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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

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Original Articles 19-Jan-2009

Abbasi, Kaleem; University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Soil and Environmental Sciences

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Keywords:

LCSS-2008-0247.R4

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Date Submitted by the Author:

Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

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Manuscript Type:

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Changes in Soil Properties and Microbial Indices across Various Management Sites in the Mountain Environments of Azad Jammu and Kashmir

Trace Elements, Forest Soils, Nutrient Cycling

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LCSS-2008-0247

Dear Editor Please find enclosed attached copy of our paper entitled “Changes in Soil Properties and Microbial Indices across Various Management Sites in the Mountain Environments of Azad Jammu and Kashmir” by

M. Kaleem Abbasi, Mohsan Zafar and Taique Sultan The paper is revised as suggested by the Reviewer.

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All the References given in the previous MS were not according to the Instruction for Author. I Just follow the format and style from a paper recently published in Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis which was not correct. Now the Literature Cited i.e. References are corrected according to the Instruction for Author. The spellings are checked and Names given in the Text are coincide those given in the Reference section.

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I hope that now paper is modified according to the suggestion of the Reviewers and please accept it for publication in Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. I also need

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the acceptance letter of the paper. Thanks Sincerely, Best wishes

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DR. M. KALEEM ABBASI

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

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REVISED

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Title Page

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January 20, 2008

Date of Revision

January 20, 2009

Type of Contribution:

Regular paper

Number of text pages:

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Number of Tables:

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Number of Figures:

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Title Changes in Soil Properties and Microbial Indices across Various Management Sites in the Mountain Environments of Azad Jammu and Kashmir

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Names of Authors:

M. Kaleem Abbasi, Mohsin Zafar and Tarique Sultan*

Postal addresses of authors

Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Faculty of Agriculture, Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. *Soil Biology and Biochemistry Section, Institute of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, National Agriculture Research Center (NARC), Islamabad, Pakistan

Short title:

Land-cover types and soil properties

Correspondence address

M. Kaleem Abbasi Department of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Faculty of Agriculture, Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan Tel.: +92 (0) 58710 42688 Fax: +92 (0) 58710 42826 E-mail: [email protected]

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Date of submission:

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 2

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Abstract

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The mountainous region of great Himalayan is covered with forest, grassland and arable land

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but the variation in ecosystem functions is not fully explored because of the lack of available

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data. This study appraises the changes of soil properties over the year (spring, summer,

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autumn, winter) of forest, grassland and arable soil in a typical hilly and mountainous region

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of Azad Jammu and Kashmir Pakistan. Soil samples were collected from major land cover

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types in the mountain region: natural forest, grassland and cultivated land (arable). The

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natural forest served as a control against which to assess changes in soil properties resulting

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from the removal of natural vegetation and cultivation of soil. Soil samples were collected

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from 0−15 and 15−30 cm depth six times during the year and examined for changes in

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temperature, moisture, electrical conductivity (EC), micronutrients i.e. iron, manganese,

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copper and zinc (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) and microbial population. Significant differences were found

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in soil temperature, soil moisture, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, and number of bacteria, actinomycetes and

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fungi among the three land cover types. Soil under cultivation had 4−5 0C higher temperature

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and 3−6% lower moisture than the adjacent soils under grassland and forest. Electrical

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conductivity (EC) of forest, grassland and arable was 0.36, 0.30 and 0.31 dSm-1 indicating

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that soil collected from the forest had 18−20% more EC than the adjacent arable and

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grassland soils. On average Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn in the soil collected from the arable site were

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6.6, 5.7, 1.7 and 0.8 mg kg-1 compared with 24.0, 12.1, 3.5 and 1.2 mg kg-1 soil determined in

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the forest soil showing that arable had micronutrients 2−4 times lower than those of the

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grassland and forest. Population of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi in the forest was 22.3

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(105), 8.2 (105) and 2.5 (103), respectively while arable exhibited 8.2 (105), 3.2 (105) and 0.87

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(103). Season (temperature) and depth showed significant effect on microbial activity and

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nutrient concentration and both decreased significantly in winter and in sub-surface layer of

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15−30 cm. Different contents of the parameters among arable, grassland and forest soils

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indicated an extractive effect of cultivation and agricultural practices on soil. Natural

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vegetation appeared to be a main contributor of soil quality as it maintained he moisture

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content and increased the nutrient status and microbial growth of soil and is therefore,

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important to sustain high-altitude ecosystems and reinstate the degraded lands in the

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mountain region.

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Keywords: Land degradation, Micronutrients,

Microbial activity,

Soil properties,

Soil quality, Soil type

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INTRODUCTION

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The mountainous region of great Himalayan is covered with natural forest on the top while

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patches of grass and arable land are found in valleys and plains. On the basis of their general

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characteristics, the maximum potential and resilience of these soils differ depending on

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environmental characteristics and soil cover i.e. natural vegetation. Thus the impact of human

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activities on these ecosystems will have different ecological repercussions. However, there

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are no studies indicating the physical, chemical and biological properties of these soils and

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how these properties are affected by environmental factors. Recently, Abbasi, Zafar, and

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Khan (2007) studied the changes in nutrient concentrations among forest, grassland and

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arable soils of mountain environments and found a substantial variation among soils with

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different land-cover types. It is imperative to compare the changes in soil properties due to

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change in land-cover in order to understand the influence on natural resources and ecological

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processes through the changes in soil and water quality, biodiversity, and global climatic

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systems (Houghton, 1994; Chen et al., 2001). The possible changes that occurred are

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decreases in plant available nutrients (Maggs and Hewett, 1993; Sparling et al., 1994; Lu,

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Moran, and Mausel, 2002; Abbasi and Rasool, 2005; Abbasi, Zafar, and Khan, 2007),

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 4

decrease in microbial activity (Maggs and Hewett, 1990; Sahani and Behera, 2001), increase in bulk density, soil erosion, runoff and decrease in porosity, infiltration and water-holding capacity (Reiners et al., 1994; Sparling et al., 1994; Sahani and Behera, 2001; Lu, Moran, and Mausel, 2002). The most significant effect is the soil nutrient depletion. Removal of vegetation reduces precipitation or increases temperature which accelerates land degradation through the loss of plant cover, biomass turnover, nutrient

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cycling and soil organic carbon storage, accompanied by higher greenhouse emissions (Ojima, Galvin, and Turner, 1994). Therefore, it is important to analyze soil quality and the direction of its change with time (Herrick, 2000; Doran, 2002), and to use these as primary

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indicators of sustainable land use and management (Smith, Halvaorson, and Papendick, 1994; Doran, 2002). Moreover, an analysis on changes of soil properties and characteristics

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due to change in land cover can support decision and policy-making processes at regional and national levels. These include management against land degradation, deforestation, soil fertility depletion and soil erosion.

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The State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir especially the northern slopes of the State

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have been covered with open woodland vegetation. During the last 50 years, as a result of increasing demand for firewood, timber, pasture, shelter and food, natural land covers,

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particularly forests, are being deforested at an alarming rate. This activity, in turn, increases surface runoff and soil erosion in the hilly areas of AJK. Consequently, there is extensive

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topsoil loss, especially in the irregular steep slopes, hilltops and ridges. Under such conditions, the role of plant cover in protecting soil against erosion is crucial, since removal of vegetation strongly increases surface runoff and sediment yield and, as a consequence, soil quality deteriorates. The extent of soil quality deterioration in the hilly and sloping areas of the State is already severe and may lead to a permanent soil degradation, which, in turn, could become the greatest environmental problem of our agro-ecosystem. URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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The severity of the problem is not yet recognized by the Government as well as any international organization. Therefore, it is imperative to Increase awareness about the drastic and accelerated effects of deforestation and removal of natural vegetation on soil quality by comparing the soil properties and microbial characteristics of different land cover types existing in the region. The aim of the study was to quantify the changes in the properties of soil under cultivation by comparing it with the properties of soils under natural vegetation i.e.

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grassland and forest. The natural forests served as a control against which to assess changes in soil properties resulting from the removal of natural vegetation and cultivation of soil. The results are expected to provide a complete picture and better understanding of the

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importance of natural vegetation to soil quality that will support decision and policy-making processes at regional and national levels.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Site Description

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The study site located at Banjonsa close to the Rawalakot town, the district headquarter located in the northeast of Pakistan under the foothills of great Himalayas (Fig. 1). A crude

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approximation of the soil group, detailed soil survey and soil profile studies in this area has

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not been done so far. However, the basic physical and chemical characteristics of the soil of various management sites are presented in Table 1. Rawalakot is one of the districts of the

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State of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) lies between longitude 73o–75o and latitude 33o– 36o. The topography of the area is mainly hilly and mountainous with valleys and stretches of plains. The study area is characterized by a temperate sub-humid climate with annual rainfall ranging from 500−2000 mm (depending on season), most of which is irregular and falls as intense storms during the monsoon and some times in winter. Mean annual temperature is about 20 0C (maximum) in summer while winter is fairly cold with temperature ranging even URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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below freezing point. The elevation ranges from 4500 to in the plains to 6325 meters at the top of the mountains. The snowline is in winter is around 1200 meters above sea level while in the summer it rises to 3,300 meters. Agriculture is based on rainfed cropping system and maize (Zea mays L.) is the favoured crop of the region. Vegetables and fruit tress predominates and most important fruits are apple (Pyrus melus); pears (Pyrus communis); apricots (Prunus ameriaca); plums (Prunus domestica) and walnuts (Juglan regia). A large

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proportion of the area consists of unculturable waste including forest. Soil Sampling and Processing

The land-cover types investigated were a native forest land, grassland and an arable land.

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The forest site represented an undisturbed ecosystem, where kail (Pinus excelsa L.) and cheer (Pinus willichiana L.) were the dominant vegetation. The native grassland consisted

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primarily of rough meadowgrass (Poa trivialis L.), Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon L.), and Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.) while maize and wheat is grown in arable land. The

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three selected sites were samples regularly during the course of investigation from July

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2003−May 2004 once after every two months so that different seasons/temperature of the

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region is covered. Within each site, soil samples from the layers at 0–15 cm and 15–30 cm were collected from five points by soil auger. All the samples were taken from topographically

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similar locations and are practically with in less than one hundred meters of each other. Before sampling, grass, forest litter or any other material on the soil surface were removed.

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The five replicate samples were homogenized by hand mixing and grouped according to land-cover type and depth. Major live plant materials (roots and shoots) and pebbles in each sample were separated by hand and discarded. About 1-kg mixed samples were returned to the laboratory and air dried for 2−3 days. Samples were lightly ground and subsequently sieved through a 2mm mesh, sealed in the plastic bags and stored in a refrigerator at 40C prior to analysis. However, soil temperature, soil moisture, saturation percentage and URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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electrical conductivity were determined at the day of sampling. Soil temperature was measured from the selected points with thermometer. Laboratory Analysis Soil samples were analyzed (05 replicates) for gravimetric moisture content, saturation percentage (SP), electrical conductivity (EC), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), cooper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and microbial population i.e. number of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Moisture

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content in the soil samples were determined on oven-dry weight basis by the method described by Ryan et al. (2001). Saturation percentage was determined by preparing the saturated soil paste and calculation was made from the weight of oven-dry soil and the sum

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of the weights of water added and that initially present in the air-dry sample (Rhoades 1982). EC was determined from the saturation extract collected from the saturated soil pasted

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according to Rhoades (1982). The DTPA test of Lindsay and Norvell (1978) was used to determine Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer model AANALYST-700 was used for this purpose.

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In order to calculate the number of cells of bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi per gram

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of soil, a soil dilution plate method was followed by preparing an initial soil-to-water dilution of approximately 1/10 (10-1) as described by Sharpley (1960). A plant for dilutions and plating

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was prepared. The bacteria and actinomycetes were plated at 10 -3

-5

while the fungi were

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plated at 10 . Egg albumin agar medium was used for bacteria and actinomycetes while 0

Martin’s media was used for fungi. Plates were incubated at 29 C and colonies were counted accordingly.

Statistical Analysis All data were statistically analyzed by multifactorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the software package Statgraphics (1992). Least significant differences (LSD) are given to URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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indicate significant variations between the values of either land use types, depths and timings. Confidence values (P) are given in the text for the significance between land use types, depths, timings and their interactions. A probability level of ≤0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

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Rainfall, Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture Distribution of rainfall and air temperature of the study sites during the experiment is presented in Table 2. Total rainfall during the experimental period was 1460 mm. The

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maximum rainfall was recorded during monsoon i.e. July-August. March was almost completely dry while only 33 mm rainfall was recorded in October. Similarly, Maximum air

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temperature of 22−230C was recorded in July-September measurements while minimum temperature of 6−70C was during November and January. Figure 2 shows changes in soil

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temperature due to change in land cover. Results indicated that soil temperature in the arable

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and grassland was significantly higher than the temperature recorded for the forest. Grassland and arable were at par except in the months of March and May when arable had

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significantly higher temperature than the grassland. Mean soil temperature of forest,

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grassland and arable was 12.08, 15.82 and 16.85 0C indicating that soil under cultivation had 4−5 0C higher temperature than the adjacent soils under grassland and forest. Change in

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season or timings also had significant effect on temperature. Maximum soil temperature (mean) of 22.5 0C was recorded in July (summer) while the minimum of 6 0C was measured in November and January (winter). Similarly, soil depth also had significant effect on temperature and the surface 0−15 cm layer had 7% more temperature than the subsurface 15−30 cm layer.

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Change in land cover also had significant effect on moisture content of soil. Results indicated that soil moisture in the forest soil was significantly higher than that in the grassland and arable except in the month of July where no significant difference was found among land cover types (Figure 2). By taking the average (depth and timings), moisture content of forest, grassland and arable were 22.29, 18.89 and 16.63% indicating that soil under cultivation had 17 and 34% lower moisture than the soil cover with natural vegetation i.e. grassland and

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forest. With regard to timings, maximum mean soil moisture of 25.8% was recorded in January while the minimum soil moisture of 13−14% was recorded during March and May. Depth also showed significant effect on soil moisture and the surface 0−15 cm layer had 13%

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more moisture than the sub-surface 15−30 cm layer. Saturation Percentage (SP) and Electrical Conductivity (EC)

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Table 3 shows changes in SP among three land cover types over different timings. Results indicated that forest and grassland soils had significantly more SP than the arable soil. Both

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forest and grassland were at par except during the months of July and September when SP

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of forest was significantly higher than the SP of grassland. The mean values indicated that

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SP of forest and grassland was 36% and 22% higher than that of arable field. Timings and depth had shown similar trend that observed for temperature and moisture. Electrical

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conductivity (EC) values were very low and ranged between 0.290−0.428 in the forest, 0.232−0.342 in the grassland and 0.263−0.428 dSm-1 in the arable soil (Table 3). Results

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depicted that most of the time, forest showed significantly higher EC than the arable and grassland. The mean EC of forest, grassland and arable was 0.36, 0.30 and 0.31 dSm-1 indicating that soil collected from the forest had 18-20% more EC than the adjacent arable and grassland soils. The difference between grassland and arable was negligible. Soil depth also showed significant effect on EC and the surface 0−15 cm layer had 14% higher EC than the sub-surface 15−30 cm layer. URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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Micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) Soil collected from three land cover types was analyzed for change in micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) over time and depth. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed significant difference among land cover types (P≤0.01); depth (P≤0.01), timings (P≤0.01) and their interactions. Table 4 shows variation in Fe and Mn contents among three land cover types at different timings. The difference among land-cover types was significant. However, the extent of

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variation for Fe and Mn varied with soil type. Iron content of forest soil was very high relative to grassland and arable while the difference between grassland and arable was small. In contrast, the extent of variation for Mn was small between forest and grassland but high

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between grassland and arable. On average, soil collected from the forest had 3−4 times more Fe and 2−3 times more Mn than the soils collected from the grassland and arable. The

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maximum Fe and Mn content were found in the samples collected during May and July whilst the minimum during January. Similarly, depth also had a significant effect and the content of

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Fe and Mn in the surface 0–15 cm layer was 2-fold to that found in the subsurface 15–30 cm layer.

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among three land cover types was almost similar to that observed for Mn being highest in the

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forest and lowest in arable. When averaging over time and depth, Cu contents in the forest, grassland and arable were 3.46, 2.84 and 1.70 mg kg-1 soil, respectively showing that Cu

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content in the soil under cultivation were about 40 and 100% lower than the soil under natural vegetation i.e. grassland and forest, respectively. Similarly, Zn contents in the soil under cultivation were about 20 and 52% lower than the soil under natural vegetation i.e. grassland and forest, respectively. Timings and depths showed similar trend that observed for Fe and Mn. However, changes in Zn content in the forest soil were substantial with season. Microbial Population Bacteria, Actinomycetes and Fungi URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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The population of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi of the study sites were shown in Table 6. In the forest site, bacterial population ranged from 6.38-15.27 (105), actinomycetes 3.7211.45 (105) and fungi 0.8-3.47 (103). The corresponding values for grassland were 5.27-8.32 (105), 3.28-5.23 (105), 0.78-2.02 (103) and for arable soil were 4.52-5.67(105), 2.66-3.45(105) and 0.43-1.60(103). The mean population data revealed that forest had 2−3 times more population of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi than the grasslands and arable. The

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difference between grassland and arable was also significant and grassland showed higher population than the arable. In all the three sites, the maximum microbial population was observed during July whereas the population decreased to substantial level during winter

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(January). Depth also had a significant effect on the distribution of microorganisms. Bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi in the surface 0-15 cm layer were 17, 26 and 28% higher than that observed in the 15-30 cm layer.

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Correlations

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Mean organic matter content of soils collected from the forest, grassland and arable

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was 3.4, 2.0 and 1.5% (Abbasi, Zafar, and Khan 2007). The variations in micronutrients and

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microbial growth among land-cover types were expected to associate with the difference in soil organic matter (SOM). Therefore, correlation of micronutrients and microbial population

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with organic matter was tested. Figures 3 and 4 show significant correlations among many soil properties. Micronutrients Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn were positively and significantly correlated

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with SOM i.e. r2 = 0.87, 0.83, 0.75 and 0.56, respectively. Similarly, the growth and population of bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi also showed significant correlation with SOM i.e. r2 = 0.87, 0.82, and 0.67, respectively.

DISCUSSION The average temperature of the soil under cultivation was 4−5 0C higher than the adjacent soils under grassland and forest. The soil surfaces either bare (arable) or under more URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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translucent plant species (grass), receive more light and warm up more than the soils beneath shadier tree species. These differences in the microclimate of the soil might be one of the potential causes for temperature difference in different land-cover types. Kalnay and Cai (2003) and Brüggemann et al. (2005) reported a significant increase in soil temperature in soils under cultivation than the soils under natural vegetation. A change in soil temperature was also linked with soil depth and surface 0−15 cm layer had 7% more temperature than the

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sub-surface 15−30 cm. This rise in temperature was expected because of the direct exposure of surface layer to sunlight. A 4−50C rise in soil temperature due to change in land-cover or cultivation may alter ecosystem functions other than nutrient availability e.g. C and N

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mineralization, microbial community structure and activity. In contrast to temperature, soil moisture of the forest soil was 3−6% higher than the

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moisture contents of grassland and arable. The low level of soil moisture in cultivated soil can be due to the evaporation caused by the direct exposure of soil surface to incoming radiation

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(Lal, 1989). The change in moisture content due to cultivation revealed that the soil

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hydrological regime would be affected by the removal of natural vegetation (Sahani and

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Behera, 2001). Variation in water content among land-cover types could be due to the variation in their organic matter content and the difference in the clay and sand content as

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described by Varela et al. (2001). Changes in moisture content due to change in land-cover i.e. relatively high moisture under natural vegetation than the arable ecosystem was also

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reported by Sahani and Behera (2001), Wang et al. (2003) and Templer et al. (2005). Saturation percentage (SP) of three land-cover types was associated with moisture content and the changes in SP were similar to those reported for moisture content. Electrical conductivity (EC) was lower (18-20%) in cultivated and grasslands compared to the forest. The decline in EC is attributed to greater leaching under cultivation as a result of the removal of natural vegetation. The forested landscape is likely to have less leaching owing to the high URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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evaporative demand of trees and the greater canopy interception of rainfall than non-forested landscapes (Naidu et al., 1996; Blank and Fosberg, 1989). These interpretations were corroborated by Reynolds et al. (1988) who found that forested landscapes accumulated soluble salts in the soil profile. An additional reason for a reduction in EC due to cultivation is the loss of nutrients due to cropping (Mills and Fey, 2003). Changes in major plant nutrients i.e. N, P and K due to change in land-cover types or

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change in land use systems were studied frequently in many parts of the world. But little information is available on changes in micronutrients due to change in land-cover. Sangha, Jalota, and Midmore (2005) reported no significant changes in micronutrients in cleared and

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un-cleared sites while Sheng, Sun, and Liu (2003) reported a significant reduction in Fe, Mn, Zn and increase in Cu content when grassland is converted into farmland. We have observed

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remarkable changes in micronutrients due to change in land-cover. Results indicated that natural vegetation especially forest contributes significantly to enhance the level of

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micronutrients in soil. Continuous addition of plant leaves/litter into the soil may be a major

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source of these elements in soil. Relatively low content of micronutrients in cultivated soil

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than the grassland and forest is attributed to soil management practices that have commonly been destructive when soil is brought under cultivation and have caused serious water

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erosion and runoff. Availability of micronutrients was associated with organic matter because all of the four micronutrients studied i.e. Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn were significantly correlated with

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organic matter content of soil i.e. r2 = 0.87, 0.83, 0.75 and 0.56, respectively. Therefore, any change in OM would have changed the level of micronutrients in soil. The soil microbial population data (bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi) revealed that soil under cultivation had 2−3 times less population than the adjacent soil under forest. The low level of microorganisms indicated poor microbial growth in the cultivated soil. This can be attributed to reduced input of plant residues due to absence of fresh overstory litter in the URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 14

arable site. In addition, lack of proper soil environment, the declined in the moisture content and poor OM are the factors responsible for decline in microbial population in cultivated soil. Deforestation and removal of land cover often result in a low level of soil microbial population (Jha, Sharma, and Mishra, 1992, Sahani and Behera, 2001) and enzyme activity (Salam, Katayama, and Kimura, 1998) due to change in soil microclimate. In contrast, forest soil had significantly higher microbial population. Since microbial growth in the forest is largely

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governed by litter fall, greater microbial growth in the forest soil reflects greater accumulation of plant residues and organic C, which are substrate for soil microbes. Soil depth also showed a significant effect on the distribution of microorganisms. Bacteria, actinomycetes

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and fungi in the surface 0-15 cm layer were 17, 26 and 28% higher than that observed in the 15-30 cm layer. The microbial population showed a significant correlation with organic matter

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content of soil and the values were r2=0.87, 0.82 and 0.67 for bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi, respectively depicting that microbial growth and activity was dependent on the level of

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organic matter in soil. Since, microbial activity and growth are indices of biological stability

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that ultimately controls the sustainable fertility status of soil (Hart, August, and West, 1989;

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Harris and Birch, 1990), decline in microbial population reveals poor and unstable soil which may further lead to degradation if not properly managed. In all the three sites, the maximum

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microbial population was observed during July whereas the population decreased to substantial level during winter (January). The seasonal variation in microbial population is

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attributed to change in temperature. Microorganisms are very sensitive at low temperature and their growth and activity was restricted in winter as observed in this study.

CONCLUSIONS The present study demonstrates the impact of cultivation and changes in land cover on soil properties, nutrient availability and microbial growth. The study suggests that continuous cultivation increases soil temperature and decreases soil moisture which may affect on soil URL: http://mc.manuscriptcentral.com/lcss Email: [email protected]

Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

Page 16 of 31 15

quality and sustainable land use through its affect on nutrient cycling, microbial activity and productivity. The absence of vegetative cover on soil surface and the continuous cultivation deplete micronutrients and reduce the microbial growth. Soil collected under forest exhibited 50C lower temperature, 6% more moisture, 2−3 fold increase in micronutrients and microbial population indicating the importance of natural vegetation to soil quality and productivity potential. These results highlight the importance of preserving the natural vegetation in

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sloppy hilly areas, where it is a major factor for marinating soil organic C stock and protecting soil against runoff and erosion. A highly significant correlation of OM with micronutrients and microbial population indicates that OM is an important indicator of soil quality. Improvement in

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OM and nutrients would be expected from more C inputs. Introduction of legumes in cropping systems may contribute to the improvement of soil functions and maintenance of ecosystem

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processes that will affect on soil quality. Establishment of vegetation cover on soil surface through the introduction of white clover, alfalfa and grasses, would increase the content of

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SOM, decrease the extent of soil erosion thereby prevent soil degradation. The data obtained

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are increasing the total pool of data values that can be used as input parameters in, and for

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validating, simulation models, either for local use or for extrapolation to other areas with similar conditions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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We express our appreciation to thank Dr. Muhammad Aslam of Soil Biology and Biochemistry

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section, Institute of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, National Agriculture Research Center (NARC), Islamabad Pakistan for providing all analytical facilities in their laboratory during this study.

REFERENCES

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 16

Abbasi, M. K., M. Zafar, and S. R. Khan. 2007. Influence of different land-cover types on the changes of selected soil properties in the mountain region of Rawalakot Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 78: 97–110. Abbasi, M. K., and G. Rasool. 2005. Effects of different land-use types on soil quality in the hilly area of Rawalakot Azad Jammu ad Kashmir. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica. Section B, Soil and Plant Science 55: 221-228.

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Hart, P. B. S., J. A. August, and A. W. West. 1989. Long term consequences of top sol

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Jha, D. K., G. D. Sharma, and R. R. Mishra. 1992. Soil microbial population numbers and enzyme activities in relation to altitude and forest degradation. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 24: 761–767. Kalnay, E., and M. Cai. 2003. Impact of urbanization and land-use change on climate. Nature 423: 528–531. Lal, R. 1989. Soil degradation and conservation of tropical rain forest. In Changing the Global

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Lindsay, W. L., and W. A. Norvell. 1978. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron,

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Maggs, J., and B. Hewett. 1993. Organic C and nutrients in surface soil from some primary rainforests, derived grasslands and secondary rainforest on the Atherton Tableland in

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soil organic matter and surface crusting. South African Journal of Science 99: 429−436. Naidu, R., S. McClure, N. J. McKenzie, and R. W. Fitzpatrick. 1996. Soil solution composition and aggregate stability changes caused by long-term farming at four contrasting sites in South Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 34: 511–527.

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Ojima, D. S., K. A. Galvin, and B. L. Turner II. 1994. The global impact of land-use change. Bioscience 44: 300–304. Reiners, W. A., A. F. Bouwman, W. F. J. Parsons, and M. Keller. 1994. Tropical rain forest conservation to pasture: changes in vegetation and soil properties. Ecological Applications 4: 363–377. Reynolds, B., C. Neal, M. Hornung, S. Hughes, and P. A. Stevens. 1988. Impact of

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afforestation on the soil solution chemistry of stagnopodzols in midWales. Water Air & Soil Pollution 38: 55–70.

Rhoades, J. D. 1982. Soluble salts. In Methods of Soil Analysis, Chemical and

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Microbiological Properties, Part 2, 2nd ed., eds. A. L. Page, R. H. Miller and D. R. Keeney, 167–179. Madison, Wisconsin: SSSA.

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Ryan, J., G. Estefan, and A. Rashid. 2001. Soil and Plant Analysis Laboratory Manual. Second ed. Jointly published by the International Centre for Agricultural Research in

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Sahani, U., and N. Behera. 2001. Impact of deforestation on soil physicochemical characteristics, microbial biomass and microbial activity of tropical soil. Land Degradation & Development 12: 93–105.

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Salam, A.K., A. Katayama, and M. Kimura 1998. Activity of some soil enzymes in different

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land use system after deforestation in hilly areas of West Lampung, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 44: 93–103. Sangha, K. K., R. K. Jalota, and D. J. Midmore. 2005. Impact of tree clearing on soil pH and nutrient availability of central Queensland, Australia. Australian Journal of Soil Research 43: 51–60.

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Sharpley, J. M. 1960. Elementary Petroleum and Microbiology. Wolf Publications Co., Houston, Texas, USA. Sheng, X. B. S., J. Z. Sun, and Y. X. Liu. 2003. Effect of land-use and land-cover change on nutrients in soil in Bashang area, China. Journal of Environmental Science 15: 548– 553. Smith, J. L., J. J. Halvaorson, and R. J. Papendick. 1994. Using multiple-variable indicator

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kriging for evaluating suamaoil quality. Soil Science Society of America Journal 57: 743–749.

Sparling, G. P., P. B. S. Hart, J. A. August, and D. M. Leslie. 1994. A comparison of soil and

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microbial carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus contents, and macro aggregate stability of a soil under native forest and after clearance for pastures and plantation forest.

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Corporation, Reference Manual. Version 6. Manugistics, Inc., Rockville, Muryland,

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Templer, P. H., P. M. Groffman, A. S. Flecker, and A. G. Power. 2005. Land use change and soil nutrient transformations in Los Haitises region of the Dominican Republic. Soil Biology & Biochemistry 37: 215–225.

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Varela, M. E., E. DeBlas, and E. Bentto. 2001. Physical soil degradation induced by

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deforestation and slope modification in a temperate-humid environment. Land Degradation & Development 12: 477–484. Wang, J., B. J. Fu, Y. Qiu, and L. D. Chen. 2003. The effects of land use and its patterns on soil properties in a small catchment of the Loess Plateau. Journal of Environmental Science 15: 263–266.

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1 2 3

Bagh

N

Sampling Site

Banjonsa

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Kotli Figure 1.

Indian Held Kashmir

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Punjab

Rawalakot

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Location of the study site at Rawalakot, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan.

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4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

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32

30 Forest Grassland Arable

20

0

temperature ( C)

25

15

10

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rP Fo

5

rR

0 35

30

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20

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moisture (%)

25

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15

10

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5 15/07/03

33 34 35 36

15/09/03

15/11/03

15/01/04

15/03/04

15/05/04

sampling time Figure 2. Variation in soil temperature and moisture among three land-cover types at different timings

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 3

37

27 25 20 22 24

2

r =0.87

Fe Mn Cu Zn

-1

Fe, Mn, Cu & Zn (mg kg soil)

10

rP Fo

26

2

r =0.75 2

2

r =0.56

3

4

rR

1

2

r =0.83

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5

Organic matter (%)

Figure 3. of soil

Relationship of micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn) with organic matter content

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38 39 40 41

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42

18 16

Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi

microbial population

14

r2=0.87

12 10

r2=0.82

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8 6 4 2

r2=0.67

0 0

1

rR

ee 2

3

4

5

organic matter (%)

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47

Figure 4. Relationship of microbial population (bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi with organic matter content of soil

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43 44 45 46

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Table 1. experiment

Physical and chemical characteristics of the soil used (0−30 cm) in the Forest

Grassland Values

Arable

Sand (%)

33.6

41.2

46.7

Silt (%)

40.4

33.1

32.5

26.0

25.7

20.8

Textural class

loam

clay loam

clay loam

Bulk density (g cm-3)

1.17

1.25

1.35

6.95

7.64

7.84

17.0

14.0

11.6

8.8

1.59

0.85

5.0

2.6

Soil characteristics Physical Mechanical composition

Clay (%)

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Physicochemical

Soil pH (1:2.5 soil-water suspension)

Nutrient contents Organic matter (g kg-1)

25.4

rR

Cation exchange capacity (c mol (p) kg-1)

ee

19.5 2.38

Available P (mg kg-1)

10.6

Available K (mg kg-1)

69.1

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Total N (g kg-1)

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44.4

40.2

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Table 2. Rainfall (mm) and temperature (0C) of the study area recorded during the investigation Timings

rainfall (mm)

temperature (0C)

July, 2003

188.2

23.5

September, 2003

138.9

22.4

November, 2003

83.0

7.0

January, 2004

165.5

6.7

March, 2004

10.0

16.2

May, 2004

149.2

19.5

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ev

rR

ee

rP Fo

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Page 27 of 31

Table 3. Effect of different land-cover types on electrical conductivity of saturation extract (ECe, dSm-1) and saturation percentage of three soils at two different depths over different timings Depth-1 (0–15 cm) Depth-2 (15–30 cm) Timings LSD LSD Forest Grassland Arable Forest Grassland Arable Electrical conductivity of saturation extract (ECe, dSm-1) T1

0.440

0.360

0.453

0.024

0.417

0.323

0.347

0.040

T2

0.383

0.317

0.283

0.011

0.353

0.260

0.307

0.015

T3

0.357

0.307

0.313

0.038

0.327

0.287

0.273

0.026

T4

0.307

0.253

0.310

0.027

0.273

0.257

0.210

0.032

T5

0.387

0.317

0.283

0.06

0.327

0.243

0.273

0.054

T6

0.397

0.340

0.360

0.039

0.360

0.287

0.317

0.059

LSD (P≤0.05)

0.048

0.028

0.039

0.027

0.034

0.045

52.2

48.4

39.6

6.40

7.11

55.2

55.4

43.5

8.15

3.38

56.1

ie

55.6

39.5

8.26

52.5

51.9

40.4

4.32

54.4

49.4

42.7

5. 54

43.4

5.59

Saturation percentage

rR

ee

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7.87

68.6

55.5

40.8

T2

68.4

58.2

47.0

T3

64.5

63.2

43.7

T4

63.8

60.6

45.7

5.27

T5

61.9

63.4

48.0

5.06

T6

63.8

60.7

49.4

4.39

w 56.1

On

T1

ev

54.3

LSD 7. 48 9.21 5.39 4.27 6.34 6.45 (P≤0.05) T1 = 15/07/2003; T2 = 15/09/2003; T3 = 15/11/2003; T4 = 15/01/2004; T5 = 15/03/2004; T6 = 15/05/2004

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Table 4. Effect of different land-cover types on Fe and Mn contents (mg kg-1) of three soils at two different depths over different timings Depth-1 (0–15 cm) Depth-2 (15–30 cm) Timings LSD LSD Forest Grassland Arable Forest Grassland Arable Fe contents (mg kg-1 soil) T1

37.19

11.30

7.21

1.49

15.45

8.56

6.16

1.39

T2

34.16

10.33

8.85

1.51

13.30

8.18

5.91

1.82

T3

30.65

10.59

8.14

1.65

12.95

7.65

4.87

2.93

T4

27.97

9.59

7.47

2.91

12.33

6.37

3.17

2.76

T5

35.96

10.37

9.28

2.83

14.17

6.91

3.50

1.83

T6

38.16

11.53

9.44

1.87

15.31

8.43

4.64

1.34

LSD (P≤0.05)

1.464

0.642

0.643

0.837

0.404

0.618

19.23

10.33

8.20

1.59

9.19

4.22

3.38

1.37

T2

15.37

12.35

7.37

1.62

9.14

3.75

3.83

1.24

T3

14.24

12.10

8.25

1.23

9.44

6.63

4.55

1.79

T4

12.61

13.12

8.30

2.12

6.86

7.21

3.60

2.52

T5

14.25

12.77

6.85

2.67

10.10

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5.12

3.76

2.72

T6

16.18

10.12

6.58

1.56

9.14

5.13

3.28

1.42

ie

ev

T1

rR

Mn contents (mg kg-1 soil)

ee

rP Fo

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LSD 0.796 1.36 0.661 0.826 0.668 0.557 (P≤0.05) T1 = 15/07/2003; T2 = 15/09/2003; T3 = 15/11/2003; T4 = 15/01/2004; T5 = 15/03/2004; T6 = 15/05/2004

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Table 5. Effect of different land-cover types on Cu and Zn contents (mg kg-1) of three soils at two different depths over different timings. Depth-1 (0–15 cm) Depth-2 (15–30 cm) Timings LSD LSD Forest Grassland Arable Forest Grassland Arable Cu contents (mg kg-1 soil) T1

5.39

2.85

1.80

0.479

2.60

2.52

1.28

0.174

T2

4.30

2.54

1.80

0.275

2.73

2.39

1.19

0.460

T3

3.84

2.60

1.65

0.145

2.48

2.43

1.30

0.171

T4

3.26

2.43

1.59

0.311

2.32

2.48

1.14

0.353

T5

3.55

3.88

2.52

0.474

2.68

3.23

1.64

0.229

T6

4.64

3.75

2.54

0.315

3.73

2.99

1.90

0.344

LSD (P≤0.05)

0.437

0.241

0.216

0.182

0.374

0.178

1.92

1.16

0.88

0.194

0.61

0.67

0.070

0.117

T2

1.58

0.93

0.92

0.110

0.41

0.64

0.68

0.112

T3

1.36

0.99

0.86

0.151

0.45

0.65

0.61

0.129

T4

1.29

1.51

0.74

0.361

0.36

0.56

0.50

0.106

T5

2.05

1.55

1.13

0.128

0.77

w

0.55

0.43

0.167

T6

2.27

1.43

1.20

0.267

0.82

0.84

0.49

0.194

ie

ev

T1

rR

Zn contents (mg kg-1 soil)

ee

rP Fo

On

LSD 0.126 0.227 0.169 0.159 0.094 0.115 (P≤0.05) T1 = 15/07/2003; T2 = 15/09/2003; T3 = 15/11/2003; T4 = 15/01/2004; T5 = 15/03/2004; T6 = 15/05/2004

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Table 6. Effect of different land-cover types on Bacteria, Actinomycetes and fungi of three soils at two different depths over different timings. Depth-1 (0–15 cm) Depth-2 (15–30 cm) Timings LSD LSD Forest Grassland Arable Forest Grassland Arable Population of bacteria (105) T1

16.35

9.1

5.4

2.26

14.2

7.6

6.0

1.72

T2

13.8

9.7

4.3

2.72

11.0

6.7

4.7

2.24

T3

12.4

8.8

5.6

1.71

10.0

5.0

5.0

1.27

T4

6.5

4.7

4.8

1.63

6.6

5.8

5.4

1.66

T5

14.0

9.7

4.4

2.77

10.65

6.9

5.1

2.43

T6

15.8

7.4

4.6

4.41

11.43

6.5

4.9

3.11

LSD (P≤0.05)

1.14

3.72

1.66

2.36

1.78

1.53

ee

rP Fo

Population of actinomycetes (105) T1

11.23

5.67

3.53

2.10

11.67

4.80

3.37

0.98

T2

11.07

5.87

2.90

1.29

3.30

3.60

3.53

5.61

T3

8.37

4.06

4.03

2.03

6.57

3.33

2.67

0.951

T4

4.47

2.87

2.90

2.07

2.97

3.70

3.67

2.41

T5

11.00

5.63

3.03

1.597

7.87

3.50

3.13

1.23

T6 LSD

11.0

4.27

2.47

2.04

8.30

3.53

3.30

1.91

2.07

1.21

1.63

w

1.13

1.32

ie

ev

(P≤0.05)

rR

3.81

Population of fungi (103)

On

T1

4.20

1.80

1.60

0.673

2.73

2.23

1.60

0.906

T2

4.60

1.57

1.00

1.796

2.17

1.23

1.10

0.649

T3

1.33

0.90

0.80

0.421

1.57

1.03

0.80

0.394

T4

0.80

0.50

0.37

0.447

0.85

0.47

1.20

0.339

T5

4.03

1.55

0.50

0.834

2.00

1.30

0.67

0.451

T6

3.87

1.17

0.50

0.797

1.97

1.40

0.35

0.622

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LSD 0.895 0.78 0.51 0.710 0.55 0.47 (P≤0.05) T1 = 15/07/2003; T2 = 15/09/2003; T3 = 15/11/2003; T4 = 15/01/2004; T5 = 15/03/2004; T6 = 15/05/2004

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Page 31 of 31

w

ie

ev

rR

ee

rP Fo Copyright Form 184x241mm (150 x 150 DPI)

ly

On

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis

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