Pea For Xaara-1

Pea is a frost-hardy, cool-season vegetable that can be grown throughout most of the United States, wherever a cool season of sufficient duration exists. For gardening purposes, peas may be classified as garden peas (English peas), snap peas and snow peas (sugar peas). Garden pea varieties have smooth or wrinkled seeds. The smooth-seeded varieties tend to have more starch than the wrinkled-seeded varieties. The wrinkled-seeded varieties are generally sweeter and usually preferred for home use. The smoothseeded types are used more often to produce ripe seeds that are used like dry beans and to make split-pea soup. Snap peas have been developed from garden peas to have low-fiber pods that can be snapped and eaten along with the immature peas inside. Snow peas are meant to be harvested as flat, tender pods before the peas inside develop at all. The Southern pea (cowpea) is an entirely different warm-season vegetable that is planted and grown in the same manner as beans.

The following varieties (listed in order of maturity) have wrinkled seeds and are resistant to fusarium wilt unless otherwise indicated. Early Daybreak (54 days to harvest; 20 to 24 inches tall, good for freezing) Spring (57 days; 22 inches tall; dark green freezer peas) Main Season Sparkle (60 days to harvest; 18 inches tall; good for freezing) Little Marvel (63 days; 18 inches tall; holds on the vine well) Green Arrow (68 days; 28 inches tall; pods in pairs; resistant to fusarium and powdery mildew) Wando (70 days; 24-30 inches; withstands some heat; best variety for late spring planting) Sugar Snowbird (58 days; 18 inches tall; double or triple pods in clusters) Dwarf Gray Sugar (65 days; 24 to 30 inches) Snowflake (72 days; 22 inches to harvest; high yield)

Peas thrive in cool, moist weather and produce best in cool, moderate climates. Early plantings normally produce larger yields than later plantings. Peas may be planted whenever the soil temperature is at least 45°F, and the soil is dry enough to till without its sticking to garden tools. Plantings of heat-tolerant varieties can be made in midsummer to late summer, to mature during cool fall days. Allow more days to the first killing frost than the listed number of days to maturity because cool fall days do not speed development of the crop as do the long, bright days of late spring.

Plant peas 1 to 1-1/2 inches deep and one inch apart in single or double rows. Allow 18 to 24 inches between single or pairs of rows. Allow 8 to 10 inches between double rows in pairs.

The germinating seeds and small seedlings are easily injured by direct contact with fertilizer or improper cultivation. Cultivate and hoe shallowly during the early stages of growth. Most dwarf and intermediate varieties are self-supporting. The taller varieties (Green Arrow and Bolero) are most productive and more easily picked when trained to poles or to a fence for support; but they are no longer popular. Peas can be mulched to cool the soil, reduce moisture loss and keep down soil rots. Some of the snap and sugar peas are vining types with heights of 6 feet or more that require fencing or other supports.

Garden Peas When the pea pods are swollen (appear round) they are ready to be picked. Pick a few pods every day or two near harvest time to determine when the peas are at the proper stage for eating. Peas are of the best quality when they are fully expanded but immature, before they become hard and starchy. Peas should be picked immediately before cooking because their quality, especially sweetness (like that of sweet corn), deteriorates rapidly. The pods on the lower portion of the plant mature earliest. The last harvest (usually the third) is made about one week after the first. Pulling the entire plant for the last harvest makes picking easier. Sugar Snap Peas Snap peas should be harvested every 1 or 3 days, similarly to snow peas to get peak quality. Sugar snaps are at their best when the pods first start to fatten but before the seeds grow very large. At this point, the pods snap like green beans and the whole pod can be eaten. Some varieties have strings along the seams of the pod that must be removed before cooking. Sugar snaps left on the vine too long begin to develop tough fiber in the pod walls. These must then be shelled and used as other garden peas, with the fibrous pods discarded. Vining types of both sugar snap and snow peas continue to grow taller and produce peas as long as the plant stays in good health and the weather stays cool.

Snow Peas These varieties are generally harvested before the individual peas have grown to the size of BBS, when the pods have reached their full length but are still quite flat. This stage is usually reached 5 to 7 days after flowering. Snow peas must be picked regularly (at least every other day) to assure sweet, fiber-free pods. Pods can be stir-fried, steamed or mixed with oriental vegetables or meat dishes. As soon as overgrown pods missed in earlier pickings are discovered, remove them from the plants to keep the plants blooming and producing longer. Enlarging peas inside these pods may be shelled and used as garden peas. Fat snow pea pods (minus the pea enlarging inside) should be discarded. Fibers that develop along the edges of larger pods, along with the stem and blossom ends, are removed during preparation. Pea pods lose their crispness if overcooked. The pods have a high sugar content and brown or burn quickly. Do not stir-fry over heat that is too intense. Pea pods can be stored in a plastic bag in the refrigerator for two weeks. Unlike fresh green peas, pea pods deteriorate only slightly in quality when stored.

The first signs of fusarium wilt and root-rot disease are the yellowing and wilting of the lower leaves and stunting of the plants. Infection of older plants usually results in the plants producing only a few poorly filled pods. These diseases are not as prevalent on well-drained soils. Double-dug raised beds amended with abundant organic matter can greatly improve soil aeration and drainage. Fusarium wilt can be avoided by growing wilt-resistant varieties.

Q. Should I inoculate my peas with nitrogen-fixing bacteria before planting? A. When peas are planted on new land, you may increase the yield by inoculating peas with a commercial formulation of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In an established garden, however, inoculation is less necessary. If you are in doubt, inoculation is a relatively inexpensive process that is easy to do and ensures better plant-nutrient status.

There are two common varieties of peas, green garden peas that need shelling and edible-pod peas that are eaten whole. Snow peas, sugar snap peas Chinese pea pods and many others fall into this category. They are low fiber pods with small wrinkled peas inside. The entire pod is eaten, cooked or raw. Green garden peas are legumes just like dried peas, except they are eaten at the immature stage. They are a cool weather, early spring crop. Harvest edible-pod peas when they are flat. Use both hands. Holding the plant stem in one hand use the other hand to pull off the pod. Using one hand, you can easily pull up the entire plant. The smaller pods are sweeter and more tender. Use them for eating raw and cook the larger ones. The shelled peas should be plump but not large. Check one until you become familiar with the appearance. The plumpest peas should be gathered before the pod starts to wrinkle on the stem. Old peas taste starchy and mealy.

Fresh peas keep for 2 to 3 days in the refrigerator. The sugar in them quickly begins to turn to starch even while under refrigeration. As much as 40 percent of the sugar is converted in a few hours. Store unwashed peas in perforated plastic bags for a few days. The sooner they are eaten the better.

Green garden peas are a valuable source of protein, iron and insoluble fiber. Insoluble fiber helps to reduce serum cholesterol thus reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke. Sugar snap peas and the like, contain much less protein, but they are an excellent source of iron and vitamin C that work to keep your immune system functioning properly. Nutrition Facts (1/2 cup cooked garden peas) Calories 67 Dietary Fiber 2.4 grams Protein 4.3 grams Carbohydrates 12.5 grams Vitamin A 478 IU Vitamin C 11.4 mg Folic acid 50.7 micrograms Iron 1.2 mg Potassium 217 mg Magnesium 31 mg Nutrition Facts (1/2 cup cooked snow peas) Calories 34 Dietary Fiber 1.4 grams Protein 2.6 grams Carbohydrates 5.6 grams Vitamin C 38.3 mg Iron 1.6 mg Potassium 192 mg Magnesium 21 mg

Pea Scientific classification Kingdom: Division: Class: Order: Family: Subfamily: Tribe: Genus: Species:

Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Fabales Fabaceae Faboideae Vicieae Pisum P. sativum

Binomial name Pisum sativum

A pea, although treated as a vegetable in cooking, is botanically a fruit; the term is most commonly used to describe the small spherical seeds or the pods of the legume Pisum sativum.[1] The name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae like the pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and the seeds from several species of Lathyrus. P. sativum is an annual plant, with a lifecycle of one year. It is a cool season crop, planted in winter. The average pea weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 grams.[2] The species is as a fresh vegetable, but is also grown to produce dry peas like the split pea. These varieties are typically called field peas.

L.

P. sativum has been cultivated for thousands of years. The sites of cultivation have been described in southern Syria and southeastern Turkey, and some argue that the cultivation of peas with wheat and barley seems to be associated with the spread of Neolithic agriculture into Europe.[3]

Contents • • • • • • • • • •

1 Description 2 Varieties 3 Diseases 4 Ways of eating peas 5 Peas in science 6 Etymology 7 Peas in Pop Culture 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Description Pea plant It is a cool-season vegetable crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the soil temperature reaches 10 °C, with the plants growing best at temperatures of 13 °C to 18 °C. They do not thrive in the summer heat of warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates, but do grow well in cooler high altitude tropical areas. Many cultivars reach maturity about 60 days after planting. Peas grow best in slightly acidic, well-drained soils.

Peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars grow thin tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support, and can climb to be 1-2 m high. A traditional approach to supporting climbing peas is to thrust branches pruned from trees or other woody plants upright into the soil, providing a lattice for the peas to climb. Branches used in this fashion are called pea brush. Metal fences, twine, or netting supported by a frame, are used for the same purpose. In dense plantings, peas give each other some measure of mutual support.

Varieties Several varieties of P. sativum have been bred. Widely cultivated examples include: • •

Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon is commonly known as the snow pea Pisum sativum var. macrocarpon ser. cv. is known as the sugar snap pea

Ways of eating peas Peas (fresh, green) Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy 80 kcal 340 kJ

Carbohydrates

14.5 g

- Sugars 5.7 g - Dietary fibre 5.1 g Fat

0.4 g

Protein

5.4 g

Vitamin C 40 mg

67%

Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

In early times peas were grown mostly for their dry seeds. Along with broad beans and lentils these formed an important part of the diet of most people in Europe during the Middle Ages (Bianchini 1975 p 40). By the 1600s and 1700s it became popular to eat peas "green", that is, while they are immature and right after they are picked. This was especially true in France and England, where the eating of green peas was said to be "both a fashion and a madness" (OSU 2006). New cultivars of peas were developed by the English during this time which became known as "garden peas" and "English peas." The popularity of green peas spread to North America. Thomas Jefferson grew more than 30 cultivars of peas on his estate (Kafka 2005 p 297). With the invention of canning and freezing of foods, green peas became available year-round, not just in spring as before.

Frozen green peas Fresh peas are often eaten boiled and flavored with butter and/or spearmint as a side dish vegetable. Salt is also commonly added to peas when served. Fresh peas are also used in pot pies, salads and casseroles. Pod peas (particularly sweet cultivars called mangetout and sugar peas, or the flatter "snow peas," called hé lán dòu, 荷兰豆 in Chinese) are used in stir-fried dishes, particularly those in American Chinese cuisine.[2] Pea pods do not keep well once picked, and if not used quickly are best preserved by drying, canning or freezing within a few hours of harvest. In India, fresh peas are used in various dishes such as Aloo Matar (Potato with Peas), though they can be substituted with frozen peas as well. Peas are also eaten raw as they are sweet when fresh off the bush.

Dry, yellow split peas Dried peas are often made into a soup or simply eaten on their own. In Japan and other Southeast Asian countries including Thailand, Taiwan and Malaysia, the peas are roasted and salted, and eaten as snacks. In the UK, dried yellow split peas are used to make pease pudding (or "pease porridge"), a traditional dish. In North America a similarly traditional dish is split pea soup. In Chinese cuisine, pea sprouts (豆苗 dòu miáo) are commonly used in stir-fries and its price is relatively high due to its agreeable taste. In the United Kingdom, dried, rehydrated and mashed marrowfat peas, known by the public as mushy peas, are popular, originally in the north of England but now ubiquitously, and especially as an accompaniment to fish and chips or meat pies, particular in fish and chip shops. Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes added to soften the peas. In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the pea to be Britain's 7th favorite culinary vegetable. Processed peas are mature peas which have been dried, soaked and then heat treated (processed) to prevent spoilage — in the same manner as pasteurising.

Canadian wasabi peas. Cooked peas are sometimes sold dried and coated with wasabi as a spicy snack. Some forms of etiquette require that peas be only eaten with a fork and not pushed onto the fork with a knife [3][4].

Peas in science

Pea flowers In the mid-1800s, Gregor Mendel's observations of pea pods led to the principles of Mendelian genetics, the foundation of modern genetics.

Etymology According to etymologists, the term was taken from the Latin pisum and adopted into English as the mass noun pease, as in pease pudding. However, by analogy with other plurals ending in -s, speakers began construing pease as a plural and constructing the singular form by dropping the "s", giving the term "pea". This process is known as back-formation. The name marrowfat pea for mature dried peas is recorded by the OED as early as 1733. The fact that an export cultivar popular in Japan is called Maro has led some people to assume mistakenly that the English name marrowfat is derived from Japanese.

Peas in Pop Culture A fairy tale by Hans Christian Andersen, The Princess and the Pea, tells of a young princess with such delicate skin that she complained about feeling a single pea underneath numerous mattresses.

Garden Peas

Planting

Peas should be planted in early spring, well before the last frost. For an extended harvest, different varieties in successive plantings. Successive plantings of the same varieties tend to catch up with each other, resulting in one big harvest. Peas will germinate faster if soaked in water overnight before planting. Location and Planting Peas are one of the first crops you will plant in your vegetable garden. Plant them as early in spring as the soil can be worked. They don't mind frost. Peas need as much sun as possible. If you plant them in the shade the plants will grow and produce a crop of peas, but the sugar content will be low and the peas will taste old and starchy. Peas grow best in a 16-inch wide double row, with a 16 inch wide pathway between rows. They won't need staking if planted this way because the plants will hold each other up, and a dense crop will shade the soil to help eliminate weeds. Maintenance Peas require very little maintenance during the growing season. Like all legumes, they don't need much fertilizer, especially if you have worked organic material into the soil before planting. Peas need adequate but not excessive water at soil level, Avoid watering over top of mature leaves and flowers. Harvesting You can begin picking green peas about three weeks after the plants blossom. Look for plump, bright green pods, and use scissors to clip peas from the vine to avoid damaging the plants. Harvesting daily will keep the plants producing longer. If left on the vine too long the peas become hard and starchy. Peas quickly lose flavor after they are picked, so if possible, cook them the day they are harvested. You can freeze any excess:

1.

Blanch in boiling water for 1 1/2 minutes.

2.

Drain and allow to cool.

3.

Package in plastic containers or freezer bags.

4.

Freeze.

If peas become overripe you can dry them to use in soups and stews. Spread shelled peas on a flat surface where they can remain undisturbed for about three weeks to dry. Store them in an air tight container. Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is a preventative measure which will inhibit the growth of diseases affecting the plant. After harvesting, remove all vines and burn them. They usually contain a variety of diseases and are not suitable for composting. Plant peas in a different section of the garden next year. Companions

Good companions for peas include bush beans, pole beans, carrots, corn, cucumber, radish and turnips. Don't plant near onions.

The pea is a vine that attaches to a support by tendrils. The vines can grow vertically to six feet tall, forming a dense mat of foliage. There are also low or bush varieties of peas which form a mound on the ground.

The pea pods form at the leaf axils of the plant.

PEA ROOT PICTURE:

Movement of Assimilated Nitrogen from the Root System of the Field Pea (Pisum arvense L.) J. S. PATE and W. WALLACE Botany Department, Queen's University Belfast, 7, Northern Ireland Changes in the composition of the amino fraction of bleeding sap collected from decapitated root systems of field pea were studied during the period of transition from cotyledon nutrition to the commencement of nitrogen fixation by root nodules. Output and composition of bleeding sap are described for uninoculated seedlings following application to the rooting medium of nitrate,

ammonium, or urea. Assimilation by the root system of any external source of nitrogen results in progressive increase in the output of all bleeding-sap components, particularly the amide asparagines. The relative proportions of the various amino compounds and the balance of organic and inorganic nitrogen in the bleeding sap were found to vary with the source of nitrogen made available to the root system.

Root system growth and nodule establishment on pea (Pisum sativum L.) Frédérique Tricot1, Yves Crozat2 and Sylvain Pellerin3,4 1

ESA, Laboratoire de Biotechnologie des Sols 55 rue Rabelais, F—49007 Angers, France CIRAD-CA, Avenue du Val de Montferrand F-34032 Montpellier, France 3 INRA, Laboratoire d'Agronomie 71 avenue Edouard—Bourleaux, BP81, F-33883 Villenave d'Ornon, France 2

4

To whom correspondence should be addressed. Fax: +33 5 56 84 30 54.

Development of the root system, appearance of nodules, and relationships between these two processes were studied on pea (Pisum sativum L., cv. Solara). Plants were grown in growth cabinets for 4 weeks on a nitrogen—free nutrient solution inoculated with Rhizobium leguminosarum. Plant stages, primary root length, distance from the primary root base to the most distal first-order lateral root, and distance from the root base to the most distal nodule, were recorded daily. Distribution of nodules along the primary root and distribution of laterals were recorded by sampling root systems at two plant stages. Primary root elongation rate was variable, and declined roughly in conjunction with the exhaustion of seed reserves. First-order laterals appeared acropetally on the primary root. A linear relationship was found between the length of the apical unbranched zone and root elongation rate, supporting the hypothesis of a constant time lag between the differentiation of first-order lateral's primordia and their emergence. Decline of the primary root elongation rate was preceded by a reduction in density and length of first-order laterals. Nodules appeared not strictly but roughly acropetally on the primary root. A linear relationship was found between the length of the apical zone without nodule and root elongation rate, supporting the hypothesis of a constant time lag between infection and appearance of a visible nodule. A relationship was found between the presence/absence of nodules on a root segment and the root elongation rate between infection and appearance of nodules on the considered root segment. Regulation of both processes by carbohydrate availability, as a causal mechanism, is proposed.

Temporal and spatial root distribution and competition for nitrogen in pea-barley intercropping – a field study employing 32P methodology

Hauggaard-Nielsen, Henrik; Ambus, Per and Jensen, Erik Steen (2001) Temporal and spatial root distribution and competition for nitrogen in pea-barley intercropping – a field study employing 32P methodology. Plant and Soil 236(1):pp. 63-74.**

Summary Root system dynamics, productivity and N use were studied in inter- and sole crops of field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) on a temperate sandy loam. A 32P tracer placed at a depth of 12.5, 37.5, 62.5 or 87.5 cm was employed to determine root system dynamics by sampling crop leaves at 0, 15, 30 and 45 cm lateral distance. 15N addition was used to estimate N2 fixation by pea, using sole cropped barley as reference crop. The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER), which is defined as the relative land area under sole crops that is required to produce the yields achieved in intercropping, were used to compare the crop growth in intercrops relative to the respective sole crops. The 32P appearance in leaves revealed that the barley root system grows faster than that of pea. P uptake by the barley root system during early growth stages was approximately 10 days ahead of that of the pea root system in root depth and lateral root distribution. More than 90% of the P uptake by the pea root system was confined to the top 12.5 cm of soil, whereas barley had about 25-30% of tracer P uptake in the 12.5 to 62.5 cm soil layer. Judging from this P uptake intercropping caused the barley root system to grow deeper and faster lateral root development of both species was observed. Barley accumulated similar amounts of aboveground N when grown as inter- and sole crop, whereas the total aboveground N acquired by pea in the intercrop was only 16% of that acquired in the pea sole crop. The percentage of total aboveground N derived from N2 fixation in sole cropped pea increased from 40% to 80% during the growth period, whereas it was almost constant at 85% in intercropped pea. The total amounts of N2 fixed were 95 and 15 kg N ha-1 in sole cropped and intercropped pea, respectively. Barley was the dominant component of the pea-barley intercrop, obtaining 90% of its sole crop yield, while pea produced only 15% of the grains of a sole crop pea. Intercropping of pea and barley improved the utilization of plant growth resources (LER > 1) as compared to sole crops. Root system distribution in time and space can partly explain interspecific competition. The 32P methodology proved to be a valuable tool for determining root dynamics in intercropping systems.

PEA The garden pea (Pisum sativum) is a hardy, cool-season annual. It is quite variable in size, ranging from 1 to 6 feet in height, since some varieties are dwarf, others half dwarf, and still others tall. It is cultivated in nearly all home gardens, in market and truck gardens, and is also grown on a very large scale for canning. Since it does not thrive during midsummer it is grown as a partial-season crop, i.e., in spring and early summer in the North and as a winter and spring crop in the South. Like other members of its family (Leguminosae), through the agency of bacteria in its root nodules, the pea is able to utilize nitrogen compounds which have been formed by using the free nitrogen of the soil air. Garden peas of a late or main-crop variety, known as Telephone, were planted Apr. 10. They were sown in rows 30 inches distant and the plants were later thinned to 8 inches apart in the row. Early Development.--The plants were excavated for the first time on May 23. They were 11 inches high and the stems 5 millimeters thick. Each plant had two or three branches and about a dozen large compound leaves some of which were not fully developed. The total leaf surface was 1.5 square feet. The plants had strong taproots about 4 millimeters in diameter at their origin. These tapered to 1 millimeter in thickness below the 9-inch level. Depths of penetration of 20 to 26 inches were found.

The course of the roots was often somewhat tortuous. An examination of Fig. 51 shows that the bulk of the absorbing area was furnished by the numerous, strong, lateral branches nearly all of which arose from the taproot in the surface soil. Just below the seed, which was 1 inch deep, these occurred in great abundance. One rather large plant gave rise to 21 branches about 1 millimeter in diameter from the first inch; 14 nearly 1 millimeter thick from the second inch; 11 averaging ½ millimeter in diameter from the third inch; and 16 more, about 1/3 millimeter thick, in the next 6 inches. The specimen drawn had only about two-thirds as many roots. The general course of these roots was outward and only slightly downward. Thus nearly all ended in the first 6 to 9 inches of soil. A few of the longest extended laterally 15 to 18 inches and then turned downward. Depth of penetration, however, was not marked and only a few reached the 12- to 18-inch soil level. Hence, the plant had a rather superficial root system at this stage of growth. The absence of roots in the surface 1 to 2 inches of soil is of interest since it bears a direct relation to root injury by cultivation.

Fig. 51.--Root system o f the Telephone garden pea 6 weeks old.

As regards branching of the taproot, it may be noted that some of the laterals, even in the surface 6 inches, were only 3 to 9 inches long. Below this depth branching was much poorer as is clearly illustrated in the drawing. The length of the laterals decreased with depth of origin and the last 4 to 6 inches of the taproot were unbranched. This, of course, was also true of the major laterals. These were furnished with rootlets at the rate of two to eight per inch, distribution being somewhat variable. These sublaterals usually varied from 0.2 to 1 inch in length, although they were occasionally longer. They were rarely branched. Later Development.--A second examination was made June 17 when the peas were blossoming. There were about four branches per plant and these varied from 1 to 2.5 feet in length with an average length of 18 inches. Plants of average size possessed 45 leaves and a total leaf surface of slightly more than 5 square feet. The pronounced taproots had increased to 7 millimeters in diameter near the soil surface. They tapered to 1.5 millimeters at a depth of 1 foot but were nearly 1 millimeter thick throughout their sinuous course. Maximum depths of 36 to 38 inches were ascertained. Branching had increased to a marked degree; a few roots 0.5 to 1 inch long now occurred in the first inch of soil. Frequently as many as 100 laterals were found to originate from a taproot in the first 12 inches of soil. A maximum of 18 per inch was determined. These were 0.5 to 2.5 millimeters in diameter. In the second and third foot-portions of the taproot which were poorly branched at the previous examination-a total of 110 to 130 rather uniformly distributed laterals frequently arose. The branches become longer, in general, on the older portions of the taproots. Near the root ends no branching occurred.

The lateral spread had increased only a few inches beyond that of the previous examination (now about 22 inches) but many of the widely spreading roots had turned downward and extended well into the second foot of soil. Moreover, the branching had progressed with the growth of the main laterals. Branches occurred at a somewhat variable rate, about seven per inch of lateral. This was also the usual rate of branching for the main laterals. Usually the branches were only 0.2 to 0.5 inch long although a few of them attained a length of 2 inches. Thus new soil areas were ramified for water and nutrients. A pronounced feature was the greater number of branches on the portions of the laterals at some distance from their origin. In fact the first few inches were often poorly branched. Branchlets of the third order were more pronounced than at the previous examination although on the newer growth only the longest secondary laterals were rebranched. No long laterals arose below the first foot of soil but the very abundant short ones (1 to 3 inches) added considerably to the absorbing area. In summarizing, four differences were apparent from the previous root development: The taproots had increased in depth from about 2 to 3 feet and the part below 10 inches had become clothed with a large number of short branches. The number of lateral roots in the surface 12 inches of soil had greatly increased, especially on the second 6 inches of the taproot. The widely spreading and some of the obliquely penetrating laterals had turned downward and extended well into the second foot of soil. Finally, branching had greatly increased; older branches were somewhat longer and better rebranched and abundant new ones had arisen on the elongating roots. Thus the second and third 6inch soil levels were rather thoroughly ramified. Mature Plants.--A final study was made July 11. The well-branched vines, which were 40 inches tall, were beginning to dry at the base. The abundant pods bore peas which were half dry and too mature for use as green peas.

Fig. 52.--Mature root system of the pea. Note the large soil volume occupied and the greater degree of branching than at the earlier examination (Fig. 51).

The pronounced taproots were traced throughout their devious course which was usually characterized by gentle curves but often by abrupt, almost right-angled turns. Depths of 3 to 3.2 feet were found. This, however, was no greater than on June 17. The number of laterals, moreover, had not increased in the surface foot of soil. The lateral spread was a little greater (maximum, 2 feet), more long secondary laterals occurred, and branches of the third order were much more frequent. In addition to the more thorough ramification of the soil already occupied, an extensive new volume of soil had been occupied by the downwardly penetrating main lateral roots. At the June examination the longest of these did not extend beyond the second foot. At this time the entire second foot was

thoroughly ramified and much of the third foot was also occupied (Fig. 52). This added greatly to the absorbing area. It is of interest to note that some of these roots extended to greater depths (maximum, 36 inches) than the taproot. Also, their distribution was such that the soil volume below a depth of 1 foot and to 6 inches on all sides of the taproot was almost unoccupied. Whether or not this was ramified later by an elongation of the branches of the taproot was not ascertained. At this time the taproot below the first foot was furnished with relatively short branches. Only rarely did they exceed 4 inches in length and they were frequently 0.5 to 2 inches long. The number was, as before, about five per inch but they had not only grown in length but were also much more profusely rebranched. Branches of the third order occurred on some of the older and longer laterals. This increase in length of branchlets also characterized the larger main branches. Most of the branches of the second order ranged between 0.2 and 3 inches but not infrequently sublaterals 5 to 10 or more inches long occurred. Branchlets of the third order seldom exceeded four per inch in number and ranged from 1 millimeter to 1 inch in length. In the deeper soil, especially secondary branches often took a horizontal course. The roots were rather tough, of a tan color, and in many cases the root ends had dried. Summary.--The garden pea is characterized by a strong taproot which in its early development is profusely branched only in the first 6 inches of soil. Plants about 1.5 months old have a root depth of 2 feet. The surface soil at a depth of 2 to 8 inches is well filled with a network of nearly horizontal roots and their laterals to a distance of 18 inches on all sides of the plant. But in the deeper soil little absorbing area occurs. About a month later, when the plants are blossoming, the root system is much more extensive and efficient. The taproot is 3 feet long and much better branched throughout its entire course, secondary branches are longer and much more numerous, and branches of the third order abundant except on the youngest parts. Lateral spread has been increased to 22 inches. Many of the formerly horizontal roots have turned downward and, with those penetrating more obliquely, fairly well occupied the second foot of soil. Nearly a month later, when the seeds are drying, the taproots have not increased in depth, nor has the number of main laterals increased in the surface soil. But the soil volume earlier delimited is much more thoroughly occupied as a result of an elongation and more profuse branching of the finer laterals. By a downward extension of the main laterals, moreover, the second foot of soil is well filled and the third foot fairly well ramified. Branches from the taproot are profuse but rather short, so that some of the deeper soil area directly beneath the plant is not fully occupied. Thus the pea completes the development of an extensive absorbing system after the beginning of blossoming. Other Investigations on Peas.--The British Queen pea was examined at Geneva, N.Y., when the plants were 4.5 feet tall and the pods just past the marketable stage. The taproot extended nearly perpendicularly downward to the depth of 39 inches. Below this it was too delicate to trace. Branches separated from the taproot throughout its length. These were most numerous between 4 and 8 inches in depth, where they seemed nearly to fill the soil for a distance of about 8 inches on either side. We traced a single branch root a distance of 18 inches from the taproot. The majority of the branches appeared to extend little farther than 1 foot. They gradually became shorter as the depth increased, but were 4 to 6 inches long at a depth of 30 inches. Sometimes the branches curved upward after leaving the taproot. 43 The American Wonder pea was also examined at the same stage of. development but the plant was only 6 inches tall. The roots extended almost exclusively downward, the taproot reaching a depth of 30 inches. No branches extended a distance greater than 4 inches from it. 43

Investigations in Russia indicate that although during germination and sprouting the vertical roots are rather short, later they make a uniform and rapid growth. Plants only in the second-leaf stage had a root depth of 13 inches. This was the only one of a number of vegetable crops studied that did not extend its vertical roots deeper after the inception of the flowering period. The development of the horizontal roots at the beginning was very much less than that of the vertical ones. But during the period of flowering these continued growth rapidly (after growth of the vertical roots had ceased) increasing in length from 12 to 20.5 inches. A maximum root depth of 3 feet was attained. 123 Numerous investigations on the pea have been made in Germany. In one it was found that it had a strong taproot that deeply penetrated with a marked early development of laterals which were especially abundant on the upper portion of the root system. These were found to extend in an obliquely outward and then downward course, many of them being nearly as long as the main root. Branching was profuse. In a good loam soil the Victoria pea was found to reach a depth of 18 inches and a spread of 12 inches when only 36 days old. 34 Other investigations reveal a similar root habit, plants 1 foot tall having taproots 28 inches deep. The laterals attained a length of 10 inches. The upper laterals and their branches were usually much better developed than the lower ones. Occasionally, however, single branches arising deeply from the taproot made a good growth. Upon the loss of its tip, the taproot became covered with very numerous, long, much-branched laterals. These were augmented by a good adventitious root formation. Upon injury to the end of the taproot the laterals extended deeper than usual, those arising from near the injured end of the taproot growing more obliquely downward. Sometimes a single strong lateral turned vertically downward and, deeply penetrating, took the place of the taproot. 86 In another experiment peas of the Victoria variety were grown in filled pits in a field of wellcompacted loam. The soil was washed from the roots at various stages of their development. At the age of 32 days the roots of the seedling plants were more than 10 inches deep, 56 inches at the beginning of blossoming, 69 inches at the beginning of fruiting, and about 7 feet deep when the fruits were ripe. Thus the growth in depth increased rapidly at about blossoming time and continued until maturity of the fruit. Moreover, the later root development consisted largely in an increase in root depth and not in lateral spread. Nodules occurred to a depth of 67 inches but the bulk were in the upper 6.5-inch layer of soil. Later studies confirmed the deeply rooting habit. 133, 134 Another German investigator found that the pea was very similar to the common bean in its root habit. Like the bean, it formed a clearly defined taproot and then a row of adventitious roots which arose at first from the base of the hypocotyl but later, in considerable numbers, from higher parts of the base of the stem. These roots spread widely. Depths of 28 to over 31 inches were attained.89 In another study it was found that the pea was most profusely branched to a depth of 4 inches and that the largest laterals had a length of 12 inches. The number of laterals of the first order was about six per centimeter of taproot in the upper portion of the root system but only three on the deeper part. Laterals of the second order varied from two to three per centimeter. The deeper portion of the root system was only 52 per cent as well branched as the shallower part. 88 Other European investigators have obtained similar results. Field peas, of the variety arvense, were examined at Fargo, N. D., 86 days after planting and when the seed was ripe. They showed a sparse growth of roots in comparison to top development. The vines were 5.5 feet long but the roots reached a depth of only 3 feet and had rather a scanty supply of branches. The bulk of the roots was found within 8 to 10 inches of the surface. 149 Recent experiments with peas at Greeley, Colo., where a dwarf variety (Nott's Excelsior) with a short root system was crossed with a tall variety (Telephone) with a deep root system, indicate that root characters are hereditary and segregate out in the F2 generation according to the Mendelian

ratios. A repetition of the experiment under somewhat different conditions of growth confirmed the results, but it was also found that the dwarf variety had almost as long a root system as the taller one. 67 This illustrates the fallacy of judging root extent by top growth. After years of study of scores of native and cultivated plants, it has been fully demonstrated that such a criterion is entirely untrustworthy. A study of these investigations on different varieties of peas supports the conclusion that this species has a somewhat deeply rooting habit of growth. The lateral spread is also similar to that already illustrated (Fig. 52) and branching is quite profuse throughout. Considerable root growth after the time of blossoming was found by most investigators; in some varieties this growth seemed to be chiefly that of the branches, in others an extension of the taproot. Further studies, including adaptation of root system to different kinds of soil, are needed. The Development and Role of Root Tubercles.--Peas and other members of the family of legumes are the most important plants, although not the only ones, that develop nodules or root tubercles. Various strains 96 of a certain motile bacterium (Pseudomonas radicicola) live in the soil. They gain entrance to the root system through the root hairs and push their way back into the cortical tissue of the root where they increase rapidly and occur in great numbers. As a result of their activities, the cells of the cortex of the host make an abnormal growth which results in the wellknown enlargements called tubercles. These frequently occur at great depths. On native legumes they have been repeatedly observed at depths of 10 to 13 feet. Although usually most abundant on roots of garden crops in the surface 8 to 16 inches of soil, they are frequently found irregularly distributed over the root system at depths of several feet. The bacteria secure their supplies of water, carbohydrates, etc. from the host plants but build up nitrogen compounds for which the source of nitrogen is the soil air. From these compounds the legume secures large amounts of valuable nitrogenous material. When the nodules decay, due to the activities of several other kinds of bacteria, the protein contents undergo various chemical changes and are finally left in the soil as nitrates, a most favorable source of nitrogen for green plants. From 40 to over 250 pounds of nitrogen per acre may thus be added to the soil in a single season through the activities of tubercle-forming bacteria. 18 All parts of legumes are comparatively rich in proteins and are very valuable as fertilizers. This explains why the practice of growing leguminous crops and plowing them under has such a stimulating effect upon the growth of succeeding crops. On raw soils low in nitrates, such as railway cuts and embankments, where other plants can scarcely grow, certain leguminous plants, such as sweet clover, often thrive. On the other hand, in a soil that is too rich nodule formation is not promoted. Experiments with the development of nodules on field peas and. other legumes have shown that they become much larger when soil temperatures are most favorable. A consistent increase in dry weight of nodules occurred as the soil temperature increased from 12 to about 24°C. At higher temperatures (about 27 to 30°C. for peas) a progressive decrease occurred. 75 Likewise nodule production decreases as soil moisture diminishes below an optimum, or may entirely cease in soils that are very dry. 35, 180, 68 A soil environment favorable to the growth of roots is also favorable to the growth of nodule-forming and many other species of bacteria which promote crop growth. Thus the promotion of proper soil aeration, water content, fertility, and temperature, so far as this is possible, affects plant growth not only directly by promoting root development and activities but also indirectly through its influence upon the activities of bacteria. Root Development in Relation to Cultural Practice.--It would seem that plants with vigorously developed and quite extensive root systems like those of the pea would thrive on many kinds of soil.

In fact this has been ascertained to be true. Undoubtedly the superficial and deeper portions are modified, respectively, so as best to adapt the plant to a particular environment. Such modifications have been found for beans, the plants of which are closely related and of similar general root habit. For early crops sandy loams are preferred because they are easily warmed. But they do not retain the moisture and are often less fertile than heavier-soil types such as clay and silt loam. The roots need good aeration and the soils must be well drained. If the soil is too rich, the plants will develop large vines and ripening will be delayed. Thorough soil preparation is especially important where the crop is sown so thickly that cultivation is not possible. This is true for a part of the market crops and the canning crop which is sown broadcast or in close drills. Poor seed-bed preparation may result in markedly decreased yields. 64 Otherwise the root habit would indicate that beneficial results will be obtained by frequent but shallow cultivation until the roots thoroughly ramify the soil and the vines cover the ground. The practice of deep planting permits the roots to start in moist, cool soil. But it may increase the prevalence of root rot, a disease caused by a soil-borne fungus (Thieldvia basicola), which grows best and does greater harm when more of the stem occurs below the soil. 106 Because of the activities within the root tubercles, peas do not require such fertile soils or as heavy applications of manure as many other crops. In fact large applications of manure do not increase the yields at the same rate as smaller ones. 106 Ordinarily peas are spaced so closely that when the plants are only partially developed, the roots thoroughly occupy all of the soil. LEAF of PEA :

Stuart's Desert Pea in Outback Australia

Sweet Pea Blossom

Young plants in soil. Spring

Peas sprout close-up isolated on white background

flower in detail

Peas growing in a garden

Pea. Vicia cracca. (Russia, Meschera)

Purple flower

Peas and pea flower

SWEET PEAS (Lathyrus odoratus) CULTIVATION INFORMATION; TYPE; Hardy Annual SEED COUNT; approx 12 per gram FOR 1,000 PLANTS; 500grams WHERE TO SOW; Cold Frame WHEN; April TIME TO GERMINATE; 2 Weeks TRANSPLANT; 4 Weeks FLOWERS; June

A plant has two organ systems: 1) the shoot system, and 2) the root system. The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, tubers, and rhizomes.

Major organ systems of the plant body. Plant cells are formed at meristems, and then develop into cell types which are grouped into tissues. Plants have only three tissue types: 1) Dermal; 2) Ground; and 3) Vascular. Dermal tissue covers the outer surface of herbaceous plants. Dermal tissue is composed of epidermal cells, closely packed cells that secrete a waxy cuticle that aids in the prevention of water loss. The ground tissue comprises the bulk of the primary plant body. Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells are common in the ground tissue. Vascular tissue transports food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant. Vascular tissue includes xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells.

Two views of the structure of the root and root meristem. Plant cell types rise by mitosis from a meristem. A meristem may be defined as a region of localized mitosis. Meristems may be at the tip of the shoot or root (a type known as the apical meristem) or lateral, occurring in cylinders extending nearly the length of the plant. A cambium is a lateral meristem that produces (usually) secondary growth. Secondary growth produces both wood and cork (although from separate secondary meristems).

Parenchyma

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A generalized plant cell type, parenchyma cells are alive at maturity. They function in storage, photosynthesis, and as the bulk of ground and vascular tissues. Palisade parenchyma cells are elogated cells located in many leaves just below the epidermal tissue. Spongy mesophyll cells occur below the one or two layers of palisade cells. Ray parenchyma cells occur in wood rays, the structures that transport materials laterally within a woody stem. Parenchyma cells also occur within the xylem and phloem of vascular bundles. The largest parenchyma cells occur in the pith region, often, as in corn (Zea ) stems, being larger than the vascular bundles. In many prepared slides they stain green.

Diagram of leaf structure. Note the arrangement of tissue layers within the leaf.

Cross-section of a stained leaf of Syringia.

Lily Parenchyma Cell (cross-section) (TEM x7,210). Note the large nucleus and nucleolus in the center of the cell, mitochondria and plastids in the cytoplasm. Collenchyma

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Collenchyma cells support the plant. These cells are charcterized by thickenings of the wall, the are alive at maturity. They tend to occur as part of vascular bundles or on the corners of angular stems. In many prepared slides they stain red.

Collenchyma cells. Note the thick walls on the collenchyma cells occurring at the edges of the Medicago stem cross section.

Sclerenchyma

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Sclerenchyma cells support the plant. They often occur as bundle cap fibers. Sclerenchyma cells are characterized by thickenings in their secondary walls. They are dead at maturity. They, like collenchyma, stain red in many commonly used prepared slides. A common type of schlerenchyma cell is the fiber.

Sclerenchyma cells. Some sclerenchyma cells occur in the fruits of Pear. These cells (sclereids or stone cells) give pears their gritty texture. Xylem

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Xylem is a term applied to woody (lignin-impregnated) walls of certain cells of plants. Xylem cells tend to conduct water and minerals from roots to leaves. While parenchyma cells do occur within what is commonly termed the "xylem" the more identifiable cells, tracheids and vessel elements, tend to stain red with Safranin-O. Tracheids are the more primitive of the two cell types, occurring in the earliest vascular plants. Tracheids are long and tapered, with angled end-plates that connect cell to cell. Vessel elements are shorter, much wider, and lack end plates. They occur only in angiosperms, the most recently evolved large group of plants.

Xylem cells.

Tracheids, longer, and narrower than most vessels, appear first in the fossil record. Vessels occur later. Tracheids have obliquely-angled endwalls cut across by bars. The evolutionary trend in vessels is for shorter cells, with no bars on the endwalls.

Conducting cells of the xylem; tracheids (left) are more primitive, while the various types of vessels (the other three) are more advanced.

Conductive Vessel Element in Mountain Mahogany Wood (SEM x750).

Phloem cells conduct food from leaves to rest of the plant. They are alive at maturity and tend to stain green (with the stain fast green). Phloem cells are usually located outside the xylem. The two most common cells in the phloem are the companion cells and sieve cells. Companion cells retain their nucleus and control the adjacent sieve cells. Dissolved food, as sucrose, flows through the sieve cells.

Phloem cells.

Phloem cells as seen in longitudinal section. Note the longitudinal view of the sieve plate inside the large sieve tube cell. Right image is a diagram of the longitudinal view of phloem cells. Epidermal Cells

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Epidermis The epidermal tissue functions in prevention of water loss and acts as a barrier to fungi and other invaders. Thus, epidermal cells are closely packed, with little intercellular space. To further cut down on water loss, many plants have a waxy cuticle layer deposited on top of the epidermal cells.

Guard Cells To facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of leaves, stems, and fruits, plants have a series of openings known as stomata (singular stoma). Obviously these openings would allow gas exchange, but at a cost of water loss. Guard cells are bean-shaped cells covering the stomata opening. They regulate exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide through the stoma.

Scanning electron micrograph of Equisetum (horsetail or scouring rush) epidermis. Note the oval stomatal apparatuses in the center of the stem.

Epidermal cells, including guard cells, of corn.

Pea Leaf Stoma, Vicea sp. (SEM x3,520).

Peas Peas are cool weather plants and should be planted as early in the season as possible in order that a crop may be well underway before mid-summer heat. A regular season's supply may be ensured by planting varieties with different dates of maturity. The plants require abundant soil food. Southern Field Peas Plant the seed an inch deep and an inch apart in rich, well-drained soil in late spring and every two weeks after that until July 15 in succession. Sow in double rows 6 to 8 inches apart with the rows 2 to 3 feet apart. A pound of seed sows 100 ft of drill. English Peas Plant the seed an inch deep and an inch apart in rich, well-drained soil in early spring and every two weeks after that. Sow it in double rows 6 to 8 inches apart with the rows 2 to 3 feet apart. A pound of seed sows 100 feet. Edible Pod Peas Chinese or snow peas can be eaten without shelling. If picked when peas are just beginning to form, they are colorful and tendersweet when stir fried or lightly steamed. Serve with butter or a dash of soy sauce.

Southern Field Peas Big Boy Pea A prolific home garden, dual purpose type edible pea. Ideal for canning and freezing. The large, flat, wrinkled seeds are cream colored with a buff-brown or maroon eye. A medium-early season, semivining pea. Matures in 60 days.

Black Crowder Pea This pea is an easy sheller. Very flavorful. Shelled green, they have a deep purple cast, turning black as dried. A very prolific variety. Disease resistant bunch type. Matures in 63 days.

Brown Crowder Pea When green, this pea has a grey hull and is very attractive. An excellent eating pea that cans, freezes, and ships well. It will do well on thin soil. Matures in 56 days.

California Blackeye Pea Tall bunch plant with a good root system. It has green pods, about 8 inches long, easy to shell. Matures in 55 to 60 days.

Colossus Pea This pea has been gaining popularity for home gardens in the past few years. It produces a large pea with a green hull. It tends to produce peas in bunches, making harvest easy. Has gained popularity as a canning, freezing, and green shell pea. Pea is brown at harvest. Matures in 65 days.

Cream Crowders Pods are grown high above the foliage. Vining is at lower levels and does not interfere with harvest. Developed to fill the need for an early, more productive, long pod Cream variety. Matures in 60 days.

Hercules Pea A late season variety but produces for four weeks. Has a very large seed when matures and is very drought resistant. Matures in 75 to 80 days.

Knuckle Hull Purple Hull Pea Refered to by produce men as "knuckle hulls" because of the big, plump peas. Largest selling pea on many markets today. Very easy to gather as they tend to cluster and stay off the ground. Matures in 60-65 days.

Lady Pea A tiny white pea with an excellent yield. Peas hold on the vine well for long periods when green. Fine for freezing. A bunch type. Matures in 60 days.

Mississippi Purple Pea A large seeded brown crowder with reddish-purple bods at green shell stage. Plants have much less vine and a concentration of pods over the plant with the pods maturing over a short time span. Pods shell very easily. High yield. Matures in 70 days.

Mississippi Silver Pea This crowder pea has beautiful silver-colored pods. Disease resistant. It is earlier, has less vine, a more concentrated yield, and shells much easier than any other brown crowder. You will not find a better brown crowder type. Bunch type plant. Matures in 55 days.

Pinkeye Purple Hull Pea This is one of the most popular peas. A true white purple hull pod for market, freezing or shipping. When green, the peas are white with a small purple eye. Excellent flavor. With favorable weather, it will produce two crops on the plants in one season. Matures in 50 days.

Green Arrow Pea A midseason, high-yielding variety for canning and freezing. Pod is 4 inches long with 9-11 berries. Matures in 67 days. 1/2 lb.

Alaska Pea Primarily an early processing variety, but suitable for home gardens. The light green pod is 2-3 inches long, stright, round and blunt with 5-7 peas. Has an appealing flavor, but is not sweet. Matures in 56 days. 1/2 lb.

Wando Pea Shows tolerance to extremes in heat or cold. The pod holds 6-8 peas of medium size and dark green color. Vine is 24-28 inches, producing pods of 3 1/2 inches. Matures in 70 days. 1/2 lb.

Edible Pod Peas Dwarf Gray Sugar (Snow Pea) This edible-podded variety is wilt resistant. Vines are 24 to 30 inches tall. Hardy, prolific and resistant to fusarium wilt. Dry seed is small, smooth, round and mottled, red-dish-gray in color. Matures in 65 days. 1/2 lb.

Super Sugar Snap Pea The round, 2 1/2" to 3" blunt pods are slightly curved and edible when fully mature. Vines grows up to six feet tall, needing strong support. The peas can be cooked like conventional edible pod peas or shelled. They are most popular served raw in salads and on relish trays. Pod seams have strings like old fashioned green beans, which can be removed when snapping. Matures in 70 days. 1/2 lb.

Pea Seeds Description Variety Early Alaska Thomas

Days

Plant Height

Pod Length

Peas In Pod

Comments

56

24-28"

1.5-2.5"

5-7

Standard first early canning pea.

62

28-32"

5"

6-8

Excellent table quality.

Laxton Little Marvel Progress No. 9 Green Arrow

63

15-18"

3"

6-8

Old time home garden variety.

63

14-16"

4"

6-8

Used for fresh, canning and freezing.

68

24-30"

4-4.5"

9-11

Excellent flavor.

Flat Pod. Starts production early and continues over a Edible Flat Pod long period. High yielding.

Oregon Sugar Pod

68

30-36"

4"

Wando

69

28-32"

3.5"

6-8

Heat tolerant. Good yields.

Sugar Daddy

72

24-28"

2.5-3"

-

Completely stringless pods. Freezes without splitting.

~ Seed for PEAS ~ One of you wrote across your order 'GARDENERS NEED PEAS!!!' a couple of years ago. We couldn't agree more, and now we're definitely getting there, after our latest trials. We have become interested in the possibilities of old-fashioned smooth-seeded peas, as well as the wrinkle-seeded varieties now more commonly grown . Smooth ones do go starchy more quickly once the pods get big, and so have to be picked young & small for a good sweet flavour. But they have a big advantage too - they are much less likely to rot in cold wet soil, so you can risk a much earlier sowing. We now like to sow smooth-seeded pea varieties for our early crops, and then wrinkle-seeded ones for the maincrop once the soil has warmed up. Here are some of both kinds for you to try, listed in order of cropping.

Dwarf Pea Seed Hatif d'Annonay An improved early pea from France - the name means 'Early Pea from Annonay'. It does what it says! The small bushes really don't seem to need any support and do very quickly load up with lots of nice dark green pods. Smooth seeds, so can be sown pretty early, but must pick small for sweetness.

Ideal for a first-early sowing.

Climbing Pea Seed Amelioree d'Auvergne The name translates as "Auvergne Improved" and this is a good early or maincrop pea. Slightly earlier than than the Serpette Guilloteau below (by a week or so) and with shorter, fatter pods. It climbs well but not quite so high, to about 1.3m. Smooth seeds, can be sown early, but pick small for sweetness.

Fast growing, high yielding.

Serpette Guilloteau A traditional climbing pea from France, to 1.5 m high, with curved pods filled with nice fat peas. As far as we have been able to trace it, the name is derived from an old French word for a type of pruning knife blade, reflecting the sickle-shape of the pods! Classed as 'semi - early' this makes a good second-early or maincrop pea, with particularly high yields in both cases. Smooth seeds, can be sown early, but pick small for sweetness. Fast growing, curved pods, slightly flattened sweet peas.

Telephone Now this is a well known variety that has stood the test of time. A medium tall vine that produces mid-season, here we recommend it as an early-maincrop pea. For us it grows to a good five feet tall, though others have written in to say that it gets taller for them. Although various sub-strains have been developed over the years, its hasn't really changed from the description of 'Carter's Telephone Pea' in Vilmorin's famous book of 1885 on vegetable gardening. It has heavy yields of large pods with sweet, non-starchy peas inside. We find that the pods always swell up a bit before the peas fill out, so don't be fooled into picking too early! This

year they were ready to eat starting in mid-July, on over the summer, which is pretty good given what a cold spring it has been. Wrinkled seed, stays sweet longer in pods - but don't sow in cold wet conditions. Medium tall vine, use as maincrop. (And yes, to those that are wondering about the dating on this, we wondered too if this was quite right, but we checked, and the word 'telephon' (without the e) was in use by 1854 and the first patent was in 1876 by Bell, although his work was preceded by several other people. The real question is, of course, why should Carter want to call his pea after an effect first noticed when people were given electro-shock therapy in 1846? (their screams were transmitted over the wires they were holding). . . . They are a very good pea nonetheless!

~ Mange-tout Pea Seed ~ 'Golden Sweet' Yellow-Podded Mange-tout pea We have grown many mange-tout peas (if you've not tried them, you eat the wide flat pods) over the years but this one has always stood out head and shoulders above the others. It is a superb mange-tout pea, with beautiful yellow pods, tall productive vines, and a delicious crisp flavour. The flowers are purple, & the pods are a wonderful lemon yellow colour, easy to see for picking, and great both raw in salads or gently steamed or stirfried as a vegetable. Last summer was perfect for pea seed production and we have enough for several hundred packets now. Get your order in quick! Feedback? Everyone loves them! E.g. Clare Maple, via email: "We are currently growing a crop of these peas. Our neighbour, himself a traditional gardener but always open to new stuff, was interested in them. We all shared a few, fresh off the plant, and agreed that they are probably the best tasting peas we have ever had."

~ Saving Pea Seed ~

Peas don't in general cross very easily, so you can save seed from several varieties without worry. Here is our 'Golden Sweet' harvest. But be sure that you don't plant types with similar-coloured seeds next to each other, otherwise you'll not be sure which plant they come from! The tricky bit is getting your pea plants picked when they are fairly dry - we hang ours on an indoor washing line if it's rainy! Then just stomp the peas out of their pods.

Field Pea Author: Randy Sell, Research Associate Department of Agricultural Economics, NDSU Series Editor: Dwight Aakre, Farm Mangement Specialist NDSU Extension Service Field pea is a high-quality, high-protein crop which is native to southwest Asia. Field pea was one of the first crops cultivated by man. While field pea has been predominantly produced in the Palouse region of Idaho, it is well adapted to North Dakota's climate. Field pea (also known as dry pea) differs from fresh peas in that field pea is marketed as a dry, shelled product for either human or animal food whereas fresh peas are typically marketed as a fresh vegetable for human consumption. Currently, the United States is the fifth largest producer of field pea. This publication provides an overview of the field pea industry, insight into the general aspects of production and an estimated budget for producing field pea in North Dakota.

Agronomic Information Field pea is an annual, cool-season, pulse (legume) crop. Each leaf has a branched tendril at its tip and one to three pairs of leaflets. There are has two main varieties of field pea. One type is an aggressive climbing variety and the other is a bush or dwarf type. Field pea stems grow from 2 to 4 feet in length. Most varieties of field pea produce reddish-purple or white flowers. Field pea stems (or vines) are prostrate at maturity. The pods contain from four to nine seeds and may be up to 3 inches in length. Field pea plants are classified by the color of their seed, which is green or yellow. Field pea seeds have extremely low levels of fat, moderately high levels of protein, medium levels of carbohydrates and relatively high levels of fiber compared to soybean. Field pea is well adapted to cool, semi-arid climates. Optimum yields result at growing temperatures between 55 and 65 F. Extremely hot weather, especially during flowering, can drastically reduce seed production. Young field pea plants are extremely tolerant to frost. If the main sprout is killed by

frost, another shoot will emerge from below the soil surface. A winter variety of field pea is planted in September in the Pacific Northwest; however, this variety cannot survive cold winters in North Dakota. Planted as a spring annual in North Dakota, field pea reaches maturity at 95 to 100 days after emergence. Field pea has similar moisture requirements to those of cereal grains. However, timing of rainfall may be more critical for field pea than wheat. Field pea will perform best with the majority of moisture available in the spring and limited rainfall during pod fill and ripening. Field pea has been grown successfully across the upper Midwest, particularly in the northern states.

Seeding Field pea can be grown in a variety of soils providing they have good internal drainage. Field pea cannot tolerate water-logged soil conditions. The ideal soil pH for field pea is between 5.5 and 6.5. Field pea seed should be inoculated with Rhizobium leguminosarium bacteria to enhance nitrogen fixing ability. High quality seed that is guaranteed free of diseases and noxious weeds and has acceptable germination should be used. If field pea is planted on land which had nodulated field pea or lentil produced on it in the last two years, inoculation is not necessary. The seeds should be inoculated within 24 hours of seeding. Also, the seeds should not be exposed to sunlight or allowed to dry after inoculation. Some seed treatments will harm the inoculant, so check the seed treatment label. Field pea will germinate best when the top inch of soil is from 50 to 64 F. In North Dakota, field pea is usually planted when soil temperatures reach 40 to 50 F or about mid to late April. Field pea should be planted in firm soil that is relatively free of crop residue to allow better seed to soil contact and enhance germination. Also, crop residues may harbor soil pathogens which may weaken field pea seedlings. Field pea is generally seeded 1 to 2.5 inches deep in 6- to 7-inch rows. The rate of seeding changes relative to the size of the pea seed. Generally, seeding rates between 114 and 176 pounds per acre will result in an ideal plant population of nine plants per square foot. Because of variation in seed size, the grain drill seeding rate should be monitored. Also, the feed cups in the drill may need to be adjusted to prevent cracking of the seed hull. Cracked pea seeds will not germinate. Pea seedlings are not competitive against weeds; therefore, poor seed, poor germination or seeding at lower than recommended rates can result in severe weed problems. Nitrogen fertilizer is not required for optimal field pea production, unless the soil has less than 20 pounds per acre of available nitrogen. In this case, an application of nitrogen to get the young plants off to a good start is recommended. Over-application of nitrogen will increase costs without increasing yield. Relatively large amounts of potassium and phosphorus are required by field pea. They should be applied as recommended by a soil test. Required fertilizer is usually applied before spring planting. Because young pea plants are sensitive to fertilizer salt concentrations, fertilizer should not be placed in direct contact with the seed.

Varieties Several varieties of field pea are available to North Dakota producers. Most field pea currently produced is yellow pea. Buyers have not encouraged the production of green field pea because of harvesting problems involving bleaching of the seed, which results in lower quality. Most field pea

varieties were developed in Canada but are available to producers in the United States. A listing of the more popular varieties of field peas and their distributor is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Recommended Field Pea Varieties, Distributors, and Comments Variety Century Lenca Miranda Paloma Procon Trapper Belinda Tipu Victoria Bellevue Helka Impala Kimbo Renata Solara

Distributor not available not available Wilbur-Ellis Co. Spokane, WA 99206 not available not available

Comments Medium yield, long vines, large cream-colored seeds High yield, medium maturity, medium cream-colored seeds Very high yield, early maturing, very short, large cream-colored seeds High yield, very short, early maturing, large cream-colored seeds Released by Minnesota Ag. Exp. Station in 1986, high yield, early maturing, short vines but not a dwarf, large cream-colored seed used for livestock feed not available Low yielding, late maturing, small cream-colored seeds used for bird feed International Seeds Inc. High seed yield, early maturity, short vines with large cream-colored seeds Box 168 Halsey, OR 97348 SeCan 512-885 High seed yield, medium maturity with long vines and yellow-or cream-colored Meadowlands Drive seeds Ottawa, Ont. K2C3NC Bonis and Company, Ltd. High seed yield, early maturity, medium length vines and small Lindsay, Ont. cream-colored seeds SeCan 512-885 Higher yield than 'century' or 'trapper,' medium maturity and Meadowlands Drive vine length, is susceptible to Ascochyta and Septoria leaf blotch Ottawa, Ont. K2C3NC NorFarm Seeds Early maturity, medium vine length, and bush-type growth habit, yield Box 37 information not available Roseau, MN 56751 International Seeds Inc. Medium to early maturity with cream-colored seeds, yield information Box 168 not available Halsey, OR 97348 NorFarm Seeds Early maturity and short vines with green medium-large seeds, yield Box 37 information not available Roseau, MN 56751 International Seeds Inc. Medium maturity with large cream-colored seed and highly Box 168 resistant to Fusarium wilt and Downy Mildew, yield information not Halsey, OR 97348 available International Seeds Inc. Medium maturity, short vines with very large bluish seed, resistant to Box 168 Fusarium wilt, yield information not available Halsey, OR 97348

Source: Oelke et al. 1991.

Weed Control Because field pea does not compete well with weeds, it should be planted in ground that is relatively free of weeds, especially perennials. Also, a thorough weed control program using both tillage and chemical control may be necessary. Glyphosate, used as a replant burndown herbicide, is especially effective for quack grass control. Trifluralin can be used as a preplant herbicide at recommended rates for control of wild oats, green foxtail, buckwheat, pigweed and lambsquarters. Propachlor is used post-emergence for control of many annual grasses. Bentazon will control smartweed, wild mustard, stinkweed and redroot pigweed. Pea seedlings are delicate; therefore, harrowing after the seedlings have emerged is not recommended.

Diseases and Insect Pests Seed can be infected by fungi shortly after planting. The most common infecting agents are Pythium, Fusarium solani or Rhiziotonia solani. Treatment of the seed with a fungicide can be effective. Growers are cautioned to apply a fungicide that does not inhibit the nitrogen-fixing rhizobium bacteria. Mycosphaerella blight caused by Mycosphaerella pinodes fungus probably causes the greatest economic damage of all diseases infecting field pea. Moderate to severe infections can reduce yield by 20 to 50 percent. To control this disease, plant certified seed, till crop residue under soil immediately after harvest, control volunteer field peas and do not plant field pea on the same field more than once every five years. Fusarium root rot can be a problem in warm, dry soil that has low

fertility and excessive compaction. The best method of control is producing field pea in a four-year rotation. Powdery mildew and Downy mildew cause yellowing of leaves in cool, wet conditions, but they can be prevented by planting disease-resistant varieties. Pea aphids are the most common insect pest affecting field pea. Field pea can normally tolerate small populations of aphids without sustaining economic damage. However, in hot, dry weather, aphids multiply quickly and can cause severe damage, especially during flowering or early pod stage. If field pea have infestations of three or more aphids per 8 inches of leaf material, spray the field with an insecticide. Other problem insects include loopers, army worms and alfalfa caterpillars.

Harvesting Field pea is usually harvested at 16 to 18 percent moisture or when the seeds are hardened and fully mature. Field pea is generally ready for harvest about the same time as spring wheat. Green pea is usually harvested slightly earlier at 18 to 20 percent moisture to maintain good seed color. If the field pea seed is greater than 16 percent moisture at harvest, it should be dried to 15 percent for storage. If the pea seeds are to be used for seed, drying temperature should not exceed 115 F, otherwise maximum drying temperatures should not exceed 160 F. Upon maturity, field pea vines are prostrate which can make harvesting difficult. Field pea may be swathed or straight combined. Whether swathed or combined, the cutting platform must be kept as close to the ground as possible. To reduce harvesting losses, the swather or combine straight head should be equipped with pick-up guards and pickup reels or fingers. Field pea should be swathed on a calm day. If the windrows are to be left overnight, they should be packed behind the swather with a light roller to prevent the wind from blowing them. It may be easier to swath an amount of field pea which can be combined the same day. Combine adjustments are critical to successfully harvest high quality field pea. Combine adjustments may be necessary as weather and crop conditions change. Start with the cylinder speed at 500 to 600 revolutions per minute for a trial run. Continually monitor the pea seeds for cracking and splitting and make necessary adjustments.

Lincoln Pea The Standard for Fresh Eating A premium-quality freezer pea with 6-9 peas per wellfilled pod. Lincoln Pea stands the heat better than most, resists wilt. 67 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plenty- you can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.)

Yield: 20 lbs/ 100 foot row

Height: 25-30 in Spacing: 2-3 in between plants, 18-24 inches between rows Depth: 1-1.5 in Spread: 5 in Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 67

Maestro Pea

Multiple Disease Resistance Gurney's Choice Unmatched sweetness if picked before fully mature. Maestro Pea withstands mosaic virus, common wilt, powdery mildew. Bears over several weeks, setting plenty of 4-1/2inch pods with up to 10 peas. 61 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 24-26 in Spacing: 2-3 in between plants, 18-24 in between rows Depth: 1-1.5 in Spread: 5 in Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 61 Yield: 20lbs/ 100 foot row

Comments: BRED FOR HARDINESS. EARLY STRONG VARIETY CAN BE PICKED OVER A LONGER PERIOD OF TIME. EXCELLENT DISEASE RESISTANCE. MANY DOUBLE PODDED.

Sugar Snap Snap Pea

Peak Achievement in Flavor Stringless 3-inch pods keep their rich color and real crunch after cooking. Dependably wilt and frost resistant. 70 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details

Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 18-24 inches Spread: 4-6 inches Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 70

Comments: PEAK ACHIEVEMENT IN FLAVOR. STRINGLESS, 3-INCH PODS KEEP THEIR RICH COLOR AND REAL CRUNCH AFTER COOKING. DEPENDABLY WILT AND FROST RESISTANT. APPROXIMATELY 225 SEEDS PER PACKET. 70 DAYS.

Sugar Lace II Snap Pea Top-Ranked for flavor!

Sets heavy yields of delicious, stringless pods. Sugar Lace II Snap Peas are self-supporting vines are disease tolerant. 68 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 30 in Spacing: 4 in Depth: 1/2-1 in Spread: 4-6 inches Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 68 days Yield: approximately 30-32 pods per plant Foliage: GREEN;WILL DECLINE AFTER HARVEST

Comments: RANKED #1 IN NATIONAL TESTS. STRINGLESS VARIETY IS SEMI LEAF-LESS, SELF SUPPORTING. TOLERANT TO POWDERY MILDEW, PEA ENATION VIRUS & BEAN LEAF ROLL VIRUS

Little Marvel Pea

Big Yields in Small Spaces A favorite for over 60 years! Space- saving semi-dwarf sets huge yields of 3-inch pods with 6-9 large, sweet peas. Good for freezing. 62 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details

Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 18-20 in Spacing: 2-3 in between plants, 18-24 in between rows Depth: 1-1.5 in Spread: 5 in Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 62 Yield: 20 lbs/ 100 foot row Foliage: FOLIAGE: GREEN,WILL DECLINE AFTER HARVEST

Comments: DWARF SIZE, HUGE PRODUCTION. BEARS DARK GREEN 3"" PODS, EACH FILLED WITH 68" SWEET, PLUMP PEAS. HOLDS WELL ON THE VINE, SO PICKING TIME ISN'T AS CRITICAL. SPUARE ENDED PODS.

Oregon Sugar Pod II Snow Pea Bred for Disease Resistance

Gurney's Choice Small vines grow 24-30 inches tall with no staking needed. Tender pods cook up sweet, crunchy. Freezes well, with no loss of color of flavor. Oregon sugar Pod II Snow Peas are resistant to mosaic virus, powdery mildew and wilt. 68 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 26-32 in Spacing: 2-3 in between plants, 18-24 in between rows Depth: 1-1.5 in Spread: 5 in Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 68 days Yield: 20 lbs/ 100 ft row

Comments: LIGHT GREEN. BIG PODS STORE PEAS RIGHT ON THE VINE. GOOD QUALITY. MULTI-DISEASE RESISTANT. NOTED FOR MILD, SWEET FLAVOR. DOUBLE PODDED, 2 PODS PER NODE. FREEZES WELL, NO LOSS OF COLOR OR FLAVOR. CRISP SNAP. NO STAKING NEEDED.

Dwarf Gray Sugar Snow Pea Doesn't Require Staking

Dwarf Gray Sugar Snow Peas are a prolific space saver. Emerald pods cook up super sweet, slightly crunchy. 66 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 24-28 in Spacing: 2-3 in between plants, 18-24 in between rows

Comments: THIN, LIGHT GREEN FLAT PODS. SWEET AND CRISP. EDIBLE PODS. DOESN'T REQUIRE STAKING. VERY DEPENDABLE PRODUCER. STRINGLESS. WIDELY ADAPTABLE.

Depth: 1-1.5 in Spread: 5 in Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 66 days Yield: 20lbs/ 100 foot row

Sugar Ann Snap Pea Stringless and Early!

Beats Sugar Snap by weeks! Sugar Ann Snap Peas stay sweet, crisp and truly delicious. Stringless. Dwarf plants. 56 DAYS. Peas thrive in the cool temperatures of spring and fall. Plant plentyyou can never have too many of these deliciously sweet and tender treats! Tip : To save space and make harvest easier, sow double rows with a trellis in between.

Product Details Zones: 3 - 9 (-30° F.) Height: 18-24 inches Spacing: 2-3 inches between plants, 18-24 inches between rows Depth: 1-1.5 inches Spread: 5 inches Sun/Shade: full sun Germination: 7-10 days Days To Maturity: 56 Yield: 20 pounds/100 foot row Fruit: 7 peas per pod

Comments: Snap pea. A top-producing early dwarf (short vines). Plant at the same time as Sugar Snap to extend harvest. Pods stay crisp, sweet for one week on the vine. Disease resistance: Fusarium 1. Large, crisp, edible pods. Does not need staking.

PEA FLOWER Sweet Pea Blue Velvet 180cm Large dark blue flowers, free flowering, one of the darkest blue flowered varieties.

Sweet Pea Wiltshire Ripple A unique colour combination in the fashionable ripple pattern of claret to chocolate colouring over white scented blooms. Full-size exhibition, spencer-type, Sweet Pea. Long strong stems. Ideal for cutting, exhibition and garden decoration.

Sweet Pea Blue Ripple ™ 200cm Fragrant flowers have a distinctive blue ripple on a white background, having long slender stems. Ideal cut flower.

Sweet Pea Crimson Ripple ™ 200cm Long slender stems are graced by large fragrant wavy blooms of a distinctive crimson ripple over a white background. Ideal cut flower.

Sweet Pea Zorija Rose ™ 200cm Stunning colour. Delicately fragranced deep magenta rose flowers, excellent for cut flowers, exhibition or in the garden.

Sweet Pea Singing the Blues A cool mixture of exquisite shades of blue scented blooms, ranging from pastel colours, through to deep rich tones.

Sweet Pea Mrs Bernard Jones ™ 200cm A show variety with huge flowers on strong stems. Lightly fragranced flowers are beautifully formed in a striking cerise colour on a white background. Excellent cut flower.

Pruning

Name________________________

You have already examined the effect of auxin on causing the growth of roots on treated leaf and stem cuttings. Small amounts of auxin hormone mixed with talcum powder stimulated roots to form on the leaf petioles of your cuttings. Today you will investigate the role of auxin in formation of branches on a plant, in this case a tall cultivar of Pisum sativum. Observation: When the apical bud of a plant is removed, the stem f orms lateral branches. The apex of a plant seems to produce hormones that signal the lateral buds of a plant to remain dormant. Question: What causes plants to form branches when a plant is pruned? Hypothesis: The decapitation of the apical bud removes the source of a hormone that inhibits branching. Prediction: If the hypothesis is correct, then 1. Plants will produce more or longer branches when decapitated than when left intact and 2. Decapitated plants treated on the apex with a lanolin paste containing the hormone should produce branches of length and number similar to the intact control and fewer or shorter branches than the decapitated (but untreated) plants. Experiment: Earlier in the term you decapitated and treated tall pea plants in four pots. Retrieve your pots labeled: "Intact," "Decapitated," "Lanolin," and "IBA." 1. Observe the plants carefully. The intact control plants were untreated and the apical bud is intact. The decapitated plants were treated by removing the apical bud and any attached immature leaves and a terminal stub of the stem should still be evident. The decapitated + IBA plants were treated similarly, but a dollop of lanolin containing 5000 ppm auxin (IBA) was applied to the stub. This dollop has probably been absorbed, depending upon the amount you used and the temperature of the greenhouse. What has formed at the treated stem tip?_______________spelling counts! 2. If you did not do so before, now eliminate plants in each pot until five remain in each one. As you do this, be sure to eliminate the unusual plants. For example, if any new plants have sprouted in a pot (you can tell in three of the pots because they will not be decapitated!), eliminate them. Eliminate any unusual plants. Hopefully the remaining plants will look very uniform!

3. Height of plants. Measure the height of the plants in each pot; measure from the soil surface to the apical bud of the main stem for undecapitated plants. For decapitated plants, measure from the soil surface to the end of the decapitated stump. Measure each plant to the nearest whole centimeter and then calculate the mean. As usual, round the mean to one decimal place. Mean Individual Plant Heights (cm) Intact measure from soil to apical bud . Untreated Decapitated . Untreated Decapitated measure from soil to stump . Plain Lanolin Decapitated . Lanolin + IBA 4. Number of internodes. Count the number of internodes along the main stem of each of the plants in each pot. Calculate a mean number of internodes for each treatment. Number of Main-Stem Internodes for Individual Plants Mean All intact should have Intact . more than two! Untreated Decapitated . Untreated If any of the decapitated Decapitated have more than two, . Plain Lanolin show the instructor! Decapitated . Lanolin + IBA 5. Number of branches. Count the total number of side branches arising from the axil of leaf #1, #2, or #3 in each pot as directed. Be careful about this: the leaves of pea plants are compound and you should be sure that the branch you count emanates from a leaf axil. If in doubt about whether you have a leaf petiole or a branch, ASK! Calculate a mean number of branches for each treatment. Number Branches in Axil of Leaves #1-#3 on Individual Plants Mean If you find a branch on any Intact . intact plant, Untreated show instructor! If you find more Decapitated . than two Untreated branches on any plant, Decapitated . show your Plain Lanolin instructor! If you find branches in Decapitated these . Lanolin + IBA plants, show instructor! 6. Dispose of the plants and potting soil as directed, then rinse out the pots and place them in the designated area.

Analysis: Under which treatment does the main stem of pea plants grow taller? Intact Decapitated Decapitated + Plain Lanolin Decapitated + IBA Under which treatment do pea plants produce more internodes along the main stem? Intact Decapitated Decapitated + Plain Lanolin Decapitated + IBA Under which treatment do pea plants produce more branches? Intact Decapitated Decapitated + Plain Lanolin Decapitated + IBA Did the auxin treatment inhibit branch formation or growth? yes

no

Decision: The hypothesis: "The decapitation of the apical bud removes the source of a hormone that inhibits branching: is: rejected

not rejected .

When one of the buds grows out from a decapitated plant, are the cells of the bud: being genetically re-programmed into a new pathway of development, or continuing in their original genetic pathway? The purpose of the Decapitated + Plain Lanolin treatment was: What evidence do you have that the hormone involved in branch inhibition is auxin? Have you eliminated the possibility that some other hormone could be involved? yes Do PMC.

you have evidence that, if a shrub is repeatedly stems decapitated), the plant will remain shorter but become bushier? yes

no

trimmed no

(all