Planning For Sustainable Urban Development: Some Issues On The Policy To Develop A New Large Settlement In Mijen Suburb Of Semarang, Indonesia

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JURNAL TATA LOKA; VOLUME 10; NOMOR 4; NOVEMBER 2008 © 2008 Biro Penerbit Planologi UNDIP

P LANNING F OR S USTAINABLE U RBAN D EVELOPMENT : S OME I SSUES ON T HE P OLICY TO D EVELOP OF A N EW L ARGE S ETTLEMENT IN M IJEN S UBURB OF S EMARANG , I NDONESIA 1 By:

Agung Sugiri Departement of City and Regional Planning, Engineering Faculty, Diponegoro University

Abstrak: Artikel ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan beberapa hal penting untuk perencanaan pembangunan perkotaan berkelanjutan dengan menilai kebijakan untuk mengembangkan pemukiman baru besar di suburban Mijen Kota Semarang, Indonesia. Kebijakan ini merupakan bagian dari Rencana Tata Ruang Kota Semarang tahun 2005 dan terutama ditujukan untuk mengatasi kelangkaan tanah di dalam kawasan inti dengan tetap menjaga kualitas yang lebih baik dikawasan perumahan. Kebijakan tersebut didasarkan pada prinsip-prinsip berkelanjutan, bagaimanapun sebuah review yang baik dalam menggunakan kerangka kerja dari pembangunan perkotaan yang berkelanjutan akan memberi kesimpulan pada cara yang lain. Kebijakan-kebiajakn yang ada kebanyakan tidak kompatibel dengan model pembangunan perkotaan yang berkelanjutan. Membangun sebuah permukiman baru yang besar di sub urban MIjen akan menyebabkan masalah-masalah. Hal ini akan meningkatkan koefisien run-off, karena secara signifikan akan mengurangi ruang hijau, sehingga dapat menimbulkan masalah banjir yang lebih buruk di Kota Semarang. Selain itu, akan memperluas total panjang perjalanan yang dapat mengakibatkan peningkatan konsumsi energi, transportasi dan polusi udara masalah. Meskipun ada kemungkinan Semarang meningkatkan pertumbuhan ekonomi, tetapi Social Cost akan jauh lebih besar daripada manfaatnya. Keywords: Pembangunan Perkotaan Berkelanjutan, Perencanaan Kota, Permukiman baru skala besar

INTRODUCTION Sustainable development idea has widely been agreed after the Brundtland Commission came up with the definition of a “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987: 43). Meanwhile, Fowke and Prasad (1996) assert that the main goal of sustainable development is to arrange a harmony between people’s lives and the ability of the environment to support this on a long-term basis giving the same opportunities through generations. This conveys intra and inter generational equity as the main principle of sustainable development, while integrating

economy and the environment is the main vehicle to achieve the equity. Diesendorf (1997), for example, shows that equity is at the core of principles and goals for ecological and economic sustainability. Some other interrelated principles, however, are not less important, such as dealing carefully with danger, uncertainty and irreversibility, conservation of biodiversity and ecological integrity, conservation of other critical capital, and awareness on the global scope (cf. Diesendorf, 1997; Fowke and Prasad, 1996). These principles are to support the achievement of intra and inter generational equity. The concept of sustainable development should then be applied for every

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

developmental practice, including urban planning and development.

would also increase the use of energy especially fuel for vehicles.

Heins (1993) suggests that to be sustainable, urban development should mainly attempt to reduce the consumption of two main urban resources, i.e., energy and land, as well as to conserve them. This means that the use of energy and resources should be minimised in a certain level of development. Minimising use of energy and resources is of remarkable importance in achieving sustainability of urban and regional development (cf. Glasson, 1995; Roberts, 1998; Roberts, 1994; Van de Laak, 1994). First, it not only considers the need of next generations to have reasonably same opportunities as this generation does, but also the need of equity within this generation. Second, it helps to minimise the environmental impacts locally and globally as well as to conserve important resources.

The Organization

The purpose of this short essay is to raise some important issues on planning for sustainable urban development by assessing the policy to develop a new large settlement (about 2,800 ha including a new subcentre) in Mijen suburb of Semarang City, Indonesia. This policy is a part of Semarang City Spatial Plan 2005 and is mainly aimed to overcome land scarcity in core area while maintaining better quality in housing. It seems true that the policy is also based on sustainability as instructed by the Indonesian Spatial Planning and Development Act (No. 24/1992). However, developing a new large settlement in Mijen is questionable. Firstly, the existing Mijen area is mostly natural or at least green space in terms of forest, plantation, and wet and dry farm fields. Converting them to be an urban built-up area will certainly change the environmental equilibrium. Hardjono (1991) has indicated that a huge conversion of agricultural land to built-up area has caused regular floods in wet season in big cities like Jakarta and Semarang. Secondly, although there is evidence of land shortage in Semarang core area (Semarang Municipality Government, 1995), it is still questionable whether Semarang development really does need this Mijen large settlement. Beside an increase in consumption of land, a new large settlement in Mijen area will certainly change the structure of the city. This structural change

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Following this introduction, the next section reviews the concept of planning for sustainable urban development. This section is important to comprehend how the sustainable development idea can be applied in urban planning. This comprehension can then be used as a reference for the next section, that is to analyse whether the development of a new large settlement in Mijen area would support sustainability or not. Finally, the last section will draw conclusions. It will be completed by giving relevant recommendations.

PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: THE CONCEPT This section comprises two parts. The first is to comprehend the debates on planning for sustainable urban development. Principles learned from this part will be useful to estimate the applicability for Indonesian situation in the second part. Planning for Sustainable Urban Development: The Debates There is a dichotomy between orthodox and radical approach in the practical implementation of sustainable development. Orthodox approach commonly puts notable emphasis on the utilization of neo-classical economics, while according to Blowers (1993 as cited in Fowke and Prasad, 1996) radical approach aims to extremely rebuild the development and management methods of economies and societies. Many experts are between those two extremes. Giaoutzi and Nijkamp (1993), while emphasising the importance of informational system, are convinced that there should be tradeoffs among three dimensions of development policy, i.e. economic efficiency, socio-economic equity, and environmental protection. Many other experts agree with this trade-off bearing in mind that efficiency means growth (cf. Beckerman, 1994; Panayotou, 1994; Redclift, 1994; Sage, 1994). These dimensions can be best illustrated by a triangle (Figure 2.1) and every development policy can be placed within the triangle.

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Figure 1 Mobius Triangle with Three Dimensions of Development (modified from Giaoutzi and Nijkamp, 1993: 78)

Topics associated to urban form and land use have become focus in the discussion on planning for sustainable urban development. It can be noted that suburbanisation process, mainly characterised by urban sprawling, has become one of major issues. While urbanisation is a process of growth or change from rural low density areas to become intensive high density centres known as cities, suburbanisation is often defined as the extending of the growth to the fringe areas far from the city centre (cf. Gollner, 1996; McGee, 1994; Soetomo, 1994). Regarding the problems arisen from the process, it can be said that suburbanisation is the process of becoming urban in areas outside the central city that decrease the compactness of the city. Meanwhile, regarding the compact city model in orthodox approach, Heins (1993) and Gollner (1996) consider it a simplified model that should not stand alone to achieve the purposes of sustainable urban development. While both of them agree that planning policies should encourage employment decentralisation through districts and towns, Gollner (1996) proposes a combined strategy of compact city form, employment decentralisation and local employment development. This model, or other models with slightly differences, which has been developed from the comprehension of suburbanisation process in metropolitan regions (see also Stimson, 1998), seems to have been applied in developed countries (cf. Breheny and Rookwood, 1993). This model remarkably deals with urban sprawl phenomenon which is considered costly. In American cities, Gerckens (1994: 11) empha-

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sises the increase uses of energy and costs of urban services since “mass ownership of the automobile allowed land uses to become spread over much wider distances” and “also became more exclusive”. Furthermore, it is estimated that “between now and the year 2020 sprawl will cost Maryland residents about $10 billion more for new roads, schools, and water than would be necessary if growth were more concentrated” (McMahon, 1997: 5). Gollner model (1996) has proposed a so called multi-urban form city that can be achieved by applying these strategies integratively: •

Strategy of urban consolidation to make a compact city form can be applied in certain areas, such as the core city, near the public transport and activity nodes, and in inner suburbs.

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Multi-centres development is needed to decentralise employment and activities to the suburbs. The regional commuter zones should be well supported by hierarchical and optimal number of centres, services and economic activities in each centre, and appropriate public transport in chosen centres.

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Local employment development in each suburb should also be encouraged. This strategy will support those two strategies above, since applying this will increase the self-containment of suburbs and then reduce the negative impacts of cross-suburban trips.

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Planning for Sustainable Urban Development: In Search of Indonesian Big City Model Most Indonesian big cities, built by the Dutch colonial government, were formerly compact. The comfort of big cities started decreasing when there were a lot of rural people entered the cities beginning in the early industrialisation thirty years ago. This excessive ruralurban migration has been happening because there is hope of better life in cities while there is mostly poverty in rural areas (cf. Lo et al., 1981; McGee, 1971). High increase in urban population with less rate of growth in jobs has worsened the quality of city life. There is no longer comfort to live in core city because of slum, very high density residential areas, pollution and crowded traffic. This situation then causes ‘spillover effects’ changing the employment structure spatially and sprawling the urban areas (Jones and Mamas, 1996). Considering that suburbanisation in Indonesia can be compared with the Australian experience (cf. Davison, 1993; Stimson, 1998), Gollner model may be possible to be applied for Indonesian case. • Strategy 1: Urban consolidation and promoting better public transport Gollner’s strategy to apply urban consolidation in core area, near the public transport and activity nodes, and in inner suburbs may face many obstacles in Indonesian cities. Although Indonesian big cities were previously compact and in well zoning, later urbanisation have changed the urban structure drastically. Weak implementation of urban plans has worsened this situation. However, it would be useful to promote better public transport in those areas suggested by Gollner. • Strategy 2: Employment decentralisation Indonesian big cities are now experiencing changing in employment structure spatially. Employment in the inner suburbs of Jakarta metropolitan region has increased four-fold in the 1980-1990 period, while it is only an increase of 52% in the central Jakarta and 36% in the outer suburbs (Jones and Mamas, 1996). Meanwhile, considering Semarang case, Sugiri et al. (1997) indicate that workresidence interaction between core city and the suburbs tends to decrease in the 1991-

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

1996 period, while there is a significant increase in the interaction among the suburbs. These phenomena denote an employment decentralisation process in Indonesian big cities, although they do not inform anything about multi-centres development. So, the strategy of multi-centres development should be applied for Indonesian situation. • Strategy 3: Local employment development This strategy is closed related to strategy 2. Subcentres development should include the development of local jobs so that the suburban residents have opportunities to work in their own suburbs. Strategy 3, if applied succesfully, can reduce the total length in journeys for work and services. The discussion above suggests that it could be difficult to apply strategy 1 for the Indonesian situation, however, efforts are still needed especially to make the public transport system better. Meanwhile, because people move to suburbs for other reasons than getting jobs there, strategies for multi-centres and local employment development are very important to make the suburbanisation be in accordance with the sustainable urban development purposes.

ANALYSIS ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN AREA Mijen New Large Settlement in Semarang City Plan 2005: A Brief Review Semarang is the capital city of Central Java Province located in the north coast line of Java island at about 500 km East of Jakarta and 400 km West of Surabaya. Having 37,366.8 Ha of area, its population is 1,251,845 people in 1996 so that the gross density is about 33 people/Ha (SMBS, 1997). Administratively, Semarang consists of 16 districts that are divided into 177 villages. Population density in Semarang City is vary among villages from the highest density in core area and some villages that have good access to the main roads to the lowest density in some green space dominant suburbs, like Mijen suburb in South West area of Semarang. The topography of Semarang is quite vary from flat areas in the North to some hilly areas in the South. Semarang core city area is mostly flat except some hilly residential areas in Can-

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

disari District. Other hilly areas are in Ngaliyan, Mijen, Gunungpati, Banyumanik, and Tembalang Districts. According to Semarang City Spatial Plan 2005 (SMG, 1995), the policy to develop a new large settlement in Mijen suburb is intended to: • Anticipate the underdevelopment situation caused by land shortage in core city area; Although there is more than 2,000 ha of scattered non-built-up land available in the core area, the availability of a huge piece of land - and certainly cheap - in Mijen is considered more beneficial for future residential development (see table III.1). • Meet the need of better quality housing for the future; • Decentralise the development. Those purposes seem to be in the right track. However, the next parts of this section discuss whether the policy that will soon be implemented would encourage sustainability or not.

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Analysis Referring to the Model Urban consolidation and public transport The policy obvously ignores the possibility to consolidate and to maintain the compactness of core area. Semarang has a successful experience in overcoming slum area by converting the area into multi-units housing in Bandarharjo, North Semarang district. This case has become one major consideration that has brought Semarang City receive the KALGA (Konrad Adenaeur Local Government Award) (Kompas, 1998). So, it is possible to promote the apartment development in core area for low to middle income people. This should be the first step to do to meet the housing need. By maintaining the compactness of core area, facilitating better public transport would be easier and less costly than spreading residential areas to remote suburbs. It should be noted that core area is still the most work-place destination. This is another aspect that has been forgotten by the Plan.

TABLE 1 URBAN BUILT-UP AND NON BUILT-UP AREAS IN SEMARANG CITY (HA), 1996 No.

DISTRICT

URBAN % WET BUILTFARM UP 1 CENTRAL SEMARANG*) 606.5 100.0 0.0 2 EAST SEMARANG*) 770.2 100.0 0.0 3 NORTH SEMARANG*) 1055.8 93.2 0.0 4 SOUTH SEMARANG*) 513.5 58.5 30.1 5 CANDISARI*) 434.5 78.2 0.0 6 GAJAHMUNGKUR*) 590.0 77.1 0.0 7 WEST SEMARANG*) 1059.6 44.4 18.6 8 CORE AREA 5030.1 70.9 48.7 9 GAYAMSARI 492.1 81.3 0.0 10 TUGU 358.2 11.4 564.1 11 NGALIYAN 1300.2 39.8 112.0 12 MIJEN 647.9 10.4 1077.6 13 GUNUNGPATI 468.7 8.7 1406.4 14 BANYUMANIK 1482.0 59.0 154.0 15 TEMBALANG 1950.7 44.1 495.8 16 PEDURUNGAN 1475.2 74.3 70.0 17 GENUK 1043.5 38.1 108.0 SEMARANG CITY 14248.6 38.1 4036.6 Source of Data: SMBS, 1997 Note: *) = Central City Districts according to Semarang City Plan 2005.

Employment Decentralisation and Local Employment Development It seems that Semarang City Plan 2005 adopts the multi-centres strategy, however centres developed in the suburbs contain mostly of

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% 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.8 0.7 0.0 18.0 3.4 17.3 26.0 6.1 11.2 3.5 3.9 10.8

DRY FIELD & OTHERS 0.0 0.0 77.5 334.5 121.0 175.0 1308.5 2016.5 112.9 2207.1 1856.1 4487.8 3524.0 877.1 1973.5 439.7 1586.9 19081.6

% 0.0 0.0 6.8 38.1 21.8 22.9 54.8 28.4 18.7 70.5 56.8 72.2 65.3 34.9 44.6 22.2 57.9 51.1

TOTAL 606.5 770.2 1133.3 878.1 555.5 765.0 2386.7 7095.3 605.0 3129.4 3268.3 6213.3 5399.1 2513.1 4420.0 1984.9 2738.4 37366.8

facilities especially retail shopping, e.g. stores and traditional markets, in lower level than the city centre. It is not clear what jobs to be developed in Mijen subcentre. Therefore, implementing the policy would worsen the costly-sprawling process that has been occuring in Semarang.

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

This would not reduce the centralisation of core area as working, shopping, recreational and other service destinations for most of the population.

It is important to estimate first who the residents of this new settlement would be. Some studies suggest that residents in new settlement areas in suburbs usually come from the core area so that they still work in the core (cf. Davison, 1993). Conversely, jobs created by suburban industries and services are not enough for the labour force coming to the suburbs from rural areas and this causes decline in the selfcontainment of these suburbs (Jones and Mamas, 1996; Soetomo, 1988).

Possible Impacts of Implementing the Policy There would be various impacts if the policy is implemented, however, of significant importance are two main negative impacts and one positive impact: 1. increase in run-off coefficient because of significant reduce in green space 2. increase in total length of journeys that can lead to increase consumption on energy, transport, and air pollution problems 3. increase in the economic growth rate.

Semarang City Spatial Plan 2005 does not include any plan for job creation in Mijen district. It is true that a new settlement and subcentre will create jobs in services, however hardly would the new residents work on those jobs because they would come first and the services follow. Sugiri et al. (1997) indicate that self containment index of Mijen area has decreased from 80.5% in 1991 to 71.5% in 1996. This index indicates the percentage of employees who work in their own subregion. On the other hand, there has been an increase in percentage of employees who live in Mijen and work in core area from 15.3% to 22.4% in that period (see table III.2).

Possible negative impact 1 Since about 2,800 ha of new settlement including roads and facilities is to be built in existing green space area, environmental impact will occur. Although the existing area is neither conservation nor purely natural area, converting this to be built-up area will increase the run-off coefficient and change the natural drainage system. If it is not handled carefully, the northern Semarang will be more suffered from flood in wet season since Mijen area is higher. Flood prone areas in Semarang, especially in the core area would be worsened.

Meanwhile, as shown in the table, there has been an increase in the percentage of workers who live in Kaliwungu suburb (Kendal Regency) and work in Tugu. This could be because of the development of industrial area in Tugu. These indications support evidence on the trend of spill-over from core area to Mijen, and also indicate the possibility that the new settlement would attract Kaliwungu people to move. Hence, the most possible residents would be firstly from core area and secondly from the neighbour suburbs especially Ngaliyan, Tugu and Kendal Regency.

Possible negative impact 2 This impact comes mainly because instead of minimising urban sprawl, the policy tends to worsen it. The main problem raised by the sprawling phenomenon is the inefficient transport cost (Gollner, 1996; Henderson et al., 1996; Van de Laak, 1994) caused by discordant journey to work patterns.

TABLE 2 INTER-SUBREGIONAL EMPLOYMENT MOBILITY IN SEMARANG METROPOLITAN REGION (%), 1991-1996 CORE*)

MIJEN

TO FROM CORE*) MIJEN KALIWUNGU TUGU**)

KALIWUNGU

TUGU**)

OTHERS

TOTAL

1991 73.6 15.3 30.2

1996 68.0 22.4 28.2

1991 0.0 80.5 0.0

1996 0.2 71.5 0.0

1991 0.8 0.0 61.6

1996 1.5 0.0 62.7

1991 6.9 3.7 8.2

1996 7.1 5.5 9.1

1991 18.7 0.5 0.0

1996 23.2 0.6 0.0

1991 100 100 100

1996 100 100 100

71.1

65.6

0.4

0.4

0.9

4.0

26.3

25.4

1.3

4.6

100

100

Source: Sugiri et al., 1997 Notes: *) = Core subregion in this study is defined as the central city area in the Semarang City Plan plus Gayamsari district. **) = Tugu subregion in this study comprises Tugu and Ngaliyan districts.

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

Since the most of new settlement residents would still work in core area, the total length of journeys - especially journey to work - will increase. The situation will increase consumption on the energy, that is fuel of vehicle, and would lead to unsustainable use of exhaustible resource as well as pollution problem. From this point of view, the policy does not encourage precautionary principle since the level of resource use and pollution may exceed the carrying capacity of the environment (cf. Blowers, 1993; Common, 1995; Diesendorf, 1997). Possible positive impact The main possible positive impact is what as expected by the Plan. The rate of economic growth would increase for some reasons. First, the conversion from green space to urban builtup areas means increase in productivity of land in terms of rent and prices. Second, services that follow the new inhabitants will also raise the value added on the economic activities. However, question can be raised about whether it really needs to increase the economic growth rate that is already high (above 11% during 1989-1995).

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Other positive impact argued by the Plan that it will improve the quality of life by better housing development is certainly questionable. This because the experience of Bandarharjo case as mentioned before has proven that it is possible to develop multi-units housing in core area for low and middle income people while maintaining good quality of life.

CONCLUSIONS The discussion has led to a main conclusion that the policy would not achieve its purposes if it is implemented. The policy is not compatible with the model of sustainable urban development. Problems would occur because of unnecessary consumption on two major urban resources, i.e. land and energy, and this would lead to unsustainable situation. Although there is a possibility of raising the economic growth, however it would cost more than the benefits. The policy is still growth oriented. In the trade-off triangle, it can be placed more on growth side and less on sustainability sides, i.e. environmental and equity concerns (see figure 2).

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Figure 2 The Policy in the Trade-off Triangle Some recommendations can be raised: • Although there is strong concern from investors to develop new settlement in Mijen area, it would be better for the local government to postpone the implementation of the policy while seeking for better policy. The policy can be implemented only if the private investors responsible for the costs of

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negative impacts and if there are no uncompensated negative externalities. It is important that planning of Semarang City be able to prevent sprawling process, otherwise the decentralisation of jobs to the suburbs should also be planned. It is important to study further on the 2,000 ha of non built-up land in core area. What

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uses and in what intensity would be best suited for those areas, what constraints would be faced and other critical questions regarding urban consolidation strategy in core area would be answered by such the study.

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PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT: SOME ISSUES ON THE POLICY TO DEVELOP OF A NEW LARGE SETTLEMENT IN MIJEN SUBURB OF SEMARANG, INDONESIA

Glasson, J. (1995) “Regional Planning and the Environment: time for a SEA change”, Urban Studies, 32 (4). Gollner, A. (1996), “To Sprawl or Not to Sprawl: A journey to work perspective”, Australian Planner, 33 (3). Hardjono, J. (1991) “The Dimensions of Indonesia’s Environmental Problems”, in Hardjono, J. (ed.) Indonesia: Resources, Ecology, and Environment, Oxford University Press, Singapore. Heins, D. (1993) “Employment Decentralisation in Canberra: Discussion of sustainable development within urban areas”, Australian Planner, 31 (2). Henderson, J.V. et al. (1996) “The Dynamics of Jabotabek Development”, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 32 (1). Jones, G.W. and S.G.M. Mamas (1996) “The Changing Employment Structure of the Extended Jakarta Metropolitan Region”, Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 32 (1).

Davison, G. (1993) “The Past and Future of The Australian Suburb”, Australian Planner, 31 (2).

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Diesendorf, M. (1997) “Principles of Ecological Sustainability”, in M. Diesendorf and C. Hamilton (eds.) Human Ecology, Human Economy: Ideas for an Ecologically Sustainable Future, Allen & Unwin, St. Leonards.

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Fowke, R. and D.K. Prasad (1996) “Sustainable Development, Cities and Local Government: dilemmas and definitions”, Australian Planner, 33 (2).

McGee, T.G. (1994) “Labour Force Change and Mobility in the Extended Metropolitan Regions of Asia”, in Fuchs R.J. et al. (eds.) Mega-city Growth and the Future, United Nations University Press, Tokyo.

Gerckens, L.C. (1994) “American Zoning and the Physical Isolation of Uses”, Planning Commissioners Journal, Issue 15, Summer. Giaoutzi, M. and Nijkamp, P. (1993) Decision Support Models for Regional Sustainable Development: an application of geographic information systems and evaluation models to the Greek Sporades Islands, Avebury, Aldershot.

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McGee, T.G. (1971) “Catalysts or Cancers? The Role of Cities in Asian Society”, Jakobson, L. and V. Prakash (eds.) Urbanization and National Development, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills. McMahon, E.T. (1997) “Stopping Sprawl by Growing Smarter”, Planning Commissioners Journal, Issue 26, Spring.

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Panayotou, T. (1994) “Economy and Ecology in Sustainable Development”, in SPES Foundation (ed.) Economy and Ecology in Sustainable Development, Gramedia, Jakarta. Redclift, M. (1994) “Sustainable Development: Economics and the Environment”, Redclift, M. and C. Sage (eds.) Strategies for Sustainable Development: Local Agendas for the South, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Roberts, P. (1998) “Ecological Modernization: A Model for Future Urban and Regional Planning and Development”, pp. 24-39 in Kivell, P., P. Roberts, and G.P. Walker (eds.) Environment, Planning and Land Use, Ashgate, Aldershot. Roberts, P. (1994) “Sustainable Regional Planning”, Regional Studies, 28 (8). Sage, C. (1994) “Population, Consumption and Sustainable Development”, in Redclift, M. and C. Sage (eds.) Strategies for Sustainable Development: Local Agendas for the South, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.

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Stimson, R. (1998) “Dynamics of Brisbane’s Inner City Suburbs”, Australian Planner, 35 (4). Sugiri, A., I. Buchori and H. Wahyono (1997) Studi Struktur Spasial Metropolitan: Suatu Analisis Mobilitas Tenaga Kerja antar Subregion di Semarang (Study on Metropolitan Spatial Structure: An Inter-subregional Employment-mobility Analysis in Semarang), a Research Report (unpublished) supervised by Dr. S. Soetomo, Faculty of Engineering Diponegoro University, Semarang. Van de Laak, P.J.A. (1994) “A Framework for Sustainable Regional Planning”, in Van Lier, H.N. et al. (eds.) Sustainable Land Use Planning, Elsevier, Amsterdam. WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, New York.

Semarang Municipality Bureau of Statistic (SMBS) (1997) Kotamadya Semarang dalam Angka 1996 (Semarang Municipality in Figures 1996), SMBS, Semarang. Semarang Municipality Government (SMG) (1995) Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Kotamadya Semarang 2005 (The Spatial Plan of Semarang City 2005), Semarang Municipality Government. Soetomo, S. (1994) Ruang Semi Urban dalam Proses Pemekaran Kota: Integrasi Keruangan Pedesaan ke dalam Daerah Metropolitan (Semi-urban Space in the Urbanisation: Rural Spatial Integration into Metropolitan Region), a seminar paper presented at the National Seminar on the Role of Small and Intermediate Cities in Regional Development, July 20, Semarang. Soetomo, S. (1988) Le Secteur Informal dans la Structure Spatial de la Ville (The Informal Sector in the Urban Spatial Structure), a PhD. Thesis (unpublished), Universite de Paris VIII, Paris.

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