.Ct. 524, 525-526, 1 L.Ed.2d 412 (1957 ) (ba n on sa l e to a du l ts of books deem ed h a r m fu l to ch i l dr en u n con sti tu ti on a l ); S able Communications of Cal., I nc. v. FCC, 492 U.S. 115, 128, 109 S.Ct. 2829, 2837 -2838, 106 L.Ed.2d 93 (1989) (ba n on "di a l -a -por n '' m essa g es u n con sti tu ti on a l ); Bolge r v. Y oungs Drug Products Corp., 463 U.S. 60, 7 3, 103 S.Ct. 287 5, 2883-2884, 7 7 L.Ed.2d 469 (1983) (ba n on m a i l i n g of u n sol i ci ted a dv er ti sem en t for con tr a cepti v es u n con sti tu ti on a l ).

41

Th e l a ck of l eg i sl a ti v e a tten ti on to th e sta tu te a t i ssu e i n S able su g g ests a n oth er pa r a l l el wi th th i s ca se. Com pa r e 492 U.S., a t 129-130, 109 S.Ct., a t 2838 (" [A ]si de fr om con cl u sor y sta tem en ts du r i n g th e deba tes by pr opon en ts of th e bi l l , a s wel l a s si m i l a r a sser ti on s i n h ea r i n g s on a su bsta n ti a l l y i den ti ca l bi l l th e y ea r befor e, . . . th e con g r essi on a l r ecor d pr esen ted to u s con ta i n s n o ev i den ce a s to how effecti v e or i n effecti v e th e FCC's m ost r ecen t r eg u l a ti on s wer e or m i g h t pr ov e to be . . . . N o Con g r essm a n or Sen a tor pu r por ted to pr esen t a con si der ed ju dg m en t wi th r espect to h ow often or to wh a t ex ten t m i n or s cou l d or wou l d ci r cu m v en t th e r u l es a n d h a v e a ccess to di a l -a -por n m essa g es'') wi th n . 24, supra.

42

Th e Gov er n m en t a g r ees th a t th ese pr ov i si on s a r e a ppl i ca bl e wh en ev er "a sen der tr a n sm i ts a m essa g e to m or e th a n on e r eci pi en t, kn owi n g th a t a t l ea st on e of th e speci fi c per son s r ecei v i n g th e m essa g e i s a m i n or .'' Opposi ti on to Moti on to A ffi r m a n d R epl y to Ju r i s. Sta tem en t 4-5, n . 1.

43

Th e Gov er n m en t a sser ts th a t " [t]h er e i s n oth i n g con sti tu ti on a l l y su spect a bou t r equ i r i n g com m er ci a l Web si te oper a tor s . . . to sh ou l der th e m odest bu r den s a ssoci a ted wi th th ei r u se.'' Br i ef for A ppel l a n ts 35. A s a m a tter of fa ct, h owev er , th er e i s n o ev i den ce th a t a "m odest bu r den '' wou l d be effecti v e.

44

Tr a n sm i tti n g obscen i ty a n d ch i l d por n og r a ph y , wh eth er v i a th e In ter n et or oth er m ea n s, i s a l r ea dy i l l eg a l u n der feder a l l a w for both a du l ts a n d ju v en i l es. See 18 U.S.C. §§1464-1465 (cr i m i n a l i zi n g obscen i ty ); §2251 (cr i m i n a l i zi n g ch i l d por n og r a ph y ). In fa ct, wh en Con g r ess wa s con si der i n g th e CDA , th e Gov er n m en t ex pr essed i ts v i ew th a t th e l a w wa s u n n ecessa r y beca u se ex i sti n g l a ws a l r ea dy a u th or i zed i ts on g oi n g effor ts to pr osecu te obscen i ty , ch i l d por n og r a ph y , a n d ch i l d sol i ci ta ti on . See 141 Con g . R ec. S8342 (Ju n e 14, 1995) (l etter fr om Ken t Ma r ku s, A cti n g A ssi sta n t A ttor n ey Gen er a l , U.S. Depa r tm en t of Ju sti ce, to Sen . Lea h y ).

45

Ci ti n g Church of Lukumi Babalu Aye , I nc. v. Hiale ah, 508 U.S. 520, 113 S.Ct. 2217 , 124 L.Ed.2d 47 2 (1993), a m on g oth er ca ses, a ppel l ees offer a n a ddi ti on a l r ea son wh y , i n th ei r v i ew, th e CDA fa i l s str i ct scr u ti n y . Beca u se so m u ch sex u a l l y ex pl i ci t con ten t or i g i n a tes ov er sea s, th ey a r g u e, th e CDA ca n n ot be "effecti v e.'' Br i ef for A ppel l ees A m er i ca n Li br a r y A ssoci a ti on et a l . 33-34. Th i s a r g u m en t r a i ses di ffi cu l t i ssu es r eg a r di n g th e i n ten ded, a s wel l a s th e per m i ssi bl e scope

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of, ex tr a ter r i tor i a l a ppl i ca ti on of th e CDA . We fi n d i t u n n ecessa r y to a ddr ess th ose i ssu es to di spose of th i s ca se.

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46

For th e fu l l tex t of §223(e)(5), see n . 26, supra.

47

Th u s, i r on i ca l l y , th i s defen se m a y si g n i fi ca n tl y pr otect com m er ci a l pu r v ey or s of obscen e posti n g s wh i l e pr ov i di n g l i ttl e (or n o) ben efi t for tr a n sm i tter s of i n decen t m essa g es th a t h a v e si g n i fi ca n t soci a l or a r ti sti c v a l u e.

48

929 F.Su pp., a t 855-856.

49

A s th i s Cou r t l on g a g o ex pl a i n ed, "It wou l d cer ta i n l y be da n g er ou s i f th e Leg i sl a tu r e cou l d set a n et l a r g e en ou g h to ca tch a l l possi bl e offen der s a n d l ea v e i t to th e cou r ts to step i n si de a n d sa y wh o cou l d be r i g h tfu l l y be deta i n ed a n d wh o sh ou l d be set a t l a r g e. Th i s wou l d, to som e ex ten t, su bsti tu te th e ju di ci a l for th e l eg i sl a ti v e depa r tm en t of th e g ov er n m en t.'' Unite d S tate s v. Re e se , 92 U.S. 214, 221, 23 L.Ed. 563 (187 5). In pa r t beca u se of th ese sepa r a ti on of power s con cer n s, we h a v e h el d th a t a sev er a bi l i ty cl a u se i s "a n a i d m er el y ; n ot a n i n ex or a bl e com m a n d.'' Dorchy v. Kansas, 264 U.S. 286, 290, 44 S.Ct. 323, 325, 68 L.Ed. 686 (1924).

50

See a l so Osborne v. Ohio, 495 U.S. 103, 121, 110 S.Ct. 1691, 17 02-17 03, 109 L.Ed.2d 98 (1990) (ju di ci a l r ewr i ti n g of sta tu tes wou l d der og a te Con g r ess's "i n cen ti v e to dr a ft a n a r r owl y ta i l or ed l a w i n th e fi r st pl a ce'').

1

See, e .g., A l a ska Sta t. A n n . §11.66.300 (1996) (n o m i n or s i n "a du l t en ter ta i n m en t'' pl a ces); A r i z.R ev .Sta t. A n n . §13-3556 (1989) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces wh er e peopl e ex pose th em sel v es); A r k.Code A n n . §§5-27 -223, 5-27 -224 (1993) (n o m i n or s i n pool r oom s a n d ba r s); Col o.R ev .Sta t. §18-7 -502(2) (1986) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces di spl a y i n g m ov i es or sh ows th a t a r e "h a r m fu l to ch i l dr en ''); Del .Code A n n ., Ti t. 11, §1365(i )(2) (1995) (sa m e); D.C.Code A n n . §22-2001(b)(1)(B) (1996) (sa m e); Fl a . Sta t. §847 .013(2) (1994) (sa m e); Ga .Code A n n . §16-12-103(b) (1996) (sa m e); Ha w.R ev .Sta t. §7 12-1215(1)(b) (1994) (n o m i n or s i n m ov i e h ou ses or sh ows th a t a r e "por n og r a ph i c for m i n or s''); Ida h o Code §18-1515(2) (1987 ) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces di spl a y i n g m ov i es or sh ows th a t a r e "h a r m fu l to m i n or s''); La .R ev .Sta t. A n n . §14:91.11(B) (West 1986) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces di spl a y i n g m ov i es th a t depi ct sex a cts a n d a ppea l to m i n or s' pr u r i en t i n ter est); Md. A n n .Code, A r t. 27 , §416E (1996) (n o m i n or s i n esta bl i sh m en ts wh er e cer ta i n en u m er a ted a cts a r e per for m ed or por tr a y ed); Mi ch . Com p. La ws §7 50.141 (1991) (n o m i n or s wi th ou t a n a du l t i n pl a ces wh er e a l coh ol i s sol d); Mi n n .Sta t. §617 .294 (1987 a n d Su pp.1997 ) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces di spl a y i n g m ov i es or sh ows th a t a r e "h a r m fu l to m i n or s''); Mi ss.Code A n n . §97 -5-11 (1994) (n o m i n or s i n pool r oom s, bi l l i a r d h a l l s, or wh er e a l coh ol i s sol d); Mo.R ev .Sta t. §57 3.507 (1995) (n o m i n or s i n a du l t ca ba r ets); N eb.R ev .Sta t. §28-809 (1995) (n o m i n or s i n pl a ces di spl a y i n g m ov i es or sh ows th a t a r e "h a r m fu l to m i n or s''); N ev .R ev .Sta t. §201.265(3) (1997 ) (sa m e); N .H.R ev .Sta t. A n n . §57 1-B:2(II) (1986) (sa m e); N .M. Sta t. A n n . §30-37 -3 (1989) (sa m e); N .Y . P en a l La w §235.21(2) (McKi n n ey 1989) (sa m e); N .D. Cen t.Code §12.1-27 .1 -03 (1985 a n d Su pp.1995) (sa m e); 18 P a . Con s.Sta t. §5903(a ) (Su pp.1997 ) (sa m e); S.D. Com p. La ws A n n . §22-24-30 (1988) (sa m e); Ten n .Code A n n . §39-17 -911(b) (1991) (sa m e); V t. Sta t. A n n ., Ti t. 13, §2802(b) (197 4) (sa m e); V a .Code A n n . §18.2-391 (1996) (sa m e).

2

See, e .g., A l a .Code §13A -12-200.5 (1994); A r i z.R ev .Sta t. A n n . §13-3506 (1989); A r k.Code A n n . 5-68-502 (1993); Ca l .P en a l Code A n n . §313.1 (West Su pp.1997 ); Col o.R ev .Sta t. §18-7 -502(1) (1986); Con n . Gen .Sta t. §53a -196 (1994); Del .Code A n n ., Ti t. 11, §1365(i )(1) (1995); D.C.Code A n n . §22-2001(b)(1)(A ) (1996); Fl a .

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Sta t. §847 .012 (1994); Ga .Code A n n . §16-12-103(a ) (1996); Ha w.R ev .Sta t. §7 12-1215(1) (1994); Ida h o Code §18-1515(1) (1987 ); Il l . Com p. Sta t., ch . 7 20, §5/11-21 (1993); In d.Code §35-49-3-3(1) (Su pp.1996); Iowa Code §7 28.2 (1993); Ka n . Sta t. A n n . §21-4301c(a )(2) (1988); La .R ev .Sta t. A n n . §14:91.11(B) (West 1986); Md. A n n .Code, A r t. 27 , §416B (1996); Ma ss. Gen . La ws, ch . 27 2, §28 (1992); Mi n n .Sta t. §617 .293 (1987 a n d Su pp.1997 ); Mi ss.Code A n n . §97 -5-11 (1994); Mo.R ev .Sta t. §57 3.040 (1995); Mon t.Code A n n . §45-8-206 (1995); N eb.R ev .Sta t. §28-808 (1995); N ev .R ev .Sta t. §§201.265(1), (2) (1997 ); N .H.R ev .Sta t. A n n . §57 1-B:2(I) (1986); N .M. Sta t. A n n . §30-37 -2 (1989); N .Y . P en a l La w §235.21(1) (McKi n n ey 1989); N .C. Gen .Sta t. §14-190.15(a ) (1993); N .D. Cen t.Code §12.1-27 .1-03 (1985 a n d Su pp.1995); Oh i o R ev .Code A n n . §2907 .31(A )(1) (Su pp.1997 ); Okl a . Sta t., Ti t. 21, §1040.7 6(2) (Su pp.1997 ); 18 P a . Con s.Sta t. §5903(c) (Su pp.1997 ); R .I. Gen . La ws §11-31-10(a ) (1996); S.C.Code A n n . §16-15-385(A ) (Su pp.1996); S.D. Com p. La ws A n n . §22-24-28 (1988); Ten n .Code A n n . §39-17 -911(a ) (1991); Tex P en a l Code A n n . §43.24(b) (1994); Uta h Code A n n . §7 6-10-1206(2) (1995); V t. Sta t. A n n ., Ti t. 13, §2802(a ) (197 4); V a .Code A n n . §18.2-391 (1996); Wa sh . R ev .Code §9.68.060 (1988 a n d Su pp.1997 ); Wi s. Sta t. §948.11(2) (Su pp.1995).

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