Phd Proposal (oleke, J.m.)

PhD PROPOSAL The impact of classical biological control of coconut mite on income and food security: A stakeholders and socioeconomic analysis of coconut production in Africa and Sri Lanka By Oleke, Jofrey Masahi

1.0 Introduction The coconut palm and its fruit are regarded as one of the most important crops of the tropics (Child 1974). Among its most important uses coconut is a food source, which provides supplements for body fluids and minerals, and acts as an antihelminthic. The liquid endosperm is also a media for invitro storage of semen and a growth regulator of plants (Woodroof 1970). Copra, the dehydrated endosperm of the nut, is a source of oil for food. Coconut oil is also used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. The material that remains after the oil is pressed from copra is called oilcake and is used as animal feed (Woodroof 1970). The coconut shell is used directly as fuel, filler and extender in the synthesis of plastic, to make activated charcoal, household articles, and to produce various distillation products, such as tar, woodspirit and pitch. Coir, a course fiber from the husk of the nut, has various domestic and industrial uses. Coconut root is brewed and used in folk medicine, for example, as a cure for dysentery (Woodroof 1970). The possibility of utilizing the coconut palm wood on a commercial scale has been recognized only in the last decade or so, although usage of wood from palm species has been known by people in the villages since time immemorial. In more recent times, coconut palm wood has been successfully utilized in a number of coconut growing countries such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Fiji, the Tonga Islands and many others (Arancon, 1996). In Kerala state (India) coconut is the major industry. In Africa and Tanzania in particular, poles and leaves are used for building materials and making furniture. Coconut trees are grown in tropical countries mainly for the high oil content of the endosperm (copra), which is widely used in both food and non-food industries. However, a negative campaign against saturated fats in general, and the tropical oils in particular, led to most food manufacturers abandoning coconut oil in recent years in favour of hydrogenated polyunsaturated oils that come from the main cash crops in the US, particularly soy, and contain trans fatty acids. Studies done on native diets high in coconut consumption show that these populations are generally in good health, and don't suffer

as

much

from

many

of

the

modern

diseases

of

western

nations

(http://www.coconutoil.com/litalee.htm). Large coconut production areas, in particular, are found along the coastal regions in the wet tropical areas of Asia in the Philippines,

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Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Africa (see figure 1). In these countries millions of people make a living from the coconut palm and its many products (Dam, 2002).

Figure 1. Coconut Production in Major Producing Countries

Percentage Production

35 30 25 20 15 10 5

er M As oz am i a bi qu e Ta nz an O th ia er Af ric a O c e La an tin i Am a er ic a

sia ay

O th

nd

M al

ai la

Th

an

ka

ia Sr i-L

In d

ne s pi

ilip

Ph

In d

on

es ia

0

Countries

Source: Extracted from Funds for Commodities Report (Coir Processing Technologies), 2002. Although good varieties of coconuts have been known to exist in the different coconut growing countries of the world, no serious attempts were made to collect them and study them in detail at a representative centre with a view to classify them systematically. The commonly known varieties includes Tall Palm, which is the ordinary or the common tall variety of palms most extensively grown on a plantation scale in all coconut tracts of the world. The West Coast Variety otherwise known as the ordinary or common Tall variety is commonly grown in India. Others include Laccadive Ordinary, Laccadive Small, New Guinea, Cochin China, and Java grown mainly in India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia (Ikisan, 2009).The East African Tall and the other a dwarf (called Pemba Red Dwarf or simply

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Pemba Dwarf) occur everywhere along the Tanzanian and Kenyan coastal coconut growing area, probably also in Mozambique, Madagascar and the Philippines (Kullaya, et al, 2002). Coconut is a tropical crop that supports the livelihoods of many people. Coconut contributes significantly to the economy of Sri Lanka and cultivation spans about 402649 ha which accounts for 21% of agricultural lands in the country. It contributes 2% to Sri Lanka’s GDP, 2. 2.5% to export earnings and 5% to employment. Although these numbers are modest, coconut is an important food crop in Sri Lanka in that it provides about 22% of the per capita calorie intake in the diet, being second only to rice paddy, the staple food of Sri Lankas. Coconut is almost exclusively grown as a rain fed crop in Sri Lanka. Rainfall and temperature are the important climatic factor influencing the coconut yield (Peiris, et al 1995), and by extension on the national coconut production, on, upon which domestic culinary consumption and processing industry depend. In the Philippines, coconut is mainly a smallholder crop and it occupies 23% of the country's total land devoted to agricultural use while in Indonesia coconut area represents around 26% of the entire plantations. In Indonesia, around 95% of the country's coconut area is situated in the islands of Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku. In India, coconuts are grown mainly along the coastal belts and some interior tracts and more than 90% of the area under coconut is concentrated in the Southern States of Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala accounts for 55% of India's total coconut area (Dam, 2002). While the coconut industry in Vietnam contributes to the economic welfare of some 10 million Vietnamese, and provides direct employment to some one million people, in Malaysia the industry plays an important role in the country's economy providing livelihood to some 100,000 farm families or almost 10% of the nation's farming community. In West African coast including Benin, coconut is one of the major crops that support the livelihoods of many communities. It contributes significantly to the income of the people depending on it. The coconut producing countries continue to produce due to the importance of the crop as a social crop. These countries realize the potential coconut holds in economic development and poverty alleviation (Bashar, 2002). Along the coastal belt of Tanzania, coconut is one of the important crops (Mwinjaka,

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1999). It is produced in Dar es Salaam, Coast, Tanga, Lindi, Mtwara, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mafia and inland region of Morogoro and on the shores of Lake Nyasa, Tanganyika and Victoria. In Tanzania the population of palms was estimated at about 25 million. About 95 percent of the coconuts are grown by small-scale farmers while the rest are under medium and large-scale plantations (Kullaya, 1999). Coconut is important as; the main source of income for farmers in the coastal belt of Tanzania where 15 percent of the country’s population live (Mwinjaka, 1999). The palm products in Tanzania are mainly fresh coconuts, copra and coconut oil. It is estimated that of the total coconut production 40 percent is marketed as fresh coconuts and 20 percent is processed into copra and coconut oil (Debus and Zills, 1981). Fresh coconuts are mainly used as a source of coconut milk (“tui”) that is used for cooking purposes in most of the households in the coconut growing areas (Magitta, 1989). Copra is processed into coconut oil which is used for both cooking and industrial purposes – notably in soap making (Magitta, 1989). In Zanzibar (Tanzania), coconut production constitutes a lager part of economic activities. It became the second most important foreign exchange earner in Zanzibar, after cloves, and it held this position for a long time (Kullaya, et al, 2002). The coconut, like many plants is subject to attack by various pests and diseases. Often, plants develop some defence mechanisms to local pests and diseases (Peiris, 2005). The coreid bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi Brown (Heteroptera: Coreidae), the rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes monoceros Oliv (Coleoptera:Scarabaeidae) and the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer have been identified as the major coconut pests of economic importance. The major disease of coconut is the lethal disease (LD), which is caused by phytoplasma. The symptoms of LD are very similar to those of Lethal Yellowing-type disease in the Caribbean area and West Africa. They include premature nut fall, typical blackening of the inflorescences, bronzing of progressively younger leaves, necrosis and rot of the spear leaves and decay of the root system, in that order (Mwinjaka, 2009). Increase in trade, tourism, transport and travel over the past century has dramatically enhanced the spread of organisms (e.g. Wittenberg & Cock, 2001). As a result, biological invasions by non-indigenous species constitute a leading threat to natural ecosystems and

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biodiversity (Pimentel, 2002). Bioinvasions involving exotic pests are also an undesirable element of the globalization of agriculture. Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Coconut mite) is one of the exotic pests that pose a threat to the coconut industry. Accordingly, substantial efforts to eradicate or control invasive mite have resulted in high economic costs (Pimentel, 2000). A number of control measures mostly involving aerial application and root feeding of chemical pesticides have been recommended, but a solution to eradicate the mite menace is yet to be evolved. In India and Sri Lanka adoption of phytosanitary measures in coconut gardens such as cleaning the crown of the palm, keeping the plantation clean and burning of all immature nuts fallen due to mite infestation, spraying biopesticides on the bunches and following palm health care practices have been the traditional ways to control the mites (http://coconutboard.nic.in/protect1.htm). Intercropping with the multipurpose leguminous tree, Gliricidia sepium has been recommended by the Coconut Research Institute (CRI) in Sri Lanka to control the mites and is well practiced by the farmers. Intercropping of pineapple has also been successful in the western part of the Jaffna peninsula. Mixed cropping systems, as well as those with good ground sanitation, showed low mite infestations, except for mixed coconut gardens with banana, which recorded the highest mite infestation. Banana uses large amounts of potassium, the lack of which in coconut may affect its water retention capacity. Mixing banana with coconut is therefore not advised (CRI, 2008). Effective control strategies generally require knowledge of the pest in their introduced and native ranges (Roderick & Navajas, 2003) as is illustrated by the invasive spread of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), which attacks coconut. For this species, a series of studies have used molecular data to document the spread of the insect in its home range in sub-Saharan Africa (White & Elson-Harris, 1992) to reach a nearly global distribution in less than 200 years (Fimiani, 1989). Besides describing the invasion pathways of the species, knowledge of the genetic structure of fruit fly populations has helped to design control strategies including

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quarantine and sterile insect release (Bohonak et al., 2001; Bonizzoni et al., 2001; Gasperi et al., 2002; Baliraine et al., 2003). Similar knowledge has been used to study coconut mite and design strategy to control it The coconut mite, attacks young fruits of the coconut palm, to which it is almost exclusively confined. The mites are small, with the largest stage around 250 µm in length, but they often build up extremely large and dense populations, in which case their feeding causes scarring and distortion of the fruits, and may cause premature fruit drop (Moore & Howard, 1996). In fact, it is one of the worst arthropod pests of coconut palm mostly spread by wind, whether grown as a crop tree or as an ornamental, and is the only eriophyid mite that is a serious pest of coconut palm. It is distributed in many tropical countries where coconuts grow. It is controversial whether it is native to the Eastern or Western Hemisphere (UFIFAS, 2009). 1.1 Problem Statement and Justification Aceria guerreronis has been reported to cause great losses to farmers and the coconut industry as whole as it kills coconut seedlings by feeding on growing tips (Aquino & Arruda, 1967). The survey carried out by the CRI in Sri Lanka revealed that the percentages of mite infested nuts in the Anuradhapura, Pollonnaruwa, Rajangane, Puttalam and Kurunegala are 94.4%, 94.5%,90.5%, 81.1% and 69.8% respectively with a mean of 77.9 in 2001. In this study harvested nuts were monitored for one year at monthly intervals and grouped into ‘mite free (undamaged)’ and ‘mite infested (damaged)’ nuts (Peiris, 2002). Reductions in copra yield have been variable from 15–40% (Herna´ndez Roque, 1977; Julia & Mariau, 1979; Muthiah & Bhaskaran, 2000; Nair & Koshy, 2000; Seguni, 2002). Losses due to extensive premature dropping of fruits have been reported from 60% in Colombia (Zuluaga & Sa´ nchez, 1971); 70% in Venezuela (Doreste, 1968), and 10– 100% (average 21%) in Tanzania (Seguni, 2002). For communities whose livelihoods depend on coconut, a mite infestation poses a threat to their life. Coconut grower is affected if the nuts are small or rejected due to mite damaged. In some serious cases of mite infestation, all nuts may drop causing losses to 6

farmers income. Generally due to damage on coconut caused by mites; farmers usually harvest small sized nuts. Small sized nuts fetch a lower price or are rejected causing loss to growers. Peiris (2002) estimated loss of income for coconut growers in Sri Lanka to be 7% and 43% caused by rejected nuts and small sized nuts respectively. The study also estimated the impacts of mites on the milling industries. It was found that de-husk weight of a mite free large normal nut and mite infested large normal nut is 0.764 and 0.665 kg resulting 13% loss while the percentage of loss in de-husk weight of small size normal nut is 10.6%. In Tanzania, losses of growers income due to coconut mite is estimated to be about 30-50% (Seguni, 2008). Despite its effects to the income, coconut mite also poses a threat of food insecurity to the households growing coconut since coconut contributes significantly to the their livelihoods. Strategies to control coconut mite involving both biological control and quarantine require knowledge of the ancestral localities and plant hosts of the mite. However, the origin of the coconut mite is unknown. Almost simultaneously with its original description in the 1960s, the mite was reported in Africa beginning with Gulf of Guinea Islands in 1966, Benin in 1967, and in Tanzania during the 1980s.

Several studies on

coconut mites have been conducted in the areas affected by the arthropod. In Brazil, Benin and Tanzania a study was conducted to assess coconut mite abundance and damage to coconut – and the associated predator fauna - in (Lawson et al. manuscript submitted; Negloh et al. manuscript in prep.). In all of these localities, however, coconut mite infestations were heavy, implying that the effects of these pests were huge. Similar work had been conducted independently in Sri Lanka (Fernando et al. 2003). Evaluation of the data collected to date indicates that coconut mite abundance and damage to coconut are far less in Brazil than in Africa and Sri Lanka, and that the predator fauna associated with coconut mite in Brazil is richer than what is found elsewhere. In Tanzania the coconut mite has only recently been recognised as a serious pest of coconut (Varela, 1992; Meena, 1996). During extensive surveys in Tanzania in 1992 and 1996 (Varela, 1992; Meena, 1996) the coconut mite was observed in all coconut growing regions of Tanzania affecting all or most coconut varieties, but there were site

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differences in severity of infestation. The southern regions of Mtwara and Lindi appeared to be more seriously affected and were thought to be due to the unimodal rainfall pattern (Varela, 1992). However, these findings have not been proved by subsequent surveys. In attempt to control coconut mite, predatory mites found beneath the coconut perianth in Florida and observed to prey on coconut mites include Amblyseius largoensis Muma, Neoseiulus mumai Denmark, and N. paspalivorus DeLeon. In Puerto Rico, Bdella distincta Baker and Bablock preyed on coconut mite and on Steneotarsonemus furcatus (DeLeon) in the same habitat. In both of these localities, however, coconut mite infestations were heavy, implying that the effects of these predators were insignificant. The fungus, Hirsutella thomsonii (Fisher), which is widely distributed and known to attack various species of mites, has been isolated from coconut mites in various countries, as has H. nodulosa Petch in Cuba. Control of several species of mites with fungus has been developed and applied, but success has often depended greatly on environmental conditions. In general, these efforts have been most successful under humid conditions favouring the development of the fungi (UFIFAS, 2009). While previous efforts have identified the natural enemy fauna associated with coconut in northern and northeastern Brazil, very little has been done to explore for natural enemies of coconut mite in other countries in South and Central America (e.g., Mexico, Venezuela, and Colombia). These are countries where the coconut mite is present but there are no reports of serious damage to coconut, making them potential candidate for foreign exploration. The identification and introduction of potential natural enemies of coconut mite, and understanding their diversity and the ecological factors that affect plant-pest-predator, and predator-predator interactions and their effects on coconut mite control are of tremendous scientific interest. This study therefore becomes a part of a big program, that will search for and characterize the biology and ecology of natural enemies of coconut mite in regions in the Americas that have not been explored, and conduct experimental releases in Africa and Sri Lanka of one known or newly identified natural enemy and simultaneously determining with molecular tools and cross-breeding experiments whether Brazilian populations of predator species associated with coconut mite are

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biologically similar to conspecifics found in Africa and Sri Lanka. The searches will be to understand interspecific interactions among co-occurring natural enemy species and their impact on coconut mite. Experiments will also help in understanding plant factors that affect the susceptibility of coconut mite to predation and predator dispersal, with the aim of designing interventions that could enhance biological control. This study will include stakeholder surveys while production and marketing data will be used in socioeconomic analyses to determine the effect of biological control interventions on peoples’ livelihoods. The stakeholders include producers, consumers, suppliers, vendors/marketers and policy makers in each target country. The baseline survey will set the benchmark for assessing the effects of biological control. The program is likely to contribute substantially to our fundamental understanding of the factors that affect the success of biological control – of one of the most challenging pests - while simultaneously improving livelihoods of people who depend on coconut The present study is therefore an attempt to conduct stakeholder analysis to determine their perceptions on the performance of coconut sub-sector and constraints facing the industry, particularly focusing on the impact of attacks by mites on the coconut yields and survival. Informal and formal interviews with stakeholders will help understand their perception on the effects of the mite attacks in their livelihoods. The data on income distribution will be used to assess the impacts of the biological control on gender equity. In the baseline survey, fresh coconut value chain analysis will be carried out. The farmers, merchants and consumers will be surveyed to get their views on the production and marketing of the coconut. The study will further undertake a benefit/cost analysis of controlling the mites in order to improve the performance of the sub-sector and its contribution to poverty reduction. The livelihoods of more than 15 million people in Benin, Siri Lanka and Tanzania are at stake if the mite is not controlled. Hence seeking to understand the mite’s fauna and migratory pattern is an important step towards finding cost effective control mechanism. The study will also determine consumer willingness to pay for products produced under biological control of coconut mites. The consumer preference study is important due to increased concern on environmental and health

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issues related to food products. Thus the study will pursue the following specific objectives; 1.2 Objectives (i)

To assess the perception of the stakeholders (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the performance (constraints and opportunities) for coconut value chain.

(ii)

To establish indicators and benchmark for assessing the impacts of biological control method

(iii)

To take inventory of various coconut based cropping systems and characterize and rank them according to economic performance.

(iv)

To compare cost and benefit of biological control of coconut mite to those of other pest control methods.

(v)

To determine the contribution of biological control of coconut mites (other pests) to food security, gender equity and income.

(vi)

To determine consumers’ relative preference for coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite and those produced with pesticide.

1.3 Research Questions/ Hypotheses On the basis of the specific objectives one and three, the following research questions will have to be answered; i) What are the constraints and opportunities in the coconut value chain? ii) What are existing coconut cropping systems? iii) What are the characteristics of each coconut cropping systems? On the basis of the specific objectives four, five and six hypotheses will be tested as follows (i)

The first null hypothesis specifies that biological control of coconut mite is less profitable than other pest control methods 10

-The alternative hypothesis specifies that biological control of coconut mite is more profitable than pest control methods (ii)

There second null hypothesis specifies that there is no significant contribution of biological control of coconut mite to food security, gender equity and income of the coconut producers. -The alternative hypothesis specifies that the biological control of coconut mite method has a significant contribution to food security, gender equity and income.

(iii)

The null hypothesis specifies that consumers prefer coconut products produced through biological control of coconut mite to those products produced using pesticides. -Alternate hypothesis specifies that consumers prefer coconut products produced using pesticides to those produced through biological control of coconut mite

2.0. Research Methodology 2.1. Study Areas The study will cover different geographic regions where the mite is currently reported, including several of the main coconut production regions in the Asia (Sri Lanka) and Africa (Tanzania and Benin Republic in West Africa). 2.2. Sampling Strategy In this study, first, baseline study will carried out in the three selected countries. The survey will be carried to obtain the baseline information that will be used to assess the impacts of the introduction of biological control of coconut mites in the livelihood of growing farmers. The importance of coconut production in the areas is the basis for consideration for sampling approach in this survey. Discussions will be held with the research institutes in the respective countries to purposively obtain the sub-countries and villages where coconut is important. With the help of local extension staff, a list of wards/sub-

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countries and villages will be developed for all of the villages highly producing coconut. All the villages will be put together and 15 will randomly be selected. The list of households will be obtained from village register books and 450 households will comprise a sample for all three countries. A survey will also include 90 randomly selected coconut wholesalers and 90 retailers from purposively selected buying points (Local market/Market centers). The list of both wholesalers and retailers will be obtained from market center authorities. Coconut consumer intercept survey will be carried out in the market centers. A

systematic sampling will be employed to get 150 coconut consumers in the three

countries. Information regarding coconut processor will be obtained from records maintained by coconut research institutes in the targeted countries. From a list prepared, 90 coconut processors will be involved in this study. Secondly, the consumer intercept survey will be carried out in the third year of the study to determine the consumer willingness to pay for coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite. Following field tests of the survey instrument, consumers will be approached at direct-sale outlets such as farmers’ markets, roadside produce stands and malls. A systematic sampling will be employed in which 210 from randomly selected respondents will constitute a sample in all the selected countries. In the third and fourth year of the study, cost and benefit analysis of the biological control of coconut mite and the impact studies will be done respectively. The sampling approach described above for baseline survey will be adopted. 2.3. Data Collection Methods Informal group interviews and key informant surveys will be organized for producers, consumers, suppliers, vendors/marketers and policy makers in each target country. Using structured questionnaires, information collected will include socio-demographic and economic characteristics of farms and communities involved; coconut production

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technologies and practices available and used by producers; current and potential impact of coconut on income; and trends in coconut production and income distribution. Other information will include new crop protection practices and mainly data relative to biological control and related yield and improved quality (oil, copra, etc) and coconut cropping system. Fresh coconut value chain analysis will be carried out for producers, wholesalers, retailers and processors. The study will assess the cost and benefit of the biological control and other new techniques and return on investment in biological control through increased production and improved quality of coconut as a result of biological control of coconut mite. Assessment of consumer preferences will be carriedout for consumers’ willingness to pay for coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite and those produced with chemical pesticide. 2.4. Questionnaire Pre-testing For a baseline survey, the pre-testing of questionnaires will involve coconut farmers, coconut wholesalers and retailers, consumers and processors. The pre-testing of questionnaire will be done by interviewing 20 coconut farmers in Mkuranga, District, Tanzania while pre-testing of questionnaires for coconut wholesalers and retailers, consumers and processors will be done by interviewing 10 respondents each. The pretesting will be done in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Necessary corrections will be made to the questionnaires before data collection. The pre-testing of questionnaire for costbenefit, consumers’ preference and impacts studies will be planned after the baseline study is complete in the second third and fourth years of the study. 2.5. Data analysis Responses from the interview will be coded and summarized using excel. The descriptive analyses will involve computation of statistical means, standard deviations, graphs and frequency distribution. Quantitative analyses will be performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS for Window, 12.5). Cross-tabulations involving Chi-Square tests will also be employed in testing association between variables. A logit regression model will be estimated to assess the effects of socio-economic variables on the

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dependent variables. Estimation of parameter in the models (MLE) will be performed using econometric soft ware LIMDEP (Green, 2002).

2.5.1. Analysis of Coconut Value Chain Estimates of marketing margins and marketing efficiency will be obtained using the formula given by Kohls, (1985). According to Kohls (1985), marketing margin equals the difference between what the consumer pays and the farm gate price per unit of the coconut produce. Based on this formula and on the assumption that wholesalers buy directly from the farmers, while the retailers buy directly from the wholesalers, it then follows that wholesalers’ margin equals wholesalers’ selling price per unit minus farmers’ selling price per unit. Also, retailers’ margin equals retailers’ selling price per unit minus wholesalers’ selling price per unit. The net margin accruing to the wholesaler or the retailer is the difference between the market margin and the marketing costs. Marketing cost is the sum of transport cost, storage cost, labour cost and other costs. Marketing efficiency is then calculated using the formula given by Olukosi and Isitor (1990). The formula is as specified below; MarketingEfficiency =

ValueAddedbyMarketingActivities * 100% .....................................(1) MarketingCost

In other words, MarketingEfficiency =

NetM arg in * 100 ............................................................................(2) Marketig cos t

To calculate market margin and market efficiency, the average prices of coconut is used as given by the respondents in the various markets. Marketing Margin analysis can be represented as MM = Pi − Pi −1 .....................................................................................................................(3) Where; MM = Marketing Margin between market level i and market level i – 1. Pi = Price at market level i Pi -1 = Price at market level i -1 Margin percentage is expressed on the basis of buying price. That is P − Pi −1 MM = i X 100.................................................................................................(4) Pi −1 14

2.5.2. Gross Margin Analysis Gross margin is the difference between total revenue of coconut and the variable cost attributed to it as shown in equation (5) below. GM = TR − TVC...............................................................................................................(5) Where; GM = Average Gross margin (US$/ha) TR = Average total Revenue (US$/ha) TVC = Average Total Variable costs (US$/ha). Thus we can estimate producer share as described in the next section 2.5.3. Producer Share This the ratio of producer price to consumer price (retail price) depending on the level of marketing chain. It will be calculated by; Ps =

Px MM = 1− ............................................................................................................(6) Pr Pr

Where: Ps

=Producers’ share

Px

=Producers Price

Pr

=Retail Price

MM=Market Margin 2.5. 4. Cost and Benefit Analysis In this study of potential cost and benefit of biological control of coconut mite control, primary data will be gathered through structured questionnaire while secondary data will be extracted from project reports. This analysis will focus on valuing crop damage in terms of quantity and quality resulting from varying levels of pest infestation (yield responses to insect damage), the efficacy of biological control agents at different levels of infestation, the resource requirements of the biological control method such as labor and equipment for application (egg cards, distribution boxes, etc.), the quantity of biological control agents, and the labor required to determine the need for field monitoring, the effects in subsequent time periods on infestation, yield and other pest controls needed, the

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interactive relationships among biological control agents and factors such as soil fertility, crop varieties and weather. Other data needed will include the prices of product and inputs used in the production of the crop. Since coconut is in competition with other enterprises on the farm, costs and returns associated with the competitive crops are also needed. The cost-benefit ratios are based on a brief but comprehensive survey of data sources, but nevertheless are approximations within ranged values. Because of the permanent nature of biological control, the net benefits (Π) [i.e., benefit (B) - costs (C)] corrected for the present value of money using the discount rate (1+α)-1 accrue over t years (i = 1... t) will be given as.

Π 1t =1 =

∑ (B

i

− Ci )

(1 + α ) i

............................................................................................................(6)

Where;

∑

= Summation sign α = Interest rate of price of money.

Gross revenue (B) to the coconut production is given as Bi = Pi (Yi − DN (1 − E ))....................................................................................................(7) Where; P= Price of output, Y= Maximum possible yield D =Damage rate per pest N and E are the efficacy of the biological control In reality, D is a function of N (i.e., D (N (1-E))), but for simplicity we assume that D is a constant. In fact, the benefit of biological control for the ith year is B i = PDNiE, and in the extreme may equal PY. In evaluating the effectiveness of chemical control or biological release of natural enemies, the balance of revenues (B(X)) = the value of the increase in yield attributable to using X units of the control measure (e.g., pesticide or biological control) minus the outof-pocket cost (C(X)) of causing X units of the control measure. Only infrequently are

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the social costs (S(X)) associated with the control measure included. For and biological control, S(X) is usually zero. The benefit function is usually assumed to be concave from below and the cost per unit of X constant. The net benefit (II) function is thus given as.

Π = B ( X ) − C ( X )...............................................................................................................(8) Thus the optimal solution to this function occurs when dB dC = .............................................................................................................................(9) dX dX It is important to note that the social or external costs of pesticides in terms of pollution, health and environmental effects are seldom included in the grower's calculations because there is no economic incentive to do so. With naturally occurring biological control and economically viable classical biological control (BC), the costs of other pest control tactics and social costs often become zero, and the whole of society obtains the maximum benefits, the natural and biological controls supplant other methods of control and are assumed to solve the problem permanently. In such cases biological control should be favored as the equation for profit becomes; B( BC ) − C ( BC ) > B ( X ) − C ( BC ) > B( X )......................................................................(10) 2.5.5. Consumers’ Willingness to Pay (WTP) The purpose of this analysis is to ascertain first consumers’ willingness to pay for selected coconut products and how the demographics may influence willingness to pay for coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite. The specific products to be examined will include……………….. Respondents will be presented with label that would appear on or near the products. The label indicates whether the product has been made of coconut produced under biological control of coconut mite or pesticides. Then the respondents will be asked a question regarding their opinion of willingness to pay for products produced under biological control of coconut mites. Respondents can answer that they “support biological control and

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would pay a higher price for product under biological control”, “support biological control of coconut mites but not if it requires paying a higher price for derivative product ”, or “do not support biological control products regardless of whether it costs me anything”. Those responding that they would pay more for biological control products will be then asked a series of questions regarding pricing of specific products. Prior to this series of questions, the respondents will be presented with a reminder that this is a hypothetical situation and of their ability to pay for the products. Two pictures of coconut products (to be determined) will then be presented to the respondents. The respondents will be reminded that these are simply examples of coconut products, and they might wish to purchase a product of a different style, color, or type of coconut. In the case of each product, two identical pictures will be shown so that the two products are identical in all attributes except for sources. Dimensions for each product will also be provided, as will the price for the coconut products produced under pesticide control. These prices will be based on prices for representative products in the local market area. Respondents are then asked how much more they would be willing to pay for a product that was produced under biological control. Demographic questions will conclude the survey. Willingness-to-pay measurements are grounded in utility theory. Hanemann (1991) outlines the theoretical underpinnings as a utility maximization problem subject to a budget constraint. The consumer chooses the level of the good X that maximizes utility, producing the traditional Marshallian demand curve X (p, y, q), where p is market price, y is income and q, is the quality of the good, fixed exogenously. The resulting indirect utility function is V (p, y, q). Identifying a change in a good’s quality from q 0 to q1, the measurement of value is V ( p, y − WTP, q1 ) = V ( p, y, q o ).........................................................................................(11) Where WTP is the amount the consumer would be willing to pay for the improved quality, maintaining constant utility. The estimate is shown more directly using the dual problem: expenditure minimization constrained by a given utility level (Lusk 2004). The dual

18

produces the Hicksian demand curve X (p, U, q) and indirect expenditure function M (p, U, q) so that (WTP = M ( p, U , q o ) − M ( p, Uq1 )..........................................................................................(12) Where U is a constant utility level

The random utility model (RUM) is used to analyze choices and estimate WTP. When respondents are asked to make a choice of whether or not to pay a given dollar amount, a positive response is interpreted as their WTP. In order to find the central tendency of WTP from a sample, the positive responses are fitted to a probability function. This is modeled as the probability that the utility derived from the good associated with that choice is greater than the alternative, P[ (V1 + ε 1 ) > (Vo + ε o )].....................................................................................................(13) orP[ (ε 1 − ε o ) < (V1 − Vo )]...................................................................................................(14) Where V is the indirect utility and ε is the error term. Estimates of WTP are based on the mid-point of this function, i.e. the point at which the probability of a positive response is 0.5. The most basic version of this model includes only the socioeconomic attributes of respondents as variables.

[

]

P { ε 1 ( S ) − ε 2 ( S )} < (V1 ( S ) − V 2 ( S ) } .............................................................................(15) This is the model used in contingent valuation choice analysis. Lancaster (1966) builds the conceptual framework for conjoint analysis by clarifying that utility is gained from the characteristics of a good rather than the good itself. Characteristics are objective qualities of a good while attributes, on the other hand, are what the characteristics represent, and are the real source of an individual’s utility. Lancaster maintained that utility should be a function of characteristics rather than attributes as the former are measurable, so that, u = U (t1 , t 2 , t 3 )................................................................................................................(16) t = BX .............................................................................................................................(17)

19

Where t represents the characteristics of a good X, based on the consumption technology matrix B (i.e. the amounts of each characteristic which are predetermined in each good). Louviere, Hensher and Swait (2000) further refine these distinctions, making utility a function of consumption services. Each characteristic of a good is associated with a consumption service which it provides. Moreover, they suggest that utility maximization is based on expected services of a good because consumers do not have complete information. In practice, the model forces a one-to-one correlation between services and characteristics. However, these theoretical distinctions are helpful in conceptualizing characteristics as signals that communicate value. Conjoint analysis proceeds with a good that is decomposed according to the Lancastrian model and measures its part-worth values is shown below.

[

]

Pr obij = P (Vij + ε ij ) > (Via + ε ia ; a = 1,2.... j , a ≠ j ..........................................................(18)

[

]

orP (ε ij − ε ia ) < (Vij − Vij ) ................................................................................................(19) Where Vij denotes the individual’s indirect utility from choosing product j and εij is an error term. The part worth utility is represented in the following relationship Vij = βX i + δPi + ε ij .......................................................................................................(20) Where Vij denotes the individual’s indirect utility from choosing product j; xj is a vector of product attributes level j’s; pj is price for product j; β is a conformable vector of coefficients and δ is a conformable coefficient to be estimated; and εij is an error term. This simple additive linear function produces the main effects of our model. These effects indicate how utility is affected by the level of the attribute when it is isolated from all other attributes. Higher order effects indicate whether utility is also affected when two attributes are presented in tandem (Louviere, et al 2000). We incorporate combinations of attributes by interacting product attribute levels, so that, Vij = βX i + δPi + χC ij + ε ij ...............................................................................................(21) Where cij is a vector of combination effects from product attribute level i's interacted with product attribute level j's; and χ is a conformable vector of coefficients to be estimated. 20

The final dimension to our model is that of preference variation among the population. In order to account for different preferences among various sub-populations we incorporate socioeconomic characteristics through interaction terms with the attribute level variables, so that, Vij = αS ij + βX i + δPi + χC ij + ε ij ...........................................................................................(22)

Where Sij is a vector of socioeconomic variables i’s interacted with product attribute level j’s; and α is a conformable vector of coefficients to be estimated. Now that we have the utility function defined, we can model the choice as the relative differences in utility. The difference between product A and product B for individual i is, dVij = α∆S ij + β ∆X i + δ∆Pi + χ∆C ij + ε ij ..............................................................................( 23)

Where dViAB = the utility difference between product A product B. Thus the model above can be represented. Y = β i − β 2 ∆ Pr ice + β 3 ∆Labeled + β 4 Local + β 5 ∆EnviromentalFriendly + β 6 ∆PesticideFree + β 7 ∆Health + / − β 8 ∆Nationality * ∆Age + β 9 ∆Gender * ∆Local + ε ij ............................................................................................(24) The signs on parameters indicate the hypothesized relationship. The parameters are estimated with the maximum likelihood procedure for a binary probit model with the Limdep statistical package. 2.5.6. Household Food Security Food security indicators such food stock and number of meals eaten daily within a household will be summarized. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient will then be applied to determine the relationship between coconut production indicators and food security indicators. Using the food balance sheet model, the total food available to the household for consumption will be estimated as follows:

21

Total food available for household consumption =[Total food produced] + [Total food purchased and food donations]-[Total food sold, wasted and given out as food losses]. That is; Fy = ( Fo + F p + Fd ) − ( Fs + Ft ) , at time t = a year…………………………………. (25) Where; Fy is total food available for household consumption Fo is total food output (Produced) Fp is total food purchase Fd is total food donations Fs is total food sold out Ft is total depleted food (food wasted) The household food available for consumption is commonly believed to be dependent of the household factors of production such as land household food expenditure as well as household characteristics and socio-economic characteristics, access to market, credit, land, size, extension services, livestock diversity, education, household size and age. This relationship will be shown as; Y = ( P f , H ex )..................................................................................................................(26) Where; Y represents household food availability for consumptions measured in calories Pf represents household factors of production such as land Hex represents household food expenditure. Thus the equation for estimation will be as written below; Y = ( Pf H ex X 1 , X 2 , X 3 , X 4 , X 5 ).................................................................................(27) Where; X1-X5 = socio-economic factors while other variables are as previously defined 2.6. Budget and Source of Funds The baseline survey is estimated to cost 26477 USD (see appendix 7 for detail). The budget for cost-benefit, consumer preference and impact studies is estimate to be 26500 USD. A total of 52977 USD will be requested from the University of Amsterdam (the Netherlands) in collaboration with IITA to finance the study. 22

Reference

Aquino, M.L.N. & Arruda, G.P. (1967) O agente causal da ‘necrose do olho do coqueiro’ em Pernambuco. 33 pp. Recife, IPA. Birungi, J. & Munstermann, L.E. (2002) Genetic structure of Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) populations based on mitochondrial ND5 sequences: evidence for an independent invasion into Brazil and United States. Genetics 95, 125–132. Child, R. 1974. Coconuts. 2nd Edition. Longmans, Green and Co., London 335 p. Coconut Industry Board, Jamaica, West Indies. 1973. 13th Report of the Research Department July 1972 - June 973. Report of the Research Department. Coconut Industry Board (Jamaica) 63p. CIMMYT, 1988. From Agronomic data to farmer recommendation. Mexico D F. Green, W.H. (2002). Limdep Version 8.0: Econometric Modeling Guide. Econometric Software, Inc, Plainview, New York. Pp201

23

Howard, F.W., and E. Abreu Rodriguez. and Denmark, H.A. 1990. Geographical and seasonal distribution of the coconut mite, A. guerreronis (Acari: Eriophyidae), Puerto Rico and Florida, USA. J. Agric. Univ. P.R. 74:237-251 Howard, F.W., and E. Abreu-Rodriguez. 1991. Tightness of the perianth of coconuts in relation to infestation by coconut mites. Fl. Entomol. 74:358-361. Keifer, H.H., E.W. Baker, T. Kono, M. Delfinado, and W.E. Styer. 1982. An illustrated guide to plant abnormalities caused by eriophyid mites in North America. U.S.D.A. Agric. Res. Services. Agriculture Handbook No. 573:5-121. Maddala, G. S., 1983. Limited-dependent and qualitative variables in econometrics. Cambridge. University press. New York. Moore, D. 1986. Bract arrangement in the coconut fruit in relation to attack by the Coconut Mite E. guerreronis Keifer. Trop. Agric. 63:285-288 Moore, D., and L. Alexander. 1987. Aspects of migration and colonization of the coconut palm by the coconut mite, E. guerreronis (Keifer) (Acari: Eriophyidae). Bull. Ent. Res. 77:641-50. Moore, D., and L. Alexander. 1990. Resistance of coconuts in St. Lucia to attack by the coconut mite E. guerreronis Keifer. Trop. Agric. 67:33-36. Moore, D., L. Alexander, and R.A. Hall. 1989. The coconut mite, E. guerreronis Keifer in St. Lucia: yield losses and attempt to control it with acaricide, polybutene and Hirsutella fungus. Trop. Pest Manag. 35:83-89. Moore, D., M.S. Ridout, and L. Alexander. 1991. Nutrition of coconuts in St. Lucia and relationship with attack by coconut mite. A. guerreronis Keifer. Trop. Agric. 68:4144. Persley, G.J. 1992. Replanting the tree of life: Towards an international agenda for coconut palm research. Redwood Press Ltd. Melksham 156 p. Theil H., (1979)., Principles of Econometrics. Centre for Mathematical Studies and Economics. The University of Chicago. John Wiley & Sons New York. Woodroof, J.G. 1970. Coconuts: Production, processing, products. The AVI Publishing Co.Inc. 241p. Briones, M.L. & Sill, Jr W.H. (1963) Habitat, gross morphology and geographical distribution of four new species of eriophyid mites from coconuts in the Philippines. FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 11, 25–30. Crooks, J.A. & Soule, M. (1999) Lag times in population explosions of invasive species: causes and implications. pp. 103–125 in Sandlund, O., Schei, P. & Viken, A. (Eds) Invasive species and biodiversity management. Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Kluwer. Davies, N., Villablanca, F.X. & Roderick, G.K. (1999) Bioinvasions of the medfly Ceratitis capitata: source estimation using DNA sequences at multiple intron loci. Genetics 153, 351–360. Elton, C. (1958) The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. 181 pp. London, Chapman and Hall. Kohls, R.L (1985): Marketing of Agricultural Products. Macmillan Publishers, New York, pp 83. Olukosi, J.O and Isitor, S.V (1990): Introduction to Agricultural Market and Price; Principles and Applications. Agitab Publishers, Zaria. Pp 34.

24

25

Stakeholders’ Survey (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the Performance (constraints and opportunities) for Coconut Value Chain; Baseline Study in Tanzania, Benin and Sri-Lanka Appendix 1: Farmer’s questionnaire PART A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent A3 Name of head of household A4 Country name A5 Region/Sub-country name A6 District name A7 Village name GPS READING

Way point number N/S E/S Attitude (Meters)

(Note to interviewer: A household consist of all people who live under the same roof, eat from the same pot and share expenditures. A person is not considered as a member if she spent more than 3 month away in the past 12months) PART B: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS B1. Household socio-demographic characteristics ID Name of Sex Age Relationship Formal Off school household 1=Male (In with household schooling training member 2=Female years head 1=Attended 1=None except 1=Head before 2=Vocational months 2=Spouse 2=Attending training for 3=Son/Daughter now 3= Short term infants 4=Relative 3=Never training on

Working on the farm 1=Full time 2=Part time

Working off-farm 1=Yes 2=No

Major livelihood occupation

26

i.e. <1 year)

5=Un-related

attended 4=Too young to attend

best agriculture practice (nonextension services)

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 Major occupation: 0=None, 1=Crop production, 2=Livestock keeping, 3=Business, 4=Salaried employment, 5= Wage work, 6=Technician, 7=Artisan/handcraft, 8=Natural resources (wood, charcoal etc), 9=Traditional healing/medicine, 10=Rent income, 11= Others (Specify) PART C: LAND USE AND TENURE C1: Please provide the information on land use and tenure. Land tenure Size (Acres) Size of land (Acres) under different land uses structure Coconut Other perennial Annual crops crops Private (titled) land

Grazing Fallow land

27

Land with use right only Share cropped land Borrowed land Rented D: PRODUCTIVE ASSETS D1: Please provide information on the following key productive assets Asset Number Working status owned 1=It is/are most of the working properly 2=It is one/most of them working moderately, It is/most of them working properly Hand hoe Machete Axe Ox-plough, weeder, riper etc Ox-cart Wheel barrow Oxen Donkeys Horses Sprayer Watering cane Irrigation pump Tractor Pick-up, Lorry etc Others (Specify)

Total value (Total value if liquidated)

28

E.FARM SIZE AND LABOUR E1.Please provide the information on the crops cultivated and the farm size in the years 2008 SN Crop Area under cultivation (acre) Area under fallow/grazing (acre)

E2. What is the labour input used in the first season in 2008 SN Land preparation Planting

Crop

Land rent cost

Family labour* cost

Hired labour cost

Family labour cost

Hired labour cost

Fertilizer/chemic al application

Weeding

Family labour cost

Family Hired labour labour cost cost

Hired labour cost

Harvest ing and transpo rting Family labour cost

Storage (Shelling + storage equipments Hired Famil labour y cost labou r cost

29

Family Labour: People (A.E)*Effective days*Effective Hours A.E=Equivalents (1 Adult = A person of 15 and above of years of age; A child of 10-14 years of age will be equated to 0.5 of an adult equivalent) F: INCOME F1. Please provide the information on the income from the following crop sources in last three years Category Income in $/Local currency 2006/7 2007/8 2008/9 Quantity Price/unit Amount Quantity Price/unit Amount Quantity Coconut Other crops (specify)

Price/unit Amount

30

F2. Please provide the information on the income from the following non-crop sources Non-crop income sources Quantity

2006 Amount ($/local currency)

2007 2008 Quantity Amount Quantity Amount ($/local ($/local currency) currency)

Livestock Beekeeping Fishing Charcoal making Petty trade Weaving/pottery Blacksmith (e.g. bicycle repair etc) Labour selling (casual) Formal employment Remittances from relatives Credit (formal and informal) Others (specify)…………………………………………… ………..

F3. Did you borrow money in the last five years? ……… YES=1 (go to F4)

NO=2

F4. If yes from above, please fill the Table below.

31

Source

Year borrowed

Amount borrowed

Reasons for borrowing

Interest rate

G: COCONUT PRODUCTION TREND1 G1. Please provide the information on the following: principal crops, area, production and productivity for last three seasons S/N

2006/7

1.

Principal Area Production (in Crops (in tones) ha) (1ton=1000kg )

2.

Coconut

Production (in tones) (1ton=1000kg )

2007/8

2008/9

Area Production (in (in tones) ha) (1ton=1000kg )

Productivity Area Production (in (in tones) (kg/ha) ha) (1ton=1000kg )

Productivity (kg/ha)

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. G2: Has the production of coconut in your farm 1=Increased 2=Remained the same 1

Data on coconut production trends to be supplemented with secondary data from reports

32

3=Decreased

G3: Please report the coconut production for your farm as follows: Item Acreage harvested Yield (Copra/…)

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

G4: Please indicate the reasons for the answer in G2 above. 1=…………………………………………………………… 2=…………………………………………………………… 3=…………………………………………………………… 4=…………………………………………………………… 5=…………………………………………………………..

33

H: MITES EXTENT AND SEVERITY, AND CROP PROTECTION PRACTICES H1. What are the most important coconut production and post-harvest constraints? Production constraints A constraint? If yes, what is the level If yes what is the level 1=Yes of severity of severity compared to 2=No 1=Highly sever other constraints 2=Severe ( Comparative ranking, 3=Less severe 1st being most severe) Coconut mite Lethal disease

H2. Do you consider coconut mite a problem in you farm? H2. If yes, do you think coconut mite cause any loses in your farm? H3. Please report the losses due coconut mite in the in the last five years Year Size of nuts* Average nuts per palm 2004 2005 2006 2007

If yes to coconut mite, which year did it start to be a major constraint in your farm

1=Yes, 2=No 1= Yes, 2=No Average production

34

2008 2009 *Code for size: 1=Large, 2=Medium, 3=Small H4. What are the extent of and severity and coconut mite problem in your farm? Plot (SN)

Acreage

Proportion of land infected by coconut mite (%)

Now

Five years ago

Control measures used

Perceived level of severity (impact on coconut production) Codes; 1=more severe, 2=severe, 3=less severe, 4=not yet a problem 1st season Five years ago 2008 (most recent)

Codes for coconut control: 1=Biological control, 2=Pesticides, 3=Using resistant varieties, 4=Others (Specify)……….. H6. Which of the following coconut mite control technologies are you aware of and what is your current use status? If you are currently using coconut mite control method what is the associated yield of coconut? Technology Coconut mite Aware of the If aware, current use When did you Since when If you are aware ID control technology? status know the did you start from whom did you 1=Yes 1=Currently using existence of this to use it for receive 2=No 2=Abandoned technology? the first time? information?* 3=Never adopted (Year) 4=No coconut mite on the farm

35

Codes for source of information: 1=Farmers in the village; 2=Mass media (Radio, New papers etc), 3=Extension workers, 4=Local NGO, Research institutes, 5=Farmers’ Community Based Organization (CBOs), 6=others (Specify) H7. If you aware of any coconut mite control technology but have not adopted any, what are the most important reasons for nonadoption? (Multiple answers possible) S/N Reasons for no-adoption Reason status Ranking (1st being the most important) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 H8. If you aware of any coconut mite control technology in H4 how would you rank various coconut mite control technologies you have been introduced to? Technology Coconut mite Ranked based on ID control technology Yield enhancing Technical Labor demand reason 4 1=Most yield simplicity (Least demanding

36

enhancing 2=Moderately yield enhancing 3=Last yield enhancing

(Simplicity to most complex) 1=Simplest 2=Simpler 3=Complex

to the most demanding) 1=Least demanding 2=Moderately demanding 3=Most demanding

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I.FOOD SECURITY I1. What is the household’s main source of income? 1= Animal & animal product sales 2= Crop sales (go to J2) 3= Trade 4= Casual labour 5= Salaried/wage employment 6= Remittances/gifts 7= Others, specify J2.What is the main crops that contribute to the main source of income? Select up to four responses from the right hand column and rank them in order of first, second, third choice. 1--------------first choice a. Maize 2---------------second choice b. Coconut 3---------------third choice c. Paddy 4---------------fourth choice d. Cassava e. Fruits f. Others (Specify) I3. What portion of income is contributed by coconut?

37

I4. How do you distribute the income from coconut? Please rank them in order of importance. 1--------------first choice a. Food 2---------------second choice b. Education 3---------------third choice c. Health 4---------------fourth choice d. Shelter (e.g. house construction etc,) e. Others (Specify) I5. About coconut and food security 1 Do you buy food items after selling coconut? 2 To what extent does coconut contribute to the food security in your household?

1=Yes, 2=No 1= Not all, 2=Very Little, 3=Some what, 4=Very much I6. These next questions are about the food eaten in your household in the last 12 months and whether you were able to afford the food you need 1 In the last 12 months, since last {DISPLAY CURRENT MONTH}, did {you/you or 1=YES, 2= NO , 3=REFUSED, other adults in your household} ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because 4=DON’T KNOW there wasn't enough money for food? 2

How often did this happen?

3

In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn't enough money to buy food?

4

[In the last 12 months], were you ever hungry but didn't eat because you couldn't afford enough food?

1=almost every month 2=some months but not every month, or in only 1 or 2 months? 3=REFUSED 4=DON'T KNOW 1=YES 2= NO 3=REFUSED 4=DON’T KNOW 1=YES 2= NO

38

3=REFUSED 4=DON’T KNOW I7. Food consumption and dietary Diversity Twenty four recall for food consumption in the households: The interviewer should establish whether the previous day and night was usual or normal for the household. If unusual-feast, funeral or most members absent, then another day should selected. Food groups consumed: What food groups did members Did a member of your Codes*: of the households consumed in the past 24 hours (from this household consume food from 1=Own production time yesterday to now)? Include any snacks consumed any of these food groups in the 2=Purchase last 24 hours? 3=Gift from friends 1=Yes 4=Food aid 2=No 5=Bartered 6=Borrowed 7=Gathered/wild 8=Others (Specified) 9=N/A Type of food What is the main source of the dominant food item consumed (use the above codes)? 1. Cereal and cereal products (e.g. maize, rice and bread)? 2. Milk and milk products (e.g. goat/camel/fermented milk, milk powder)? 3. Sugar and honey? 4. Oil/ fats (cooking fat or oil, butter, ghee, margarine)? 5. Meat, poultry (Goat/camel meat, beef, chicken or their products)? 6. Pulses/legumes, nuts (e.g. beans, lentils, green grams, cowpeas; peanut)?

39

7. Roots and tubers (e.g. potatoes, arrowroot)? 8. Vegetables (e.g. green or leafy vegetables, tomatoes, carrots, onions)? 9. Fruits (e.g. water melons, mangoes, grapes, bananas, lemon)? 10. Eggs? 11. Fish and sea foods (e.g. fried/boiled/roasted fish, lobsters)? 12. Miscellaneous (e.g. spices, chocolates, sweets, beverages, etc)? I8. In general what is the main source of staple food in the household? (*Use codes in I5 above) _________________ I9. Total number of food groups consumed in the household: ____________________ I10. How many meals2 has the household had in the last 24 hours (from this time yesterday to now)? 1= One 2=Two 3= Three J. GENDER RELATIONS J1. Who in the household makes decision to sell and give away coconut/coconut products? Products Man Women Joint Children Coconut Coconut water Roofing/Thatching materials Coconut husk Others (Specify) J2. Who in the household makes decision to use benefit of coconut in kind or money? Products Man Women Joint 2

Children

Others (Specify)

Others (Specify)

A meal refers to food served and eaten at one time (excluding snacks) and includes one of the three commonly known: - breakfast, lunch and supper/dinner

40

Coconut Coconut water Roofing/Thatching materials Coconut husk Others (Specify) K. COCONUT UTILIZATION K1. Do you grow coconut for the following use? Code 1=Yes, 2=No 1. Coconut water 2. Roofing (Coconut fronds) 3. Coconut oil 4. Fuel wood 5. Palm wine 6. Others (Specify) K2. Rank the following coconut use according to the importance of growing coconut 1--------------first choice 2---------------second choice 3---------------third choice 4---------------fourth choice

a. Part of diet b. coconut c. Roofing d. Oil processing f. Others (Specify)

41

Please estimate the quantity of coconut you have allocated to the different uses on a monthly basis; Utilization Model During the season Off-season Sell neighbors Consume at home Send to commodity market Send to auction Remain unsold Given as gift Others (Specify) L.COCNUT PROCESSING 1

Do you process coconut to any form?

2

What is/are the product(s) you produce from raw coconut?

3

What are the methods/equipments you use in processing coconut?

4

What are the facilities you use in storing coconut products?

5

What are the reasons for not processing the crop produce?

1=Yes (go to...) 2=No (go to...) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1=Expensive, 2=Time consuming, 3=Lack of Rank technology, 4=No market for products, 5=Other

42

6

What are the constraints in processing coconut?

----------- problems ( Specify)---------------------------------------------------------1=Marketing, 2=Capital/credit availability, 3=Equipment & installations, 4=Product quality Rank training, 5=Product price stabilization, 6=Lack of ----------- policies, 7= Others ( Specify) ---------------------------------------------------

M. COCONUT MARKETING M1.These next questions are the marketing of coconut the last 12 months 1 When did you record your highest / lowest Limit Month/Season sales? Highest ---------------------2

How often do you sell your produce?

Lowest ---------------------1=Daily 2=Weekly 3=Monthly

Quantity

Price

----------------------

-------------------

----------------------

-------------------

3

How much, at average, do you sell per transaction? -----------------------------------------($/local currency) M2. In the last three years how much did you sell?

43

2006 1

Amount produced (Bags/nuts)

Amount sold -Price /nuts or Shs/bags

2007

2008

Amount produced (Bags/nuts)

Amount sold -Price /nuts or Shs/bags

Amount produced (Bags/nuts)

Amount sold -Price /nuts or Shs/bags

--------------------

---------------------- ------------------------------------1=Village, 2=Neighbouring village, 3=Nearby township, 4=Distant township, 5=Regional market, 6=Others (Specify)---------------

2

---------------------- ------------------------Where do you sell your produce?

3

To whom do you sell your produce?

4

Who sets the price for the coconut fresh nuts when selling?

5

Why do you prefer to sell your produce to any of the above?

6

What marketing activities did you incur and at what costs?

1=Local consumers, 2=Small traders/broker (bicycle), 3=Large trader (vehicle), 4=Others (Specify)-----------1=Farmers 2=Wholesalers 3=Retailers 4=Bargaining 5=Others (Specify) 1=Reasonable prices, 2=Immediate payments, 3= Marketing convenience, 4=Other (Specify) Item Cost

Do you have any communal marketing arrangements?

Gunny bags Twine Transportation Storage Levies Harvesting Others (Specify) 1 = YES

7

44

2 = NO 8

What are the benefits of that association /organization? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1=Low producer price, 2= Higher transport cost, 3= poor road to the market, 4=Poor market to information, 5=Lack Rank of reliable transport cost, 6=Others (Specify) -------------------------------------------------------------

9

What are your major marketing constraints (rank them)

10

What are the opportunities you think are associated with coconut marketing?

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

45

Stakeholders’ Survey (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the Performance (constraints and opportunities) for Coconut Value Chain; Baseline Study in Tanzania, Benin and Sri-Lanka Appendix 2: Questionnaire for Fresh Coconut Wholesalers Questionnaire No…………..…

Date…………..……..……..

A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent A3 Name of head of household A4 Country name A5 Region/Sub-country name A6 District name A7 Village/Market place name GPS READING

Way point number N/S E/S Attitude (Meters)

B: BACKGROUND INFORMATION: B1. Age (years)………………………………………………. B2. Sex: 1 = Male 2 = Female B4. Marital status (indicate by putting tick) 1=Single 2=Married 3=Widowed 4=Divorced B5. Education level (indicate by putting tick) 1=None 2=Primary 3=Ordinary 4=Advanced secondary secondary

5=Separated

5=Diploma

6=Degree

B6. What is duration in this business (years)………………………………..…………… B7.What was your opening capital (USD/local currency)…………… B8. What was the source of opening capital? 1=Own capital, 2=Loan, 3=Friends/relatives, 4= Others (Specify) C. INFORMATION ON MARKETING CHANNELS AND STRUCTURE 46

C1. Where do you get coconut for sale? 1= from farmers 3= Open auction sale. 5= Secret bidding 2= from collectors. 4=Contract sale, 6=Others (Specify)………….

C2. Why do you prefer this source(s)? 1=Cheaper buying prices 2=Proximity to the market 3=Homeland 4=Any other reason (specify) …………………………………………… …. C3. What are the terms of payment to the above sources? 1=Cash terms only 3=Both of the above terms 2=Credit terms 4=Other (Specify)………………………… C5. What is the average amount of fresh coconuts do you buy on weekly basis? ................................................. C6. Do you have any information pertaining to selling prices in other markets? 1= YES 2 = NO C7. If Yes, how far from those markets? 1=Rural markets 2=Urban markets C8. How do you obtain such pieces of information? 1=Through agents 2=Through own investigation / visits 3=Any other sources (specify) ………………………………………… …..... C9. How do you take advantage of such pieces of information? ........................................................................................... C10. What is your opinion on new entrants in this market? 1=No objection 2=Would prefer restriction 3=Any other opinion (specify)………………………………………… C11. Do you have any plans to quit he market in he near future? 1= YES 2= NO C12. Give reasons for your answer please…………………………………………………

47

D. INFORMATION ON PRICING D1. Please provide the average quantity of coconut brought per month and the buying price at the supply source(s) during and off-seasons SN Source During the season Off-seasons Quantity*

Price (USD/Local currency**)

Quantity

Price (USD/Local currency

1 2 3 4

Farmers Others retailers Wholesalers Any other sources (Specify) *Local unit of measure be adjusted to kilograms ** Local currency be adjusted to USD

D2. What kind of marketing costs do you incur? SN Activity Cost (USD/Local Currency) Assembly Grading Packaging Gunny bags Twine Transport (Lorry, bicycle etc) Loading Offloading Meals Levy/Taxes Wastage (proportion.............) Miscellaneous marketing services D3. To whom do you sell the produce? 1. Consumers 2. Other traders 3. Any other customer (specify)………………………………….. D4. What is the average unit selling price? (USD/local currency) ......................Per …........................... D5. Do you charge different prices to different buyers? Give reasons............................. 48

E. INFORMATION ON MARKETING EFFICIENCY E1. Is the supply from the source (s) uniform over the years? 1=YES 2= NO E2. If NO, kindly finish information on the following SN

Source

During the season Quantity*

Price (USD/Local currency**)

Off-seasons Quantity

Price (USD/Local currency

1 2 3 4 E3. What do you think are the causes of these changes in supply? E4. Who set price for coconut? 1. Farmer 3. Wholesales 2. Retailers 4. Any other (specify) ………………………….. E5. What criteria used in setting price 1. Costs incurred 2. Through auction

3. Supply and demand 4. Others (Specify) ………………………

E6. What is your opinion on the existing pricing mechanism? ................................ E7. What factors do you consider when buying or selling coconuts? 1. Price on which you are going to sell 3. Quantity of the fresh nuts 2. Accessibility of the market 4. Others specify…………. E8. What are your major marketing problems / challenges facing your business? ……………………………………………………….…………………. …………………………………………………………….……………. ………………………………………………………….………………. E9. What should be done to improve marketing of coconut? ………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

49

E10. What are the challenges facing the fresh coconut trade? ................................................................................................................. ………………………………………………………………….………. …………………………………………………………………………..

50

Stakeholders’ Survey (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the Performance (constraints and opportunities) for Coconut Value Chain; Baseline Study in Tanzania, Benin and Sri-Lanka Appendix 3: Questionnaire for fresh coconut retailers Questionnaire No…………..…

Date…………..……..……..

A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent A3 Name of head of household A4 Country name A5 Region/Sub-country name A6 District name A7 Village/Market place name GPS READING

Way point number N/S E/S Attitude (Meters)

B: BACKGROUND INFORMATION: B1. Age (years)………………………………………………. B2. Sex: 1 = Male 2 = Female B4. Marital status (indicate by putting tick) 1=Single 2=Married 3=Widowed 4=Divorced B5. Education level (indicate by putting tick) 1=None 2=Primary 3=Ordinary 4=Advanced secondary secondary

5=Separated

5=Diploma

6=Degree

B6. What is duration in this business (years)………………………………..…………… B7.What was your opening capital (USD/local currency)…………… B8. What was the source of opening capital? 1=Own capital, 2=Loan, 3=Friends/relatives, 4= Others (Specify)

C. INFORMATION ON MARKETING CHANNELS AND STRUCTURE 51

C1. Where do you get coconut for sale? 1= from farmers 3= Open auction sale. 5= Secret bidding 2= from collectors. 4=Contract sale, 6=Others (Specify)………….

C2. Why do you prefer this source(s)? 1=Cheaper buying prices 2=Proximity to the market 3=Homeland 4=Any other reason (specify) …………………………………………… …. C3. What are the terms of payment to the above sources? 1=Cash terms only 3=Both of the above terms 2=Credit terms 4=Other (Specify)………………………… C5. What is the average amount of fresh coconuts do you buy on weekly basis? ................................................. C6. Do you have any information pertaining to selling prices in other markets? 1= YES 2 = NO C7. If Yes, how far from those markets? 1=Rural markets 2=Urban markets C8. How do you obtain such pieces of information? 1=Through agents 2=Through own investigation / visits 3=Any other sources (specify) ………………………………………… …..... C9. How do you take advantage of such pieces of information? ........................................................................................... C10. What is your opinion on new entrants in this market? 1=No objection 2=Would prefer restriction 3=Any other opinion (specify)………………………………………… C11. Do you have any plans to quit he market in he near future? 1= YES 2= NO C12. Give reasons for your answer please…………………………………………………

52

D. INFORMATION ON PRICING D1. Please provide the average quantity of coconut brought per month and the buying price at the supply source(s) during and off-seasons SN Source During the season Off-seasons Quantity*

Price (USD/Local currency**)

Quantity

Price (USD/Local currency

1 2 3 4

Farmers Others retailers Wholesalers Any other sources (Specify) *Local unit of measure be adjusted to kilograms ** Local currency be adjusted to USD

D2. What kind of marketing costs do you incur? SN Activity Cost (USD/Local Currency) Assembly Grading Packaging Gunny bags Twine Transport (Lorry, bicycle etc) Loading Offloading Meals Levy/Taxes Wastage (proportion.............) Miscellaneous marketing services D3. To whom do you sell the produce? 4. Consumers 5. Other traders 6. Any other customer (specify)………………………………….. D4. What is the average unit selling price? (USD/local currency) ......................Per …........................... D5. Do you charge different prices to different buyers? Give reasons............................. 53

E. INFORMATION ON MARKETING EFFICIENCY E1. Is the supply from the source (s) uniform over the years? 1=YES 2= NO E2. If NO, kindly finish information on the following SN

Source

During the season Quantity*

Price (USD/Local currency**)

Off-seasons Quantity

Price (USD/Local currency

1 2 3 4 E3. What do you think are the causes of these changes in supply? E4. Who set price for coconut? 1. Farmer 3. Wholesales 2. Retailers 4. Any other (specify) ………………………….. E5. What criteria used in setting price 1. Costs incurred 2. Through auction

3. Supply and demand 4. Others (Specify) ………………………

E6. What is your opinion on the existing pricing mechanism? ................................ E7. What factors do you consider when buying or selling coconuts? 3. Price on which you are going to sell 3. Quantity of the fresh nuts 4. Accessibility of the market 4. Others specify…………. E8. What are your major marketing problems / challenges facing your business? ……………………………………………………….…………………. …………………………………………………………….……………. ………………………………………………………….………………. E9. What should be done to improve marketing of coconut? ………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………..

54

E10. What are the challenges facing the fresh coconut trade? ................................................................................................................. ………………………………………………………………….………. …………………………………………………………………………..

55

Appendix 4. Questionnaire for Fresh Coconut Consumers Questionnaire No…………..…

Date…………..……..……..

A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent and Position A3 Country name A4 Region/Sub-country name A5 District name A6 Name of market center B. BACKGROUND INFORMATION B1. Age of respondent ……………………………………………….. B2. Sex: 1 = Male 2 = Female B3. Marital status; 1=Single 2=Married 3=Widowed 4=Divorced

5=Separated

B4. Level of education (indicate by putting tick) 1=None 2=Primary 3=Ordinary secondary

4=Advanced secondary

5=Diploma 6=Degree

B5. Main occupation…………..…………….………... C. COCONUT CONSUMPTION C1. Why do you prefer coconut to other sources of cooking oil? 1=Cheaper 2=More delicious 3=Both (1) and (2) 4=Any other reason ………………………………………………. C2. What particular size of nuts do you usually prefer to buy? 1=Small, 2=Medium, 3=Large. C3. Why do you prefer the size in (explain) ………………………………..………... ………………………………………………………………………….…….. C4. How many coconuts do you buy per week? Average……………….…….……… B5. How much money do you spend on the nuts in above? Average (USD/Local currency……………………………………………………………….................. 56

C6. How frequently do you buy in this market? 1=Daily, 2=Weekly, 3=Monthly……………. C7. Besides this market, Do you get supplies from other sources? 1 = YES 2 = NO C8. If YES what are they? 1=Rural markets 2=Outside sellers 3=Peddlers/hawkers 4=Others (specify) …………………………………………… C9. How do you determine the buying prices? 1=Fixed buy the retailer 2=Bargaining with the retailers 3=Other (specify) ………………………………………......... C10. What is the mode of payment? 1=Cash 2=Credit 3=Any other terms (specify) …………………………………. C11. How do you view the price determination mechanism? 1=Fair 2=Unfair 3=Any other opinion ………………………………………….. C12. What are the major marketing problems with regard to coconuts in this market (Rank them starting with the main problem) 1=Inadequate supplies 2=Price fluctuations 3=Low quality nuts small immature 4=Rigid pricing methods / no bargaining 5=Any other problems……………………………………………...….. …………………………………………………………………...….……..…. …………………………………………………………………….……..… C13. What do you think should be done to rectify the situation above? 1. …………………………………………………………….………… ……… 2. ……………………………………………….…..………..………… 3. ………………………………………………………………….…… ……… 4. …………………………………………………………………….… 57

……… 5. ………………………………………………………………………. ……… 6. C13. What are the challenges facing the fresh coconut trade? 1…………………………………………………………….………… 2……………………………………………….…..………..………… 3………………………………………………………………….…… 4……………………………………………………………………..... 5. …………………………………………………

58

Stakeholders’ Survey (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the Performance (constraints and opportunities) for Coconut Value Chain; Baseline Study in Tanzania, Benin and Sri-Lanka Appendix 5: Questionnaire for Fresh Coconut Processor Questionnaire No…………..…

Date…………..……..……..

A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent and Position A3 Country name A4 Region/Sub-country name A5 District name A6 Name of the enterprise Full postal address Email Mobile Fax B: BACKGROUND INFORMATION: B1. Age (years)………………………………………………. B2. Sex: 1 = Male 2 = Female B3. Education level (indicate by putting tick) 1=None 2=Primary 3=Ordinary 4=Advanced secondary secondary

5=Diploma

6=Degree

B4. Type of business…………………………………………………………………….. B5. How long has your business been operating?…………..…………… B6.What was your opening capital (USD/local currency)…………… B7. What was the source of opening capital? 1=Own capital, 2=Loan, 3=Friends/relatives, 4= Others (Specify) B8. What is your product range? Mention please 1. -----------------------------------------------------------2. -----------------------------------------------------------3. -----------------------------------------------------------4. -----------------------------------------------------------5. -----------------------------------------------------------6. -----------------------------------------------------------

59

B9. Which of your products is most important to you? (Rank them in term of sales) B10. Do you experience fluctuations in demand for your products during the year? 1=Yes, 2=No B11. Are there seasonal high or lows? (Obtain information on months) B12. What is the cause of the seasonality? (try to get a reason eg many experience peak demand associated with important religious festivals such as Ramadaan and Christmas): B13. Do you experience unpredictable changes in demand for your products? (If yes) What are the causes? B14. What has been your annual output over recent years? (Tonnage or value, whichever is most appropriate, for a large factory tonnage is best, for a small processor an estimate of value would be more appropriate): B15. For the industry as whole, is demand for your main products static/increasing or decreasing: (this question should help us to estimate market potential) B16. What are your markets (local / export / both, if both then what are the proportions for each market eg local 60% export 40%): B17. How does government economic policy affect your business? (For instance interest rates, inflation, tax, import duties, privatisation, infrastructural investment)

C. PROCESSING FACILITIES 1

What are the methods/equipments you use in processing coconut?

2

What are the facilities you use in storing coconut products?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

60

3

What are the constraints in processing coconut?

1=Marketing, 2=Capital/credit availability, 3=Equipment & installations, 4=Product quality training, 5=Product price stabilization, 6=Lack of policies, 7= Others ( Specify)

4.

Rank ------------------------------------------------------------What do you think are the opportunities for processing coconut? (Explain)

61

Appendix 6: Coconut Based Cropping Systems A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent A3 Name of head of household A4 Country name A5 Region/Sub-country name A6 District name A7 Village name GPS READING

Way point number N/S E/S Attitude (Meters)

B: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC AND ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS B1. Household socio-demographic characteristics ID Name of Sex Age Relationship Formal Off school household 1=Male (In with household schooling training member 2=Female years head 1=Attended 1=None except 1=Head before 2=Vocational months 2=Spouse 2=Attending training for 3=Son/Daughter now 3= Short term infants 4=Relative 3=Never training on i.e. <1 5=Un-related attended best year) 4=Too agriculture young to practice (nonattend extension services) 01

Working on the farm 1=Full time 2=Part time

Working off-farm 1=Yes 2=No

Major livelihood occupation

62

02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 Major occupation: 0=None, 1=Crop production, 2=Livestock keeping, 3=Business, 4=Salaried employment, 5= Wage work, 6=Technician, 7=Artisan/handcraft, 8=Natural resources (wood, charcoal etc), 9=Traditional healing/medicine, 10=Rent income, 11= Others (Specify) C: LAND USE AND TENURE C1: Please provide the information on land use and tenure. Land tenure Size (Acres) Size of land (Acres) under different land uses structure Coconut Other perennial Annual crops crops Private (titled) land Land with use right only Share cropped land Borrowed land

Grazing Fallow land

63

Rented

D.FARM SIZE AND LABOUR D1.Please provide the information on the crops cultivated and the farm size in the year 2008 SN Crop Area under cultivation (acre)

D2. What is the labour input used in the first season in 2008 SN Land preparation Planting

Crop

Land rent cost

Family labour* cost

Hired labour cost

Family labour cost

Hired labour cost

Area under fallow/grazing (acre)

Fertilizer/chemic al application

Weeding

Family labour cost

Family Hired labour labour cost cost

Hired labour cost

Harvest ing and transpo rting Family labour cost

Storage (Shelling + storage equipments Hired Famil labour y cost labou

64

r cost

Family Labour: People (A.E)*Effective days*Effective Hours A.E=Equivalents (1 Adult = A person of 15 and above of years of age; A child of 10-14 years of age will be equated to 0.5 of an adult equivalent) E: COCONUT CROPPING SYSTEM(S) E1: What are the common crop mixture do you practice? 1= Intercropping in coconut gardens3 2= Mixed cropping in coconut gardens4 3= Coconut based multistoried cropping system5 4= High-density multispecies cropping systems6 E2: Please list the crop mixture for the coconut based cropping system and corresponding yields for last two seasons mentioned in D1 above SN Crop Name Units Yield in 2007 Yield in 2008 Season 1 Season 2 Season 1 Season 2 Growing annuals/biennials in the interspaces of coconut Growing of perennial crops in association with matured coconut palm, like cocoa, clove, nutmeg, coffee, pepper, mulberry, jack, breadfruit, mango, sapota, papaya and timber yielding trees 5 Three or more crops having different morphological characteristics in the interspaces of coconut so as to intercept solar radiation at different levels and exploit different soil zones 6 A large number of crop species with very high plant density, including annuals, biennials and perennials 3 4

65

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Coconut

E3: Please rank the reasons for crop mixtures in your farm mentioned in D1 above, from 1 to 13, with one being the most important and 13 being the least important SN Reasons Rank 1 Household food security 2 Soil conservation 3 Crop compatibility 4 Reduced cultural practices 5 Crop insurance 6 Taste and preference 7 Cultural reasons 8 Harvesting at different times 9 Nutrient enhancement 10 Adapted agroforestry practices 11 Measures against crop failure 12 Incorporation of women crops 13 Ecological reasons

66

F.COCONUT ESTABLISHMENT F1. What planting materials do you use?

1=Seed nuts, 2=Seedlings

F3. Where do you get coconut planting materials?

1=Own farm (Nurseries), 2=Fellow farmers, 3= Others (Specify)

F4. Please provide information on the coconut varieties in your farm Variety Variety name Acreage Number of coconut palms ID

Average nuts/palm/year

G. COCONUT UTILIZATION G1. Do you grow coconut for the following use? Code 1=Yes, 2=No 1. Coconut water 2. Roofing (Coconut fronds) 3. Coconut oil 4. Fuel wood 5. Palm wine

67

6. Others (Specify) G2. Rank the following coconut use according to the importance of growing coconut 1--------------first choice 2---------------second choice 3---------------third choice 4---------------fourth choice

a. Part of diet b. coconut c. Roofing d. Oil processing f. Others (Specify)

G3. Rank the following coconut production constraints according to their importance. 1--------------first choice 2---------------second choice 3---------------third choice 4---------------fourth choice 5---------------five choice

a. Pests b. Theft c. Vermin d. Disease f. Others (Specify)

68

Appendix 7. Consumer study (Willingliness-to- pay) A: RESPONDENTS DETAILS A1 Name of interviewer A2 Name of respondent A3 Name of head of household A4 Country name A5 Region/Sub-country name A6 District name A7 Village name B; SECTION A B-1 Have you ever purchased coconut products that were labeled grown free from pesticides? 1. YES 2. NO 3. DON’T KNOW B-2 Do you plan to purchase any coconut products during the next year? 1=YES, 2 =NO, 3=DON’T KNOW, 4=REFUSED [IF ANSWERED ‘NO’ or ‘DON’T KNOW’ TO QUESTIONS A-1 AND A-2, SKIP TO QUESTION A-4.] B-3 Are the coconut products your purchased or plan to purchase for… 1=Commercial Purposes 2=Use in your home/residence 3=Both 8=DON’T KNOW 9=REFUSED B-4 Have you ever purchased products that were labeled as manufactured from pesticide free coconut? 1=YES, 2 =NO, 8 =DON’T KNOW, 9=REFUSED B; WILLINGNESS TO PAY Please examine this label that might appear on or nearby coconut products (label). B1. Please circle the response that most closely reflects your opinions about coconut products produce under biological control of coconut mites.

69

a. I support biological control of coconut mite and would pay a higher price for products if they were produced under biological control. b. I support biological control of coconut mite but not if it requires paying a higher price for coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite. c. I do not support coconut products produced under biological control regardless of whether it costs me anything B2 Please look at the picture and of the following coconut products. Please indicate in the space provided, how much more you would pay for the product that is manufactured from coconut produced under biological control of coconut mite. Product1= Price X1,……. (For BC) Product2= Price X2,…….. (for BC) B3. What are the reasons why you may buy coconut produced under biological control of coconut mite? Please rank them. --------------first choice a. Health benefit 2---------------second choice b. locally grown coconuts 3---------------third choice c. environmentally friendly method 4---------------fourth choice d. Pesticide free 5---------------five choice f. Labelled pesticide free 6---------------sixth choice g. At least 95% organic ingredient B4. There are many reasons why a person might support coconut products produced under biological control of coconut mite, but not if it requires paying a higher price. Why do you feel this way? 1=can NOT afford to pay higher prices 2= do not believe it costs any more to make a coconut product 3=believe the manufacturers should not charge higher prices even if it costs more to make coconut products 4=other 8 =DON’T KNOW, 9=REFUSED C. About yourself and your household We would like to conclude our survey by asking you a few questions about yourself and your household. Remember, all responses will be held confidential. C-1 Gender 1=Male 2=Female C-2 Marital status 1=Never married 2=Now married 3=Now married but legally separated

70

4=Unmarried partner 5=Divorced 6=Widowed B-3 What is your age? ___________________________________ C-4 What is the highest grade of school you completed? ________ 1=No formal schooling 2=Grade school (1-8) 3=Some high school 4=High school graduate 5=Some college 6=College graduate 7=Post graduate 8=DON’T KNOW 9=REFUSED C-5 Have you ever purchased labeled NON-COCONUT products (pesticide free produce)? [1=YES, 2=NO, 8=DON’T KNOW, 9=REFUSED] C-6 How often do you read labels on products when purchasing them for the first time? [1=Never, 2=Almost Never, 3=Sometimes, 4=Often, 5=Always, 8=DON’T KNOW, 9=REFUSED] C-7 Are you the primary food shopper in your household? (Make 50% or more of all purchase) 1=Yes 2=No C-9 What is your household size? C-10. I am going to read a list of income categories for household income from all sources before taxes for the year 2008. Please stop me when I get to yours. 1 = $4,999 or less 2 = $5,000 - $9,999 3 = $10,000 - $14,999 4 = $15,000 - $19,999 5 = $20,000 - $24,999 6 = $25,000 - $34,999 7 = $35,000 - $49,999 8 = $50,000 - $74,999 9 = $75,000 - $99,999

71

10 = $100,000 - $149,999 11 = $150,000 or more 12 = Don't know 13 = Refused You may also provide your actual income ----------------------------------------------

72

Stakeholders’ Survey (farmers, customers, merchants) regarding the Performance (constraints and opportunities) for Coconut Value Chain; Baseline Study in Tanzania, Benin and Sri-Lanka Appendix 7; Draft budget for survey of 780 respondents/ households Activity

Item

Questionnaire pre-testing

Interviewers

Amount of time (Days) 3 2

Car Fuel7

1

Driver Survey

Data entry

Interviewers Field assistant (Extension Staff) Car Fuel Drivers Air ticket Dar es Salaam –Zanzibar Air ticket Tanzania-Benin Air ticket BeninSri-LankaTanzania Accommodation and subsistence (Benin and SriLanka) Data entry operators

Number

Cost per unit (in USD) 40

Total cost (in USD) 240

1

200

200

1

2

40

80

15 3

20 15

40 20

12000 900

3 3 1

15 -

900 40 150

2700 1800 150

1

-

1299

1299

1

-

1101

1101

1

60

40

2400

4

15

20

1200

Total Contingency (10%) Grand Total Note: Hyphen (-) indicates that the item is not applicable

7

24070 2407 26477

If IITA vehicles are used, we will have to outsource vehicles

73

Appendix 8. Timetable of the PhD programme

Activity/output Proposal development Set objective of the research Prepare draft questionnaire Proposal presentation Pilot test Post pilot meeting

1

Year 1 2 3

1

4

1

Year 4 2 3

* * * *

Sampling Staffing and training

*

Interviewer training

*

Field work Analysis and documentations Write preliminary report of baseline survey Final report and documentation

*

Consumer study survey Impact and cost-benefit studies Data analysis and thesis preparation

4

Programme year and quarter Year 2 Year 3 2 3 4 1 2 3

*

*

Location Tanzania Tanzania SUA Tanzania Tanzania All countries All All countries All countries

* *

*

4

*

Tanzania

*

Tanzania

* *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

All countries * *

*

*

SUA

74

Thesis defense Scientific Publications

*

* *

SUA IITA/UvA

75