Motivational Theories 1

Motivational theories – general classification ’Content’ theories – a number of more or less identical theories that attempt to explain which forces motivate human behaviour i.e. theories that primarily try to identify the internal forces, needs or urges that are believed to control human behaviour. ’Process’ theories – a number of different theories that attempt to explain how and why human behaviour is directed towards certain choices/behavioural forms, and which parameters other persons (i.e. managers) will try to influence in order to promote a specific behavioural form. This is a case of complementary – rather than competing explanations.

(Bowditch & Buono, pg. 85-105; Schein, pg. 57-110) 1

Content theories – an outline Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – people try to satisfy the various needs according to a specific hierarchical pattern. Alderfer’s ERG theory – human behaviour is controlled by three basic needs, whose relative importance changes with the opportunity to satisfy the needs. McClelland’s Acquired needs theory – needs are to some extent acquired and can therefore be influenced, just as several simultaneous needs influence a person´s behaviour Herzberg’s two-factor theory – job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are connected to various underlying factors – the so-called motivators and hygiene factors

(Bowditch & Buono pg. 65 - 73; Schein pg. 57-110) 2

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Maslow´s motivational theory

(Assumption about human beings = self-actualization)

High Intensity of needs

Self-actualization

Growth needs

Self-esteem Affiliation Physiological needs

Safety Physiological

Low Physiological growth (Hypothesis of the relative intensity of needs)

- An often quoted, but seldom studied, motivational theory that is based on a very idealistic view of human beings, based on studies of some rather exclusive persons - The central point is that the more basic needs have to be more or less fulfilled before high-level needs will be activated and influence behaviour. (Bowditch & Buono, pg. 65 - 66; Schein pg. 92-93)

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Alderfer's ERG-theory

(Assumption about human beings = self-actualization)

Intensity of needs

High

Low

Growth Relatedness Existence Time (Assumption about human beings = self-actualization)

May at first seem like a simplification of the Maslow model of needs. But in contradiction to the Maslow model, Alderfer´s is based on the assumption that the relative intensity of the three forces or needs that control behaviour can vary from one point in time to another. In other words, Alderfer rejects the hypothesis of a hierarchical order of needs.

(Bowditch & Buono, pg. 67; Schein, pg. 92-93)

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McClelland's Achievement-theory Person A

Person A

Affiliation Affiliation

Power

Power

Achievement

Training/development

t0

Achievement

t1

Human behaviour is controlled by three basic needs •need for Achievement •need for Power •need for Affiliation whose relative intensity can vary from situation to situation Each individual seems to have a rather fixed combination of needs that will influence behaviour towards achievement, power or affiliation. According to McClelland, it is possible to change an individual´s motivational code using systematic training. (Bowditch & Buono, pg. 67 - 68; Schein, pg. 92-93)

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Herzbergs two-factor-theory = The hygiene motivation theory (Assumption about human beings = self-actualization)j

1. Hygiene/motivational factors: The factors that influence job-dissatisfaction: Staff, policy, form of management, work environment, etc. Satisfaction dimension: dissatisfied

Not dissatisfied

2. Motivational factors: The factors that influence job satisfaction:

Working conditions, recognition, responsibility etc.

Satisfaction dimension: Not satisfied

Satisfied/motivated

NB.: In principle the two-factor theory is not a motivational theory, but a theory that focuses on the working conditions that are necessary for people to be motivated and satisfied.

(Bowditch & Buono, pg. 68 - 70; Schein, pg. 92-93)

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’Content’ theories – a comparison

Maslow’s hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG-theory

Herzberg’s 2-factor theory

Growth needs

Motivational factors

McClelland’s Achievement-theory

Self-actualization needs

Achiecement needs

Self-esteem needs

Power needs Relatednees needs

Social needs Safety needs

Existence needs

Physiological needs

Affiliation needs Hygiene factors

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(Bowditch & Buono, pg. 65 - 70 ; Schein, pg. 93)

Job design and motivation (Hackman & Oldham´s model) (Assumption about human beings = self-actualization)

Job dimensions:

Psychological state:

Skill variety Task identity Task significance

Experinced meaningfulness of the job

Autonomy

Responsibility

Outcomes: Higher motivation Higher quality Higher satisfaction

Feedback

Moderators

Knowledge of actual activities

Lower absense and turnover

Ability and skill Strength of employee´s growth need Context satisfaction

Jobs that have the five characteristics will have a high motivational potential. A person´s qualifications, growth needs and general job satisfaction will modify the result. Bowditch & Buono, pg. 70 -73; Schein, pg. 176-180)

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The relative importance of the five job dimensions in the course of a career

Importance Positive

Feed-back

All five dimensions

Hygiene factors

Purpose Influence on satisfaction

Negative

Autonomy

Early

Variation

Middle

End

NB. The correlation is not particulary well documented Schein, pg. 98-100;

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Process theories – an outline •

Behaviour is influenced by the subjective expectations of the connections between goal and effort that are the basis of rational choices. – Expectancy theory – Goal/means theory

•

The patterns of behaviour are created through interaction/transaction with others – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning

•

Identity and behaviour are primarily determined by the expectations people have and their interaction/transaction with other people – Balance theory – Transaction theory

•

Identity and self-knowledge are created in a dynamic process controlled both by internal forces and by a number of situations and choices that continuously test self-knowledge. – Social learning theory

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More recent studies - Peter Warr’s ‘Vitamin’-model The 9 job situation factors: 1. Opportunity to control (AD) 2. Opportunity to use competence (AD) 3. Extrinsic goals (AD) 4. Task variation (AD) 5. Task/situation identity (AD) 6. Earning prospects (CE) 7. Physical safety(CE) 8. Opportunity for social contact (AD) 9. The ‘social status’ of the job (CE)

AD = Additional Decrement factores (gradual declining effect) CE = Constant Effect factors (constant effect) 11

More recent studies - Peter Warr’s ‘Vitamin’-model

High

’Mentanl health’

CE AD

Low Low

Job-situation (the 9 factors)

High

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More recent study - Karasek & Theorel’s Demand-control Model Development line High

Influence on own work

Easy job

Active job

Passive job

Stressful job

Low Low

Demands of job

High

Strain line 13

Conclusion - If the difference in humans are greater than our similarity and we all react differently in dífferent situations (the complex human), it means that there is no ’best way’ solution in every situation. - Thereby it´s meant, that it´s always a necessity •To carry through situationanalysis and work, based on the assumption that…. •all humans should be treated differently in order to make them fell equally treated.

The different theories/models should not be seen as mutual exclusive alternatives, but as complementary solution-models and finally Organizations should beware of that all motivation and behavioural problems might not be organizational problems. Therefore those can´t be directly solved by management, but this doesn´t mean that they shouldn´t try. (Bowditch & Buono, pg. 3 - 5, pg. 86 - 89; Schein, pg. 52) 14

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