Psychology Notes

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 1 Psychology – the study of the mind (Greek) Psychology definition – the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes Behavior- animate activity Animate human behavior Goal – to describe, explain, predict and control (modify) behavior Tools – scientific method Why does it exist? Small Reason: Curiosity about how and why people behave the way they do. Large reason : humankind is plagued with problems of behavior ( intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup). Humans engage in behavior harmful to themselves and others. What is a problem? It’s only a problem if someone considers it to be a problem. It’s not a problem if no one considers it to be a problem. Genocides Main problem in the world is overpopulation. Problem Solving Cycle

1. Problem Perception

2. Problem Definition (find real problem) (diagnostic)

3. Causal Determination (real cause of problem)

6. Evaluate Intervention

5. Implement intervention

4. Select Alternative Interventions (changes to make)

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 2 Overpopulation is a major behavior problem. Critical Thinking about Behavior (science) Truth by empiricism? (collecting data) Or Truth by authority? (it’s okay but you need to verify empirically) What actually causes what? Attribution = cause 2 causes for behavior 1. situational – not caused by person or character but a situation causes it 2. dispositional – caused by the person or character Fundamental Attribution Error –If it’s good and you did it, you assign dispositional attribute. If it’s bad and you did it, you assign situational attribute. It is just the opposite when describing someone else. If you apply wrong cause to human behavior, you will get the wrong solutions. The best index of future behavior is past behavior. Causes of behavior Ultimate causes – evolutionary events and conditions that over generations, have slowly shaped some of our behaviors and behavioral dispositions. Influence of evolution, survival of the fittest, natural selection of physical characteristics and psychological predispositions. Once you are born nature doesn’t change, nurture does. Proximate causes – variables in the immediate (or recent past) environment that affect behavior. (parenting, drugs, education, health, associates, neighborhood, work, government, climate, models) Ultimate causes are advantageous to our genes. You inherit behavior propensities. We don’t inherit instincts or complex behavior patterns. Most behavior problems are caused by a mix of ultimate and proximate attributes. Nature vs. Nurture.

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 3 4 major emotions 1. mad 2. sad 3. glad 4. scared

Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1880’s) Leipzig, Germany Structure of consciousness Introspection Edwaard Titchener, Cornell Functionalism William James Late 1800’s Influenced by Darwin Studied functions of the mind Not its elements Introspection Dewey, Hall Not what makes a computer but how a computer works Gestalt Psychology Wertheimer, Kohler, Kofka Germany early 1900’s “the whole is more than the sum of its parts” Studied perceptual phenomena Perceptual demonstrations phi Phenomenom Insight (Sultan the Chimpanzee with Kohler on island) Gestalt in Germany means form

Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, Vienna late 1800’s Studied abnormal behavior Emphasis on unconscious determinants of behavior and importance of childhood in determining “personality” Psychotherapy Jung, Rank, Horney, Anna Freud, Adler, Brill Father of personality theory and psychotherapy Behaviorism

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 4 Emphasis on what is observable: behavior rather than the mind Behavior determined by its context (rewards and penalties) Laboratory experiments in learning (animals and people) John Watson BF Skinner, (Harvard) Is there free will? Depends on consequences. Humanistic Psychology Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, Perls Early Middle 1900s Studied abnormal behavior Emphasis on growth of “self” and notion that people are basically perfectable and have natural tendency towards personal growth “self-actualization” Psychotherapy Individual Differences B=f (R) Alfred Binet, France Late 1800s Intelligence testing Studied children’s intelligence predicting school performance Terman, Merrill, Otis Personality testing, achievement testing Current Approaches to Psyhology Dynamic Psychology (psychoanalysis) Behaviorism Humanistic Psychology Behavioral Neuroscience (from Gestalt) Cognitive Psychology (from functionalism)

Psychology: the search for functional relationships B= f (S) B= Behavior; S= Stimulus (cop pulling someone over) B=f (o) O=organistic (headache) B= f (R) R=Response (GPA based on ACT scores)

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 5

SOR are functions of B, they do NOT cause B. Scientific Method Hypothesis – a testable prediction or proposition that attempts to explain some observable phenomena Theory- An attempt to fit all the currently known facts about a subject into an integrated and logical whole Law- a theory that’s been repeatedly confirmed Theoretical constructions and operational definitions Theoretical constructs: not observable (love, gravity) Operational Definitions: observable What happens in science? Theoretical construct -> operational contruct -> study -> findings -> theoretical construct Approaches to Psychological Research Determining Y=f(x) Observational method – naturalist and case study (Jane Goodal) Survey Method – population, sample Correlation Method – something related to something (as height goes up so does weight), scatter plot, correlation range from 0 (no relation) to 1.0 (perfect relationship), NOT causation, correlation lets us predict, correlation does not mean causation Experimentation (manipulation) – causation, independent and dependent variables, behavior depends upon something else, we manipulate independent variable (amphetamine and test scores) Types of Psychologists 57 Areas Clinical/counseling Industrial/organizational School Cognitive and learning Sensation and perception Social/personality Developmental

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 6 Applied Health behavior medicine Biopsychology Basic vs. Applied Psychological Research Basic Research (in lab) – What causes the way things are? Applied Research (in real world) – What causes the way things should be? As we evolved from Apes, our frontal lobes developed and brain box got bigger. Biological Foundations of Behavior What determines behavior? Nature: biological (inherited) behavior tendencies Nurture: behavioral consequences Humans are a part of their nature, not apart from it. How body communicates with itself? -nervous system -endocrine system Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Brain

Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary) Sympathetic Nervous System (arousing) Parasympathetic Nervous System (Calming)

Autonomic Nervous System Parasympathetic Division Relax

Sympathetic Division Fight or Flight

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 7

Types of Neurons -Afferent Neurons (sensory) -Efferent Neurons (motor) -Association Neurons (connectors) Neuron is building block of the nervous system. Cell body Dendrites – pick up information for neuron Axon – send information Axon terminal is the final sender. Myelin sheath surrounds most axons to insulate it and speed transmission. If axon is cut, it may grow back if myelin sheath is in tact. A neuron itself will not grow back. Axons know where to grow to because of myelin sheath. MS is an autoimmune disorder where body kills myelin sheaths. How Neurons Communicate Pottassium and Sodium Dendrites – toward the cell body; Generator Potentials (bow and arrow); don’t fire just building potential Axon – away from cell body, action potentials (rifle), myelin (sometimes) Neurotransmitters – a chemical, at the end of axon called axon terminal like little buttons, there is a space between axon terminal and next dendrite (synapse), terminal buttons release and chemicals flow into synapse and like lock and key stimulate next neurons Brain looks grey from myelin. How the brain and nervous system are studied Brain lesioning (cut parts) (what parts do what) Staining (What parts are attached to what) Electrical Recording (What parts are active) Electrical Stimulation (Map Brain) Brain Imaging (MRI and Catscan) (Sees brain burn glucose and energy) Levels of organization in the brain

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 8

Hindbrain

Medulla (controls breathing and posture)

Cerebellum (involved in motor coordination)

Pons (involved in sleep and arousal)

Midbrain

Reticular Formation (sleeping and walking)

Brain stem (connects brain to spinal cord)

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 9

Forebrain

Limbic System (memory and emotions)

Amygdale (survival and emotions)

Thalamus (important relay station for processing information)

Basal Ganglia (help control and coordinate voluntary movement)

Hypothalamus (controls basic drives and unleashed motivations)

Hippocampus (storage of memories)

Cerebral Cortex 4 Lobes – occipital, temporal, frontal, and parietal Somatosensory cortex – processes info on senses Motor cortex (backside frontal lobe) – processes info on voluntary movement Association cortex – 75% of cerebral cortex, integrates information, especially high intellectual functions Language areas Broca’s Area Werhicke’s Area

We have the same brain as lizards and rats, but ours is more complicated. Endocrine System Chemical Communication Glands produce chemicals that flow through blood stream that affect body. Main one is pituitary gland. Adrenal gland produces adrenaline. Thyroid gland affects metabolism. Parathyroid affects calcium level. The pancreas handles sugar level. Personality- pattern of behavior tendencies that predispose an individual to behave in certain characteristic ways Approaches to studying Personality

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 10

Somatic Psychoanalysis Trait Learning Situational Somatic Orientation Greeks Humor

Personal Trait

Blood Phlegm Black Bile Yellow Bile

Sanguine (cheerful) Phlegmatic (apathetic) Melancholic (sad) Choleric (irritable)

It is study of personality based on the body. People change their bodies because they believe it will change their interactions with the world. Bodybuilding. William H. Sheldon 1898-1977 Harvard Somatotyping 3 Body Types Endomorph – fat; viscertonic, relaxed, sociable Mesomorph – medium; somatotonic, energetic, assertive Ectomorph – fit, skinny; cerebrotonic, restrained, introverted People would rate picture and see if their was a relationship between personality. Somatotyping didn’t really work but it kept alive the biological basis for personality. Risk Taking It is a genetic-driven personality type? Many think it is. Extreme sports Trait Approach Allport – cardinal (can’t change), central (possible to change), secondary (change all the time); proprium: sense of self, unifying core of personality Cattell – factor analysis, 16 source trait dimensions, 16 pf, pf = personality factor 16 pf, pf = personality factor

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Eysenck- stable – unstable (neuroticism); introversion – extraversion Introverts – energized by what is going on inside own head Extraverts – energized by what is going on in others heads

unstable

extra

intro

stable The big 5 personality traits Extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness to experience Intelligence and conscientiousness are the main predictors of job performance. Humanistic Approach Client centered therapy. Carl Rogers People always tend to be perfect. If they don’t, there is a block in the environment. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 12

Self Actualization -> (being all you can be)

Most never get past the esteem and belongingnes s levels

Esteem Needs

Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

A satisfied need is not a motivator. Sigmund Freud 1856-1939 Psychoanalysis Did not believe humans perfectable. Born in 1856 Trained in medicine at U. Vienna Research on neuropathologies and hysteria

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 13 Research with cocaine Charcot (1885) Paris Mesmerism (hypnosis) 1. some exceptions 2. spontaneous recurrence 3. symptom substitution hysteria = observable problem with no physiological cause but a psychological one Freud got abnormal behavior into psychology. He found cocaine did not cure hysteria. Talked to Charcot about mesmerizing hysteria patients. Mesmerism had problems. There were exceptions. Mesmerism is merely suggestions. Its affect did not last and there were frequent symptom substitutions. Freud found that mesmerism did not work and there was something deeper in personality causing problem. Franz Anton Mesmer was the first hypnotist. Joseph Breurer Vienna “talking cure” “studies of hysteria” 1896 “Anna O.” aka Bertha Pappenkim Through his talking cure came the concept of psychoanalysis therapy. Psychoanalysis 1. 2. 3. 4.

a developmental theory (personality developing) (emphasis on childhood) a stage theory (develops in stages) a psychosexual theory (life drive) what is developing? a. the ego (contact with the real world) b. the self identity c. the coping mechanisms

Psychoanalysis 3 components of the mind 1. conscious mind 2. unconscious mind (hidden drives) 3. preconscious mind (can be brought to conscious easily) (what you ate for breakfast) Iceberg analogy Psychoanalysis 3 parts of personality

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 14 1. Id a. b. c. d. e.

libido “pleasure principle” inherited biological needs and instincts source of mental (psychic) energy operates according to pleasure principle ineffective in dealing with the outside world, in the unconscious

2. Superego a. conscience b. sense of right and wrong c. internalized norms, rules, parent’s wishes d. “Ego ideal” e. Not reality oriented (can’t always turn other cheek) 3. Ego a. b. c. d. e.

“reality principle” Self identity Mediates between id and superego Connection to the world Its underdevelopment is typically cause of emotional disorders

Psychosexual Stages 1. Oral Stage – birth through 2 yrs. – Fixations at oral stage = oral dependent or oral aggressive 2. Anal Stage – 2 through 4 yrs. – fixations at anal stage = anal retentive (ocd) or anal expulsive (slobs) 3. Phallic stage – 4 through 7 yrs. – Oedipus and Electra complexes, infantile sexuality. Oedipus unconsciously attracted to mother but can’t have her because of father. The resolution is to identify with the parent of the same sex. Fixations at this stage result in homosexuality. Don’t develop ego. Never say I am a man. 4. Latency – 7yrs through puberty – things sexual disappear, starting to be tested in life and you have to survive, this takes energy. Fixations at this stage make people uninterested in things sexual. Asexual 5. Genital stage – puberty through death

Each stage, your ego gets stronger and stronger. Environments holds people up at stages. Freud’s contributions 1. unconscious determinants of behavior

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 15 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

importance of conflict biological basis of behavior emphasis on childhood ego defense mechanisms significant writings important disciples (“The Secret Committee” each member given a ring)

Ego Defense Mechanisms If ego isn’t strong enough, you defend it with these. 1. denial 2. repression 3. regression 4. projection 5. rationalization 6. compensation 7. reaction formation 8. identification 9. atonement 10. sublimation * (Only positive one) ( you take sex drive and put the energy into something else. You can do this and not get into trouble) A lot of Freud’s concepts are not testable. Carl Jung was his main disciple. Carl Jung 1875-1961 Emphasized introversion and extraversion 1. 2. 3. 4.

Freud’s main disciple introversion – extraversion collective unconscious archetypes

Alfred Adler Human personality is striving for superiority and competence. Neo-Freudian Karen Horney 1885-1952 1. Neo-Freudian 2. need for security, not sex or aggression

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 16 3. basic anxiety Otis Rank 1. Birth trauma Problems with Freud – vague, untestable aspects of theory

Behavioral Theories B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning = Antecedent - - Behavior - - Consequences Unimportance of mind and personality, only what is observable Reinforced behavioral tendencies Antecedents don’t work unless they signal consquences. Dollard and Miller expanded behaviorism into personality. Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura 1. observational learning 2. “Bo-Bo-doll” studies 3. modeling (seeing consequences or behaviors of others and behaving similarly) a. the model b. the motivational state c. the opportunity 4. children often model bad examples Personality Measurement Techniques Those that measure personality favor the trait approach. 1. Objective a. Person a measures person b b. Rating scale 2. Subjective a. Interview (you tell others about you)

Andrew Hoff’s Psychology Notes 17 b. Inventory (test you fill out yourself) i. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) – there are 10 psychiatric categories and 4 validity (lie) scales ii. 16PF – popular in business – Cattell made it 3. Projective a. Project personality onto something b. Rorschach ink blots i. Themes over a number of cards with ink blots c. Thematic Apperception Test i. Not ink blots but actual pictures ii. With picture, you have to tell what is going on