Motivation Theories

A PROJECT REPORT ON

MOTIVATION, MORALE & PRODUCTIVITY

Points to be discussed What is motivation????  Theories of motivation:  Maslow’s need hierarchy theory  Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene (Two factor) theory  Vroom’s Expectancy Theory  Achievement motivation theory  Performance Satisfaction model  Reinforcement theory What is morale???  Nature, significance, indicators, measurement & relation between morale & productivity What is productivity???  Factors influencing it  Steps to increase it

Definition of motivation • Generally, it is defined as a driving force that initiates and directs behavior. In other words, motivation is a kind of internal energy which drives a person to do something in order to achieve something. It is a temporal or dynamic state within a person which is not concerned with his/her personality. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion. Motivation is having the encouragement to do something. A motivated person can be reaching for a long-term goal such as becoming a general manager or a more shortterm goal like learning to clear the exams. Personality invariably refers to more or less permanent characteristics of an individual's state of being (e.g., shy, extrovert, conscientious). As opposed to motivation, emotion refers to temporal states that do not immediately link to behavior (e.g., anger, grief, happiness).

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory • Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of Human Motivation which he subsequently extended to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all.

• Physiological needs • For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function. • Physiological needs include: • Breathing • Homeostasis • Water • Sleep • Food • Excretion • Sex • Clothing • Shelter • Safety needs • With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like. • Safety and Security needs include: • Personal security • Financial security • Health and well-being • Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

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• Social needs • After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as: • Friendship • Intimacy • Having a supportive and communicative family • Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging. .

• Esteem • All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

• Aesthetic needs • The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for selfactualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.

• Self-transcendence • Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence. • "[Transcenders] may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience” (serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) … and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights. Analysis of reality or cognitions which changed their view of the world and of themselves, perhaps occasionally, perhaps as a usual thing."

• 1990's adapted hierarchy of needs including transcendence needs 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Cognitive needs - knowledge, meaning, etc. 6. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc. 7. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, selffulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 8. Transcendence needs - helping others to achieve self actualization.

The basis of Maslow's theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to be satisfied before higher needs can be addressed. As Per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general needs (physiological, safety, love, and esteem) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly. These needs were dubbed "deficiency needs." While a person is motivated to fulfill these basal desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually selfactualization. The satisfaction of these needs is quite healthy. while preventing their gratification makes us ill or act evilly. As a result, for adequate workplace motivation, it is important that leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslow's model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called 'Maslow's Needs Pyramid' or 'Maslow's Needs Triangle', when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place.

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene (Two factor) Theory

• Herzberg asked people about times when they had felt good about their work. He discovered that the key determinants of job satisfaction were Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility and Advancement. • He also found that key dissatisfiers were Company policy and administration, Supervision, Salary, Interpersonal relationships and Working conditions. • What struck him the most was that these were separate groups with separate evaluation, and not a part of the same continuum. Thus if the company resolved the dissatisfiers, they would not create satisfaction.  Hygienes 1)Company policy & administration 2)Relationship with supervisor 3)Work conditions 4)Salary 5)Relationship with peers 6)Personal life 7)Relationship with subordinates 8)Status 9)Security 10)Supervision

Motivators Achievement Recognition Work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory • Vroom's theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Together with Edward Lawler and Lyman Porter, Vroom suggested that the relationship between people's behavior at work and their goals was not as simple as was first imagined by other scientists. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilitiesVroom’s model is based on three concepts: • Valence - Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. For the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. • Instrumentality – Means of the first level outcome in obtaining the desired second level outcome; the degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. • Expectancy - Probability or strength of belief that a particular action will lead to a particular first level outcome. • Vroom says the product of these variables is the motivation . • The expectancy theory of motivation is suggested by Victor Vroom. Unlike Maslow and Herzberg, Vroom does not concentrate on needs, but rather focuses on outcomes.

• Achievement Motivation Theory:  It is also called Three Beeds Theory. In late 1940s, David C. McClelland & his associates studied the three needs that motivate human behavior are power, affiliation & achievement.  nAch states high achievers prefer to work independently, needs immediate feedback on their performance, takes up tasks that are moderately difficult, derives satisfaction from set goals.  nPow states powerful people derive satisfaction from the ability to control others & being in positions of influence & control.  nAff states that these individuals derive satisfaction from social & interpersonal activities. These individuals choose their friends as workmates rather than technically competent person.

• Performance Satisfaction Model:  Porter & Lawler brought a comprehensive theory of motivation.  Motivation, performance & satisfaction are all the separate variables & relate in ways different from what was traditionally assumed.

• Reinforcement Theory:  An influential & controversial approach to influencing human behavior is based on the observation that the consequences of an individual’s behavior in one situation, influences that individual’s behavior in similar situation in near future. It is generally known as “operant conditioning” advocated by B.F.Skinner & says behavior can be predicted from person’s past experiences. Reinforcement mat be positive or negative. The theory has an important implication to managers.

MORALE  The state of the spirits of a person or group as exhibited by confidence, cheerfulness, discipline, and willingness to perform assigned tasks. A state of individual psychological well-being based upon a sense of confidence and usefulness and purpose.  William Spriegel quoted “morale is the cooperative attitude or mental health of a number of people who are related to each other on some basis”.  Alexander H. Leighton defined morale as “the capacity of a group of peopleto pull together persistently in pursuit of a common purpose”.  It represents a composite of feelings attitude & sentiments that contribute to general feelings of satisfaction. Nature of Morale: Degree of enthusiasm & willingness. Represents collective attitudes of workers. Long term phenomenon of both individual & group. Multi-dimensional in nature. Manifestation of direct & indirect satisfaction, sense of contentment & need fulfillment through work. Describes an overall climate prevailing among the members of a group.

 Significance of Morale:

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High morale helps to: Willing cooperation towards objectives of the organization. Loyalty to the organization & its leadership or management. Good discipline. Pride in the organization. High degree of employees interest in their jobs & organization. Reduction of rates of absenteeism & labour turnover.

 Indicators of Low morale:

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High rates of absenteeism & labour turnover. Excessive complaints & grievances. Friction among the workers. Friction among the workers & their groups. Lack of discipline. Antagonism towards leadership of the organization.

 Measurement of Morale:

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Observation Attitude of Morale survey Morale indicators Suggestion boxes

• a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

Measures to tone up morale: Fair remuneration Incentive system Job satisfaction Congenial working environment Two Way communication Training Social activities Worker’s participation Counseling

• Relation between morale & productivity: 4 possible combinations of morale & productivity: a) High morale & high productivity. b) High morale & low productivity. c) Low morale & low productivity. d) Low morale & high productivity.

PRODUCTIVITY 

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Relative measure of the efficiency of a person, machine, factory, system, etc., in converting inputs into useful outputs. Computed by dividing average output per period by the total costs incurred or resources (capital, energy, material, personnel) consumed in that period, productivity is a critical determinant of cost efficiency. The term ‘productivity’ represents goods & services produced in relation to the resources utilised in their production. It may be defined as the ratio of output. Peter Drucker quoted “productivity represents the balance between all factors of production that will give the greater output at the smallest effort.

 Factors influencing industrial productivity: a) Technological development b) Quality of human resources c) Availability of finance d) Managerial talent e) Government policy f) Natural factors

 Steps to increase productivity: 1) Improved raw materials 2) Improved machine 3) Improved working conditions 4) Scientific selection of workers 5) Provision of incentives 6) Harmonious relations 7) Quality & cost consciousness 8) Industrial research  Advantages of higher productivity: 1) Increase in efficiency of various factors of production 2) Decreases the cost of production per unit 3) Decrease in overhead costs 4) Better quality of goods at lower price 5) Increase in wages & salaries to workers 6) Profits are increased 7) Better economic strength & stability of the enterprise 8) Overall growth of the economy