Multiculturalism And Ethical Practice.pdf

issues and insights Forging the Link Between Muiticuiturai Competence and Etinicai Counseling Practioe: A Historicai Perspective Zarus E. P. Watson, Barbara Richter Herlihy, and Latoya Anderson Pierce Recognition of multiculfural competence as an essential componenf of ethical counseling practice is a growing trend. This articie presents a historical perspective of salient events that have contributed to forging a link between nnuiticuitural competence and ethical behavior. Multicultural counseling is traced from its beginnings to its emergence at a position of prominence in the profession, aiong with the deveiopment of ethical guidelines over time. This time iine depicts the infusion of muiticuiturai considerations into ethical standards and provides a perspective for examining the current status of muiticuiturai competence as an ethical mandate. Impiications for the counseling profession are offered.

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n recent years, multicultural competence increasingly has been recognized as an essential component of ethical counseling practice. The assertion has appeared repeatedly in the literature that it is unethical for counselors to provide clinical services to clients who are culturally different from themselves if the counselors are not competent to work effectively with these clients (e.g., Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 2003; Herlihy & Watson, 2003; Lee, 2002; Pedersen, Draguns, Lonner, & Trimble, 2002; Remley & Herlihy, 2005; Vontress, 2002). Historically, however, counselors have been slow to recognize a connection between multicultural competence and ethical behavior. Multiculturalism and ethical standards both emerged during the 1960s as separate strands of development within the counseling profession. Multicultural counseling evolved from a growing awareness that discrepancies between counselor and client were resulting in ineffective service delivery and early termination of treatment for ethnic minority clients (Atkinson, Morton, & Sue, 1998). The development of a code of ethics grew out of the struggle to establish counseling as a distinct profession (Remley & Herlihy, 2005). dnly gradually have these two strands been woven into the same fabric. This article presents a historical perspective of salient events that have forged a link between multicultural competence and ethical behavior. The evolution Zarus E. P. Watson, Barbara Richter Herlihy, and Latoya Anderson Pierce, Counselor Education Program, University of New Orleans. Latoya Anderson Pierce is naiu in the Department of Psychology and Counseling at Arkansas State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Zarus E. P. Watson, Counselor Education Program, 348 Education Building, University of New Orleans, Nexu Orleans, LA 70148 (e-mail: [email protected]).

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of ethical guidelines as they were developed and refined over time is traced to depict the gradual infusion of multicultural considerations into ethical standards as multiculturalism rose to a position of prominence in today's counseling profession. Using this time line as a perspective, we examine the current status of multicultxiral competence as an ethical mandate and discuss implications for counselor educators, supervisors, and counseling practitioners.

Historical Perspective The counseling profession has evolved from diverse disciplines and varied social movements (Gladding, 2004; Hollis, 2000), and no two descriptions of its history are alike (Remley & Herlihy, 2005). It is generally acknowledged, however, that counseling has strong roots in psychology and shares its origins with the emergence of counseling psychology as a specialization (Gibson & Mitchell, 2003; Neukrug, 1999; Nugent, 2000; Remley & Herlihy, 2005). Sue and Sue (1999) have described traditional psychology, from which most counseling approaches have arisen, as having a pro-Westem bias that was founded in the notion of scientific racism. Although scientific racism is generally discredited today (Richards, 1997), in the late 1800s, the fields of evolutionary biology and anthropology were heavily influenced by the belief that psychological differences among the races were based on a hierarchy in which people of European descent were presumed to represent the ideal of human development and individuals from other descent groups were seen as deficient by comparison (Galton, 1865; Spencer, 1876; Weale, 1910). Robinson and Howard-Hamilton (2000) have noted that the assumptions underlying scientific racism became embedded in American society; thus, these assumptions remained influential when the fields of counseling psychology and counseling emerged from within the larger social milieu. Division 17 (Counseling Psychology) of the American Psychological Association (APA) was established in 1946 (Gibson & Mitchell, 2003), and the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) was formed in 1952, each with an overwhelmingly Euro-American membership (Harper, 2003).

The Pioneering Years: The 1960s The 1960s were marked by efforts to establish counseling as a fully recognized profession. Counselors, having formed a professional association (APGA) in 1952, recognized that a group of practitioners cannot actually be considered a profession without an established ethical code (Allen, 1986). Under the direction of Donald Super, a committee developed ethical standards that were based largely on the APA ethics code. These standards were adopted as the first APGA code of ethics in 1961. This original code appeared at a time when counselors, like psychologists, were essentially a monocultural group (Harper, 2003). No mention was made in the 1961 code of cultural awareness as a component of ethical practice. Mabe and Rollin (1986) observed that significant changes in society can result in an ethics code quickly becoming out of step with the social consensus. The wisdom of this observation is evident in the content of the original code (APGA, 1961). In the United States, the late 1950s and the 1960s were a 100

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time of social transformation rooted in the civil rights and women's movements (Harper, 2003). Organized opposition groups who protested the sociocultuf al structure of the United States and its laws led to the beginnings of the recognition that counselors, who were largely European American, were a reflection of the larger society. Wrenn (1962) called attention to culturally encapsulated counselors who were ill prepared to work with people of color. Later in the decade, Vontress (1967) began to write about cross-cultural counseling, using the phrase culturally different as an alternative to prevalent terms such as culturally deprived or culturally disadvantaged. Throughout the 1960s, African Americans increased their membership in APGA and grew increasingly frustrated with the inadequacy of the association's response to their needs and the needs of African American clients in counseling (Harper, 2003). A Black Caucus was held during the 1969 APGA conference, and as a result the National Office for Non-White Concerns was formed within APGA to address cultural issues in the association.

The 1970s The 1970s brought a significant rise in theory development and publications aimed at the effective treatment of ethnic minority clients. According to Harper (2003), several textbooks were published in response to the addition of new courses on counseling ethnic minorities to counselor education curricula. The Personnel and Guidance Journal published a series of special issues and special sections that addressed counseling for Blacks (Smith, 1970), women (Lewis, 1972), Asian Americans (Sue, 1973), and cultural issues more generally (Palomares, 1971; Pedersen, 1978). After Cross (1971) published one of the first theories of Black identity development, termed Negromancy, other models of cultural identity development began to appear that helped broaden the definition of multiculturalism beyond its focus on race and ethnicity. One such model was Cass's (1979) theory of gay and lesbian identity development. Sue and Sue's (1977) attention to the impact of client socioeconomic status as a cultural variable in counseling represented another early attempt to include considerations other than race and ethnicity in the concept of multiculturalism. APGA published the first revision of its code of ethics in 1974. Despite a dramatic increase in attention to multicultural issues within the profession, the 1974 APGA code contained only two explicit references to minority clients, both of which appeared in the Measurement and Evaluation section. The first of these two standards cautioned counselors to recognize the effects of socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural factors on test scores (C.I.). The second standard reminded counselors to use caution in interpreting the test results of minority group members who were not represented in the norm groups on which the tests were standardized (CIO.). Although it could be argued that diversity issues were implicitly recognized in the preamble's reference to respecting the worth, dignity, potential, and uniqueness of each individual and in other standards, such as those that encouraged pro bono service, this argument would rely on an assumption that counselors could and would extrapolate these guidelines to apply to members of disenfranchised groups (Cayleff, 1986). Counseiing and Values • January 2006 "Volume 50

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The 1980s The attention given to cross-cultural counseling during the 1970s continued into the 1980s, with a shift in emphasis toward inclusion of all ethnic groups, including Whites (Harper, 2003). The Association for Non-White Concerns, recognizing that difference is multidimensional beyond race and desiring to be more inclusive, changed its name to the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (Harper, 2003). This trend toward inclusion was also evident in Lee's (1989) call to redefine cross-cultural counseling to include intemational counseling and in an increased attention to marginalized groups such as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and queer clients (Dworkin & Gutierrez, 1989). In 1981, APGA published its third iteration of the code of ethics. With respect to attention to diversity, there was little difference between the 1981 code and the 1974 version. The two standards from the 1974 code that reminded counselors to consider cultural variables when interpreting test scores were retained in the 1981 code, and one new standard was added that reminded counselors to be aware of the negative impact of racial and sexual stereotyping and discrimination in their work (A.8.). In 1986, the Journal for Counseling & Development published a special issue devoted to professional ethics. This special issue included a section on cross-cultural concerns in which Casas, Ponterotto, and Gutierrez (1986) identified an "urgent need to revamp the [ethical standards] to address racial and ethnic minorities explicitly" (p. 348). In the same issue, Ibrahim and Arredondo (1986) recommended that the existing code be extended to address cross-cultural dimensions of counseling and proposed for inclusion in the next revision of the code eight new standards in the areas of counselor preparation, counseling practice, assessment, and research. Despite these calls for change, when the American Association for Coimseling and Development (AACD; formerly APGA) published the foiarth edition of the ethics code in 1988, specific attention to multiculturalism once again increased only slightly from the previous version ofthe code. Three new standards that addressed diversity-sensitive practice were added. A standard in the Measurement and Evaluation section required counselors to periodically review tests and retest clients to prevent stereot5^ing (C.8.). In the Personnel Administration section, a standard prohibited counselors from discriminating in hiring, promotion, or training practices (G.ll.). Ensuring ethical practice in using the burgeoning new technologies was an emphasis in the 1988 code revision process; cultural diversity was addressed in a standard cautioning counselors to ensure that members of underrepresented groups have equal access to technology and that the content of computerized materials does not discriminate againsttiiem(B.19.). As previously mentioned, a limitation of codes of ethics is that they tend to be reactive rather than proactive (Corey et al., 2003) and thus lag behind social changes (Mabe & Rollin, 1986). This may help to explain why two revisions of the code, occurring within a decade that placed such emphasis on inclusion, addressed diversity issues only to a limited extent. Ibrahim and Arredondo (1990), writing in the casebook (Herlihy & Golden, 1990) that accompanied the 1988 standards, expressed concem that the code of ethics con102

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tinued to overlook the needs of historically disenfranchised groups. Ibrahim and Arredondo (1990) once again offered specific suggestions for expanding the applicability of the ethical standards.

The 1990s to the Present The 1990s and the early years of the 21st century have been a period of significant expansion for multicultural counseling. Harper (2003) summarized these years as a time of "a proliferation of books on culture and diversity, a focus on training strategies and standards for multicultural competence, the development of cultural assessment instruments, and increased intemational leadership" (p. 15). Just a few of the significant contributions during this period included Helms's (1990) work on Black and White racial identity development, the development and operationalization of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (Arredondo et al., 1996), and a series of multicultural counseling summits that originated at the 1992 American Counseling Association (ACA) Annual Conference. In 1995, ACA (formerly AACD) adopted the fifth revision of its ethical standards. In this iteration, the code was revised extensively through an inclusive process that allowed for input from all members and divisions (Herlihy & Corey, 1996). For the first time in the history of the codes, multicultural considerations were given a position of prominence (Sue, 1996; Welfel, 2002), beginning with the statement in the preamble that counselors should "recognize diversity in our society and embrace a cross-cultural approach" (ACA, 1995, p. 1) in supporting each individual's worth, dignity, potential, and uniqueness. Specific references to cultural diversity are made in 13 additional standards found throughout the code (Welfel, 2002). Of significance to the focus of this article, multicultural competence is directly addressed as an ethical obligation (Herlihy & Watson, 2003). Sue and Sue (1999) identified three components of multicultural competence: awareness of self and others, knowledge, and skills. In the 1995 ACA Code of Ethics and Staridards ofPractice, the ethical responsibility to gain self-awareness is addressed in the standard that requires counselors to be aware of their own values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors and how these apply in a diverse society (A.5.b.). This standard also cautions counselors to avoid imposing their values on clients. Self-awareness is also stressed in the standard that instructs counselors to leam how their own cultural/ethnic/racial identities affect their values and beliefs about the counseling process (A.2.b.). Attention to the second area of multicultural competence, knowledge and understanding of the worldviews of culturally diverse clients, is found in the standard that requires counselors to actively attempt to understand the diverse cultural backgrounds of their clients (A.2.b.). The third step, translating the acquired self-awareness and knowledge into skills for multiculturaUy competent practice, is addressed in the requirement to gain knowledge, personal awareness, sensitivity, and skills pertinent to working with a diverse client population (C.2.a.). Further attention in the code to multicultural competence can be found in the obligation of counselors to take steps to maintain competence in their skills and keep current with the diverse populations with whom they work (C.2.f.) and to expand their boundaries of competence by gaining knowledge and skills for working with diverse client populations (C.2.g.). Counseling and Vaiues • January 2006 • Voiume 50

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Although the revisions that appeared in the 1995 code have been viewed as an important step in rectifying inadequacies of previous codes (Sue, 1996), some multicultural and ethics scholars have remained critical of the code. Recurring themes in the criticism have been a concern that the principles that underlietiiecode are not universally endorsed by aU cultures (Herlihy & Watson, 2003; Pedersen et al., 2002; Welfel, 2002) and that the commitment of counselors to multiculturalism might be limited to the rhetorical support expressed in the code (Pedersen et al, 2002; Sue, 1996). In 2002, the leadership within ACA began the process of revising the ethics code once again. David Kaplan, then ACA president, formed an ethics revision task force and charged its members to focus on multiculturalism, diversity, and social justice in formulating recommended revisions. The proposed revised code, a draft of which was provided to the membership in late 2004, attempts to address criticisms and to more thoroughly infuse cultural diversity into the standards (M. Kocet, personal communication, March 20,2004). The proposed revision was adopted by ACA in July 2005.

Summary This brief history has been far from comprehensive. We have been selective in choosing which events to highlight, and we recognize that there have been many more seminal contributions that could have been (and perhaps should have been) included. Nonetheless, even this short review has portrayed the forging of a link between multiculturalism and ethical standards, progressing from the original 1961 code, in which no mention was made of multiculturalism, to the 1995 code, in which diversity is addressed throughout the document, to the primary focus on diversity in the 2005 ACA Code of Ethics.

Discussion and Implications On the basis of historical evidence, it appears that multicultural competence has been established as an essential component of ethical counseling practice, both in the ethical standards and in the counseling literature. Nearly a decade ago. Sue (1996) challenged counselors to translate the commitment to diversity that is reflected in ethics codes into meaningful action. Although much has been accomplished, challenges remain. Acknowledging the centrality of multicultural competence to ethical practice is only a starting point (Herlihy & Watson, 2003). Further steps that might be taken by counselor educators, supervisors, and counselors are discussed in the following paragraphs. Counselor educators might assess the extent to which multicultural competence as an element of ethical behavior is addressed in ethics courses and is infused throughout their curricula (Aponte & Aponte, 2000; Kiselica & Ramsey, 2001). For such infusion to be successful, all counselor educators need to possess both ethical awareness and multicultural competence. Because the counselor education professoriat is overwhelmingly composed of faculty who are members of dominant cultural groups (Bradley & Holcomb-McCoy, 2004), counselor educators could benefit from the experience of viewing themselves as cul104

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tural beings and examining their own experiences of privilege (Kiselica, 1999; Mclntosh, 1998). Counselor educators have an ethical responsibility to strive to be aware of their biases regarding race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, socioeconomic class, age, gender, disability status, and other cultural variables so that they may serve as effective role models of diversity sensitivity for their students. Counselor supervisors, who are responsible for raising issues of cultural differences during supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 2004), should also be competent and comfortable in exploring diversity issues. Breaux (2004) found that White male supervisors tend to feel disenfranchised when discussing multicultural issues. Thus, it must be emphasized in training that all supervision, like all counseling, is a cross-cultural event, even when the supervisor and supervisee are matched by visible cultural variables such as race or gender. Counseling practitioners rrught ask themselves how they think about ethics. Although references are sometimes made to "the diversity standards" in the code of ethics, it would be a mistake to think that only the specific standards that use terms such as nondiscrimination and cultural diversity are pertinent to multicultural competence. As Remley and Herlihy (2005) have stated, "With respect to cultural diversity, perhaps more than any other ethical issue, it is crucial that counselors attend to the spirit of the Code of Ethics" (p. 61). Sensitivity to diversity needs to be inherent in the interpretation of all the ethical standards. Counselors might also reflect on their understanding of multiculturalism. Robinson and Howard-Hamilton (2000) have emphasized that aU individuals have multiple cultural identities; thus, counselors need to work to understand the intersections among race, ethnidty, gender, sexual orientation, spirituality, and other cultural variables. When culture is defined broadly, the multiple cultural identities of counselor and client can be acknowledged and brought into consideration in the counseling relationship. If history is any guide, it is likely that society will continue to change rapidly and in some unanticipated ways and that the 2005 ACA Code of Ethics wiU quickly become outdated. Thus, a reliance on codes alone cannot guarantee multiculturaUy competent, ethical practice. A key to meeting this goal lies not so much in what the codes of ethics say about multicultural competence but rather in how counselors commit to and model multicultural competence as an ethical mandate. Historical developments have made it possible for counselor educators, supervisors, and practitioners to adopt the stance that ethical counseling practice is multiculturaUy competent, and multicultural competence is essential to ethical practice. Through this brief review of the forging of this cultural-ethical link, perhaps counselors, counselor educators, and supervisors may be encouraged to more fuUy consider and embrace cultural diversity as a foundational element of competent and ethical practice of the profession.

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American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA code of ethics. Alexandria, VA: Author. American Personnel and Guidance Association. (1961). Ethical standards. Washington, DC: Author. American Personnel and Guidance Association. (1974). Ethical standards. Falls Church, VA: Author. American Personnel and Guidance Association. (1981). Ethical standards. Falls Church, VA: Author. Aponte, J. R, & Aponte, C. E. (2000). Educating and training professionals to work with ethnic populations in the twenty-first century. In J. F. Aponte & J. Wohl (Eds.), Psychological intervention and cultural diversity (2nd ed., pp. 250-267). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Arredondo, P., Toporek, R., Brown, S. P., Jones, J., Locke, D., Sanchez, J., et al. (1996). Operationalization of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 24, 42-78. Atkinson, D. R., Morton, G., & Sue, D. W. (1998). Counseling American minorities: A cross-cultural perspective (5th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (2004). Fundamentals of clinical supervision (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Bradley, C, & Holcomb-McCoy, C. (2004). African American counselor educators: Their experiences, challenges, and recommendations. Counselor Education & Supervision, 43, 258-273. Breaux, W. (2004, October). A qualitative analysis of White male supervisors' perceptions of culture and its impact on the supervisory relationship. Paper presented at the Southern Association for Counselor Education and Supervision Conference, Atlanta, GA. Casas, J. M., Ponterotto, J. G., & Gutierrez, J. M. (1986). An ethical indictment of counseling research and training: The cross-cultural perspective. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 347-349. Cass, V. C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235. Cayleff, S. E. (1986). Ethical issues in counseling gender, race, and culturally distinct groups. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 345-347. Corey, G., Corey, M. S., & Callanan, P. (2003). Issues and ethics in the helping professions (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20, 13-27. Dworkin, S. H., & Gutierrez, F. (1989). Counselors be aware: Clients come in every size, shape, color, and sexual orientation. Journal of Counseling & Development, 68, 6-8. Galton, F. (1865). Hereditary talent and character. Macmillan's Magazine, 12, 318-327. Gibson, R. L., & Mitchell, M. H. (2003). Introduction to counseling and guidance (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Gladding, S. T. (2004). Counseling: A comprehensive profession (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Harper, F. D. (2003). Background: Concepts and history. In F. D. Harper & J. McFadden (Eds.), Culture and counseling: New approaches (pp. 1-19). Boston: Pearson. Helms, J. E. (Ed.). (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Herlihy, B., & Corey, G. (1996). ACA ethical standards casebook (5th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Herlihy, B., & Golden, L. B. (1990). Ethical standards casebook (4th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. Herlihy, B., & Watson, Z. E. (2003). Ethical issues and multicultural competence in counseling. In F. D. Harper & J. McFadden (Eds.), Culture and counseling: New approaches (pp. 363-378). Boston: Pearson. Hollis, J. W. (2000). Counselor preparation 1999-2001: Programs, faculty, trends (10th ed.). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. Ibrahim, F. A., & Arredondo, P. M. (1986). Ethical standards for cross-cultural counseling: Counselor preparation, practice, assessment, and research. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 349-352.

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Ibrahim, F. A., & Arredondo, P. (1990). Ethical issues in multicultural counseling. In B. Herlihy & L. B. Golden (Eds.), Ethical standards casebook (4th ed., pp. 137-145). Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development. Kiselica, M. A. (1999). Reducing prejudice: The role of the empathic-confrontive instructor. In M. S. Kiselica (Ed.), Confronting prejudice and racism during multicultural training (pp. 137-154). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Kiselica, M. A., & Ramsey, M. L. (2001). Multicultural counselor education: Historical perspectives and future directions. In D. C. Locke, J. E. Myers, & E. L. Herr (Eds.), The handbook of counseling (pp. 433-451). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lee, C. C. (1989). AMCD: The next generation. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 17, 165-170. Lee, C. C. (Ed.). (2002). Multicultural issues in counseling: New approaches to diversity (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Lewis, J. A. (Ed.). (1972). Women and counselors [Special issue]. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51(2). Mabe, A. R., & Rollin, S. A. (1986). The role of a code of ethical standards in counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 294-297. Mclntosh, P. (1998). White privilege, color, and crime: A personal account. In C. R. Mann & M. S. Zatz (Eds.), Images of color, images of crime (pp. 207-216). Los Angeles: Roxbury. Neukrug, E. (1999). The world of the counselor. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Nugent, F. A. (2000). Introduction to the profession of counseling (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Palomares, U. H. (Ed.). (1971). Culture as a reason for being [Special issue]. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50(2). Pedersen, P. B. (Ed.). (1978). Counseling across cultures [Special section]. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 56, 457-484. Pedersen, P. B., Draguns, J. G., Lonner, W. J., & Trimble, J. E. (2002). Counseling across cultures (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Remley, T. P., & Herlihy, B. (2005). Ethical, legal, and professional issues in counseling (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Richards, G. (1997). Race, racism and psychology: Towards a reflexive history. New York: Routledge. Robinson, T. L., & Howard-Hamilton, M. F. (2000). The convergence of race, ethnicity, and gender: Multiple identities in counseling. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Smith, P. M., Jr. (Ed.). (1970). What guidance for Blacks? [Special issue]. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 48(9). Spencer, H. (1876). The comparative psychology of man. Popular Science Monthly, 8, 257-269. Sue, D. W. (Ed.). (1973). Asian-Americans: The neglected minority [Special section]. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 51, 385-416. Sue, D. W. (1996). Ethical issues in multicultural counseling. In B. Herlihy & G. Corey (Eds.), ACA ethical standards casebook (5th ed., pp. 193-197). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1977). Barriers to effective cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 24, 420-429. Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. Vontress, C. E. (1967). The culturally different. Employment Service Review, 4, 35-36. Vontress, C. E. (2002). Introduction: Multicultural awareness as a generic competence for counseling. In P. B. Pedersen, J. G. Draguns, W. J. Lonner, & J. E. Trimble (Eds.), Counseling across cultures (5th ed., pp. xiii-xix). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Weale, B. L. P. (1910). The conflict of colour. London: Macmillan. Welfel, E. R. (2002). Ethics in counseling and psychotherapy (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Wrenn, C. G. (1962). The culturally encapsulated counselor. Harvard Educational Review, 32, 444-449.

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