Paradigms

Loglan Paradigms

Contents Paradigm A: SIGNS & PUNCTUATION MARKS

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Paradigm B: LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

2

Paradigm C: CAUSAL CONNECTIVES

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Paradigm D: TENSE OPERATORS

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Paradigm E: LOCATION OPERATORS

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Paradigm F: VARIABLES

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Paradigm G: DESCRIPTORS

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Paradigm H: QUANTIFIERS

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Paradigm I: INDICATORS

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Paradigm J: DISCURSIVES

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Paradigm K: MODAL OPERATORS

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Paradigm L: UNASSIGNED CVV-FORM WORDS

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Paradigm M: ALPHABET WORDS

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Paradigm N: OPTIONAL CASE TAGS

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Paradigm A: SIGNS & PUNCTUATION MARKS Words which have optional non-phonemic representations in written Loglan and which correspond roughly to the punctuation marks and mathametical signs of English are listed here. Other non-phonemic signs may be found in Paradigm H, Quantifiers; and Paradigm M, Alphabet Words. bi bie cie cio ci gie giu hie hi hiu kie kiu kua

[=] [∈] [<] [>] [ ] [[] []] [(] [,] [)] [ (] [) ] [/]

is (identity) is a member of is less than is greater than (open hyphen) (left close bracket) (right close bracket) (left close parenthesis) (close comma) (right close parenthesis) (left open parenthesis) (right open parenthesis) over/divided by. . .

kue li lu nea nio niu pea pio pi tia y zoa zoi

[\] [ ≪] [≫] [−] [−] [*] [+] [+] [.] [∗] [-] [′′ ] [′ ]

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under/dividing. . . (left quote) (right quote) negative (sign of a negative number) minus/less (sign of subtraction) the incorrect Loglan. . . positive (sign of a positive number) plus/and (sign of addition) (decimal point) times/multiplied by (close hyphen) double prime prime

Paradigm B: LOGICAL CONNECTIVES Elements:

a e i u

or and means whether

no-/-no-/-noi nu-/-nuc- / -c ik- / -k

negative affixes conversion (only with u) mark of word & sentence forms mark of sentence forms mark of context-free forms

Contexts: L-Connectives occur in 3 context-specific and 1 context-free form: (1) between terms (i.e., arguments or predicates) where they are unmarked; (2) between words in predicate expressions, where they are marked with c; (3) between sentences, where they are marked with i and c; and (4) in any of these in a form marked by a leading prefix k- (possibly with a suffix of -noi), and with a trailing . . . ki (or . . . kinoi).

English Expressions

Between Terms (1)

Between Words (2)

Between Sentences (3)

Context-Free

or (inclusive sense) and if and only if / means whether whether . . . , . . .

a e o u nuu

ca ce co cu nucu

ica ice ico icu inucu

ka. . . ki ke ko nuku ku

only if not . . . and . . . not . . . means . . . / or (excl.) not . . . , whether . . . whether . . . , not . . .

noa noe noo1 nou nonuu2

noca noce noco nocu nocnuu

inoca inoce inoco inocu inocnuu

kanoi. . . ki kenoi nukonoi nukunoi nuknuunoi

if and not means not / or (excl.) whether not whether . . . , not

anoi enoi onoi unoi3 nuunoi

canoi cenoi conoi cunoi nucunoi

icanoi icenoi iconoi icunoi inucunoi

ka. . . kinoi ke ko ku ku

not both . . . and . . . neither . . . nor . . . not . . . means not . . . not . . . , whether not . . . whether not . . . , not . . .

noanoi noenoi noonoi4 nounoi5 nonuunoi6

nocanoi nocenoi noconoi nocunoi nonucunoi

inocanoi inocenoi inoconoi inocunoi inonucunoi

kanoi. . . kinoi ke konoi kunoi kanoi

(4)

Note: Any of the Logical Connectives can be suffixed with a combination of Tense Operators, Causal Operators, and Location Operators: for example: efa = “and-after”; enukou = “and-thus”; evu = “and-yonder”; efavu = “and-yonder-after”; etc. 1,2,3,4,5,6

The forms on these rows occur only briefly in speech, being transformational products and immediately replacable by their equivalents as follows: 1. 2.

noo nonuu

by by

onoi nuu

3. 4.

unoi noonoi

by by

u o

2

5. 6.

nounoi nonuunoi

by by

nou nuunoi

Paradigm C: CAUSAL CONNECTIVES Elements:

kou moi rau soa

physical sense motivational sense justificational sense sense of entailment

no-/-nonu-/-nui-ki

negative affixes conversion affixes mark of sentence forms mark of context-free forms

Contexts: C-Connectives occur in 2 context-specific and 1 context-free form: (1) prepositional (before arguments) where they are unmarked; (2) conjuctival (between sentences) where marked with i; and (3) either of these contexts or any context in which L-Connectives may occur (see Paradigm B) in forms marked by marked by a leading suffix -ki (possibly with a prefixed nu-, nuno-, or no-) and with a following . . . ki.

English Expression

Before Arguments (Prepositional)

Before Sentences (Conjuctival)

Context-Free (with ki)

because, since, for, etc.

kou moi + Causes rau soa

ikou imoi E+ +C irau isoa

nukouki. . . ki numoiki nurauki nusoaki

therefore, thus, so, etc.

nukou numoi + Effects nurau nusoa

inukou inumoi C+ +E inurau inusoa

kouki. . . ki moiki rauki soaki

although, even though, etc.

nokou nomoi norau nosoa

+ Causes

inokou inomoi E+ +C inorau inosoa

nunokouki. . . ki nunomoiki nunorauki nunosoaki

nevertheless, despite that, even so, etc.

nunokou nunomoi + Effects nunorau nunosoa

inunokou C +inunomoi + E inunorau inunosoa

nokouki. . . ki nomoiki norauki nosoaki

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Paradigm D: TENSE OPERATORS Elements:

pa na fa -i-

(past) / before / then (present) / at / in / now (future) / after / afterwards an infix meaning continuity

-zi -za -zu -u-

of moments/short intervals of medium length intervals of long length intervals an infix meaning habitualness

Forms: Tense operators may be (1) simple, (2) continous (with an infixed -i-, (3) habitual (with an infixed -u-, (4) compound; and any of these may me (5) quantified with any of the affixes zi, za, or zu. Any form may occur in any context. Contexts: There are 3 contexts: (i) before predicates, where they function as verbal inflections of that predicate; (ii) before arguments, where they function as prepositions (with concrete arguments) or conjuctions (with abstract ones); and (iii) in any other position where they function as adverbial modifiers of the sentence as a whole, or suitably punctuated, of the elements they follow. Null-Form: Standing outside this system is the word ga which preserves the timelessness of the unadorned predicate in contexts in which the predicate would otherwise be absorbed by a preceding description: Le mrenu ga penso = “The man is a thinker” vs. Le mrenu penso = “The man-type of thinker”. Ga can also take the forms gia and gua, for the continous and habitual senses; and gua, which has a “strong potentiality” sense. Inflection 3 Simple Tenses: pa . . . -ed / was . . . / was a . . . na . . . -s / is a . . . fa will . . . / will be . . . -ing / will be a . . .

Preposition or Conjunction before . . . at / during / when . . . after . . .

Adverbial Modifier then / formerly now / currently afterwards

3 Continous Tenses: pia was . . . -ing/ was being (a) . . . nia is now . . . -ing / is now being (a) . . . fia will be . . . / will be . . . -ing

until while . . . since . . .

until now meanwhile ever since

3 Habitual Tenses: pua . . . -ed / was . . . / was a . . . (habitually) nua . . . -s / is a . . . (habitually) fua will be . . . / will be . . . -ing (habitually)

before . . . (hab.) at / during / when . . . (hab.) since . . . hab.)

then / formerly (hab.) now / currently (hab.) ever since (hab.)

9 Compound Tenses: (here translated only as infections) papa had (past perfect) pana was then . . . pafa napa has (present perfect) nana is just now . . . nafa fapa will have (future perfect) fana will then be . . . fafa A large number of Quantified Tenses: pazi just now fazi immediately paza recently faza soon pazu long ago fazu eventually etc etc

piazi piaza piazu etc

was going to . . . is now going to . . . will be going to . . .

continously and briefly before now continously for a short time before now continously for a long time before

Note: Tense Operators, Causal Operators, and Location Operators can be combined in arbitary ways navi = “here-now”; vakou = “there-causing”; etc. Also, such forms such as pacenoina = “once-butnot-now”; vicava = “here-or-there”; etc., may be used. And, quantified forms may be formed by prefixing a Quantifier before a Tense Operator, Causal Operator, or Location Operator: nina = “never”; nepa = “once (in the past)”; rava = “everywhere”; etc. Also, zi, za, and zu may be used as a prefixes, where they denote the length of the event: zipazu = “long ago, for a short time”. 4

Paradigm E: LOCATION OPERATORS Elements:

vi va vu

in/at near far

-zi -za -zu

very small / point-like a small/medium space a large region

-i-

an infix meaning spatial extension

Contexts & Forms: The same as for tense operators: (1) inflectional, (2) prepositional/conjuctival, and (3) adverbial. Contexts (1) and (3) are not well distinguished in English. Inflector 3 Simple Locators: vi here va near here vu far away 3 Extended Locators: vii throughout. . . , a small place via throughout. . . , a medium place viu throughout. . . , a large place

Preposition or Conjunction

Adverbial

at/in/where . . . near / near the place where . . . far from / far from where . . .

here nearby away

throughout. . . , a small place throughout. . . , a medium place throughout. . . , a large place

throughout. . . , a small place throughout. . . , a medium place throughout. . . , a large place

9 Compound Locators: (here translated only prepositionally) vivi around in vavi into . . . (from nearby) vuvi into . . . (from afar) viva out of . . . (a short way) vava past . . . (nearby) vuva toward . . . vivu out of . . . (a long way) vavu away from . . . vuvu past . . . (at a distance) A large number of Quantified Locators such as: (here vizi at . . . , a spot vazi near . . . , a spot viza in . . . , a small place vaza near . . . , a small place vuza in . . . , a large region vuza near . . . , a region

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translated prepositionally) vuzi far from . . . , a spot vuza far from . . . , a small place vuza far from . . . , a region

Paradigm F: VARIABLES Forms: Variables correspond to the pronouns of English and are of seven forms, as below. In addition, any variable may be subscripted by using the infix -ci- between it and any Quantifier (Paradigm H), any Alphabet Word (Paradigm M), or any other variable. Personal Variables Singular Plural Set Multiple I mi I, you mu mo I, other(s) miu mio I, you, other(s) muu muo you tu tou too you, other(s) tuu tuo 3rd da de di do du

Person, Definite X/the Xs/he/she/it/him/her/they/them Y/the Ys/he/she/it/him/her/they/them W/the Ws/he/she/it/him/her/they/them H/the Hs/he/she/it/him/her/they/them Q/the Qs/he/she/it/him/her/they/them

3rd Person, Indefinite ba someone/something x be someone/something y bo bu

someone/something h someone/something q

ti toi tio

Demonstrative Variables this ta that that remark previously mentioned toa this remark about to be mentioned that situation previously mentioned tao this situation about to be mentioned

dua bua

is / does (the former) this

Predicate Variables dui is / does (the latter) bui that

Subscripted Forms: dacine = “X-sub-1”; micitu = “me-sub-you”; deci,ama = “Y-sub-A”; etc. Note: Any of the Alphabet Words of Paradigm M may be used either as variables or as “constants”, i.e., variables with an arbitarily constant designation.

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Paradigm G: DESCRIPTORS Form: Descriptors may be (1) simple, (2) specified (prefixed to a time or location operator), or (3) possesive (prefixed to a variable). These correspond to English (i) definite articles, (ii) demonstrative adjectives, and (iii) possesive pronouns. Only la, laa, le, lea, lee, leu, lo, and loe may be used in specified or possesive forms. In addition, the quote words li, lii, liu, and lie may be optionally suffixed with -zi for the written form of the quoted, and -za for the spoken form. Contexts: Lao is used before foreign names, la before names, lae and lue before arguments, lau and lou before lists, lie before foreign phrases, lii before letters, lio before quantifiers, li. . . lu around quotations, liu before words, and lua and luo after lists. All other descriptors occur in one context only: before untensed predicate expressions. 18 Simple Descriptors: la the one named le the lo the mass of li . . . lu the utterance. . . laa the unique. . . (le) lae the addressee of. . . (indirect designation) lao the foreign name. . . (la) lau . . . (lua) the set. . . (le) lea the set of all. . . (le) lee an arbitrary. . . (le) leu the particular set of. . . (le) lie (strong quotation mark) (li) lii the letter/sound. . . (li) lio the number. . . liu the word. . . (li) loe the typical. . . (le) lou . . . (luo) the ordered list. . . (le) lue a/the sign/address of . . . (inverse of lae) Many Specified Descriptors: levi this/these . . . leva that/those (nearby) . . . levu that/those (distant) . . . lepa the-former . . . lena the-present . . . lefa the-future . . . etc.

Many lemi letu lemu leda leba levina etc.

Possessive Descriptors: my . . . your . . . our . . . X’s / his / hers / its / their . . . x’s / someone’s / something’s the-here-and-now . . .

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Paradigm H: QUANTIFIERS Numeric 0 or 1 -e odd 2 or 3 -o even 4 or 5 -i zero (0) 6 or 7 -ma hundreds (0 /) 8 or 9 -mo thousands (0 −) pi-/-pi- point-/-point- (.)

Elements:

ntfsv-

Digits

Tens

Hundreds, Etc.

ni = 0 ne = 1 to = 2 te = 3 fo = 4 fe = 5 so = 6 se = 7 vo = 8 ve = 9

neni = 10 nene = 11 neto = 12 etc.

nema = 10 /= 100 toma = 20 /= 200 tema = 30 /= 300 etc.

toni = 20 teni = 30 foni = 40 feni = 30 etc.

nemo = 10 −= 1,000 nenimo = 10 −= 10,000 nemamo = 10 /−= 0 100,000 nemomo = 10 −0 −= 1,000,000 etc.

pine = .1 pito = .2 pite = .3 piso = .4 etc.

ra re ri ro ru

Non-Numeric all/each/every one of. . . most of. . . several/a few of. . . many of. . . enough of. . .

sasisusasisasu-

around. . . of. . . at most. . . of. . . at least. . . of. . . almost. . . of. . . barely. . . of. . .

Abbreviations sa = sara almost all of. . . si = sine at most one of. . . su = sune at least one of. . . sasi = sasine almost one of. . . sasi = sasine barely one of. . .

Fractional Forms: (these may be numeric or non-numeric) nepife = 1.5 pira all of (some whole) . . . topisu = 2.6 pire most of (some whole) . . . tepise = 3.7 piri a little of (some whole) . . . etc. piro much of (some whole) . . . piru enough of (some whole) . . .

pinine = .01 pimane = .0 /1 = .001 pimone = .0 −1 = .0001 etc.

pisa pisi pisu

almost all of (some whole) . . . at most a tenth of (some whole) . . . at least a tenth of (some whole) . . .

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Paradigm I: INDICATORS Conviction Scale ia Yes / certainly / It’s true that . . . io probably ii perhaps / possibly iu I don’t know ii no perhaps not io no probably not ia no No / It’s not true that . . .

Intention Scale ai Yes / I will . . . ao I want to . . . ae I hope to . . . au I don’t care whether . . . ae no I hope not to . . . ao no I want not to . . . ai no No / I will not . . .

Obligation Scale oa I/you must . . . oe I/you should . . . oi I/you may . . . ou It doesn’t matter whether . . . oi no I/you are permitted not to . . . oe no I/you should not . . . oa no I/you must not / No, don’t do . . .

Non-scalar Additudes ua There! (satisfaction/completion) ue Well! (surprise) ui How nice! Good! (pleasure) uo What! (anger/annoyance) uu What a shame! (sorrow/sympathy) aa I see (what you mean) ee Caution / Careful / Take care oo Hmm (disapproval)

Interrogatives ie Which? / / Who? / What? ea Let’s . . . / I suggest that . . . ei Is that so? / is it true that . . . ?

eo eu

Please? / Will you let us . . . ? Let us suppose that . . . (sign of subjective mood)

Note: Compound indicators are possible, e.g., uiai = “I will gladly . . . ”; uuia = “I am sorry to say so, but . . . ”; etc.

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Paradigm J: DISCURSIVES Discourse operators are CVV-form words usually derived from 5-letter predicates. Their function is to relate new elements in a discourse to the foregoing portions. They are self-contained modifiers like indicators and occur in all the contexts of modifier forms. At present time there are 28 such words but the list may be extended indefinitely; see Paradigm L. Also, any Quantifier may be prefixed to -fi, forming ordinals: nefi = “first”; tofi = “second”; rafi = “last”; etc. bea biu buo cea ceu

For example/For instance (cf. piu) Hence it is possible that1 However/In contrast/On the contrary That is/In other words Anyway/In any case

(bleka = look) (blicu = possible) (bufpo = opposite) (cenja = change) (clesi = without)

cia coa coi dau dou

Similarly/Like the foregoing In short/In sum/By way of summary According to/In principle Hence it is probable that2 Given/By hypothesis/As assumed

(clika = like) (corta = short) (tcori = authority) (dakli = probable) (donsu = give)

fae fao feu gea kuo

And vice versa (reverses the order of terms) Finally/In conclusion In fact/Actually/Indeed Again/I repeat Usually/Customarily

(fanve = reverse) (fando = end) (fekto = fact) (genza = again) (kusmo = custom)

kuu nao nie pae piu

Generally/Generalizing from the above Changing topics/(New paragraph) In detail/Looking closely And so forth/etc. In particular/Applying the above (cf. bea)

(kumtu = common) (Eng. “Now”) (snire = near) (prase = continue) (plizo = use)

rea saa sii sui taa

Clearly/Obviously Loosely/Roughly/Simply speaking Apparently/Evidently Also/Moreover/Besides/Furthermore/Too/In addition In turn/In sequence

(frena = in front) (sapla = simple) (simci = seem) (sumji = sum) (trana = turn)

toe voi zou

Respectively Skipping details By the way/Incidentally

(to = two) (valti = jump) (dzoru = walk)

1,2

biu and dau differ from the indicators ii and io in that the former relate the possibility or probability of some claim to a foregoing statement (or statements), not the attitude of the speaker.

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Paradigm K: MODAL OPERATORS Semantically, modal operators are optional extensions of the place-scructure of any predicate which specify the mode, means, manner, source, or conditions which a predicable relationship obtains. Syntactically, they are used like tense or location operators to form phrases or clauses. Like discursives, they are CVV-form words, and generally derived from 5-letter predicates; at present there are 12 such such words but the list may be extended indefinitely; see Paradigm L. ciu coi dii duo hea

as much as/as little as/to the same degree as. . . according to rule/method/ authority. . . for/on behalf of. . . in manner/mode. . . /by method. . . with. . . ’s help/through agent. . .

(ciktu = equals) (tcori = authority) (dilri = represent) (durzo = do) (helba = help)

kii lia lui1 mou peu

with/accompanied by. . . like/as/in the way that. . . for/in order to please. . . more than/to a greater degree than re/concerning/as for/with regard to. . .

(kinci = with) (clika = like) (pluci = please) (mordu = more) (perti = pertain)

sea tie

instead of/in place of. . . with. . . , a tool or means

(setfa = put) (trime = tool)

Note: ciu and mou form the following series: ciu nociu mou nomou numou nunomou 1

equal to not equal to greater than not greater than less than greater than or equal to

lui differs from the indicator cia in that the former relates the element it modifies to definite arguments, whereas the latter relates the element to the foregoing discourse.

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Paradigm L: UNASSIGNED CVV-FORM WORDS The 107 still unassigned CVV-sequences are shown by blanks (-) in the table; the 319 words entered here have meanings in the current lexicon. -aa -ae -ai -ao -au -ea -ee -ei -eo -eu -ia -ie -ii -io -iu -oa -oe -oi -oo -ou -ua -ue -ui -uo -uu

bbaa bae bai bea bei beo beu bia bie bii bio biu boi bou bua bue bui buo buu

ccae cai cao cau cea cei ceo ceu cia cie cio ciu coa coi cou cue cui cuo -

ddaa dai dao dau dea dei deo deu dia die dii dio diu dou dua dui duo -

ffaa fae fai fao fau fea fei feo feu fia fie fii fio fiu foa foi fua fui fuo -

ggaa gai gao gau gea gee gei geo geu gia gie giu goa goi gua gue gui guo guu

hhaa hai hao hau hea hei heo hia hie hiu hoa hoi hoo hou hue hui -

jjae jai jao jei jeo jie jio jua jue jui juo -

kkaa kae kai kao kau kea kei keo keu kia kie kii kio kiu koa koe koi koo kou kua kue kui kuo kuu

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llaa lae lai lao lau lea lee lei leo leu lia lie lii lio liu loa loe loi lou lua lue lui luo -

mmaa mae mai mao mea mei meo meu mia mii mio miu moa moi moo mou mue mui muo muu

nnaa nai nao nau nea nei neo neu nia nie nio niu noa noe noi noo nou nua nue nui nuo nuu

ppae pai pao pea pee pei peo peu pia pie pio piu poa poi pou pua pue puo puu

rraa rae rai rao rau rea rei reo reu ria rie rii riu roa roi rou rua rue rui ruu

ssaa sae sai sao sau sea sei seo sia sii sio siu soa soe soi sua sue sui suo suu

ttaa tae tai tao tau tei teo teu tia tie tio tiu toa toe toi too tou tua tue tui tuo tuu

vvaa vai vao vau vea vei veo veu via vie vii viu voi -

zzai zao zea zei zeo zeu zia zie zio zoa zoi zou zua zue zui zuo zuu

Paradigm M: ALPHABET WORDS Each of the 26 Loglan phonemes has been combined with 6 alphabetic suffixes as follows: If a vowel, with: -ma Latin capital -si Latin lower case -fi Greek lower case

If a -ai -ei -eo

consonant, with: Latin capital Latin lower case Greek lower case

Greek capitals are generated by prefixing gao to the phoneme for consonants, and gao, for vowels. This generates a pool of 94 alphabet words and signs which may be used as variables or constants, in dimensioned numbers and acronyms, or for the spelling of words. Latin Letters Capitals Lower Case Sign Word Sign Word A Ama a asi B Bai b bei C Cai c cei D Dai d dei E Ema e esi F Fai f fei G Gai g gei H Hai h hei I Ima i isi J Jai j jei K Kai k kei L Lai l lei M Mai m mei N Nai n nei O Oma o osi P Pai p pei Q Qai q qei R Rai r rei S Sai s sei T Tai t tei U Uma u usi V Vai v vei W Wma w wsi X Xai x xei Y Yma y ysi Z Zai z zei 1

Greek Letters1 Capitals Lower Case Sign Word Sign Word A gao,afi α afi B gaobeo β beo X gaoceo χ ceo ∆ gaodeo δ deo E gao,efi ǫ efi Γ gaogeo γ geo I gao,ifi ι ifi Ξ gaojeo ξ jeo K gaokeo κ keo Λ gaoleo λ leo M gaomeo µ meo N gaoneo ν neo Ω gao,ofi ω ofi Π gaopeo π peo Θ gaoqeo θ qeo P gaoreo ρ reo Σ gaoseo σ seo T gaoteo τ teo Υ gao,ufi υ ufi Ψ gaoveo ψ veo Z gaozeo ζ zeo

(alpha) (beta) (chi) (delta) (epsilon) (gamma) (iota) (xi) (kappa) (lambda) (mu) (nu) (omega) (pi) (theta) (rho) (sigma) (tau) (upsilon) (psi) (zeta)

As Greek does not contain the Loglan sounds c, j, and v, it has been necessary to assign the Greek letter-words for chi, xi, and psi rather arbitariarly to these sounds. This leaves two Greek letters unused, namely eta and omicron.

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Paradigm N: OPTIONAL CASE TAGS With optional case tags, the arguments of a predicate can be put in non-standard order. The case tags listed below in the table are semantic case tags; another set of case tags are non-semantic and based on the standard order of the arguments of the unconverted predicate: zua = “the normally first argument”; zue = “the normally second argument”; zui = “the normally third argument”; zuo = “the normally fourth argument”; and zuu = “the normally fifth argument”. beu cau dio foa jui kao neu pou goa sau veu

B C D F J K N P G S V

Bekti Canli Dirco Folma Junti Kakto Nerbi Proju Groda Satci Vetci

(object) (quantity) (direction) (full) (young) (act) (necessary) (produce) (big) (start) (event)

“-/in” “by/for” “to/for” “in/of” “than” “-/by” “under” “-” “than” “from” “by/via”

Patients, Parts, Properties Quantities, Amounts, Values Recipients, Beneficiaries, Destinations Wholes, Sets, Collectivities Lessers in greater/lesser than relations Actors, Agents, Doers Conditions, Fields, Circumstances Products, Outputs, Purposes Greaters in greater/lesser than relations Sources, Origins, Reasons, Causes Events, States, Deeds, Means, Routes, Effects

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