Philosophy In Design - Barbara.pdf

What is Design? A Pragmatist & Buddhist Perspective on Design Thinking

Barbara S. K. Wong, PhD 16 May 2011

Introduction Design as a discipline is highly complex since it involves many people across disciplines and domains. Design in today's society is also highly important and valuable since contemporary men are mainly living in a man-made world that is full of design artifacts. Designs can have great influence on human's lives, human civilization and even the destiny of our planet. Hence, it is essential to examine design critically so as to know what is missing, what have done wrong and what else could be done in the future to create a better prospect for all mankind and to the world. The first part of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the design discipline for the purpose of identifying the core concepts that are related to designing and designs. The paper then employs a pragmatist and Buddhist perspective to study design and scrutinizes how those concepts can apply to design thinking and practice. A case study is used to analyse those concepts and finally a new conceptual model of design thinking is proposed.

I. What is Design Discipline? Design is a cross-disciplinary discipline that design studies are always integrated with knowledge and theories from other disciplines such as sociology, psychology, marketing, engineering, and so on. There is a lack of a unified body of knowledge and theory of the discipline giving that there are many adverse consequences such as theoretical conflicts between researchers in different domains (Love, 2002). Love (2002) regarded that the problem lies in the lack of philosophical foundations and especially the lack of clarification of the scope and bounds in research and theory-making about designing and designs. He suggested "a need for the development of a sound coherent cross-disciplinary theoretical, epistemological and terminological basis for research and theory making" (Love, 2002, pp.346). Love (2002) considered that the discipline can be identified if the topics that are central to other disciplines are excluded and the remaining core concepts relating to designing and designs of the discipline can be drawn, and then it can help to develop a unified body of knowledge of the discipline. As he stated, " This core of concepts and theories is distinct from other disciplines. This identification of a core conceptual basis forms the second key point for the establishment of a unified and coherent discipline of research and theory making relating to designing and designs." (Love, 2002, pp.351) Love (2002) has developed definitions of key terms in design, designing and designer (Love, 2002, pp.356-357): "Design" - a noun referring to a specification or plan for making a particular artifact or for undertaking a particular activity. A distinction is drawn here between a design and an artefact - a design is the basis for, and precursor to, the making of an artefact. "Designing" - human activity leading to the production of a design. "Designer" - is someone who is, has been, or will be designing: someone who creates designs. 2

The paper is attempted to build on the concept of Love's meta-theoretical hierarchy in order to identify the core concepts in the design discipline. It can help to provide a better understanding of the core concepts and theories relating to designing and designs. Table 1. A conceptual framework of design discipline in relation to other disciplines according to Love's meta-theoretical hierarchy. Design discipline

Design & other disciplines in Nine areas of research & theory making  Humans Design (artifact) - a noun  Objects referring to a specification or  Contexts plan for making a particular artefact or for undertaking a  Human to human particular activity. interactions A distinction is drawn here  Object to object between a design and an interactions artefact - a design is the basis  Human and object for, and precursor to, the interactions  Human and context making of an artefact. interactions  Object and context interactions  Interactions involving human(s), object(s) Designing (design process)- a and contexts verb, it refers to human activity together. leading to the production of a design. (Internal aspects of designing External aspects of designing)

Areas of theories & disciplines

Designer - is someone who is, has been, or will be designing: someone who creates designs.

 Skills and techniques  Knowledge in different domains  Professionalism  Creativity  Aesthetic appreciation

 Visual culture  Material culture  Technological culture  Consumer culture  Architecture  Sociology  Psychology  Anthropology  Marketing  Engineering  Manufacturing process  Environmental studies  Others      

Design thinking Creative thinking Design management Design research Design practice Design strategy

In the above, design, a kind of end product, is to study things or objects, so called artifects that are made and created by human beings, how these artifacts are produced and consumed, how they affect human (in design term, it may be better to use 'user' since it may be a pet or an animal) and how human/user interacts with artifacts in his contexts. In this case, design always involves a user. Hence, a study in design (artifacts) will involve studies from many other disciplines as they affect human beings, their environment or society in many ways. 3

Designing, on the other hand, is to study the design process of making and creating these artifacts. It includes how designers perceive the world and the social cultural context of their world and their users/clients' world. Then they practice their skills and knowledge to accomplish the design. In this process, it consists of internal and external aspects of designing such as internally the psychological, social and physical issues of the individuals involved in the process; and externally about the collection and management of data and activities and so on. Designer(s) should possess certain kinds of skills and knowledge, including human, materials, technology, culture, market, environment, and so on to achieve the task of making and creating the design. Designers, however, due to their own personalities, preferences, backgrounds, sensitivities and creativity, have unique perspectives on the world. As designers play a key role in the design process, these personal factors are some of the decisive factors that influence the design process and final outcome, that is, the design. As shown in the above table, we can identify that designing, that is, the design process, is the major part that distinguishes and differentiates "design discipline" from the other disciplines. The design process, including design thinking, research and practice, will ultimately affect the final result of the design. In this sense, design thinking lies at the core of the design discipline as it guides through all the way from problem identification, concept development, to launching the finished products and services in the market, and finally to using and discarding. Eventually, it affects all lives (both human being and other living things), cultures, values, social systems as well as ecological systems as our contemporary life has been inevitably constructed by human design. Hence, a constant reflection on design process and practice is essential for designers and design professionals to develop better design. Design, in general term, can be defined as: A creative process employs design thinking in planning, creating and developing to accomplish a specific task/ goal/ problem. Design Discipline Social, Culture, Environment (The world) Designer

Design process

Design

User

Design studies, therefore, are to study the whole design process, the production and consumption of the artifact by users in certain context. Furthermore, as designing and studying an artifact can be in multi-dimensional perspective, design research needs interdisciplinary practice. As design thinking is identified as the key part in design discipline, the following parts examine design from the philosophical perspectives of pragmatism and Buddhism.

II. Design thinking in Design Process 4

1. Basic Concepts of Pragmatism and Buddhism Pragmatism is a branch of philosophy originated from the United States in the late 19th century. The most influential of the 'classical pragmatists' were Charles Sanders Pierce, William James and John Dewey. The influence of the pragmatism declined during the first half of the 20th century, but it has regained interest and undergone revival since the 1970s. The revival of pragmatism was due to the new found interests in philosophies rather than analytic philosophy and European theorists, and it is also because of the emergent of the postmodernism where the postmodernists were seeking their origin of thoughts (Dickstein, 1998). Pragmatism has been influencing many contemporary thoughts and social reforms. It also contributes to the contemporary design thinkings as they are found to be comfortably allied to each other. The main concepts of pragmatism that relates to design thinking including focusing on the practice and process, human-centeredness, cooperation and negotiation, experience, action orientation, orientation to the future, problem solving/experimental method, and it is also democratic in core. In this paper, I will focus on discussing some of the concepts especially from Johh Dewey, since his concepts was found to be most influential to contemporary design thinking and technological culture and technological design. It is necessary to briefly describe how pragmatism and design thinking are related. The concepts of pragmatism relate to design thinking are in many ways. First, pragmatism emphasizes practices and processes, it is action orientation. It regards that an idea is valid or not requiring testing and trying out in practice, and observing the practical consequences to determine how the idea 'works' in practice. In design, a new product or design concept also demands a process of researching, testing, and evaluating before verification is made. Second, one core concept of pragmatism is it focusing on experience. It regards that experience is personal and contextual, and rejects the idea of certainty and absolute, or universal truths, rather it embraces contingency and suggests that truth is provisional and ever evolving, depending on different contexts and situations. Dewey regards that all knowledge is provisional and the 'quest for certainty' is a fallacy. A person's experience on certain product or service may be quite different from another person, and the experience of using the product in different context and situations may also different. Third, pragmatism also focuses on cooperation and negotiation between people. Pragmatists encourage "peaceful cohabitation and fruitful cooperation' between people." Dewey regards that communication is important to enable and facilitate better cooperation between people. Design practice is getting more and more interdisciplinary, and it is important that designers cooperate and negotiate with others in the design process to achieve favourable results. Moreover, pragmatism is future oriented. Pragmatism regards that a question can be answered by the means of inquiry. Design is also future oriented. Designers always envision a better future or to improve existing situations by creating and developing new products and services. Finally, practical pragmatism is also democratic in core and treasures varieties. It holds that 5

each person is not isolated and social contact is important, it also suggests that each individual should be allowed to develop himself/ herself. Design should also allow having a variety of choices and it should be designed for all. Buddhism, on the other hand, is a religion originated from India around 26 century ago and it has become a major religion in the East, such as China, Japan, Korea, and Thailand. To many, Buddhism goes beyond religion and is more of a philosophy or 'way of life'. It is a philosophy because philosophy means 'love of wisdom' and Buddhism is a path of practice and spiritual development leading to Insight into the true nature of life. The focus of Buddhism is on practice rather than belief since it regards that we can realize truth for ourselves by practicing. So Buddhism is regarding a very pragmatic religion since it does not indulge in metaphysical speculation but takes a very straightforward look at our human condition instead of worshipping of a deity and wishing for a better life. The basic tenets of Buddhism are that nothing is fixed or permanent; our actions bring consequences so we have to responsible for what we do, therefore, by changing ourselves and what we do, the changing of our environment and others is followed. So Buddhist teachings use practical methods such as meditation to enable people to realise and utilise its teachings in order to transform oneself, to be fully responsible for their lives and to develop the qualities of awareness, wisdom and compassion, ultimately it culminates in Enlightenment. There are many basic principles in Buddhism. According to Soka Gakkai International (SGI, n.d.), an international Buddhist organization based in Japan that has more than 12 millions of members all around the world, regarding that there have six main concepts of Buddhism including human revolution, interconnectedness, compassion, wisdom, creating values and treasuring diversity. These principles or concepts guide through all Buddhist practices and the 'way of life'. It is found that Pragmatism and Buddhism, although they are from different part of the world, are surprisingly similar in many ways. For example, both of them have a very practical way of looking at life and things, and play emphasis on practicing as essential part in knowing the 'truth'. However, it is also found that they are also different in the sense that Buddhism is emphasis on compassion and wisdom as its main core of teaching. The following is a comparison of these two "philosophies'". Table 2. The similarities and differences between Buddhism and Pragmatism Pragmatism Human-centeredness

Buddhism Human Revolution

Practical - Practice and process, action oriented

Practical - Creating Value by action and practice

Cooperation and negotiation

Interconnectedness 6

Treasuring Diversity

Treasuring Diversity

Democratic, community life

Respect all lives and equality

No absolute and certainty contextual Focus on experience

No absolute and certainty

Holistic

Holistic

Reflection and inquiry

Reflection and repentance

Moral relative Nil

Compassion Wisdom

Focus on experience

The paper in the following is attempted to analyse 'design' in pragmatist and Buddhist perspective as a process of inquiry about what design is. It argues that these approaches will be the design thinking in the 21st century and beyond. 2. Design is about Human-centeredness Pragmatism is human-centerness. It holds that each of us is born and develops as a unique individual in the world and we should be allowed to grow and develop ourselves in the society. Pragmatism emphases on the autonomy of human beings who should be able to take charge of our own development as individual and our own evolution as a species (Hickman, 2001). Hence, pragmatism is also focusing on "human action" that through practical actions and interaction with our environment, human beings can continue to adjusting and readjusting ourselves in human evolution. Design and art are creative activities, however, unlike arts which could be merely for appreciation; design usually has use and functional value. In design, if there is no user, there is no design. Design should always serve to fulfill the needs and wants of the user. Therefore, first of all it is essential to identify the needs of a user. Human beings are complex individuals that possess emotions, desires, preferences, motivations, etc. They have different needs and wants, and they differ individually and in different contexts and period of life. According to Maslow (1943), human beings have hierarchy of needs in form of a pyramid that only the needs of the first level are fulfilled it will then move to the upper level. The basic needs in the bottom are physiological needs such as food and warmth. When these needs are satisfied, then people can move on to the next levels of needs, which are safety and security needs. As these needs have been met, then people look for social and psychological needs such as love, friendship and intimacy. As moving up the pyramid the need of self-esteem and the feeling of accomplishment become more important. On the top level are the needs for personal growth and to achieve individual potential as self-actualization. (Figure 1) 7

Figure 1. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Available at: http://downloadsoftwarestore.com/program/screenshot/45383

Maslow believed that these needs play a major role in motivation behavior. He defined the physiological, security, social and esteem needs as deficiency needs where these needs arise due to deprivation. It is vital to satisfy these needs in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences. In the highest level of needs he called them growth needs that are not about missing something but about the desires to learn and grow as a person. Maslow considered that these needs are most important in human beings. He later modified the model by adding cognitive needs (knowledge, meaning, etc.), aesthetics needs (appreciation and search for beauty, balance, etc.), and transcendence needs (helping others to achieve self actualization) although he did not include in the model, they are needs include in the top level as needs for self-actualization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs model indicates that human needs include physiological and social psychological needs. When the physiological needs are satisfied, people want to seek social psychological needs such as security, loved, belonging, esteem, identity and social status, and the ultimate level is to achieve self-actualization by growing oneself and helping others. The higher the hierarchy the more importance of the social and psychological needs is. Carl Jung, one of the most influential psychologists in the 20th century, also regards that human's motivation is not only driven by physiological satisfaction but also social and psychological fulfilment in personal development and spiritual union with the social and physical environment. People use archetypal symbols of the collective unconscious in 8

natural phenomenon or things such as the rising sun as a representation of these strivings (Csiksgentimihalyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981). Objects or things that people use, according to Csiksgentimihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (1981), have three levels of representation which represent the relation of man to himself, to his fellows, and to the universe. (Figure 2) The objects then become symbols that serve as the differentiation and integration of human beings when they interact with other people in the society and with the environment surrounding them. Human beings are also strived to seek control of the environment, others and oneself through shaping events to one's intention, for example, people conceive that purchasing luxury products could elevate their social status in the eyes of the others. Figure 2: The three levels of representation. How we perceive the world

Self

Objects

Cosmic

Others

For Heidegger, he regards that 'thing' is different from 'object' in which the former one is a good term while the latter one is a bad one since "object" refers to entities only in their present-at-hand, meaning that we look upon things as separate from us and the world and treat it as an object to be subdued by human control. However, 'thing' in Heidegger's view, refers to entities in their proper reality where things and human beings are interrelated. He regards that things have fourfold of earth, sky, gods and mortals which are present at all times in all things, although they might not be equally existing in some cases. The fourhold are interrelated with each others in a thing, so the thing assembles the unity of fourfold and he calls this unity as world. For Heidegger, a thing is the center for the harmonious integration of the four moments of Beings. Man, as Heidegger regards, is an integral part of the fourfold. So man, things, and environment (or world) have an intimate relationship between one another. Pragmatism considers that context is important since things always do not exist in isolation but as belonging to contexts that shape their meaning and value. In this regard, it concerns about the production of meaning and production of truth, as pragmatists believe that meaning and truth are ever changing in different contexts and experience so they are dynamics and always in formation (Dickstein, 1998). Dewey also emphasizes on the 9

importance of interaction between human beings and their environment. He regards that human beings will continually adjusting and readjusting when interacting with the environment; in this case, they can learn and become self-conscious individuals. Buddhism, on the other hand, emphasizes on the possibility of inner transformation through one's practice - a process of bringing forth our full human potential. The Buddha taught that if we can see through the delusion of the small, individual self, we experience enlightenment which is not subject to birth and death. To achieve human resolution, we must work on transforming our lives by identifying and challenging those things which inhibit the full expression of our positive potential and humanity. Hence, Buddhism proposes to live an austere life that reduces of abundant material possessions because obsesses in material possession will only bring us away from our true self and hinder our way to enlightenment. Many psychological studies actually show that more things we possess do not necessary make us happier. This process is strengthened and accelerated when we grow in altruism toward a "greater self", that is, when we look beyond our personal concerns and capable to care and take action for the sake of others. Buddhism also emphases that human revolution should first starts by individual since as Daisaku Ikeda writes, "A great human revolution in just a single individual will help achieve a change in the destiny of a nation and, further, will enable a change in the destiny of all humankind." (SGI, n.d.) The above briefly summarizes some understandings about human needs and the relations between human and things in psychological, cultural and philosophical perspectives. They indicate that a designed artifact, usually serves as a tool for human being, should not only serve to satisfy physiological needs such as functionality and usability, but also social psychological needs such as aesthetic and emotional needs. A designed artifact also has close relationships between human beings, themselves, others, and the environment or the universe. The meaning of the artifact is not fixed and it is always changing according to the experience in the interaction between the user and the artifact. Finally, it also indicates that abundance material possession may not necessary make people happier, rather the design is more satisfactory to users if it can fulfill social and psychological needs and/or even to allow them to achieve self-actualization or inner transformation. In sum, design should be able to accomplish four types of needs (Figure 3):    

The growth or betterment of human's self The harmony of human and nature The enhancement of communication between people The harmony of human society and nature

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Figure 3: Design fulfils Four types of Needs

SOCIETY NEEDS

SELF NEEDS

DESIGN

SOCIAL NEEDS

NATURE NEEDS

A product, hence, should serve more than functional need and value to the user. It has been identified that an object has many values - functional value, exchange value, symbolic value and sign value. For instance, a car has a functional value for the users as a private vehicle for transportation; it has exchange value as the price is affordable or seen as reasonable to the users, it is perceived as more convenient than taking public transportation; the brand and the style of the car can serve as symbolic and sign value for communicating the identity and social status of the user. Moreover, a product is also conceived to provide three types of product experience to the users: aesthetic experience, experience of meaning and emotional experience (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007). It is also suggested that design artifacts also have multiple, potential latent functions which can be conceived as latent meaning understood both subjectively by the user's personal association with the object and intersubjectively as part of complex cultural value (Almquist and Lupton, 2010). It is a recognition that a product providing superior values for users and fulfilling user needs can achieve success in the marketplace. Clarkson and his colleagues (2007) identified that a successful product should fulfill four types of needs: functional, usable, desirable and viable. Functional is to provide suitable features to satisfy the needs and desires of the users. Usable means the product is easy, pleasurable, as well as satisfying to use. Desirable is a product that satisfies psychological needs such as aesthetics, pleasant to touch, social status, or provides a positive impact on quality of life. Finally, viable need refers to the products that satisfies all the above, is delivered to the market at the right time and at the right cost, and to achieve business success. With the above notions, we can identify a relationship between human needs and product values and designers should be able to create and deliver values that satisfy different spectrum of needs and goals of the users. (Figure 4) In developing this capability, it is necessary for designers to understand users and their contexts profoundly.

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Figure 4: Relationships between Maslow's hierarchy of needs and product values

Sign/ Spiritual values Symbolic/ Social values

Exchange/ Emotion values

Functional/ Usable values Product values

A human-centered approach in design means that designers make efforts to understand the users by doing design research which is similar to the concept of Dewey's "inquiry". Dewey considered inquiry as a process that starts with an "indeterminate situation" or "wicked problem" that we experience as problematic, then we try to solve this problem of the original situation and turn it into a situation that we think is better or less problematic. Steen (2009) identifies five intertwined activities or phases to show how "inquiry" relates to design research from perceiving and defining a problem, then exploring, evaluating and testing the solutions. Inquiry helps designers to identify the problem and then work through it to provide the best possible solution to the problem at hand. Inquiry is also a process of gaining new knowledge. Norman (1988) has proposed a user-centered design approach in design. He regarded that designers need to understand the users and users' need and then design for the users rather than doing the design work alone and in isolation. In this process, designers need to make effort to understand the users by doing research in forms like interview, observation, focus group, and usability test. The design outcome should be products and services that are user-friendly, functional and usability. However, this 'user-centered design" approach was found to be problematic. First of all, this kind of user research is always conducted in a laboratory so the real user experience when putting in actual situations and contexts might be quite different. Secondly, many researchers and scholars (Almquist and Lupton, 2010; Redstorm, 2006) argue that "user" in the user-centered design is treated as a subject in a homogeneous group, he becomes not a "humanist" subject but an "engineered" subject (Redstorm, 2006), that is shaped for the consumer society and social progress. As Almquist and Lupton (2010, pp.9) put it: The word "user" suggests instrumentalization, calculation, and constraint, a behaviorist narrowing of personhood into reflex in the moment that we hold an object correctly or press the right key. The user mentality excludes meaning and 12

improvisation in favor of targeted functions and knowledge based on ignorance.

The results of the designs become homogeneous, the users lack autonomous and user behaviours become programmed. Moreover, the lack of understanding of user contexts and their environment makes the product isolated from the use environment and it is one of the reasons why many products failed. As Mitchell (1993, p.xxiii) put it, It is now becoming clear, in view of the large number of award-winning designs that have failed the test of use, that the design community's criteria for successful design differs radically from that of design users. .... design itself needs to be redefined in terms of people's experiences, instead of in terms of objects.

Moreover, users are not passive and accept everything that marketers and product designer provide to them. Users can be active, creative, and sometimes rebel when the latent meanings are rendered too visible and they may refusal to buy, or buy into the certain meaning system (Almquist and Lupton, 2010). Hence, Almquist and Lupton suggest, "The task of design research .... should be oriented around the common ground between use, meaning, and affordance, which is also the common ground between designers and "users". (Almquist and Lupton, 2010, pp.14) Hence, it is suggested to include user during the whole design process - the human-centered design. The human-centered design, also called co-design, is a practice where the designers attempt to involve the users during the entire process of research, design and evaluation (Steen, 2009). Users are participated in the whole design process so that designers can understand more thoroughly about the users' experience. The notion is that users are the "experts of their experiences" (Sleeswijk Visser et al, 2005) and users can contribute their knowledge and ideas so that the products or services can be truly meet the users' needs and wants: As such, approaches that situate the designer in the user's domain only really enable the designer to know how they would themselves feel in that situation, rather than truly establish empathy towards the other person. (Flore and Wright, 2011, pp.1)

Design research methods such as applied ethnography research can help designers to see and learn about the context and how users behave in the environment so as to gain more insights and in-dept understandings about the users. The applied ethnography research includes methods such as participate observation, narrative, or autobiography, where users may be asked to take pictures on their home, write diary or video-tape their lives, sometimes the designer may even participate into the user's environment to directly observe or experience the lives of the user. This approach enables designers to enhance and extend the way people live, work, communicate and interact with others and their environment. Hence, design is a meaning-making process or value-creation process that designer, can be an author, a director, or a poet, who plays an important role to create and deliver meaning and values of the artifact to the users.

3. Design is about Cooperation and Negotiation 13

Design is a multidisciplinary practice and designers are always working in a complicated net that involve many parties in a design project. Each party has their own interests, concerns and perspectives that may be different from each other, therefore, conflicts sometimes occur. The conflicts in design are mainly occur in three areas: arts/humanities and technoscience, social and commercial, human and environment. Design is about team work. Unlike art, design is always a complex activity that involves a variety of people who come from different background so each person will have different perspectives and seeing things in certain ways. Designer usually needs to work with other people in a team such as engineers, marketers, production people, or other designers from different disciplines, sometimes it even involves customers or users in a project. As the diversity of people involved, besides of the differences in perspectives, there may also have tensions about fulfilling different interests, therefore, conflict and misunderstanding may sometimes arise. For example, it is always the case that designer wants to achieve perfection, engineer needs to solve the technical problem of the design concept, production people usually concern about time and costs, marketing people provide consumer feedback and market information and they need to achieve sales target. In working in a design project, the most frequent conflict is about the different perspectives in arts/humanities and technoscience. The split between the technosciences and arts and humanities has been a subject to concern since the early- and mid- 20th century. Hickman (2001) considers the split between the arts and humanities, and technosciences is a fact/value split. Technoscience, such as engineering and computer science, is studying phenomenon and things based on scientific experiments, it is their job to determine the facts and their focus is on the artifact. Arts and humanities, on the other hand, are studying subjects such as art history, cultural studies, visual cultures, literatures,etc. In design, they tend to focus on users and emphasis on the meaning and interpretation at the expense of affordance and use. As Almquist and Lupton (2010, pp.4) state: Humanistic methods and sensibilities are organized around the historical specificity of cultures as well as the distinctiveness of individual responses to the designed world. The main contribution to the humanities to the study of design has thus been to understand the meaning of objects in particular moments of time, for particular groups and interests. For most humanists, the idea that design might have "universal' applications, or that affordances might precede or subtend cultural differences, is a species of ideology that must be exposed and chastened.

Dewey regarded that the split between technoscience and arts/ humanities are regrettable but he did not think it was a phenomenon that was inevitable nor intractable. If we trace back the origin of development of science and technologies, humanities were always embedded in science because for both disciplines, the ultimate goals are to determine the 'truth' and improve people's lives. These two disciplines in fact complement each other in ways that enrich our knowledge and enable us to provide a holistic solution that is more satisfactory. Dewey actually regarded that conflict could be productive since it helps to prompt the process of inquiry that leads to learning, inquiring new knowing and instigating new invention. Pragmatism emphases on cooperation and negotiation because it regards that only accepting one way of thinking is dangerous for developing new ideas and pursuing 14

genuine knowledge (Putnam, 1995, pp.72): The introduction of new ideas for testing likewise depends on cooperation, for any human being who rejects inputs from other human beings runs out of ideas sooner rather than later, and begins to consider only ideas which in one way or another reflect prejudices he or she has formed. Cooperation is necessary for both the formation of ideas and for their rational testing.

The most essential, in this regard, is to find common ground between them. As Almquist and Lupton (2010, pp.4) put it: Finding common ground between affordance and meaning could offer a collective space for interdisciplinary collaboration and new ways to approach both making and studying designed artifacts. Moreover, design itself, as a form of human making that crosses artistic and technological categories, poses to these disciplines the question of their own identities.

Dewey viewes communication is a vital human activity that can help to reach agreement and enable a more satisfactory result for all parties involved (Hickman, 2001, pp. 53): Dewey regarded communication as one of the most wonderful of human activities, and he thought that wherever enhanced communication is held honestly as a goal and an ideal, then new areas of agreement can be constructed and community life rendered more satisfactory for all concerned.

Communication helps us to reach this common ground and seeks mutual agreement and cooperation. The convergences of technoscience and humanistic in design focusing on the idea of the users allows designers to see beyond the narrow sense of utility which could open up new design thinking that includes cultural values, ethical and moral concerns that are missing in great number of design nowadays. Dewey believes that it is only by means of communication and share experience with others that human beings can become self-conscious individual in the first place. So it is important to seek cooperation through communication and negotiation. In design, cooperation and negotiation is also crucial during the design process as it involves so many parties and processes especially for big project like architecture. Without a mutual agreement and cooperation with the other parties, the project can hardly be succeeded. The important point is to able to seek a balance of interests and mutual beneficiary as much as possible for each other’s and everybody involved. On the other hand, designer also needs to work with clients and seeks their cooperation in order to realize his idea. Conflicts sometimes happen because of the limitation of time and/or budgets, method in production, the preference of the clients, etc. It requires negotiation and sometimes compromise between both parties in order to proceed with the project. As mentioned in the previous part that things are interrelated with the environment, so a designer should also required to consider the effect that induce to the stakeholders with his/ her design or project; for example, an architectural project may results in affecting other residents in the same area (Figure 5). This is a conflict between social interests and commercial benefits. 15

Although it is a fact that one of the objectives of a designer is to create business values and achieve business goals for companies, a designer should also required having social responsibilities. Designer needs to seek for achieving a balance between commercial success and social responsibilities. A commercially successful design without a conscience will not sustain and eventually fall because it lacks the cooperation with the stakeholders. In return, it will suffer the consequences. Figure 5: The "wall effect" of buildings in Hong Kong

Source: Available at: http://news.sina.com.hk/cgi-bin/nw/show.cgi/2/1/1/1174557/1.html

Source: Available at: http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HK_TinSamWai_FestivalCity.JPG

On the other hand, designer also requires cooperating with users by researching and examining their needs and wants as stated in the previously part. Without knowing user needs and cooperation with users, the design will not be successful. However, the 16

traditional view of 'user-centered' design focus on the narrow sense of 'user' as consumer is also found problematic. The view of human as center and destines to rule the world ignore the fact that human beings, like any other living things, are interdependent on each others on the planet, that we are all belong in the same ecosystem. The arrogance of human beings is the major cause to the environmental problems and in turn, we suffer the consequences that are created by ourselves. Many inventions of technologies such as the invention of electricity and light bulb by Thomas Edison have led a big leap in human's development since they were first introduced in late 19th century. We are now able to work at night and it extends human activities and makes our lives more comfortable and convenient. However, the adverse side is that it is also extends our working hours and makes us more stressful, the same is true in many modern technologies such as computers and mobile phones. Moreover, the coal that is used to generate electricity for machines, the fossil fuel that is used for generating power for vehicles are the earth's natural resources which will not be renewal once it is used. Furthermore, the byproducts that are generated from these technologies such as CO² have proved to have negative impacts to the earth such as climate change and global warming. Industrial manufacturing also causes pollution that is threatening many lives. Many inventions that were seen as beneficial to human beings and significant in human development require us to take a new examination nowadays. Design serves to fulfill the needs of the human beings. However, many designs that we know are detriment to the environment today were actually developed as tools that help to improve people's lives. For instance the invention of machineries was aimed to make human's life more efficient; the industrial or machine-made products are also available for a large amount of people by mass production and lower prices. The creation of plastic and synthetics materials were initially intended to ease the burden of using natural materials and they are also more durable to use. However, it lacks the considerations of how it affects to the environment and other natural species. We also ignore the consequences of the exploitation of natural resources in making and using them in the finished products. Even more, the plastic and discarded electronic products that are finally turned up on our landfill cause a lot of burden on our environment and the other species. At the end, it affects our health and our lives as a result. Dewey contends that human beings have a close relationship with their environment, as his notion of "evolutionary naturalism" - humans are biological organisms who live their lives interacting with and evolving within the rest of nature. In this regard, we are not separated from nature and escape from any effects that are causing. Humans can create tools, which not only means tangible things, but also intangible things such as habits, ideas, knowledge, and so on that helps us to adapt the environment. As Dewey wrote, "[t]ools are the expression of the man/ environment interaction; by their way means and consequences of action are adapted to each other." (Hickman, 2001, pp.46) Language, according to Dewey, is the most important tool of human beings; he called it "the tool of tools". But language in Dewey's view, is much wider than spoken or written expression - music, visual arts are also as a communication of language. He thought that humans can use tools (knowledge, ideas, language, etc.) to make other artifacts and advance in evolution. Buddhism holds that all life is interrelated; nothing exists in isolation, independent of other life. It teaches us that our actions will affect the others and in return, they will come back 17

to affect us. When we realize the extent of the myriad interconnections which link us to all other life, we realize that our existence only becomes meaningful through interaction with, and in relation to, others. By engaging ourselves with others, our identity is developed, established and enhanced. We then understand that it is impossible to build our own happiness on the unhappiness of others. We also see that our constructive actions affect the world around us. (SGI, n.d.)

So we have to realize that the existence of each individual contributes in one way or the other the effects we made to the existence of others. There is an intimate mutual connection between all humankinds, not only those who physically close to us, but also all living things and its environment in a complex net of nature. We are all part of a dynamic, mutually supportive and interrelated single living whole. The problem of design today is that we are lacking the concept of interconnectivity. Not only with other human beings, but also about the other living things on earth. Designers and manufacturers develop the products and then they sell them to the consumers in the market. After few months later, they develop a new version of the same products or a slightly different product and sell to the consumers claiming that they are better than the previous ones, the strategy so called the 'planned obsolescent'. The 'old' products then were sold to second hand market or filled on our landfill. In this case, we consume more and more energy and resources, and then we create more and more garbage. At the end, we suffer the consequences such as global warming and water pollution that were caused by the ignorance or the selfishness of humankinds. To break through this vicious circle, we need to have a radical new way of thinking in design and practice. It all begins with a conscious that we and the others are all interconnected. Hence, this paper argues that the cooperation in design should be in two levels: the direct cooperation and indirect cooperation. The first level is direct cooperation where the designer needs to cooperate with users, clients and other team members in a project directly. The second level is indirect cooperation with stakeholders and the environment and the designer should find ways to achieve harmony with the nature. This cooperation and negotiation may require replacing a dichotomy view with a dialogic way with man and nature, and transcending a perspective that merely concerns utilization, nor styling and novelty, to a newer, wider, more open, and more innovative ways of design thinking. One good example of cooperation in design is Miho Museum (Figure 6), located southeast of Kyoto, Japan, which was designed by the internationally acclaimed Chinese architect I. M. Pei. The structure of the museum is 80% beneath the earth so as to preserve its natural environment and to assimilate it into the surrounding scenery. The interior of the museum is also luminous and spacious by using glass roofs, natural materials and soft lighting to produce a warm and welcoming atmosphere. The architecture is beautifully blended with its surrounding natural environment to create a holistic and unforgettable experience for the visitors. According to Pei, his concept was come from a classical Chinese poem "Peach Blossom Valley" which described a paradise on earth. As Pei stated, "I think you can see a very conscious attempt on my part to make the silhouette of the building comfortable in the natural landscape." (Miho Museum, n.d.) This design clearly demonstrates the intention of the designer to create a harmonious design that embodies the people, building, and the 18

nature into a unify whole.

Source: Available at: http://www.danheller.com/j-miho-museum.html; http://www.miho.or.jp/english/index.htm

Figure 6: Miho Museum, designed by I. M. Pei, in Koka, Shiga prefecture, Japan

Hence, design as a communication process and designer as a collaborator, or a composer that enables cooperation with others that achieves mutual agreement and benefits to all.

4. Design is about Democratic Dewey's pragmatism is democratic in core and treasures in diversity. Dewey thinks that each individual has unique interests and talent, and they should be allowed to develop 19

themselves in a society (Hickman, 2001, pp.58): The proper role of the state is to aid the liberation of individual talents and resources and to enable and empower various interacting groups so that they can develop new goals and ideals and thus make their best case within a meritocracy of ideas.

As Hickmen (2001, pp.61) put it: Productive pragmatism exhibits a core belief in the methods of democracy, its methods dictate that all affected parties be heard from not only during the planning stages of significant public projects, but during the stages of their implementation as well.

On the other hand, one of the core concepts of Buddhism is compassion that all lives are equal and should be treated equally and live in harmony. We should respect to all lives and seek to gain mutual happiness and growth. Compassion is a sense of solidarity with others and all lives as we are all interconnected, "Compassion is often thought of as akin to pity, but whereas pity may be condescending, compassion springs from a sense of the equality and interconnectedness of life." (SGI, n.d.) Compassion includes qualities of sharing, readiness to give comfort, sympathy, concern, and caring to others. In Buddhism, wisdom and compassion are closely related since if one only has wisdom but no compassion, one will become cold and indifferent; while if one has only compassion but no wisdom, then one might easily be fooled. Through wisdom, we can really understand others, when we can really understand ourselves. According to SGI, wisdom in Buddhism is: Buddhism teaches that wisdom should be developed with compassion. At one extreme, you could be a goodhearted fool and at the other extreme, you could attain knowledge without any emotion. Buddhism uses the middle path to develop both. The highest wisdom is seeing that in reality, all phenomena are incomplete, impermanent and do not constitute a fixed entity. True wisdom does not simply believe what we are told but instead experiencing and understanding truth and reality. Wisdom requires an open, objective, unbigoted mind. The Buddhist path requires courage, patience, flexibility and intelligence.

The essence of compassion is empowerment since "Compassion is rooted in respect for the inherent dignity of life--our own and others'--and a desire to see that dignity triumph." (SGI, n.d.) So compassion is about empowering others and helping them to recover their strength and courage from within their lives in order to overcome their problems rather than just giving them everything they need. Compassion and democratic in design regard that design should be for all humankinds and all living creatures to seek mutual beneficiary and happiness. It is a humanity approach that all living creatures should enjoy equal rights and freedom to live and grow. For people in disadvantage situations such as poverty, disabilities, elderly, or sickness, design should play a more important role to assist them to live a dignify life. All people in the society should be able to enjoy public and private facilities and allowed to develop themselves. They should also have freedom to choose and live. 20

Hence, compassion and democratic in design also mean a genuine interest in people and deep understand of what they needs though communion, communication, and cooperation. This is a caring design that is aiming for the benefit and welfare of others. Compassion and democratic design also mean empowerment of users. Users have autonomy and also freedom of choice. Design should able to provide customized or alternative solutions to the users, as one of the concepts of Buddhism is that many boats, one river. There are many ways to achieve the same thing providing that designers provide enough guidance to enable users to accomplish the tasks. In fact, if users or consumers have more autonomy in using the products and services, they feel happier and more satisfactory. For instance, DIY becomes popular in the west and tools for DIY are not difficult to find. People treasure more about their handmade products because they are meaningful to them, and they have a higher tendency to keep them for longer time. Consumers are no longer like to be manipulated and blinded with what the companies and manufacturers provide to them. For instance, consumers nowadays concern about ethic and social responsibilities of companies and want to know where and how the products are produced, if they exploit the workers in the factory, if their production did any harm to the environment, and so on. Design communities in the last few decades have a good reflection of how the existing design culture and design activities impact on the earth particularly we all witness and experience climate change, human and natural disasters in the last several decades. Design approach such as sustainability design, inclusive design and social design are some of the new design developments that aim at improving all people's life and achieving a better future for humankinds and for the earth. Many people now realize that human's life are interconnected, not only between people, but also between all the other living things in the world, as Marshall McLuhan, the Canadian educator, philosopher and scholar, said ‎ "On Spaceship Earth there are no passengers; everybody is a member of the crew. We have moved into an age in which everybody's activities affect everybody else." Our human actions have direct and indirect consequences to other human beings and other species on earth, in turn, they will also affect us. A design has good intention and compassion that benefits to the disabled people also benefits to the large amount of able-users as well. It is the concept of inclusive design and universal design. Inclusive design, according to British Standards Institute (2005), defined as "The design of mainstream products and/ or services that are accessible to, and usable by, as many people as reasonably possible .... without the need for special adaptation or specialised design." On the other hand, universal design is defined as "the design of all products and environments to be usable by people of all ages and abilities to the greatest extent possible." (Story, 2001, pp.10.3) All these approaches are based on the ideas that design is for every people in the community and all people should be able to enjoy facilities as everybody else. Design can also help vulnerable population such as elderly, patients, disabled people, to live independently and as dignify individuals. It is found that a good inclusive designed product can benefit to more users and gain market success. For example, a grip that designed for arthritis people results in 35% increasing sales in the market and this grip designed by OXO has also recognized as a superior design in international and national organizations. 21

On the other hand, nowadays design community also expends design thinking and practice from individual and organizational levels to a much broader spectrum - design for social innovations that helps to solve social problems such as AIDS, crime, poverty, homeless, sustainability, human rights, and so on. As Victor Papanek stated, "designers and creative professionals have a responsibility and are able to cause real change in the world through good design." (Wikipeadia, n.d.) With social design, designers want to bring positive transformation or public awareness to the society or the world through creative activities such as events, displays, products, and/ or media. For instance, a disaster relief project for Japanese earthquake and tsunami victims is a good example. The project was initiated by a Japanese designer Shigeru Ban who proposed to build Paper Partition Systems for victims who have to stay in school since their homes were all destroyed during the tsunami. The schools are served as temporary residents but with so many people living there, privacy and hygiene problems become critical. So Shigeru Ban decided to build the paper partitions for them and they needed donation from the public to buy the materials. Hong Kong Design Centre helped to initiate the project and with the donation from people in the design industry in Hong Kong, Shigeru Ban has built hundreds of these paper partitions for the victims in many schools in different locations. (Figure 7)

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Source: Available at: http://www.hkdc.hk/eblast/20110422/Shigeru_Ban_Relief_Project.pdf

Figure 7. Installation in Utsunomiya City (Tochigi Prefecture) - 10 units had been installed at Sugatagawa gymnasium in Utsunomiya City.

Many other examples utilize the power of media and publicity to convey their message and aware the public. For instance, after the Japan earthquake and tsunami, designers from all around the world designed posters or any form of media that helped to raise funds to the victims. (Figure 8a & 8b) And an advertising campaign by WWF (World Widelife Funds) to raise the awareness of the extinction of endangered species. (Figure 9)

Source: Available at: http://wkstudio.bigcartel.com/pages/japan-relief

Figure 8a - Help Japan poster

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Source: Available at: http://blogtimes.jp/blog/2011/03/6030.html

Figure 8b - Fashion and posters raise funds for Japan relief by art director Steven Jodistiro.

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Source: Available at: http://www.worldwildlife.org/home-full.html

Figure 9 - An advertising campaign by WWF - "What it feels like to be an endangered animal."

So design, in real sense, is no longer limited to serve business and commercial purposes but extended to a broader spectrum to help improving people's lives and well-being in all aspects, and in different levels. We have seen this phenomenon has been happening all around the world since the last decade. In this sense, design is also a social process that initiates social reforms and changes. Designer is a change agent who initiates social change in a design process.

5. Case study - Naoto Fukasawa - 'Without Thought' design As discussed from the above that design should be human-centeredness, emphasis on cooperation and democracy. In this section, a case study will be used to illustrate how this notion can contributes to good design. Naoto Fukasawa is a world class Japanese product designer who has won over 50 international and local design awards. He calls his design as 'Without Thought' design which does not mean that we do not think when we design, what he means is that "the design of an object corresponds to our unconscious movements and the environment that surrounds us." (Designboom, 2004) He regards that designs should be created based on the needs of people, that needs, however, sometimes is latent and unconscious that even we do not realize it ourselves. What he does is to rediscover that latent and unconscious needs in our daily lives and brings that awareness to us. He pays attention to how people live in their lives and behave in the environment. As he states: 25

Thinking needs time. Feeling can be done in a moment. When you see something for the first time it seems to be important. but it’s the later, when you use the object that you realise that what you’ve missed initially is the essence of what design is all about. and that is the idea behind ’without thought.’ (Designboom, 2004)

He regards that good design should be human-centeredness, and focus on details in people's lives by understanding how people live and behave in certain ways so as to design better products that improve people's lives. He considers that design should make people's life simpler and more convenient. So his designs are always clean and simplicity in appearance, without any unnecessary decoration, yet attention to details. His designs always give user a sense of humor and a surprise of the little details in the product that we may not notice in our daily lives. When asked about how he described his own works, he answered: Design means observing objectively. It means being aware of our living nature,a simple element in the larger environment. I like when a project doesn't sell my name or my characteristic, when it is just an object that happens to be there, ...no, not anonymous, just natural. (Designboom, 2004)

For example, his umbrella design is a good example. This umbrella, unlike the other umbrella, has a small hollow on top of the handle of the umbrella. The reason is that when people go out for shopping with the umbrella, it can serve as a stick for people when they get tired. But when they carry many bags in their hands, then they can hang their bags on the hollow of the umbrella, so it also serves as a rack!

The other example is a lamp design. He observes that when people come home, they will immediately turn on the lamp. Usually they will also carry door keys in their hands. So this lamp design has a plate on the bottom, when people come home and put the keys on the plate, the lamp is turned on.

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The third example is a CD player. The CD player looks like an exhaust fan in the first glance and it has a string that usually found in the exhaust fan for turning ons and offs. This is something we like to do in our childhood - to pull the string on and off. When we pull the string, we are not only listening to the music, it can also bringing back our childhood memory, and it gives us an intimate feeling of the object. So the design is more than an artifact, it connects us and becomes more meaningful to us.

Analysis of Naoto Fukasawa's design From the above examples, we can see that the "Without thought design" is human-centered design, not just functional but also emotional. It focuses on user's experience - how people use the product, and also brings awareness to the users to rediscover themselves and their own life. The designs do not look very special in terms of style, in fact, they look like ordinary products that we might use every day, what they are different and special is that they give us a different experience, an experience that are pleasant, personal, and meaningful. The design is also a collaboration design because they are products that are blended harmoniously with the environment. It is also a successful blend of user needs and commercial value. Finally, the design is also democratic since the products are very easy to use and cater for a large number of users. The above examples are things or artifacts that come out of the designer's keen observation and sensitivity, that he is genuinely interested in people and have an in-dept understanding and consideration of user's emotional and functional needs in the environment. They show a care, compassion, and wisdom in his designs. They resonant with users emotionally and functionally and also create values to the users.

6. Reflection in Design Pragmatism rejects the notion of absolute and certainty. Pragmatists regard that truth is not absolute because truth is provisional, grounded in history and experience, not fixed in the nature of things (Dickstein, 1998). Something is truth in the past may not be truth in the present and in different contexts. So truth is contextual, dynamic, and always in formation (Dickstein, 1998, pp.7): Truth or meaning is a process, an action leading to a pay-off, a verb rather than a noun. .... Truth is the outcome of experience ... Men's beliefs at any time are so much experience funded.

Different people, with their diverse background, past experience and world view, will give different meaning to a particular product; on the other hand, the product, with their different properties and attributes, the creator or maker, in different time and contexts, will also have influence on the meaning to the person. As this process is constantly changing 27

in each interaction, the meaning is not fixed, so the 'truth' is dynamic. (Figure 10)

Interaction

Context Past experience Perception Values Attitude Belief Emotion Social Culture

Human

Things

History Context Attributes Properties Social Culture Environment Other people Other users Marketing -Maker/ Designer

Experience Figure 10: A Model of Meaning and Experience

Dewey holds that the world is ever changing; the ideas and theories we form are practical instruments that help to transform our comprehension of existing problematic situations into fulfilment by resolving them. This is the notion of Dewey's inquiry. As Dalsgaard (2008) explains the concept of Dewey's inquiry (Dalsgaard, 2008, pp.3): Inquiry is a particular mode of understanding and engaging phenomena in the world prompted by encounters with problematic situations. Situations, in Deweyian terminology, are a systemic concept. ..... When habitual action in a given situation does not result in the desired outcome, it is in Deweyan terminology labeled a problematic situation. When faced with problematic situations that we wish to resolve, we form simultaneous thought experiments with and articulations to understand what it is that makes the situation problematic. These conceptualizations form the basis for hypothesizing about how we may reconstruct or transform the situation before carrying out physical actions.

An inquiry happens usually comes with a conflict, a breakdown or an irritation. Some habits or techniques we are so familiar with or taken for granted has found failed to works properly in the existing situation, then we need to ask and examine the problem through inquiry. With proper inquiry, it can help us to produce something new and more favorable solutions to the situation. Hence, inquiry is an essential process to inquire new knowledge. When designer encounters problem in his/her design, he/she will need to go back and review what was wrong, and it might require reexamining the whole process again to investigate the problematic situation, then inquiry is called for. The process of inquiry include gathering information and form hypothesis, then it needs to put into test and evaluation; successful inquiry can contribute to a new knowledge, new conclusion, new 28

tools, and so on that is more satisfactory than the one that caused the problem. In design, designers need to conduct design research in different forms, for example empirical research, in order to identify the problems and then find the best possible solution that tackles it. Moreover, Dewey conceives that knowing is much profound if it involves experimentation and examines it in different perspectives (Hickman, 2001, pp.48): Knowing invokes comparison, contrast, measurement, and assessment of one thing in relation to another. In short, it involves experimentation that results in the alternation of something relative to something else. .... Knowing is also relative in the sense that it involves connections to other knowers. Knowing is sharpened and extended by taking the stances or viewpoints of others within a community of inquiry, that is, by considering a problem from as many different perspectives as possible.

In Dewey's view, knowing is constantly changing, never finished and certain, so it is open to continue review and revision, which is the concept of what he called "fallibilism". Dewey therefore rejected the notion of "absolutely certain or immutable knowledge" because we live forward in time and that the knowing in the past may not necessary suitable for the present time. By inquiry, knowing or knowledge is advanced by means of such adjustments and refinements. The notion of inquiry has influenced on design community into a reflection on design thinking and practice. As in design, there is no absolute certainty since each design situation is quite unique and ever changing, so it is impossible to apply the same concept to every situation. On the other hand, there are many ways to solve a problem and the solutions to the problem is not true-or-false but good-or-bad, which means what the designer can do is try to find the 'best' solution to that problem or situation. But those ‘best’ solutions will not valid any more if the situation changes. Hence, design is always evolving. Bousbaci (2008) has pointed out that design thinking has going through several phases since the last century. It evolves from an intuitive and artistic designer to a rationalist and logical designer, then a designer with a bounded rationality to a more contemporary thought that a designer as a "reflective practitioner" (Figure 11). It is realized that the evolution of design thinking is closely related to the social, cultural, economic, and technological development at that particular period of time. When the situation is not favourable, and the existing knowledge, concept, belief, or tool is not able to satisfy with the current situation, inquiry is called for. Therefore, design professionals should always be aware and reflect on their works and their practice so as to meet the needs of the specific time.

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Figure 11. Some landmarks in the evolution of design thinking (Bousbaci, 2008, pp.38)

As in our current situation, we are entering into a new information era where many beliefs in the industrial era is found to be problematic, for instance, the concept of efficiency in mass production is found to be one of the major sources in contributing to global warming since it is producing a great amount of wastes and consuming enormous amount of energy that is usually generated by fossil fuel. On the other hand, there is higher supply than the demand in the market so that the remaining used or unused products finally create a great burden on the environment and even threatening to other species. Therefore, the environmental crisis as well as economic turmoil we have experienced in the last decades urges us to reflect and think critically about the current design process and practice. Similarly, Buddhism also teaches people constantly reflecting our own behaviour. This practice can help us more aware of our own adverse behaviour, correct it if it is wrong, and avoid doing it in the future. Buddhist teachers also teach us to repent of what we did wrong and make amend. So reflection and repentance is a process of human revolution that enables human beings to achieve betterment, not only himself, but also all the others (SGI, n.d.): This Buddha nature expresses itself in concrete ways. First, we gain the conviction that our life contains limitless possibilities and a profound sense of our human dignity. Second, we develop the wisdom to understand that things that we previously thought impossible are in fact possible. And third, we develop a powerful vitality that allows us to tackle our problems with a sense of inner liberation. We are thus empowered to pursue our own human revolution, striving to improve our "self" from yesterday to today and making the "self" of tomorrow better still.

So design requires reflection. A reflection might sometimes begin with an individual who strives to overcome difficulty in his/she life. But because of one's endeavor or insight, it may eventually brings a new change and development, as quoted by Hickman (2001, pp.55), "Every new idea, every conception of things differing from that authorized by current belief, must have its origin in an individual." Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring was regarded as the first book that tackled the environmental problem and eventually led to the government regulations of the use of chemical pesticide and later on the environmental movement in all over the world. All this was stemmed from Miss Carson's intention to alert the public about the dangers of using chemical pesticide. Other well-known example is James Dyson's vacuum cleaner which was originally designed due to his frustration from 30

existing vacuum cleaner's performance. It has become a classic in vacuum cleaner design and was the fastest selling vacuum cleaner ever to be made in the UK. Buddhism is also emphasis on the initiative of an individual for changes since the transformation of our own lives is the first step towards creating a harmonize society that based on compassion and respect of all people's lives (SGI, n.d.): For, as Daisaku Ikeda writes, "A great human revolution in just a single individual will help achieve a change in the destiny of a nation and, further, will enable a change in the destiny of all humankind."

So a designer, as a reflection practitioner, should always be aware of themselves, other people, their lives and other people's lives. They also need to have an initiative and courage to change something in the world that found to be problematic or unfavourable through a process of inquiry. Design, is then, a process of inquiry that produces result. The result is positive or not dependent upon how the designer in this process to facilitate effectively a human-centered, cooperative and democratic perspective.

III. Discussion and Conclusion This paper has analysed design from pragmatist and Buddhist perspectives that design as a creative process can be served in human, business, and social level: Design is a: Meaning-making & value-creation process Communication process Social process Inquiry process that produces result

Designer as a: Author, director, poet Collaborator, composer Social change agent Reflective practitioner

The above view, however, is by no means the absolute and the only definitions of design. Design should always base on human's lives and good design can satisfy users' needs and improve their lives. As human's lives are complex and interwoven with other lives and events, there is no simple and "one-way-fits-all" solution. Moreover, economic, culture, social, technological and environmental factors are ever evolving, hence design and design thinking should need to constantly review and revise so as to meet with the changes of the time and in different context. It also points out that human's needs are complicated and design is based on the satisfaction of needs of man and his own self, he and other people, he and the social and natural environment. We have seen that a design that purely satisfies the narrow sense of 'user' need is problematic. In this regard, design in the 21st century and beyond is about cooperation. It is about collaboration between human beings and other human beings, human beings and natural environment, art/humanity and science/technology, social and commercial, sustainability and development. To pursue a more open, democratic dialogic perspective rather than a dichotomy view. As now we realize that we are all interconnected and interdependent, our own actions will eventually make some impacts to the others and it affects us in return. 31

Many scholars, especially Heidegger and the Critical theory from the Frankfurt School, believe that the human problems we face today are the split of technoscience and humanities, and the conception in the notion of growth. For example, Heidegger considers the split of arts/humanities and technoscience is "the predation of a technological attitude that treats Being as standing reserve, on one side, and the waiting watchfulness of poetike techne on the other." (Hickman, 2001, pp.28) Critical theory argues that "science was in danger of taking forms of social life for granted and reflecting only on 'technical' issues" (Carr & Kemmis, 1986, pp. 132). Science and technology have changed human beings dramatically since the last several decades. Science and technology are great human achievements and they have allowed human beings to overcome many constraints in natural environment. However, if we see that science and technology can solve all human problems, and if we conceive that we can exert science and technology in means of control and domination, then we human beings are alienated with ourselves, others and the world. As Heidegger argued that the invention of airplane and telephone do not give us true nearness. What he meant was that the technological orientation in contemporary life disguises the presence of the thing by representing it as an everyday object cut off from the world and having nothing more than an instrumental value. We are now being far away from the essential of things and our own Beings. Dewey, on the other hand, is neither optimistic nor pessimistic regarding the problems and prospects of technology, as he regards that science can help us to achieve many goals, but it has to take into constant examination and revision. In Dewey's conception, "good science requires respect for autonomy, symmetric reciprocity, and discourse ethics..... But for its full development and for its full application to human problems, science requires the democratization of inquiry." (Putman, 1995, pp.73) Dewey holds that "we human beings construct our own futures; they are among the artifacts that we continually build and rebuild" (Hickman, 2001, pp.55). He emphasizes the importance of individual and collective responsibility for the future and stressed that if the individuals are not free to articulate problems and to attack them then it will hinder the growth of the society. He regards that the problems exist within social and cultural contexts could be resolved by means of discourse within communities. (Hickman, 2001) Moreover, Dewey contends that a central objective of philosophy is to review and question receiving values. In such case, one task of philosophy is to help people to develop critical consciousness by promoting refined aesthetic appreciation abilities (Hickman, 2001). As stated in the beginning of this paper, design thinking is most vital in design discipline as it guides through the whole design process. Design thinking can also affect production and consumption; ultimately it would have influence on human, business, society, and environment. Hence, designers, who play a critical role in the design process, should develop a higher aesthetic appreciation and moral sense that facilitate a constructive means of inquiry. Design in the coming future should be a unity of arts/humanities and technoscience, with ethical thinking and reflective intelligence at its core. As François Rabelais, the French author, put it, "Science without conscience is the soul's perdition." and Omar N. Bradley, the US General, warned, "If we continue to develop our technology without wisdom or 32

prudence, our servant may prove to be our executioner." On the other hand, we also need to reflect design practice and the role of designer in consumer culture. As Heidegger criticizes consumerism, "The circularity of consumption for the sake of consumption is the sole procedure which distinctively characterizes the history of a world which has become an unworld." (Dreyfus, n.d. pp.25) It is a critical moment for designers to stop the damage we have to the environment before it is too late. It requires radical new thinking and also seeks cooperation with others to build a sustainable future.

Humancentered

Democratic & Design for all

Holistic

Compassionate Design

Reflection

Cooperation & Communication

Figure 12: Compassionate design

The core of design should be a compassionate thinking of design, including care, wisdom, and ethical values that reverence for all lives, which is based on humanity and to seek mutual agreements and benefits to all living things. So a compassionate design is human-centeredness, holistic, democratic, emphasis on cooperation and communication, and requires constant reflection and revision (Figure 12). We have seen from the design of Naoto Fukasawa and Miho Museum by I. M. Pei that a design with compassion would be more pleasant to use and achieve higher value to the user as well as creator. The nature of art is to pursue beauty. The practice of ethic is to purse kindness. The principle of science is to pursue truth and facts. More importantly, the purpose of design is to use and serve people and is derived from humans’ lives. It pursues higher living standard and, therefore, includes all of the above. So a truly good design should possess genuine, 33

kindness and aesthetic values. Genuine is about fidelity and honestly, it means the ways in using of materials, manufacturing, and doing business. Kindness refers to compassion and respect to all; it means that design should be human-centered and design for the benefits to all. Aesthetic includes beauty of form and beauty in use, in philosophy, beauty always comes with moral values. Compassion design is one way of achieving it. With such kind of design, man, and his world, can be reunited once again.

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