Qualitative Career Counselling

University of KwaZulu Natal Work & Identities (PSYC702)

Seminar: 4

Presenters:

Devon Ferreira (204519344) Siphesihle Ngobese (205516965) Date: 3 April 2009

Introduction The notion of a contextualized career counselling model and science for the South African environment is an issue at the heart of many an academic and practitioner in this field. However the realities of this outcome are dependant on a few mitigating circumstances and considerations that have to be adequately metered out. Thus this paper in a critically descriptive manner shall elucidate the circumstances and considerations alluded to, by introducing most importantly the concepts and works of various authors on this topic. The ideas shall be provided, and crucially a critique for each shall be presented after each discussion. Conceptually, this essay shall begin by positing what theories are most pervasive within the South African career counselling framework with an express look at the theories of Holland (1973) and Super (1990), such predisposition towards these theories shall be critiqued by stating the socio-economic reality of South Africa which render these specific western theories ineffective and aloof. Thus this shall lead into the next idea this paper seeks to raise which is the advocating of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) as the most appropriate theory in the interim. The key tenets of this theory shall be discussed, showing explicitly its relevance for the local context. Given the argument that SCCT should be pervasive in the interim, we’ll then elucidate on what the proposed path career counselling methods and research should ascribe to in South Africa, by looking at Indigenisation and Indigenous psychologies respectively; and more significantly to support this idea, by showing the need to develop a qualitative career assessment process. Critically, the qualitative assessment model shall require a look into a constructivist framework to assist in constructing meaning; and the idea that supports framework this is the usage of the hermeneutic and dialogical approach to understanding career development. It is important to state that at that juncture of our paper, the notion of uncertainty shall be introduced and meticulously discussed, by firstly assessing what its impact and implications for career decision-making are, and discussing what recommendations and guidelines are posited under the positive uncertainty framework are. The penultimate section of this paper shall then theoretically account for the current era of constant change and uncertainty we construct our sense of reality in; by providing firstly the Happenstance theory, which asserts unplanned events aren’t annoyances, but should be seen as opportunities for career

exploration. The next theory is the chaos theory which we shall show critiques traditional processes and posits a look at the individual and environment in more dynamic terms. In addition we will discuss complexity theory which also focuses on non-linear dynamics as well as relationships and views careers as complex adaptive entities. A conclusion shall then summate. Career Counselling in South Africa The notion of career counselling, most importantly the aspect of actual career choice is seen as undergoing a radical change, as the rigours of the post-modern society bring about constant changes, and constant need to adapt. In South Africa, not only has the advent of a transition into a democracy brought about significant change, but the re-opening of our physical and metaphorical borders, have led to an influx of international goods and ideas that we had to catch up to, and in many cases adapt or conform to. On the issue of the development of career counselling in South Africa in particular, the adoption of western or foreign theories has led to the proliferation of the usage of Euro-American theories and theorists to provide an explanation of local phenomena. De Bruin and Nel (1996) report that most researchers take the developmental model of Super (1990) or Holland’s (1973) structural model of career interests and personalities as their theoretical frames of reference (1996:248). However, such theories are sadly not appropriate for the South African context given the unique nature of our society, and the very specific developmental pathway our country is taking; in fact Stead & Watson (1999) begin with a critique of Super & Holland as not adequately representative of the South African context. The crux of this critique lays in the assertion that most empirical literature, and thus derived theories, posit the western notions of career development. Stead & Watson (1999) write that, some of the most important assumptions of the dominant Western theories of career development are: •

that people’s career development can be divided into clearly demarcated developmental stages,

•

that each development has to be completed successfully before the individual can move to the next stage

•

that if the developmental stages are dealt with successfully the individual should be able to make a satisfying career choice

•

that if the individual works hard he or she will be able to have a successful career

(in Stead & Watson, 1999:91). However the reality of South Africa dictates a different case.

Stead & Watson (1999) explain that, these assumptions do not necessarily hold for individuals who do not have access to adequate educational, social and economic resources, as is often the case in South Africa (Stead & Watson, 1999:91). The most pervasive career counselling theories have been identified as Super (1990) & Holland (1973) theories, however, as already mentioned, these theories are rendered largely inadequate for the South African context; as Stead & Watson (1999) argue, do not take sufficient account of the context in which career development takes place and thus are limited when applied in contexts outside of middle-class America (Stead & Watson, 1999:92). A theory MUST account for the socio-economic context, that is the environment it operates in, or else its implicit worldview might render it negatively biased and unable to provide adequate explanations of the target population. Herein are the virtues of an argument for the use of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). There are six concepts that the authors advocate have to be fully understood when it comes to an understanding of the SCCT: Triadic Reciprocity is the relationship between personal attributes, the external environment and overt behaviour (Stead & Watson, 1999:92). This point of view emphasises that people contribute actively to shaping their environment (while the environment is shaping them), and are therefore not viewed as helpless victims of their environment. This rings true for ordinary South Africans, whom although are the agents of change in the environment they live in, are also shaped extensively by their environment. This feedback loop is what triadic reciprocity seeks to highlight and account for. Self-Efficacy expectations refer to people’s belief about their capabilities to perform particular tasks (Bandura, 1986 in Stead & Watson, 1999:93). There are four ways to experience self-efficacy and these are through; personal performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, social or verbal persuasion, and physiological arousal. Hackett (1995) asserts that, it follows that peoples beliefs about their ability to perform the tasks of a particular occupation may influence their decision to enter into the occupation or not (in Stead & Watson, 1999:93). In South Africa, self-efficacy is probably one of the most crucial aspects that has to be addressed pertaining to enabling people to go after careers they like, as opposed to being relegated to what is conveniently accessible yet they’re not satisfied in such careers. Outcome expectations refer to what people believe the results of particular behaviours will be (Stead & Watson, 1999:93). In South Africa we need to build mechanisms whether by the

state or the private sector that encourage people to engage in behaviours that they feel will lead to desirable outcomes. Goals are defined by Lent et al. (1996) as the determination to engage in a particular activity or to effect a particular future outcome (in Stead & Watson, 1999:93). Put best as saying that in essence goals help people organise themselves. They would in essence be useful for career counselling in the school setting in the sense that it would assist school-leaving learners guide their actions and behaviour; however, this wouldn’t end at the school level, even for general career counselling, the setting of goals could prove to hold great importance. Interests are asserted under SCCT to see people develop interests in activities for which they have positive self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Lent & Brown (1996) emphasise that interests are tied to learning experiences, as according to this point of view, interests can change throughout the lifespan depending on the learning opportunities that individuals encounter (in Stead & Watson, 1999:94). Career choice according to SCCT sees career choice flowing from the goals and activities that develop out of interests (Stead & Watson, 1999:94). Choice most importantly is seen as being correlated highly with opportunity, that is, whether it is open or limited. In South Africa choice for many previously disadvantaged people is limited in the new economy as they are unable to compete in a market economy; thus the environment is still posing a hindrance to the development of many South Africans pertaining to their career choices. Stead & Watson (1999) state that, in such cases individuals have to consider what jobs are available and then assess whether they think they can do what is required and whether the outcomes will be favourable (Stead & Watson, 1999:95). The most important aspect to be ascribed is that this theory is able to be contextualized, that is, it is able to adapt. SCCT recognizes the important influence of the context or environment on the development of self-efficacy, expectations, outcome expectations and career choices (Stead & Watson, 1999:95). It is argued that such an environment may be conducive and fostering or even restrictive. With the South African context in mind, a major issue of the structural skills shortage within the technical, math and science sector of society should be addressed. The issue has been the propensity of black students to opt for careers in the social fields, and avoid the technical/mathematics fields. Why has this happened? Banduras (1986) is quoted to explain the best predictors pertaining to career decisions as self-efficacy expectations (in Stead & Watson, 1999:96). The authors then continue to address this by

applying the SCCT to a case study of research that had been conducted by Watson et al (1997) which reported that 72% of 216 black senior high school students in the Eastern Cape aspired to social and investigative occupations (in Stead & Watson, 1999:96); however upon closer inspection it was found that very few students aspired to more scientific occupations such as engineering, technical trades, and computer science. Although the economy is in desperate need for these skills, most black students have shown a propensity to avoid scientific and technical skills areas, preferring to occupy studies in the social fields. Stead & Watson (1999) assert that demand for graduates in the social sciences is not high, suggesting that many of South Africa’s graduates may find it difficult to find employment in this field (1999: 96). Thus SCCT is contextualised to this case example, and seeks to address this issue by asserting principally that positive self-efficacy expectations for science and mathematicsrelated occupations can only develop if individuals have access to sources that may reinforce their self-efficacy expectations (Stead & Watson, 1999:97). In keeping to the issue of mathematics and science, a major hindrance to self-efficacy for South African schoolchildren is their lack of access to basic amenities. SCCT as mentioned calls for vicarious learning, however in the case study, such is learning is difficult to achieve; as Stead & Watson (1999) explain that there is a lack of role models, especially black role models, in science related occupations (Stead & Watson, 1999:97). Vicarious learning may also only effectively occur with people from the areas making it, as they would be able to relate with people better through shared experience. The implications thus for career counselling in South Africa is that counsellors should point out and explore discrepancies between an individual’s selfefficacy expectations and his or her abilities or skills (Brown & Lent, 1996). The pertinent ideas to extract is that the SCCT model is especially useful because it considers the socio-cultural context in which learning takes place; and critically it does not assume that everyone has one development route to follow. SCCT takes a positive view of the ability of individuals to influence their environment and can help career counsellors and their clients to remain positive when difficulties arise in the career development process (Stead & Watson, 1999:100). However, the normal Achilles heel presents itself with this theory too, as it should be mentioned that not much research on SCCT has been done in South Africa.

Indigenisation & Indigenous Career Psychology in South Africa Thus enters the argument for the indigenisation and/or indigenous psychology, in the sense that the South African context is dissected even further, and an actual call for what career counselling should evolve into is made. Beginning with a critique of the hegemony of theory and literature that stems predominantly from the USA; Stead & Watson (1999) warns that, career researchers and practitioners should be wary of embracing European or American perspectives as the touchstones for a contextually appropriate career psychology (Stead & Watson, 1999:214). Let us begin by positing a clarification with a definition of the difference between indigenous psychology and indigenisation approaches. Sinha (1997) explains, indigenous psychology is defined as those elements of knowledge that have been generated in a country or a culture, and that have developed therein, as opposed to those that are imported or brought from elsewhere (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215). Thus in essence, one can see that indigenous psychology recognizes the local way in which discourse is created and understood, and how reality is created. In contrast then is indigenisation, which is as Adair (1992) defines it is, the process of taking development from elsewhere (such as US psychology) and introducing modifications to make it fit the new culture (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215). In keeping with definitions, Stead & Watson (1999) see it prudent to then posit a working definition of culture, ethnicity and career in relation to indigenisation and indigenous psychologies. The definition of culture posited in the literature is the shared learned behaviour that is transmitted from one generation to another for purposes of individual and societal adjustment, growth and development (Stead & Watson, 1999:215). Ethnicity is defined by first providing a warning of the propensity for it to be confused with culture, although it is Betancourt & Lopez (1993) whom refer to it as, a people similar in terms of nationality, language or culture (in Stead & Watson, 1999:215). The definition of a ‘career’ is given the most attention, as in essence it is wrought with multiple innuendos and various meanings. It is Stead & Watson (1999) whom defines it by saying, much of career counselling, guidance and education has supported this ethic by assisting individuals to enter, adapt and cope with work organisations; thus a career is widely considered to be a progression up the metaphorical “corporate ladder” (Stead & Watson, 1999:216).

In order to fully understand the importance that indigenous psychology would have for South Africa it is critical to posit the six identified strategies of indigenous psychology. The first strategy calls for psychological knowledge to be understood within various contexts; Stead & Watson (1999) simply back this up by asserting that Euro-American knowledge is not necessarily easily transported to other countries such as South Africa (Stead & Watson, 1999:217). By positing various stats that underpin the South African context such as high unemployment and relatively poor growth, the authors then posit an example of how theory is time and place specific. Strategy 2, namely indigenous psychologies do not focus on the bizarre or the exotic; levels a critique to indigenous psychology which is its seeming colonial resonance of suggesting a search for the exotic or curious in other lands. Stead & Watson (1999) shoot this down by saying that the purpose of career psychology in South Africa should not be to provide career phenomena that vary substantially from Euro-American perspectives of career development (Stead & Watson, 1999:218). Strategy three asserts that multiple perspectives may be held by various cultures; with Stead & Watson (1999) writing that, indigenous psychologies maintain many perspectives can be held by members of a society or culture that are held by others in those societies or cultures (Stead & Watson, 1999:218). There are many factors that account for differences in a same ethnic group. Such a point is strongly relevant for South Africa in particular, given the heterogeneity of the society we live in, and divergences between and in and amongst each other. Moderating variables should be included in comparative studies of cultures to prevent confounding variables such as socio-economic status from distorting the findings (Stanley & Brown, 1983 in Stead & Watson, 1999:218-219). Strategy four advocates for a variety of research methods; this is due to the fact that indigenous psychologies not particularly favouring an exacting research method; recognise both quantitative and qualitative research methods. The authors make the note that the propensity for the use of quantitative data in South Africa has not aided in the generation of descriptive data which could be used for the development of a theory. We believe that more emphasis should be placed on qualitative research methods as, though research methods such as grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967 in Stead & Watson, 1999:219). In addition, the authors raise the issue of orality, by looking at the oral tradition in South Africa, and discussing what the most appropriate method to conduct qualitative research in South Africa would be.

Strategy five advocates a variety of perspectives; simply put no philosophical orientation is seen as being superior to other (Stead & Watson, 1999:220). This is in stark contrast to the preferential treatment Holland (1973) and Super (1990) receive currently within the carer counselling framework in South Africa. In fact Stead & Watson (1999) say South African career practitioners have become too entrenched in these perspectives and have not shown openness in contemplating other counselling techniques (Stead & Watson, 1999:220). Worse yet, is the seeming apathy around the development of career counselling techniques appropriate to the South African context. The last strategy, strategy six, namely psychological universals are advocated to be a way of establishing whether consensus or universals exist. That is, if you can find indigenous psychology, then you can find a commonality. It is through the development of indigenous psychologies that a universal psychology may emerge (Stead & Watson, 1999:220). Developing Qualitative Career Assessment Processes & the Hermeneutic-dialogical approach to Career Development As indigenous psychologies may be critically argued to be a long-term development, that is, their development will take a long time to effect, a definite supporting facet to this process will be the use of expanded qualitative methods for eliciting data and creating grounded theory; in fact it is McMahon et al. (2003) whom call for an expanded investigation and consequent use of qualitative assessment tools. There is still very little to guide the development and conduct of qualitative assessment in career counselling because it has traditionally received less attention in the literature (McMahon et al, 2003:194). The skewed lean towards quantitative research is still seen as an unfortunate bias, given the untapped potential of the converse. Stead & Watson (1999) belive that more emphasis should be on the use of qualitative research methods, as these methods enable research participants to give their perspectives on a problem (1999:219). Three ideas shall be raised on this topic, firstly constructivism as it is understood through dissecting its main components, secondly an overview of qualitative career assessment is made, and this leads to the final section which discusses the development of qualitative career assessment processes. Neimeyer & Neimeyer (1993) assert that meaning making is fundamental to constructivism (in McMahon et al, 2003:195). The generation of personal meaning and the promotion of reflection on the implications both new and old self-knowledge are the primary objectives of constructivist assessment. Thus constructivism asserts more subjectivity. Lyddon & Alford

(1993) state a fundamental goal of constructivism is to understand personal patterns of meaning – the way a client organises and makes sense of his or her experience over () The objectivity of assessment informed by the logical positivist worldview that can often be supported by test results is replaced by subjectivity, as individuals are encouraged to define themselves and their environment and to refer to the subjective sources of their knowledge (McMahon et al, 2003:195). The aim of assessment under a constructivist viewpoint is to open up avenues of movement, promote empowerment, support transitions, and assist the client gain eligibility for more participation (Peavy 1997 in McMahon, 2003:195). The relations between the client and counsellor under a constructivist perspective may be described as plural indeed. Counsellors are encouraged to establish collaborative relationships with clients, involve them in the selection of assessment devices, and encourage them to explore meaning from the outcomes (Forrest & Brooks, 1993 in McMahon et al, 2003:197). McMahon et al. (2003) assert that, qualitative assessment requires the counsellor to be actively involved in the process from beginning to end. The last idea raised in this reading is the process involved in developing qualitative career assessment processes. Firstly the authors call for carer counsellors to design their research to be concise, to design a process that fosters holism, write the instructions for the client, write readable and easily understood instructions, sequence logical-simple-small-available steps, provide a focused and flexible process, encourage cooperative involvement of counsellor and client, and lastly include a debriefing process (McMahon et al, 2003:198-200). A, this paper examined the assumptions underlying most career research and practice in South Africa (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). The authors begin by critiquing the most pervasive worldview, namely the influences of individualism and neo-positivist ideology in career counselling. It is posited that our understanding of career development is based on the notion of the self as a bounded, autonomous entity, incorrigibly present to itself (Richardson et al, 1998 in Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). As a result, career research and practice have taken the individual as the most convenient unit of analysis and in turn largely ignored the social and institutional influences underlying an individual’s career development process. Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) provide a direct critique to this by writing rather than assisting individuals to be better able to participate meaningfully in social life, much of the concern of career guidance has been with slotting individuals into various categories in a rational, efficient, and predictable manner (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:1). Most importantly on this point of bias is that

if a test is developed in one culture and is being used in another, testers may not share the assumptions, values, and knowledge that are implicitly assumed by the test. The authors make the idea of personhood a crucial issue to consider given the local context, in the sense that when referring to the local population of black African students and their career decision making, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) argue that it is the sense of personhood that accounts for black learners being overly concerned with the social usefulness of their careers (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:2). Of critical importance for the authors is the notion that the assumption that an individual is a free, autonomous agent engaging with the world without much external constraints has come under heavy criticism. Heelas (1981) write, indigenous psychologies are the “cultural views, theories, conjectures, classifications, assumptions and metaphors – together with notions embedded in social institutions” (in Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:2). The text goes on to posit the difference between indigenisation and indigenous psychology. The encapsulated idea is that a group’s collective ideas and cultural practices, as reflected in key ideological institutions and texts, are crucial in understanding the relationship between concepts of personhood and career development in the South African context (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3). The Hermeneutic and dialogical approach to understanding career development is advocated for in support and as the method for a qualitative development framework. Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) argue that hermeneutic and dialogical approaches provide us with an appropriate theoretical framework and research methodology. A simple definition of hermeneutics would be that it is concerned with the lived-human experience, rather than technical concerns, as understanding is the process through which we gain access to another’s lived experience (Tappan 1997 in Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3). Hermeneutics takes cognisance of the fact that our interceptions as well as interpretive strategies are shaped by the values of the interpretive communities” in which we are well embedded. In order to affirm and create unison and some form of consensus in the way we interpret human experiences, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) argue it is therefore important to enter into dialogue with the horizons or perspectives of the other, the ultimate aim being to enhance our understating through the fusion of perspective (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:3). Such a hermeneutic process of understanding is explained to be an iterative process involving movement between parts, and the whole. Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) further explain that applied to career research, the aim of hermeneutics would be to understanding would be to understand the complex process of career development in its socio-cultural context, and to grasp the definition of this process as given by the social actors

involved (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:4). Thus importantly, one notes that the intricate meanings attached to the process of career development will be opened up for scrutiny and further investigation. Lastly Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) assert that because it is socio-culturally situated, hermeneutics makes it possible to explore the issues of power, gender, and other social and political factors in the process of career development (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:4). Thus in conclusion, Mkhize & Frizelle (2000) have in their text argued for a broadening of horizons to include interpretivist, meaning-based approaches that take into account the indigenous or local narratives of what it means to be person developing within certain social and cultural contexts (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000:6). A Case for Uncertainty in Career Counselling & Positive Uncertainty: A New DecisionMaking Framework for Counselling With a pooling of many ideas, some of which aren’t conventional, the assertion is that most decision-making models propose an end point. Miller (1995) affirms this by writing that; it seems that the aim of most career decision making models is to reach an optimal choice (or choices) among possible alternatives (Miller, 1995:1). This reading seeks to deal primarily with the decision-making process that individuals follow; as Hershenson & Roth (1966) assert most decision-making theories emphasize logical-rational processes based on objective quantitative information (in Miller, 1995:2). This is the posited reality of career counselling, however Baumgardner (1977) writes that, constantly changing economic realities make certainty-geared (i.e. rational, logical) approaches to career decision unrealistic (in Miller, 1995:2). Thus a massive concern for the author was the wilful ignorance of decision theorists, whom assume with their theories that the world is a constant that doesn’t change, or that decision-making itself can appropriate the reality of the circumstances the client is in; in essence it is argued that reality is subject, and worse yet never lasts long as change is a constant. This is potentially problematic for the South African context, in the sense that it would be reckless to convince clients of a career counselling that they have no real limits to their rationality, vis-à-vis bounded rationality.

Gelatt (1989) suggests that perhaps what is most appropriate now is a counselling framework that helps the client to accept uncertainty while suggesting that changing one’s mind is an adaptive trait for the future (in Miller, 1995:2). At this stage, the author introduces their

theoretical framework of the Chaos theory. Brack et al. (1993) writes how, Chaos theory validates our basic fears that the world is uncertain (in Miller, 1995:2). Miller (1995) himself asserts that, chaos theorists believe that the first step in dealing with chaos is to understand it; and the goal of understanding is to shift one’s thinking so that change and uncertainty are expected and valued (Miller, 1995:2). The sense of being in control or even when you aren’t to at least pretending you are, is brought into serious challenge. More specifically, on the issue of decision-making, to seem unsure has been a behaviour that we have been socialized not to accept. An inherent assumption in much of the literature on career indecision is that being uncertain is a state to be avoided (Miller, 1995:3). It is encouraged to be positive during uncertainty. Because a positive attitude about uncertainty often leads to behavioural persistence; that is, the client may very well continue seeking out new experiences in the face of uncertainty, and, in the process, discover a desired goal (Miller, 1995:3). Lastly, a suggestion provides a brief direction to career counsellors in the event of a client saying “I don’t know”. Wrenn (1990) notes that when clients utter, “I don’t know”, perhaps counsellors ought to encourage them to listen to their delayed response, their inward voice, and their intuition, to get a handle on what to do next (in Miller, 1995:). Lastly, Miller (1995) writes that career counsellors will do well to continually reflect on the idea that client uncertainty about a career choice often behaviourally observed by the “I don’t know” response—is an honest and realistic response to an extraordinarily complex undertaking (Miller, 1995:4). With uncertainty being argued to be the new paradignm of certainty, this brief text is almost building on the previous reading and the previous authors ideas in the sense that a term is ascribed to being positive during uncertainty; namely positive uncertainty. Gelatt (1989) avows that, what is appropriate now is a decision and counselling framework that helps clients deal with change and ambiguity, accept uncertainty and inconsistency, and utilize the non-rational and intuitive side of thinking and choosing (Gelatt, 1989:252). There is a distinction made between the old decision making model, and the new decision making science. Gelatt (1989) calls the old science as linear, objective, scientific methods of the past; whilst the new ascribes reality as being a subjective creation in a personal frame of reference (Gelatt, 1989:252-253).

Decision making is a non-sequential, non-systematic, non-scientific human process. Decision making is the process of arranging and rearranging information into a choice or action (Gelatt, 1989:253). This is the authors’ definition of decision-making, and is argued to have three components, that have lead to the author to build guidelines around it. Firstly, the Information guideline, which is advocating for the use of information to predict the future and to prepare for what is predicted is likely to be supplemented with skills in avoiding information overload, recognizing information inadequacies and rearranging information into various futures (Gelatt, 1989:254). The Process guideline has Gelatt (1989) positing that, the new science should make it clear that the rational, objective approach is not always possible or desirable; thus the client’s mind’s eye is the heart of invention; it is where reality is created (Gelatt, 1989:254). This new counselling framework must help clients avoid the most common problem caused by the old decision theory: pretending one already knows one wants. Gelatt (1989) shares a new way of looking at decision-making by writing that, new experiences help develop new information, new values, new goals, and new wants (Gelatt, 1989:254). He further asserts that the most important part of the clients’ future may be their belief about it; as the old framework gave a lot of practice remembering the past but not much experience imagining or creating the future. The client’s mind’s eye is the mental faculty of remembering and also imagining (Gelatt, 1989:255). Lastly on this specific guideline is that the process of arranging and rearranging in the minds eye, is where reflection, imagination, and creativity take place. The counsellor of the future must help clients learn the importance of these skills, practice using them, and integrate them into their decision-making strategies (Gelatt, 1989:255). The third guideline is that of Choice, whereby it is argued that in the old science, ration was king. Holistic choice means using the right brain as well as the left, reflecting on one’s future as well as one’s past and being flexible in decision strategies (Gelatt, 1989:255). Gelatt (1989) continues this idea by explaining that counsellors will be helping clients remember and imagine, reflecting backwards and forward; whereby persons need to be able to learn from their future as they learned from their past (Gelatt, 1989:255). The largest argument made as a final stage is a debate between the merits of reflection-flexibility versus the rational-intuitive. Gelatt (1989) says the new counselling framework of reflection, flexibility, and both rational and intuitive thinking will lead to inconsistency in choice (Gelatt, 1989:255). The choice of an action is argued to be the medium by which a decision maker should be able to express their individuality; and not be done by formula.

As affirmed earlier, change and uncertainty are now seen as the new norm, thus theory within the carer counselling framework must adapt to assist career counsellors to work within a rapidly changing world, and within a unique South African climate. Thus the following theories have arisen and taken prominence as tools to give explanatory power to such constant change. Happenstance Theory Throughout an individual’s career, chance events play an integral role in their career planning. Traditionally career counsellors have failed to acknowledge this. With the world of work shifting in different directions creating uncertainties for individuals’ careers, it becomes apparent that traditional counselling interventions are no longer sufficient to prepare clients to respond to the uncertainties they are experiencing (Mitchell, Levin & Krumboltz, 1999: 1). It has been suggested that career counsellors need to alter there counselling approach in such a way as to allow for counselling interventions that view unplanned events as both “inevitable and desirable” (Mitchell et al, 1999:1). Therefore career counsellors need to teach their clients to act in ways which allows them to engage in “exploratory activities” in which they may discover unexpected career opportunities and in turn capitalize on them (Mitchell et al, 1999: 1) The Role of Chance in Career Counselling There are several important issues which career counsellors’ have to consider when dealing with a client. The fact that chance plays an integral role on one’s career, means that it is impossible to predict the future accurately, that you never know who you may meet, who will call or what letters or emails you may receive, all of which may have an impact on individuals career choices or paths (Mitchell et al, 1999). It is therefore troubling that career councellors’ often fail to take into account the unexpected or chance events that their clients may have experienced. There have been a few authors of career development literature that have taken recognition of the role that chance events play career exploration. However some believe that including these events in the career counselling model involves a complex and difficult process to undertake (Mitchell et al, 1999). It is important to note here that “while it would be difficult to develop a model that incorporates chance into the counselling process, it is nonetheless

essential that the counsellor help clients to recognize its effects and develop coping behaviours that anticipate unforeseen events” (Cabral & Salomone, 1990: 14). Despite the important role that chance events play in career choices, rational planning has remained an important component of “career exploration” (Mitchell et al, 1999: 116). Rational planning is a career development theory first developed by Frank Parsons, who was regarded as the father of career counselling. It involved assessing workers values, skills, and interests, with the emphasis being matching individuals to a particular job according to their values, skills, and interests (Mitchell et al, 1999). This traditional trait-and-factor approach of matching individuals to particular occupations has served to eliminate the role of chances in career decision making (Mitchell et al, 1999). However, major technological advances, which have contributed to the drastic changes in the world of work, have resulted in many occupations becoming obsolete and unforeseen occupations being created. This means that the traditional model of career counselling will become increasingly difficult to implement effectively given the nature of the world work today (Mitchell et al, 1999). This is why a new theory has been developed to help counsellors develop ways to help their clients cope with the ever changing world of work. Planned happenstance theory is therefore a “conceptual framework extending career counselling to include the creating and transforming of unplanned events into opportunities for learning (Mitchell et al, 1999: 117). The goal of planned happenstance intervention is to instil the very tools needed for a client to generate, recognize and incorporate chance events into their career developments (Mitchell et al, 1999: 117). Reframing Indecision as Open-Mindedness Using the term open-mindedness serves to displace indecision in planned happenstance theory and helps clients learn not to fear uncertainty but rather to tolerate it and turn it into an exploratory process. By enabling clients to change their attitudes towards uncertainty to an exploratory one the client is able approach the numerous new situations and changes that the individual may experience in “a manner which encourages growth and further self-definition” (Blustein, 1997: 270). Being open-minded has its advantages; most importantly it allows the individual to explore his/her options, rather than be bound to a plan that may be obsolete before it is formulated (Mitchell et al, 1999: 117). It allows the individual to develop the skill of asking questions

just out of curiosity, not necessarily to do anything about the answer (Mitchell et al, 1999). To often when people reach a dilemma in their career, they seek the advice of a career counsellor, who is quick to act by offering some sort of solution or definite answer obtained form a “battery of tests” which serve to alleviate the client’s distress. It is generally our culture which frequently causes us to expect a definite response or answer as it is a decisive person who is seen to be in charge of his/her life or career even if the answer has no real basis (Mitchell et al, 1999). Instead Krumboltz (1992) argues that being indecisive about which career path you are going to take is far more sensible that relying on firm commitments when you may never know what lies ahead. Generating, Recognizing and Encouraging Beneficial Chance Events Career counsellors need to realize that unplanned events are not only inevitable but desirable as well. Once they have come to this realization they need to teach their clients to actively engage in exploratory activities that allows for the probability of them being expose to such unplanned opportunities with an open-mind (Mitchell et al, 1999: 118) in saying this happenstance theory is based on to very important concepts, namely exploration which generates chance opportunities for increasing quality of life, and; skills which enable people to seize opportunities. Planned happenstance theory therefore proposes that career counsellors teach their clients ways of influencing or controlling chance to their benefit. This can be done by instilling five necessary skills to recognize, create and use chance as career opportunities. They are curiosity – whereby the client is able to explore new learning opportunities; persistence – the client is able to continue exerting effort despite any major setbacks; flexibility – enables the client to change their attitudes and circumstances they found themselves for the better; optimism – the client is able to view new opportunities as possible and attainable, and; risk taking – the client is capable of taking action in the face of uncertain outcomes (Mitchell et al, 1999: 118). Other necessary skills that clients can teach their clients, include interpersonal communications, networking, and social support building all of which facilitate the possibility of chance events occurring. There are other ways in which happenstance theory can be included. They include using assessment instruments to generate chance events. Interest interventions for example are used to provide efficient exposure to job titles that are available to the client thereby linking them

to the world of work (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). In the traditional model of career counselling the interpretations of such interests test, focus more on the counsellor informing the client rather than allowing open discussion. Here the emphasis is matching particular career possibilities with the client’s interest (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). On the other hand the happenstance theory approach takes into account the career titles that do not necessarily match the client’s interest also. Clients are encouraged to consider the idea of developing new interests, and not merely selecting occupations which match prior interest (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). Allowing for open discussion with the client, whereby clients can discuss both prior and potential interests, can make known some vital values and serve to liberate exploration (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). Eliciting encouragement is another way in which happenstance theory can be included. Here a witness, such as a friend, family member, colleague or counsellor observes a talent in the person and encourages them to pursue that talent or interest. We are not born with the skill to encourage ourselves to explore other interests and therefore need to learn the skill of selfencouragement from others who have encourage us to take action (Mitchell et al, 1999: 119). Learning as the Purpose of Career Counselling Instead of counsellors acting as official matchmakers, they should consider themselves as educators as they go about facilitating the learning process of their clients (Mitchell et al, 1999). Rather than simply identifying an ideal job for the client, counsellors can be a lot more beneficial for the client by equipping them with new attitudes and valuable skills to improve their quality of life (Mitchell et al, 1999). Savickas (1997: 254) calls this new attitude “adaptability” which is defined as the “readiness to cope with the predictable tasks of preparing and participating in the work role and with the unpredictable adjustments by changes in work and working conditions.” Counsellors must encourage their client to strive to be the person they want to be rather than adhering to “linear continuum of developmental tasks” (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120). Traditionally, counsellors have used informational interviews to elicit information from their clients. However informational interviews can also be used to generate unexpected events. Say for example a client shows up for an interview and starts by saying “I don’t have much time to talk with you now – I have so much work to do” ((Mitchell et al, 1999: 120). Now the conventional response to that would be to ask the client if he/she would like to reschedule. However if the counsellor had to use a happenstance generated response he would show

excitement and offer his help to try take the load off. Encouraging clients to respond in this manner will serve to provide the client with way to express enthusiasm, a willingness to work hard, as well as providing an opportunity to get well acquainted with somebody already working in the field (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120) It is important to note that the happenstance part of an informational interview can occur at any time, before, during or after the actual interview. For example a client is waiting in the waiting room and just so happens to discover information about a job opening whilst engaging in an unplanned conversation with a fellow client. This is why it so importance for counsellor to apply the happenstance model so that they can prepare their clients for such unanticipated events. Counsellor may use a “cognitive restructuring” techniques in helping clients identify and interpret such events in different ways so that the clients does not perceive them as mere interruptions but rather as opportunities for learning (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120) Clients also need to be encouraged to make the most of educational opportunities. Traditionally educational planning and career exploration, has placed too much emphasis on decisiveness. However Baumgardner (1982) cautioned student about committing themselves to major to early because the world of work is changing ever so rapidly, and they may find their major becoming obsolete by the time they reach graduation. Rather counsellors can help students devise questions that “express their values, interest, skills, and curiosity” (Mitchell et al, 1999: 120). Therefore by enrolling into class which is relevant to their questions, he/she will more likely be prepared and able to learn from chance events that may occur there. All this is very well and good, however receiving counselling by itself, will do little for the client unless he/she plays his/her part and partakes in construction action. Counsellors need to concentrate all their efforts on enabling their clients to take the necessary action needed to improve their quality of life (Mitchell et al, 1999). Action taken by clients is usually inhibited by their beliefs and the way they express their goals. Often these goals are expressed by a client in such a way which makes them seem unattainable. However counsellors can help the client by reframing the goals in ways which make progress towards them possible (Mitchell et al, 1999). When applying happenstance theory to career counselling, counsellors must from the outset assure their clients that unplanned events are normal and essential components of their career

planning. There are four steps which can be used to guide the counsellor through the counselling process. They include normalizing planned happened in the client’s history – this can be seen as the most important step, as without it the clients will remain uneasy about his/her future, preventing him/her from taking advantage of unexpected events. This step entails making client aware of how their actions can contribute to constructing unplanned career opportunities (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). In doing so clients will be asked to identify any unplanned events in their lives, and most importantly to specify the action taken that may have enable them to contribute, generate and take advantage of such events (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). The next step is assisting clients to transform curiosity into opportunities for learning and exploration. Clients must be taught to look at any unplanned event as opportunities to explore. To often clients walk into a counsellor’s office and expect them to identify the perfect career for them. However with the use of the happenstance model counsellors are able to reframe those requests by helping the client to identify opportunities for learning and exploration (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). The third step is to teach clients to produce desirable chance events. Here counsellors must make it clear to the client that they should not leave their careers passively to chance, but rather they should constantly seek new learning opportunities and take actively look for chance opportunities. Counsellors need to stress to the client that unplanned events are inevitable and that the necessary action is required to generate desirable chance events (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). The forth step is to teach clients to overcome blocks to action. Very often clients hold strong beliefs that block their willingness to take action, to experience their curiosity and benefit from unplanned opportunities. Therefore counsellors need to encourage clients to engage in constructive actions and not merely discuss them as abstraction (Mitchell et al, 1999: 121). For too long career counselling has been working under an over-simplified theory that has misrepresented the ways in which career choices are actually made. The basic three steps matching of an occupation with the clients’ characteristics has proven insufficient for the 21st Century (Mitchell et al, 1999). Everyone’s career is affected in some way or another by events, that is why it is important for counsellors to adopt a happenstance approach to counselling which acknowledges the influential role of unplanned events on individuals’ careers, and allows counsellors to teach clients the necessary skills to take advantage of these events and actively take action to create new events (Mitchell et al, 1999)

Chaos, Complexity Theories and Non-Linear Dynamics As mentioned before, predominant career theories have been based primarily on the reductionist paradigms of science which rely on an underlying understanding that finding and isolating all parts will enable us to grasp a greater understanding of the phenomenon, for example understanding key attributes of an individual and then matching these to compatible career environments. This makes it possible for the researcher or counsellor to yield reliable predictions and replicable interventions (Bloch, 2005: 195). This approach however fails to capture sufficiently the complexities, uncertainties and dynamic aspects of modern work. Career theorists have been increasingly interested in approaches that look at the individual and the environment in more complex and dynamic terms. We have already mentioned how Mitchell et al (1999) explored the role of unplanned events in career choice. But recently several authors have begun investigate another new approach to career development which is not limited to reductionist methods, but rather challenges traditional approaches to scientific explanation by drawing on non-linear dynamics and which includes chaos and complexity theories. These theories allow us to grasp a much more fruitful understanding of the complex entities which not only include all life from single cells to human beings but also organisations to corporations (Bloch, 2005: 195). Chaos Theory There are two key concepts within chaos theory, they are nonlinearity and recursiveness. In linear systems all the elements add up to make the whole, for example if we had to take a look at a credit card balance it will be equal to the sum all the money spent, interest plus bank charges (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292). With nonlinear systems the elements add up to more (or less) than the sum of the parts. This can be explained for instance when song increases its airtime on a radio station as sales of the song increase, which in turn results in further increase in the air time the song receives (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292). This same example can be used to explain recursiveness, whereby one variable has an influence on another, which in turn influences the first one and so this is repeated. Therefore chaos theory provides illustrates how the recursive application of several nonlinear equations to a system, results in elements of both stability and susceptibility being subject to sudden and dramatic change at the same time (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 292).

Using Attractors in Career Counselling Bright and Pryor (2005: 299) highlight some important attractors which are generally recognised in chaos theory. These attractors help describe the constraints on the functioning system. The attractors influence the behaviour of the individual by drawing it into a particular direction or constraining it in some way. There are four major types of attractors – Point attractors – these refer to an individual being drawn to a particular vocational goal, such as being promoted to the next level in the organisation. They generally occur when the individual or other agency (employer or organisation) places false constraints on the individual’s behaviour (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Person-environment fit models are examples of point attractors. These models serve to constrain the individual by imposing a point attractor. Although this can be motivational, by the fact that the individual have a particular goal to work towards, chaos theory reminds these individuals to continually reevaluate their goals and develop alternative plans in case of an unforeseen event or obstacle preventing them from fulfilling their desired goal (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Pendulum attractors – this refers to an individuals behaviour be constrained to a regular, predictable pattern as it moves from one extreme through to a midpoint and out to an opposite extreme. This process is then reversed until it reaches the original position (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Pendulum attractors reflect significant constraints which have been placed on an individuals career behaviour, either self inflicted or as a result of narrow-minded thinking, or external pressure such as family who yearn for the individual to pursue medicine whilst his interest lie in psychology. Clients who have been affected by pendulum attractors tend hold very rigid and extreme belief. This inhibits effective thinking and therefore prevents new insights and the generation of solutions (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Torus attractors – this describes a behaviour which is a lot more complex, but still heavily constrained and repeating. A client may feel comfortable in his job as described by this attractor. Therefore this attractor can prove difficult to identify in a client due the apparent complexity of its action serving to mask its repetitive nature (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 301). Strange attractors – these attractors typically characterize chaos models. This attractor is highly complex more so than the torus attractor. Although it may seem as though there are no constraints or rule governing their dynamics, which is why it is regarded as chaotic, over time and when considered from the appropriate perspective a pattern, though highly complex, can

be detected (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 302). Change and unpredictability are constraints within the strange attractors. Minor disruptions in the initial states can result in significant nonlinear changes in the behaviour of the attractor. For a career counsellor, “understanding a client’s strange attractor in all it complexity, stability, and vulnerability will help both the counsellor and client understand current and past behaviour and help prepare the client for his or her future journey (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 302). Complexity Theory The focus of complexity theory as well as chaos theory is on relationships and nonlinear dynamics and views careers as a complex adaptive entity, which makes up a minute part of human entity (Bloch, 2005: 195). This theory enables career counsellors to seek an understanding of the complex nature of careers which helps them explain what otherwise appears to be chaos in life and reveals an underlying order of events which naturally appear to be random (Bloch, 2005: 196). Most complex adaptive entities share some common characteristics whether they described in physics, biology, or in social sciences (Bloch, 2005: 196). Humans beings are consider to be complex adaptive entities and so too are their careers. Therefore they both share the same characteristics. These characteristics include the following elements: Self generation – people are continually reinventing their careers as they move in and out of particular roles which were previously expected to be fulfilled by so-called “healthy” individuals (Bloch, 2005: 199); Open exchange – career requires human beings in order to carry out its functions whereby there is a constant exchange of all entities that make up the human body. Careers also don’t just operate in isolation with a single individual, but rather through participation in complex relationships (Bloch, 2005: 199); Participation in networks – “relationships among the physical, psychological, neural, and spiritual aspects of the individual are, however neither unitary nor linear but exist in interweaving networks” (Bloch, 2005: 199). Since career are entity within the entity of the individual they too become involved in surrounding networks of education, occupations, industries, employers, needs of the community, local and global economies and cultures. These ongoing relationships are influenced by the entity of each career (Bloch, 2005: 199);

Fractals – careers make up a mere fraction of an individuals life experience as while as that of the entire work and economic system. Since careers make up a fraction of an individual’s life, when one examines a career in this way, it becomes possible to see the patterns and dynamics of the whole life. In addition careers are fractals of an individuals work experience, this is because they consist of parts which are similar to the whole (Bloch, 2005: 199); Phase transitions between order and chaos – individuals are constantly being bombarded with change, which results in them moving form a state of order to chaos. Because careers are involved in the relational networks, and these networks are subject to continual open exchange, so too do careers undergo change. For example graduation, being fired, ambition, illness, or any other events may bring about phase transitions (Bloch, 2005: 199); Search for fitness peaks – during these phase transition careers are characterised by the search for the best an individual desires for him or herself. This however is often limited by the degree of timidity or risking taking as well as by the network relationships and exchanges that take place continually. At each phase transition the individual is given the opportunity to explore his or her career (Bloch, 2005: 200); Non-linear dynamics – a person’s career development is understood when looked at in relation to their own work life, the specific dynamics of the environment in which it occurred, as well as the internal dynamics of the individual. People experience parts of their careers that seem to form patterns, however these patterns are difficult to explain, or even partially explain when relating them to other careers. Therefore the career development of an individual can only be understood in terms of that individual (Bloch, 2005: 200); Sensitive dependence, or potential for small changes to bring about large effect – it is understood that often random, often minor, events in ones life, such as a distant disturbance of the economy or an ignored interaction that took place at work, can bring about a major career change (Bloch, 2005: 200); Attractors that limit growth –. Careers formed by point attractors leave the individual feeling that there is only one occupation available and only one route into the occupation. They are therefore left with no options or even possible areas of career exploration (Bloch, 2005: 200). (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 300). Careers formed by pendulum attractors leave the individual in a state of indecision, going back and forth, and unable to move forward (Bright & Pryor, 2005: 300). Careers formed by torus attractors may leave the individual feeling

comfortable due to slight difference in the pattern of work although it remains very and repetitive. The individual soon comes to the realization that he/she is trapped in an endless circle of the same repetitive job tasks (Bloch, 2005: 200); Role of strange attractors and emergence – emergence factor allows for careers to take on new forms which results in unexpected career paths to arise. Even when an individual has been in the same occupation and industry, there remains the possibility of emergence when the individual is provided with the opportunity to continue learning, thus creating satisfaction within his job (Bloch, 2005: 200); Spirituality – viewing work as spiritual enables each individual to consider his own contribution to the world. This gives value to their work and adds both an ethical and a dimension of love to work (Bloch, 2005: 202). Bloch and Richmond (1998) in Bloch (2005: 202) identified seven connectors between work and spirit. These connectors may assist individuals in maintaining a sense of connectedness with there work, which is otherwise difficult to attain. The first connector refers to the individual being comfortable with change. Individuals are encouraged to be open to change in themselves and the world around them. The second connector is striking a balance between activities in life. Individuals need to achieve a balance between work, leisure, learning and family relationships as well as a balance between past and present. The third connector refers to energy. Here an individual must feel he always has enough energy to carry out the activities he wishes to do. The fourth connector refers to community. It is important for workers to work as a member of a team, as it creates a sense of unity and spiritually about work. The fifth connector is calling. Here the individual needs to believe that the work they doing is calling from a higher being as he has been provided with the necessary talents, interests, and values needed to perform his job. The sixth connector is harmony. Here the individual should seek work in harmonious environment which fits his/her talents, interests and values. The seventh connector refers to unity. Individuals need to believe that the work they do has a purpose other than making money, and in some ways serves others in the community. Conclusion In summation, it seems clear that, the readings themselves follow a leading and complementary model that seeks to address the hegemony of the pervasive theoretical

framework which stem from a context that is alien to ours. In essence the text calls for a bold shift towards the development of local ways of thinking and addressing our career counselling matters from a local perspective, from application of theory to even rearranging the methods of decision thinking that we have socialized ourselves. Clearly the future of South Africa will (based on the texts) require that we firstly ask the question, what is most appropriate tools for us to learn and elicit better information that’ll then allow us to build own indigenous theories that’ll be grounded. From this stage, we can then challenge career practitioner to take a more avant-garde approach towards making career decision making a more inclusive and plural process, whereby indecisiveness is viewed not as a hindrance to the clients progress, but as an avenue for creating more opportunity in an environment that proves constrictive for many South Africans. In additions it becomes clear in the second section of this paper that traditional career counselling approaches are becoming increasingly insignificant and difficult to implement. Due to the drastic shifts in the world of work, uncertainties about ones careers have arisen, making it impossible to predict or formulate career planning. Predominant career theories have also failed to capture sufficiently the complexities, uncertainties and dynamic aspects of modern work. In this sense counsellors have been urged to adopt more qualitative approaches to their counselling, such as happenstance theory which is a conceptual framework extending career counselling to include the creating and transforming of unplanned events into opportunities for learning, thus making the client feel comfortable about his/her uncertainties. Chaos theory and Complexity theories also challenge traditional approaches by drawing on non-linear dynamics. The use of such theories as chaos and complexity theories allows us to grasp a much more fruitful understanding of the complex nature of careers and thus a more appropriate model to follow in the current world of work

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