Manual Csi

PRACTICAL GUIDE TO

Community Stream Monitoring IN THE CAMERON HIGHLANDS

ANTONY VAN DER ENT - REACH

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

CONTENTS Introduction .................................................................................................................... 3 Rivers and Catchments ................................................................................................. 4 Pollution of Rivers .......................................................................................................... 5 Aquatic macro invertebrates ......................................................................................... 6 Going in the Field ........................................................................................................... 5 Chemical Testing ........................................................................................................... 6 Getting the Results on Paper ......................................................................................... 6 Monitoring and Presentation ......................................................................................... 5 Glossary ......................................................................................................................... 6 Literature & References ................................................................................................. 6 Attachments .................................................................................................................. 6

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Introduction

Beautiful forest streams with pure water (above) and polluted streams in agricultural area (left).

Aims The local volunteer organization REACH. is actively involved and concerned about the quality of their environment in the Cameron Highlands. One of the aims on the basis of funding of REACH. was formulated as follows: ‘’Maintaining a balance between environmental protection and development and to safeguard water catchments areas as a vital resource both for supply to the highlands and the lowlands as well as for hydroelectric power.’’

Community Stream Monitoring More and more, volunteer monitors are interested in taking a combination of physical, chemical and biological measurements and are beginning to understand how land uses in a watershed influence the health of the rivers. The Community Stream Monitoring project involves a low-cost and uncomplicated method for gathering information on

the water quality of rivers in the Cameron Highlands. By collecting and analyzing key indicator species of aquatic macro invertebrates, together with some basis chemical testing; one can obtain an understanding of the general condition of a stream. This resource is designed primarily for High School students and interested citizens to develop a general information resource about the quality of mountain rivers in the Cameron Highlands. The procedures in this manual are designed to reveal changes in stream quality over time, based on numerous collections, specifically designed for the situation of the Cameron Highlands and for REACH While these procedures will not produce "research grade" information, they will provide a fairly accurate evaluation of stream quality. Streams are very dynamic systems; they are constantly changing. The section of stream polluted today may be flushed clean next week. The effects of pollution, however, may be dramatic, as reflected by Page 3

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS changes in the quality and quantity of the macro invertebrate populations. This manual is meant for community education and action programs, which raise awareness of the natural environment through water quality testing in local rivers and streams. This Adopt-a-river program empowers groups to protect the health of local waterways through their involvement in water quality monitoring. The ‘’research-group’’ (primary school, high school and community) is trained by their ‘regional coordinator’ of REACH to monitor the water quality in the local river/stream. They monitor the water quality regularly and upload their testing results on the REACH website. General aims: 1) To identify whether waters are meeting designated uses. The Malaysian government has established specific criteria (limits on pollutants) identifying what concentrations of chemical pollutants are allowable in their waters. When chemical pollutants exceed maximum or minimum allowable concentrations, waters might no longer be able to support the beneficial uses such as fishing, swimming, and drinking for which they have been designated. Designated uses and the specific criteria that protect them (along with anti-degradation statements say waters should not be allowed to deteriorate below existing or anticipated uses) together form water quality standards.

• Providing a scientific basis for making decisions on the management of a stream or watershed; • Determining the impact of sewage treatment and the impact of agricultural practises; • Educating the local community to encourage pollution prevention; • Showing public officials that local citizens care about the condition and management of the water resources. Final objectives are: • Understand the natural forces that shape the water catchment and make them unique; • Determine how clean and healthy the rivers and streams are; • Identify pollution problems and the sources; • Evaluate the effectiveness of water catchment protection and restoration activities; • To help people collect, understand and use information about the health and pollution of the Cameron Highland rivers and the people who depend on them; • To gather and interpret information on the health of the water catchment and their communities; • To promote public awareness of watershed values, issues, problems and solutions; • To create opportunities for students to learn science and other subjects through hands-on projects, and gather information that helps community leaders identify and solve problems; • To track ecological and human health conditions and trends to assess whether protection and restoration efforts are working.

2) To identify specific pollutants and sources of pollution. Water quality monitoring helps link sources of pollution to a stream quality problem, because it REACH identifies specific problem pollutants. Regional Environmental Awareness Cameron Highlands (REACH) was formed by several residents 3) To determine trends. Chemical constituents that of the Cameron Highlands who were concerned are properly monitored (i.e., consistent time of day about environmental issues in the Cameron and on a regular basis, using consistent methods) can Highlands. It was officially registered on 6th be analyzed for trends over time. September 2001. REACH aims "to conserve Cameron Highlands as an area of natural resources 4) To screen for impairment. Finding excessive levels and as a natural heritage, a highland resort of one or more chemical constituents can serve as an surrounded by permanent forest reserve and early warning system of pollution problems. sustainable agriculture with quality drinking water". REACH tries to increase the awareness of the Specific aims for this project: importance of good river water quality. REACH is • Developing baseline characterization data; doing this by organizing exhibitions, giving talks and • Documenting water quality changes over time; by doing own research. For further information • Screening for water quality problems; please contact the R.E.A.C.H. Office. • Determining whether waters are safe for recreation;

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Rivers and Catchments

Clean mountain streams (left) and polluted streams full with waste (above)

condenses into clouds. Rain then forms. Forests In this chapter a short explanation of water on earth, cushion the rain before it seeps into the soil. Some of in Malaysia and especially in the Cameron Highlands the water is stored in the soil and vegetation, while is given as well as some information on problems the rest drains down to the lowlands through soil, streams and rivers, where it is used for water supply. regarding it; water pollution.

Introduction

Water on earth Earth may be a water planet, but freshwater is very scarce. 97% of the water is salt or otherwise undrinkable and almost 3% is locked away in ice caps and glaciers or deep underground. It is estimated that only 0.003% is actually available for use. Mountain areas are like natural water towers that provide us with a clean and steady supply of freshwater. They are important water catchment areas, providing water for the domestic, agricultural and industrial demands of the more densely populated lowlands. The mountains intercept the circulation of air and force it upwards where it cools and water vapour

The water cycle is the movement of water through the environment. When precipitation falls to earth in a natural (undeveloped) water catchment about 40 percent will be returned to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration (loss of water vapor by plants). About 50 percent will percolate into the ground (water) and into streams. Ground water is eventually discharged into the stream. The combination of ground water discharges to a stream is defined as its base flow. At times when there is no surface runoff, the entire flow of a stream might actually be base flow from ground water. The interactions between the water catchment, soils, and water cycle define the natural water flow (hydrology) Page 5

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS of a stream. Most significant is the fact that developed land is more impervious than natural land. Instead of percolating into the ground, rain hits the hard surfaces of buildings, pavement, and compacted ground and runs off into a storm drain or other artificial structure designed to move water quickly away from developed areas and into a natural watercourse.

reduced because of seasonal droughts, deterioration in water quality, wastage and poor management of water resources. On average, the Malaysian uses 526 litres per day, and wastes up to 233 litres per day. Of the 117 rivers in Malaysia, the Department of Environment reported in 1997, that only 24 rivers were classified as 'clean'. 59 were 'slightly polluted' and 13 'very polluted' in Malaysia.

Water in Malaysia

Water in the Cameron Highlands

Generally, land above 900 metres above sea level is called ‘mountain’, and land above 300 metres ‘highlands’ in Malaysia. Less than 5% of Peninsular Malaysia is more than 900 metres above sea level.

The Cameron Highlands is located on the Main Range, Peninsular Malaysia’s largest block of highland forest, in the State of Pahang. The whole Cameron Highlands district is mountainous with altitudes ranging from 1,000m at the river valleys to 2,031m at the highest peaks. About 71% of the area in the district of Cameron Highlands is still under forest and 8% is agricultural land. The Cameron Highlands is drained by eight rivers with Sg. Bertam, Sg.Telom, and Sg. Lemoi, being the biggest ones; as well as Sg. Ringlet, Sg.Habu, Sg. Burong, Sg. Tringkap and Sg. Terla. These rivers drain into the Sg. Pahang. The surface water is used for drinking water supply for the Cameron Highlands; the main drink water supply is the Sungai Burong intake. The water quality of the rivers Cameron Highlands has become bad in many places, because of siltation from land clearing for development, road construction and agricultural activities. A very important source of water pollution is sewage that is poured into the rivers. The 3 main rivers that drain the Cameron Highlands, Sungai Bertam, Sungai Telom and Sungai Telom which drain the northern, middle and southern parts of the area are fed by the very constant source of clean water from montane forests, even in dryer seasons. The 3 rivers have a total of over 123 tributaries and play a vital role in fresh water supply, agricultural activities (irrigation) and as source for hydroelectric generation. The Cameron Highlands form the headwater catchment for 2 major rivers of the lowlands; Sungai Pahang and Sungai Perak. Here water is abstracted for drinking water supply at several intake points along rivers coming from montane forests of the Cameron Highlands.

Although very small in area, these mountains are headwaters of valuable surface water resources. They are also the refuge of many plants and animals, making them valuable to biological diversity. Highland forests control soil erosion, helping to ensure that the water is clean and free from silt and sediment. They also trap moisture from clouds and slowly release it into streams and rivers. Cloud forest, or montane forest, is the term used to describe forests that are influenced by the presence of cloud or mist. They are usually found at elevations of over 1,500 metres above sea level, and sometimes down to 1,000 metres. Cloud forests supply water to the ecosystem via 'horizontal precipitation'- clouds and fog condense to form water droplets on vegetation surfaces. This is an important source of water and contributes to the maintenance of the base flow of a river especially during periods of scarce rainfall. Due to the wet humid equatorial/monsoonal climate, Malaysia has abundant rainfall, more then 2000mm annually, one of the highest in the world. However, the actual amount of water available for use is

Water catchments Water catchment refers to the land area in the upper reaches of the river system (in the highlands and mainly forested) which feeds into a stream/river. Of Page 6

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS all the functions, the highlands are famous as catchment areas. Water is the most important thing for living organisms. It is the basis of life, playing an essential part in all living processes, especially in the fragile highlands of Peninsular Malaysia. The highlands and specifically the montane ecosystem form some of the most important water catchment areas in Peninsular Malaysia. The montane forests in particular are “water producers”. The supply of this precious and perhaps most endangered and limited natural resource, both in terms of quantity and quality is dependent on forested water catchment areas in the highlands. A water catchment is the area of land from which runoff (from rain and springs) drains to a stream, river, lake, or other body of water. Its boundaries can be identified by locating the highest points of lands around the water body. Streams and rivers function as the "arteries" of the watershed. They drain water from the land as they flow from higher to lower elevations. As small streams flow downhill and meet other streams in the watershed, a branching network is formed. When observed from the air this network resembles a tree.

Water functions Rivers and streams serve many functions in today’s society including serving as a source of food and water and a recreational place for many people, and for nature as part of the ecology. The many functions of rivers and streams create pressure on this resource. Water catchments that were once mainly forested have been changed for the social and economic benefit of today’s society. The degradation in water quality of rivers in the Cameron Highlands is because of many sources including sewage, agricultural runoff of pesticides, nutrients and sediment; hydrologic alteration from stream canalization, dams, artificial drainage and habitat by canalization in conceit structures. Water catchment disturbances from urban and ag ricultural development contribute to an overall decrease in the chemical & biological quality of the rivers and streams (e.g., road building, stream canalization, alteration of the stream’s riparian zone, and many others).

Water ecology A healthy stream is a busy place. Wildlife and birds find shelter and food near and in its waters.

Vegetation grows along its banks, shading the stream, slowing its flow in rainstorms and filter pollutants before they enter the stream. Within the stream itself are fish, insects and other tiny creatures with very particular needs. For example, Stonefly larvae need dissolved oxygen to breathe; rocks, overhanging tree limbs, logs, roots for shelter; vegetation and other tiny animals to eat; and special places to breed and hatch their young. For many of these activities, they might also need water of specific velocity, depth, and temperature. Human activities shape and alter many of these stream characteristics. Humans dam up, straighten, divert, dredge, dewater, and discharge to streams. These activities can dramatically affect the many components of the living stream environment. These components include: • The riparian zone is the area of natural vegetation extending outward from the edge of the stream bank. The riparian zone is a buffer to pollutants entering a stream from runoff, controls erosion, and provides stream habitat and nutrient input into the stream. A healthy stream system generally has a healthy riparian zone. Reductions and impairment of riparian zones occur when roads, parking lots, fields, lawns and other artificially cultivated areas, bare soil, rocks, or buildings are near the stream bank; • The stream bank includes both an upper bank and a lower bank. • T h e s t re a m s i d e c ove r i n c l u d e s a ny overhanging vegetation that offers protection and shading for the stream and its aquatic inhabitants; • Stream vegetation includes emergent, submerge and floating plants. Emergent plants include plants with with most of their vegetative parts above the water. Submerge plants also include some of the same types of plants, but they are completely immersed in water. Floating plants (e.g. algae mats) are detached from any substrate and are therefore drifting in the water; • The channel of the streambed is the zone of the stream cross section that is usually submerged and totally aquatic. • The substrate is the material that makes up the streambed, such as clay, cobbles, or boulders. Page 7

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Pollution of rivers

The main source of water pollution, next to urban waste water, is agriculture. Intensive agriculture on high degree slops (left) and application of pesticides (above) and fertilizers have a major impact on water deterioration.

The water in a stream is always moving and mixing, from top to bottom and from one side of the stream to the other. Pollutants that enter the stream travel some distance before they are thoroughly mixed throughout the flow. For example, water upstream of a pipe discharging wastewater might be clean. At the discharge site and immediately downstream, the water might be extremely degraded. Further downstream, in the recovery zone, overall quality might improve as pollutants are diluted with more water. Far downstream the stream as a whole might be relatively clean again. Unfortunately, most streams with one source of pollution often are affected by many others as well. Pollution is broadly divided into two classes, point- and non-point sources, according to its source. Point source pollution comes from a clearly identifiable point such as a pipe, which discharges directly into a water body. Examples of point sources include; wastewater treatment plants and urban discharge. Non-point source pollution

comes from surface water runoff. It originates from a broad area and thus can be difficult to identify. Examples of non-point sources include agricultural runoff and construction site runoff. More impacts are caused by sediments and silt from eroded land and nutrients such as the Nitrogen and Phosphorus found in fertilizers, detergents, and sewage treatment plant discharges. Other leading pollutants include pathogens such as bacteria, pesticides, and organic enrichment that leads to low levels of dissolved oxygen.

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Unsustainable development hits hard on the environment in the Cameron Highlands.

Common sources of pollution to streams include: • Ag ricultural activities such as crop production. These pollutants contribute sediments, nutrients, pesticides, herbicides, pathogens and organic pollutants; • Municipal dischargers such as sewage treatment plants which contribute nutrients, pathogens, organic enrichment, and toxicants; • Runoff from building sites adding massive amounts of sediments to the rivers.

Water pollution in the Cameron Highlands The Cameron Highlands are drained by eight rivers with Sg. Bertam, Sg. Telom, and Sg. Lemoi being the biggest ones. The upper reaches of the Bertam River basin serves as an important water catchment area for water supply. Forest cover is essential in this function, despite that fact the Upper Bertam catchment is for 30% covered by agriculture and urban area. In preventing erosion and runoff in agriculture the slope gradient must be less then 25° and of a capable soil type, almost 45% of the agricultural land in the Cameron Highlands takes place on land with a higher slope degree.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS The Cameron Highlands are characterized by undisturbed nature on one hand and on the other intensive agriculture. Unfortunately not much attention is driven to the back draw of this agricultural use; pesticides, fertilizers and in urban area sewage (not treated thoroughly or at places not at all) entering the river system, causing severe water pollution. The (already scarce) drinking water supply is therefore polluted with several chemicals i.e. pesticides, fertilizers, faecal bacteria (causing diseases) and hardly available through lack of management, (illegal) tapping and soil erosion. The positive news: • Virgin and original mountain forest streams of (ecological and chemical) outstanding quality and importance of the ecosystem, which form a vital and reliable supply of good quality drinking water.

Reasons of water pollution in the Cameron Highlands: • Increasing water pollution by agriculture by excessive pesticide and fertilizer use and by urban area with poorly treated or untreated sewage poured in the river; • Lack of enforcement by Land Office (MDCH), Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) and Water Board (JBA), thousands offences of public laws are broken everyday, causing pollution or illegal tapping • Siltation and erosion from land clearing, agriculture and construction; • Illegal water tapping. 20% of water is left for public. 80% of the total water supply is being tapped by farmers and is utilized for agricultural activities. Most of the water used in agriculture is (illegally) tapped from small mountain streams in the forest containing the best quality water of the Highlands

The negative news: • Most vulnerable part of the catchment lies in urbanized area, with pollution sources (agricultural & urban) located at the far upstream part of the catchment; • The Sungai Bertam is heavily polluted with faecal bacteria (E.Coli), organic pollution (sewage, manure & fertilizers), suspended solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and pesticides.

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Community Stream Monitoring

Site selection

The (Upper) Sungai Bertam is the river that starts its journey high-up the slopes of Gunung Brinchang, as tiny forest streams; with outstanding water quality. It ends its journey in the Ringlet Reservoir near Habu. In the meanwhile it passes Brinchang town, the Parit Falls, Tanah Rata town, the Robinson Falls, the PowerStation and Habu. In these 18 kilometres it runs through pristine forest with absolutely clear water of perfect quality (slopes Gunung Brinchang), here does your tap-water come from, a little later the sewage of the town of Brinchang is poured in as well as some pesticides and fertilizers from local farms, the rivers of Sungai Burong and Sungai Ruil are joining the river further down, after passing the golf course and the Parrit Falls Tanah Rata town lies ahead. Here Sungai Jasar joins adding the sewage of Tanah Rata town. After the Robinson Falls and the Power Station, Sungai Ulung (adding fertilizers and pesticides from farms) and Sungai Batu Pipih (again adding fertilizers and pesticides from farms) are joining by, just before the Sungai Bertam enters the Ringlet Reservoir. In this journey it started with very clean drinking water, but got polluted more and more. When it flows in to the Reservoir it is heavily polluted with faecal bacteria (E.Coli), organic pollution (sewage, manure & fertilizers), suspended solids (erosion and runoff), solid waste and pesticides.

Sites are chosen to provide baseline data to characterize the stream and screen for problems, it monitors a number of sites representing a range of conditions in the river/stream water catchment (e.g., an upstream "pristine" area, above and below towns and cities and in agricultural areas). To determine whether a particular land use activity or potential source of pollution is, in fact, having an impact, it might be best to monitor upstream and downstream of the area where the source is suspected. General influence of side streams to the Sungai Bertam: • Sungai Burong: relatively clean, little upstream, before joining Sungai Bertam the large Sungai Burong drinking water intake, but also small agricultural activities i.e. strawberry farms. • Sungai Ruil: relatively clean; running trough Orang Asli settlement. • Sungai Pauh: very clean, non-polluted stream from Sungai Pauh forest reserve • Sungai Jasar: extremely polluted, adding all sewage of Tanah Rata town. • Sungai Batu Pipih: polluted; influence because of intensive agriculture along its stretch • Sungai Ulung: polluted; influence because of intensive agriculture along its stretch

Sample locations Within the Sungai Bertam catchment the river Sungai Bertam is the most evident. This river is the major river leading to the Ringlet Reservoir. This catchment is chosen because of its allocation in the urbanized area of the Cameron Highlands. The Sungai Bertam is fed by a few dozen other (smaller) rivers; including (from source down): Sungai Burong, Sungai Ruil, Sungai Pauh, Sungai Jasar, Sungai Batu Pipih and Sungai Ulung. All these rivers have an influence on the water quality of the main course; Sungai Bertam, ounce added to the stream. This can be positive (with clean water and thus diluting any pollutants in the Sungai Bertam) or negative; adding more pollution.

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Aquatic macro invertebrates

The purest water houses Stone Fly larvae (left), the dirtiest are full with leeches (above).

Macro invertebrates as indicators Aquatic macro invertebrates are tiny creepy crawlies living in the water. It is a community of insect (larvae), beetles, worms, snails and other small creatures. Not every aquatic macro-invertebrate can live in every type of water quality: some species need really clean water (water with the quality of drinking water) others can live perfectly well in polluted water with lots of sewage. These little creatures are supersensitive for changes in their environment. This means that they are very accurate in telling you how clean the water is. Biological monitoring, the study of biological organisms and their responses, is used to determine environmental conditions. One type of biological monitoring, the aquatic macro invertebrate assessment, is described in this chapter. The aquatic macro invertebrate assessment involves collecting, processing, and analyzing aquatic organisms to determine the health of the biological community in a stream. Aquatic Macro invertebrates are organisms

that are large (macro) enough to be seen with the naked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate) living in the water. They inhabit all types of running waters, from fast-flowing mountain streams to slow-moving muddy rivers. Examples of aquatic macro invertebrates include insects in their larval or nymph form, crayfish, clams, snails and worms. Most live part or most of their life cycle attached to submerged rocks, logs, and vegetation. Aquatic macro invertebrates are good indicators of stream quality because: • They are affected by the physical, chemical, and biological conditions of the stream; • They can't escape pollution and show the effects of short- and long term pollution events; • They may show the cumulative impacts of pollution; • They may show the impacts from habitat loss not detected by traditional water quality assessments; • They are a critical part of the stream's food web; Page 12

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS • Some are very intolerant of pollution; • They are relatively easy to sample and identify.

farmland, habitat degradation such as excess sand or silt on the stream bottom that has ruined Stonefly sheltering areas, or other conditions.

Macro invertebrate assessments

In a stream, habitat for aquatic macro invertebrates includes the rocks and sediments of the stream bottom, the plants in and around the stream, leaf litter and other decomposing organic material that falls into the stream, and submerged logs, sticks, and woody debris. Aquatic macro invertebrates need the shelter and food these habitats provide and tend to congregate in areas that provide the best shelter, the most food, and the most dissolved oxygen. The information provided by aquatic macro invertebrate assessments can be used for many purposes. Aquatic macro invertebrate assessments can be used to identify problem sites along a stream.

Aquatic macro invertebrates are an important part of the community of life found in and around a river/ stream. Stream-bottom macro invertebrates are a link in the aquatic food chain. In most streams, the energy stored by plants is available to animal life either in the form of leaves that fall in the water or in the form of algae that grows on the stream bottom. The algae and leaves are eaten by aquatic macro invertebrates. Aquatic macro invertebrates are a source of energy for larger animals such as fish, which in turn, are a source of energy for amphibians, birds, water snakes and even human beings. The basic principle behind the study of aquatic macro invertebrates is that some are more sensitive to • To identify the impact of pollution and of pollution pollution than others. Therefore, if a stream site is control activities. Aquatic macro invertebrates are inhabited by organisms that can tolerate pollution stationary and are sensitive to different degrees of and the more pollution-sensitive organisms are pollution, changes in their abundance and variety vividly illustrate the impact pollution is having on missing a pollution problem is likely. the stream. Similarly, when a pollution control For example, Stonefly nymphs are very sensitive to activity takes place an aquatic macro invertebrate most pollutants cannot survive if a stream's dissolved assessment may show that the sensitive aquatic oxygen falls below a certain level. If an aquatic macro invertebrates have returned and a habitat macro invertebrate assessment shows that no assessment might find that the formerly eroded stoneflies are present in a stream that used to support stream banks have recovered. them, a hypothesis might be that dissolved oxygen • To determine the severity of the pollution problem has fallen to a point that keeps stoneflies from and to rank stream sites. To use biological data reproducing or has killed them outright. This brings properly, water resource analysts generally compare up both the advantage and disadvantage of the the results from the stream sites under study to aquatic macro invertebrate assessment. The those of sites in ideal or nearly ideal condition advantage of the aquatic macro invertebrate (called a reference condition). Individual stream assessment is that it tells us very clearly when the sites can then be ranked from best to worst, and stream ecosystem is impaired, or "sick," due to priorities can be set for their improvement. pollution or habitat loss. It is not difficult to realize • To identify water quality trends. In any given site, that a stream full of many kinds of crawlies is biological data can be used to identify water quality healthier than one without much life. The trends (increasing or decreasing) over several years. disadvantage of the aquatic macro invertebrate assessment, on the other hand, is that it cannot While most water quality analysis and standards definitively tell us why certain types of creatures are focus on chemical data, these measures only reflect present or absent. In this case, the absence of the conditions at the moment the sample is taken. Stoneflies might indeed be due to low dissolved Aquatic macro invertebrates, however, possess a life oxygen. But is the stream under oxygenated, because cycle of at least one year or more, do not move great it flows too sluggishly or because pollutants in the distances and are more or less confined to the area of stream are damaging water quality by using up the stream being sampled. Therefore, their diversity and oxygen? The absence of Stoneflies might also be due populations exhibit the long-range effects of waste to other pollutants discharged or runoff from effluents to the aquatic environment. The aquatic macro invertebrate community of a stream lives with

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The steam on the left is severely polluted with sewage, and only fungus can live here. The stream above is also polluted.

the stresses and changes that occur in the aquatic environment.  Aquatic invertebrate bio monitoring has long been a tool of choice in assessing and monitoring the impacts of anthropogenic stress in aquatic systems. Aquatic macro invertebrates are a very diverse group of organisms. They display a wide range of sizes, habitat requirements, life histories and sensitivities to water quality impairment. Some are sensitive to changes in substrate composition; others are sensitive to fluctuations in dissolved oxygen. Some require cold water temperatures, while others can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. This wide range of living requirements makes aquatic macro invertebrates excellent indicators of anthropogenic stress on aquatic systems. Very important is also that you can test for example for Nitrate in chemical analysis but unless you test them all (Nitrate, Nitrite, TotN, Ammonia) you can not tell if the water is polluted with Nitrogen compounds. With an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment you can; because they are sensitive for the whole package of chemical parameters; from Nitrogen compounds, till heavy metals and pesticides. They thus provide with an instant single parameter for the “overall” water

quality and often more accurate and sensitive then for human health or chemical testing. Positive points of an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment: • Diversity of some form and habits; • Many sedimentary species can indicate effects at site of sampling; • Whole communities can respond top change; • Long-lived species can indicate integrated pollution effects over time; • Qualitative sampling easy; • Simple sampling equipment; • Good taxonomic keys. Negative points of an aquatic macro invertebrate assessment: • Quantitative sampling difficult ; • Substrate important when sampling; • Species my drift in moving waters; • Knowledge of life cycles necessary to interpret absence of species; • Some groups difficult to identify. Page 14

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS The pollution tolerances of the various aquatic macro invertebrates are based upon the aquatic macro invertebrates' tolerance to dissolved oxygen concentrations in water.  Organisms are separated into 3 categories of pollution tolerance:  Sensitive or intolerant (class I), Facultative or somewhat sensitive (class II) and Tolerant (class III) to pollution.   In a river/stream with good water quality aquatic macro invertebrates of both sensitive to and tolerant to pollution are found.  No particular group or types of organisms will dominate the aquatic macro invertebrate population of the stream.  With increased organic pollution (from nutrients found in fertilizers, sewage, and other sources) dissolved oxygen levels within the stream are expected to fluctuate more extremely and fewer pollution sensitive organisms will be found.  Aquatic macro invertebrates that can tolerate lower oxygen levels will become more prevalent.  As organic pollution continues to increase, some pollution tolerant aquatic macro invertebrates will become dominant and will be able to support large populations within the stream, while pollution sensitive or semi-sensitive organisms will be unable to survive.  A shift in aquatic macro invertebrates' food sources is expected with changes in amount of organic pollution in a stream.  In clean streams, food sources are usually from within the natural stream system, including leaf litter from trees in the riparian corridor of the stream.  In more organically-polluted streams, food might be supplied by other than natural sources, such as nutrients input as fertilizers through runoff or from a sewage pipe.  Increased nutrients will also stimulate plant and algal growth within a stream, offering yet another food source for aquatic macro invertebrates in polluted streams. Pollution of water causes a decrease of aquatic macro invertebrate diversity, which is an "indicator" of a healthy aquatic ecosystem. Thus, when an organic effluent is discharged into a stream, the numbers of species decline, with an increase in the population of those organisms that tolerate such stresses.

Summarizing: • In a healthy stream, the stream-bottom community will include a variety of pollution-sensitive aquatic macro invertebrates (high diversity). In a polluted river there may be only a few types of Tolerant (class III) aquatic macro invertebrates present (but usually in high numbers: high abundance); • Aquatic macro invertebrate assessments provide information about the quality of a stream over long periods of time. It may be difficult to identify stream pollution with water analysis, which can only provide information for the time of sampling and only for 1 parameters at the time. Even the presence of fish may not provide information about a pollution problem, because fishes are mobile and can move away to avoid polluted water and then return when conditions improve. However, most aquatic macro invertebrates cannot escape and move to avoid pollution. An aquatic macro invertebrate assessment may thus provide information about pollution that is not present at the time of sample collection; Aquatic macro invertebrates can be dived in 3 groups: Class I Organisms Very sensitive: The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will immediately suffer, stress, die and disappear due to commencing of lowering water quality in slightly polluted water. This group includes pollution- sensitive organisms such as mayflies, stoneflies, and non net-spinning Caddisflies, which are typically found in good-quality water. Class II Organisms Facultative or somewhat sensitive: The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will present in low number individuals because of intermediate water quality in mild polluted water and have the capability to live under varying conditions. This group includes somewhat pollution-tolerant organisms such as net-spinning Caddisflies, Crayfish, Sow bugs, and Clams, found in fair-quality water   Class III Organisms Not sensitive/Tolerant: The aquatic macro invertebrates of this group will survive, dominant and high in number of individuals in very low water quality and severe polluted water. This group includes pollution-tolerant organisms such as Worms, Leeches and Midges, found in poor-quality water.

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Perfectly clean water (left) and extremely polluted. Here (in Brinchang town) a drain reales waste in the river. This is a major source of pathogenic bacteria like E. Coli. The clean stream has a very diverse aquatic macro invertebrate community (mostly classes I & II). The polluted stream with only very aquatic macro invertebrate species (only class III) but thousands of each species (low diversity + high abundance = low water quality).

the identification characteristics. This key is specially The identification key provided with this Manual adapted for the condition and occurrence of aquatic consists of pairs of opposite choices in form of macro invertebrates in the Cameron Highlands and dichotomous key. To use this key, start at the first for this Manuel. number and read the two statements. Decide which statement best describes the organism and click on Taxonomic Classification your choice. Repeat the procedure until the aquatic Scientists have developed a system for classifying all macro invertebrate is identified. If you reach a point living creatures based on shared characteristics in the selection of descriptive statements at which (taxonomic classification). It is a tiered system that none of the statements apply, you can work your way begins on a large scale (i.e., Animal Kingdom/Plant back through the preceding pairs of statements and Kingdom) and works its way down to the level of perhaps reconsider the choices. In others, you will individual species. find that you are unable to identify the particular aquatic macro invertebrate and you will have to To illustrate, a mayfly is classified as follows: identify it as "unknown". Some aquatic macro Family: Ephemerida invertebrates (such as some Caddisfly larvae) will be Kingdom: Animal .Genus: Hexagenia found in a protective case of sand, small sticks, or Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Species: limbata other material. Order: Ephemeroptera You may find it necessary to remove these cases in order to make an identification. For some specimens, magnification with a hand lens will be needed to see

Identification

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Two macro invertebrates, both indicating good water quality. The Stone Fly larvae (above), recognisable by its characteristic two thread like tails. is more sensitive to pollution than the Dragon Fly larva (left), recognisable by its big head and eyes and the absence of a distinguishable tail.

Interpretation of the results While the presence or absence of certain species will reflect conditions of stress on the aquatic community, it will also reflect the diversity or lack of diversity of the habitat of various sampling locations. For example, the riffle communities of a stream are generally more diverse in invertebrate forms than pools. Some samples may be taken in a pool, which will naturally be less diverse and possess other "pondlike" biota than another point sampled in the riffle. Also, the type of substrate of the stream will affect the index. For instance those sampling locations that possess bedrock as a substrate tend to be less diverse in invertebrate forms than those containing gravel and boulders.  One of the inherent dangers of the "indicator organism" concept or classification is that the occurrence of a Class III organism exhibits pollution. This is not true. Even clean aquatic communities will have their share of sludge Worms, air-breathing Snails, Leeches, etc. Therefore, one must search thoroughly over the sampling point to find other organisms. If only Class III forms can be found,

severe degradation is evident. However, one seldom needs to sample such points - pollution is often obvious. The results of the aquatic macro invertebrate assessment described in this Manual are meant to be indicative. The only mean is to give indicative values of water quality and not an extensive survey of species occurrence. Identification of species is only to family level; because of the goal of general water quality assessment and defining potentials of the niche. Main reason for choosing aquatic macro invertebrates is its great potential as water quality indictor to be used in a relatively simple way by not-extensively trained people; like High School students or the interested.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS Aquatic macro invertebrate populations are more Sedimentation sensitive than fish populations by local water quality • Decrease in Mayflies (Ephemeropterae) and and habitat conditions. A few examples of reaction of Midges(Chironomidae). the aquatic macro invertebrate community on water pollution effects are: A few examples of specific families reacting on water pollution Nutrient enrichment • Stoneflies (Insect Order:  Plecoptera) prefer cool, • Increased ratio of aquatic Worms (Oligochatae) to oxygen-rich streams and are generally intolerant or aquatic insects; very sensitive for water pollution;  • Increased ratio of Midges (Chironomidae) to other • Leeches (Hirundinae) and Snails (Gastropoda) live aquatic insects; generally in nutrient rich water with plants growing • Increase of herbivorous Mayflies (Ephemeropterae) on the riverbanks. and Midges(Chironomidae). Some families such as Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera Low dissolved oxygen and Trichoptera are especially sensitive to pollutants • Increased ratio of aquatic worms to aquatic insects; and are commonly used as indicators of water • Increased ratio of Midges (Chironomidae) to other quality. This group of aquatic insects: Epheaquatic insects. meroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera are called the sensitive EPT group.

Diversity

Species abundanc e

Non-Polluted Clean

Pollut e d

Clean

Relationship between diversity and abundance. In a polluted stream a few species ‘’can take over’’ and thrive by the thousands. This figure of diversity and abundance is shown in the graph above and it is one to remember. Even when not identifying the occurring species you can already tell something about the water quality by just looking at this figure.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Going in the field

Picking a few of the larger animals out as well as some of the bigger leaves/ branches before placing the sample in the bucket (left). Lifting a stone, disturbing some gravel when keeping the net in the current. In this way the aquatic macro invertebrates are flushed into the net (above).

Macro invertebrates of the Cameron (and where organic pollution of sewage decreases the dissolved oxygen level) these species are replaced by Highlands The macro invertebrate community of the fast flowing rivers of the Cameron Highlands mainly consists out of insects. All the upper parts of the rivers (still in the forest) have excellent water quality. The families found are Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Plecoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. Especially the fast running small forest streams contain a diverse aquatic macro invertebrate fauna of Plecoptera, Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Coleoptera and species of the Odonata family. Most of them are the larvae/nymphs of forest insects. Lower on the slopes, where the river becomes deeper and slower running

others from mainly the Nematoda and Gastropoda families. For the Cameron Highlands generally no native fish species were found above 1000m. The Common Carp and the Guppy are two introduced fish species and are very common in the Upper-Bertam river. However, these introduced fish species are very insensitive for water pollution and can live in very polluted water.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS • Petri dishes; Sampling transects are chosen in the Sungai Bertam • Aquatic macro invertebrate assessment worksheet. river; regarding the land use around the stream; i.e. virgin forest, urban and agricultural area, in the main Sampling Method stream (sg. Bertam) as well as the several adjoining In the Cameron Highlands the upper-parts of the side streams. In this Manual we suggest a few rivers; such as the Sungai Bertam are generally fast sampling points for the aquatic macro invertebrate flowing, have a rocky bottom and not many aquatic assessment; these are the same as for the chemical plants are present. The method you use to collect aquatic macro invertebrates using this approach testing; see chapter 3. depends on the type of stream you are sampling. Most streams (especially the smaller ones in the Sampling moment In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the forest) have bottoms made up of gravel, cobbles and river runs with relatively stable water rates, During boulders in any combination and usually have rain or just after raining, the river is relatively definite riffle areas. Riffle areas are fairly well unstable with rapidly increasing water rates, the oxygenated and are therefore prime habitats for water stream will then be brown of silt and have a aquatic macro invertebrates. The wider streams near water rate which is up to 10 times the original water the Parit Falls and the town of Tanah Rata have silt rate in dryer moments. The period of time when it & sandy bottoms and are slower moving with a lowthis has a high flow is called HWF or High Water gradient (i.e., streams that flow along relatively flat Flow, the period with a stable ‘normal’ flow; AWF or terrain). In these parts of the river course aquatic Average Water Flow. The aquatic macro invertebrate macro invertebrates generally attach themselves to assessments according to this Manuel; will be carried overhanging plants, roots, logs, submerged vegetation out during the normal or AWF; This is important and stream substrate where organic particles are because after a period of heavy rain most trapped. It is important to collect a representative invertebrates living in the water will be disturbed or sample of the river. The method that we are going to ‘’washed away’’, it takes a little time for them to use in this Manual is called scientifically qualitative recover to the average circumstance; and this is when multi-habitat (QMH) sampling. It means that samples the assessment should be carried out in order to get a are collected to characterize the overall aquatic macro invertebrate diversity of the river, by looking clear and honest picture. and collecting at all the micro-biotopes of the river. This include: under and on rocks, gravel and sand, Equipment for the assessment Much of the required equipment is easily obtained under plants and roots, along the sides and in the from either hardware stores or scientific supply middle of the river. You will be doing this on a rivers houses. Other equipment can be found around the stretch of 35 times the width of the stream, making house. Listed below is the basic equipment to carry- sure you catch as many diverse organisms and no more then half a 5.5l bottle. out the assessment discussed in this Manual: So the goal is to sample the most productive habitats • Clipboard, preferably with plastic cover; available and look for the widest variety of • Several pencils; organisms. So the entire sampling method is based on • Field data sheet; catching not as many, but the most diverse range of • Dip-net; organisms of the river. This is best done by looking • Two 10 l buckets; and catching at diverse micro-biotopes within the • Alcohol to preserve samples; stream. So you have to look; under stones, under • Hand lens, magnifying glass; vegetation banks and between vegetation, in gravel or • Large, shallow, white pans, such as dishpans; sand, as well on the sides of the stream. You first have • Plastic ice cube trays; to choose a transect of 35 times the river width. In • Taxonomic key to aquatic organisms; this transect you have to do your best to catch as • Calculator; many diverse micro-biotopes as you can. • Boots (knee-high); • Taxonomic keys ; • Fine-point forceps or tweezers;

Sample stations

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Sorting the largest invertebrates from the sample (left). This net full with snails is not a good indication, they are are Class III organisms

At the end of the session you got to have a half-full 5.5 l mineral water bottle with material and the organisms (without sand or leafs !!! you have to wash that out in prior). This will be easy in the more polluted streams, where you will find Snails and Leeches by the thousands and more difficult in very clean streams; where you will find only tiny Stoneflyand Mayfly larvae. But remember you have to collect over 60 individuals, a few hundred is also ok (will cost you more work however in the identification & analysis), but do not collect thousands of snails, diversity is what counts. • Approach the sample site from downstream and sample as you walk upstream. Always use a clean dip-net that is free of mud and debris from previous uses. Fill one-third of the bucket with stream water; • Sample vegetated bank margins by jabbing vigorously, with an upward motion, brushing the net against vegetation and roots along the bank. The entire jab motion should occur underwater;

To sample a silt/sand/gravel substrate, place the net with one edge against the stream bottom and Dislodge the aquatic macro invertebrates by moving your boot through the first few inches of silt, sand, gravel, or rocks and placing your dip-net about half a meter of your boot downstream, catching up the disturbed material in the net. To avoid gathering a net full of mud, periodically sweep the mesh bottom of the net back and forth in the water, making sure that water does not run over the top of the net. This will allow fine silt to rinse out of the net. The member of the team designated as the "kicker" should thoroughly stir up the sampling area with their feet, starting at the upstream and working downstream, moving toward the net. All dislodged organisms will be carried by the stream flow into the net. Be sure to disturb the first few inches of stream sediment to dislodge burrowing organisms; • Pick up any large rocks in the sampling area; mostly Stonefly- and Mayfly larvae hide under rocks in fast flowing streams. One member of the team, the net holder, should position the net at the downstream Page 21

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS end of the rock you are going to lift. Hold the net handles at a 45 degree angle to the water's surface. Be sure that the bottom of the net fits tightly against the streambed so no aquatic macroinvertebrates escape under the net. Do not allow any water to flow over the net. Then one team member should lift the rock carefully but fast, when the net-holder or a third person with hand dislodge aquatic macro invertebrates in the sediment under the rock, by pouring it towards the net (in a way the material is washed in the net by the stream current). After you have done this, inspect the rock surface itself for any living organisms and try to dislodge the foreign particles from the rock's surface. Also look for clumps of gravel or leaves stuck to the rock. These clumps may be houses of Caddisflies and should be dislodged as well; • Next, remove the net without allowing any of the organisms it contains to wash away. While the net holder grabs the top of the net handles, the ‘’kicker’’ grabs the bottom of the net handles and the net's bottom edge. Remove the net from the stream with a forward scooping motion; • Hold the net above the partially filled bucket and put the material carefully in the bucket by hand. Pour or spray water down the net to flush its contents into the bucket. If necessary, pick debris and organisms from the net by hand and pick any clinging organisms from the net by hand and put them in the bucket; • Release back into the stream any fish, amphibians, or reptiles caught in the net. Carefully remove large pieces of debris (leaves, twigs, and rocks) from the sample. While holding the material over the bucket, use the forceps and your hands to pick, rub, and rinse the big leaves, twigs, and rocks to remove any attached organisms and remove large pieces of debris from the sample this way; • You will need to drain off the water before transferring the material to the 5.5 l bottle; • This process will require two team members. One person should place the net, like a sieve, the second person can now carefully pour the contents of the bucket onto the center of the net to drain the water and concentrate the organisms. Use care when pouring so that organisms are not lost over the side

of the net. Use your hands then to transfer all the material from the net into the 5.5l bottle; • The samples are transported with a closed 5.5l mineral water bottle to the workplace where the invertebrate holding mass of debris is washed, sieved and selected. The sampling, transport and selecting and identification of aquatic macro invertebrates has to take place the same day.

Work space Important!! The following step can be carried out with many volunteers at the same time (the more the faster it will go), by dividing the sample evenly among the volunteers in different steps of the process. So give a few volunteers each portions of the sample to sort, and others already begin with identification. In case you got many hundreds or even thousands of the same organisms (most likely Snails or Leeches) don not count or collect them all!!! In stead of that mix the whole sample thoroughly first, and pick a sub-sample of 1/10th of the entire sample, collect and count these particular organism in this bit and multiply the outcome with 10 (for the whole sample). After you have done that work through the rest of the sample as normal, but ignore the family or families you just calculated, do not collect or count them anymore. When arrived at the workplace, pour the contents of the 5.5l bottle (remaining water, organisms, and organic material) into a large, shallow, white pan and fill the ice cube tray with stream water. Then bit by bit take a handful of the material and wash it under the running tap. You do this by place the material in the fine net, place it above an empty bucket and carefully run tap-water over it. At the same time wash the material with your hand, making sure the material and organism not leaving the finenet and the bucket overrunning. When the bucket is full, check for any escaped organism, pick them out and empty the bucket, continuing once you have done that. Using tweezers, eye dropper, or spoon, pick through the leaf litter and organic material looking for anything that swims, crawls, or seems to be hiding in a shell (like a snail). Examine the material (organic materials in the sample like small leaf and sticks) and make sure you picked-out the organisms from it, before you remove the organic material. Remember that the organisms will have sought shelter, and they could be hiding.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS Using tweezers carefully and remove anything that resembles a living organism. Look carefully; many of these creatures are quite small and fast-swimming. Sort the similar organisms into the plastic ice cube tray. This last step will become easier once you starting to recognize the families. After you worked through each handful of sample, put the remaining material in a bucket and start over with a new handful material. After you worked through the whole sample, picked-out all big organisms, and are left with fine (organic material or some sand) and small organism within this mass in the bucket. Empty this bucket in a large white pan (not too much at once otherwise you won’t see anything!), add enough water to cover the material. Evenly disperse the material over the entire bottom of the pan; the water will help in distributing the sample throughout the pan. Look the material carefully through with your tweezers, removing any organism larger then 2 mm. This is most easy done by beginning at one corner of the pan, a partial work through tiny bits, until you worked trough all the material, sweeping the material you worked through by hand to the another corner. Sort the similar organisms again and put them in the plastic ice cube tray.

After the whole sample is worked through and you are left with ice cube trays with organisms, work them through identifying the aquatic macro invertebrates to within each order to family level using your knowledge and the taxonomic keys. You will only need to identify the families that are used in the metrics.

The Guppy (Gambusia affensis) is a perfect indictor of the worst water quality; this invasive species occurs even in sewage drains, where it feeds on organic matter. It is found abundantly in polluted water in the Cameron Highlands (above).

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Chemical testing

Filling in the information on the fieldwork form in the field with values of EC, pH and general visible pollution indicators (left). Multi meter for measuring temperature, TDS, pH and EC (above).

Chemical & physical testing Because of the relative limited resources and apparatus, only a few chemical/physical parameters are chosen to be carried out in the course of this program. The accent lies more on the biological properties i.e. the aquatic macro invertebrates assessment. In this Manuel the following parameters are chosen to test; pH, EC and TDS using the Multi-meter, Phosphor (as Phosphate) and Nitrogen (as Ammonia and as Nitrate) using quick-test-kits. However it is incidentally possible to carry out other water test than at the standard monitoring. These include: pesticides, heavy metals, nutrientcontent (i.e. BOD, COD) and E.Coli.

Standard monitoring parameters Selection of parameters to be monitored is based on: • The water quality problems and pollution sources in the case of the Cameron Highlands; • The cost of available monitoring equipment; • The precision and accuracy of available monitoring equipment; • The capabilities of the volunteers; • Because of the expense and difficulty involved, volunteers generally do not monitor for toxic substances such as heavy metals and pesticides. Additional it is however to collect water samples and send for analysis at an accredited laboratory.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS

Set of pH-meters at tyhe works space (left). Taking in the middle of the stream, directly in the strongest current in the middle between surface and bottom and recapping it under water without air coming in the bottle (above).

pH (acidity) pH is a term used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity of a substance as ranked on a scale from 1.0 to 14.0. Acidity increases as the pH gets lower. pH affects many chemical and biological processes in the water. For example, different organisms flourish within different ranges of pH. The largest variety of aquatic animals prefers a range of 6.5-8.0. pH outside this range reduces the diversity in the stream, because it stresses the physiological systems of most organisms and can reduce reprod-uction. The pH scale measures the logarithmic concentration of hydrogen (H+) and hydroxide (OH-) ions, which make up water (H+ + OH- = H2O). When both types of ions are in equal concentration, the pH

is 7.0 or neutral. Below 7.0, the water is acidic (there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions). When the pH is above 7.0, the water is alkaline or basic (there are more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions). Since the scale is logarithmic, a drop in the pH by 1.0 unit is equivalent to a 10-fold increase in acidity. So, a water sample with a pH of 5.0 is 10 times as acidic as one with a pH of 6.0, and pH 4.0 is 100 times as acidic as pH 6.0.

Measuring pH pH can be analyzed in the field or in the lab. The pH measurements for this monitoring program are carried-out in the field with the Multi-meter instrument. Taking a sample for pH-measurement is not

a good idea, since the pH tends to be unstable, when water is stored or transported. This is because of Carbon dioxide from the air dissolving in the water, which will bring the pH toward 7. The pH meter of the Multi-meter instrument measures the electric potential (millivolts) across an electrode when immersed in water. This electric potential is a function of the hydrogen ion activity in the sample. A pH meter consists out of a potentiometer, which measures electric current; a glass electrode, which senses the electric potential where it meets the water sample; a reference electrode, which provides a constant electric potential; and a temperature compensating device, wh i ch a d j u s t s t h e re a d i n g s according to the temperature of Page 25

REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS the sample (since pH varies with temperature). The instrument is calibrated on two buffer solution, of pH 4.0 and pH 7.01). The instrument should be calibrated prior to measurement and after every 25 samples according to the instructions in the instruction hand-out of the instrument. The following is important regarding buffers: • The buffer solutions should be at room temperature when you calibrate the meter; • Do not use a buffer after its expiration date; • Always cap the buffers during storage to prevent contamination; • Do not re-use buffer solutions; • Shake of the electrode of the instrument gently, to prevent dilution of the buffer solution when calibrating.

Measuring Conductivity (EC)

Conductivity is useful as a general measure of stream water quality. Each stream tends to have a relatively constant range of conductivity that, once established, can be used as a baseline for comparison with regular conductivity measurements. Significant changes in conductivity could then be an indicator that a discharge or some other source of pollution has entered a stream. Conductivity is measured with a probe and a meter. Voltage is applied between two electrodes in a probe immersed in the sample water. The drop in voltage caused by the resistance of the water is used to calculate the conductivity per centimetre. The meter converts the probe measurement to microSiemens per centimetre and displays the result for the user. The multi-meter can also be used to test for total dissolved solids. The total dissolved solids concentration in milligrams per liter Conductivity and TDS (mg/L) can also be calculated by multiplying the Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to conductivity result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, pass an electrical current. Conductivity in water is which is empirically determined. affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as Chloride, Nitrate, Sulphate, and Phosphate Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or Sodium, In river water, Total Dissolved Solids or TDS consist Magnesium, Calcium, Iron, and Aluminium cat ions of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chlorides, Nitrate, (ions that carry a positive charge). Conductivity is Phosphates and other ions particles that will pass also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, through a filter with pores of around 2 microns the higher the conductivity. For this reason, (0.002 cm) in size. The concentration of total conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 degrees dissolved solids affects the water balance in the cells Celsius (25 C). Conductivity in streams and rivers is of aquatic organisms. High concentrations of TDS affected primarily by the geology of the area through are an indicator of pollution since natural highland which the water flows. Streams that run through rivers contain very low concentrations of TDS areas with granite bedrock (like in the Cameron (because of its origin as rain water). Sources of TDS Highlands) tend to have lower conductivity because include Sewage Treatment Plants, fertilizers, road granite is composed of more inert materials that do runoff, and soil erosion. Total solids are measured in not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when milligrams per liter (mg/L). TDS is important to washed into the water. On the other hand, streams measure in areas where there are discharges from that run through areas with clay soils tend to have sewage treatment plants or extensive crop irrigation. higher conductivity because of the presence of TDS measurements can be useful as an indicator of materials that ionize when washed into the water. the effects of runoff from construction, agricultural Ground water inflows can have the same effects practices, logging activities, sewage treatment plant depending on the bedrock they flow through. discharges, and other sources. Concentrations often Discharges to streams can change the conductivity increase sharply during rainfall, especially in depending on their make-up. A failing sewage system urbanized and agricultural water catchment. would raise the conductivity because of the presence of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate; an oil spill would Phosphorus lower the conductivity. Both Phosphorus and Nitrogen are essential nutrients for the plants and animals that make up the aquatic food web. Since phosphorus is the nutrient in short supply in most fresh waters, even a modest increase in

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS phosphorus can, under the right conditions, set off a whole chain of undesirable events in a river/stream including accelerated plant growth, algae blooms, low dissolved oxygen, and the death of certain fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic animals. There are many sources of phosphorus, natural as well added by human. These include wastewater treatment plants (sewage) and runoff from agricultural land.

Forms of Phosphorus Phosphorus has a complicated story. In nature, phosphorus usually exists as part of a Phosphate molecule (PO43-). Phosphorus in aquatic systems occurs as organic Phosphate and inorganic Phosphate. Organic Phosphate consists of a Phosphate molecule associated with a Carbon-based molecule, as in plant or animal tissue. Phosphate that is not associated with organic material is inorganic. Inorganic Phosphorus is the form required by plants. Animals can use either organic or inorganic phosphate. Both organic and inorganic phosphorus can either be dissolved in the water or suspended (attached to particles in the water column). Phosphorus cycles through the environment, changing form as it does so. Aquatic plants take in dissolved inorganic Phosphorus and convert it to organic Phosphorus as it becomes part of their tissues. Animals get the organic phosphorus they need by eating either aquatic plants, other animals, or decomposing plant and animal material. As plants and animals excrete wastes or die, the organic phosphorus they contain sinks to the bottom, where bacterial decomposition converts it back to inorganic Phosphorus, both dissolved and attached to particles. This inorganic phosphorus gets back into the water column when the bottom is stirred up by animals, human activity, chemical interactions, or water currents. Then it is taken up by plants and the cycle begins again. In a stream system, the Phosphorus cycle tends to move Phosphorus downstream as the current carries decomposing plant and animal tissue and dissolved phosphorus. It becomes stationary only when it is taken up by plants or is bound to particles that settle to the bottom of rivers/streams.

a dramatic impact on streams. Less sensitive methods should be used only to identify serious problem areas. While there are many tests for Phosphorus, only four are likely to be performed by volunteer monitors. The total Orthophosphate test is largely a measure of Orthophosphate. Because the sample is not filtered, the procedure measures both dissolved and suspended Orthophosphate. The total Phosphorus test measures all the forms of phosphorus in the sample (Orthophosphate, condensed Phosphate, and organic Phosphate). In this Manuel we recommend testing Phosphorus with a quick-test; this gives quick and instant results that are fairly accurate and can measure even very low concentrations.

Nitrogen: Nitrate and Ammonia Nitrates are a form of nitrogen, which is found in several different forms in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These forms of nitrogen include Ammonia (NH3-), Nitrates (NO3-), and Nitrites (NO2-). Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but in excess amounts they can cause significant water quality problems. Together with Phosphorus, excess amounts of Nitrates can accelerate eutrophication, causing dramatic increases in aquatic plant growth and changes in the types of plants and animals that live in the stream. This, in turn, affects dissolved oxygen, temperature, and other indicators. The natural level of Ammonia or Nitrate in surface water is typically low (less than 1 mg/L); in the effluent of wastewater treatment plants, it can range up to 30 mg/L. Sources of Nitrates include wastewater treatment plants, runoff from fertilized lawns and cropland, failing on-site septic systems and runoff from animal manure storage areas.

Monitoring Phosphorus Monitoring Phosphorus is challenging because it involves measuring very low concentrations down to 0.01 milligram per liter (mg/L) or even lower. Even such very low concentrations of Phosphorus can have

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants — usually through their roots. However, most of the Ammonia produced by decay is converted into Nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps: • Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to Nitrites (NO2−). • Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the Nitrites to Nitrates (NO3−). Nitrate can be decomposed by other bacteria to N2 (nitrogen gas) in anaerobic circumstance (thus without oxygen), since the oxygen-levels in the fast flowing rivers of the Cameron Highlands are quite high, Nitrate will thus be accumulated in the river system.

Oily sheen on the water surface: multi-coloured reflection might indicate oil floating in the stream, although some sheens are natural. Water odour: can be a physical indicator of water pollution; no smell or a natural odour or strong smell of some kind. Visible sewage: might indicate the release of human waste material Litter or garbage in the stream: solid waste from urban use may also in clued (partly) empty pesticide bottles. Fungi on the stream bottom: grey or whitish underwater growing fungi indicate extremely polluted water, full with sewage. Algae on rocks and gravel: indicating nutrient enrichment of the water, green algae are better then Testing nitrate with the quick-test Nitrates from land sources end up in rivers and the slimy brown ones (indicating severe nutrient streams more quickly than other nutrients like enrichment). Phosphorus. This is because they dissolve in water more rapidly than Phosphates, which have an Water samples for laboratory analysis attraction for soil particles. As a result, Nitrates serve 1. Use bottles supplied by the laboratory; as a better indicator of the possibility of a source of 2. Follow their comments and guidelines for sewage or manure pollution during dry weather. sampling tidily; Water that is polluted with Nitrogen-rich organic 3. Label the bottle with the site number, date, matter might show low nitrates. Decomposition of and time; the organic matter lowers the dissolved oxygen level, 4. Remove the cap from the bottle just before which in turn slows the rate at which Ammonia is sampling. Avoid touching the inside of the +oxidized to Nitrite (NO2 ) and then to Nitrate bottle or the cap. If you accidentally touch (NO3-). Under such circumstances it is also necessary the inside of the bottle, use another one; to test for Ammonia (which is also considerably more 5. Try to disturb as little bottom sediment as toxic to aquatic life than Nitrate). We therefore in this possible. In any case, be careful not to Manuel suggest testing for both Nitrate and collect water that has sediment from Ammonia. bottom disturbance. Stand facing upstream. Collect the water sample on your upstream side, in front of you; General visible pollution 6. Hold the bottle near its base and plunge it Always fill out some general information on your (opening downward) below the water sampling location each time you visit it. Below you surface; will find a short list of items that you should review 7. Collect a water sample mid-way between ever time you sample on or more of the chemical the surface and the bottom; parameters: 8. Turn the bottle underwater into the Water colour: colourless, transparent or has it a current and away from you. In slowcolour (may be yellow or brown). moving stream reaches, push the bottle Foam on the surface: might be natural or due to underneath the surface and away from you pollution, generally detergents or nutrients. in an upstream direction; Water turbidity: cloudy brown due to suspended 9. Fill the bottle completely without air in it silt or organic material. a n d r e c a p t h e b o t t l e c a r e f u l l y, Water colour dark brown: might indicate that remembering not to touch the inside; acids are being released into the stream due to decaying plants.

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS Fill in the bottle number and/or site number on the appropriate field data sheet. This is important because it tells the lab coordinator, which bottle goes with which site. Place the samples in the cooler for transport to the laboratory. The sooner the samples are in the laboratory the better. The laboratory will inform you in prior of the maximum time after sampling;

BOD Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, measures the amount of oxygen consumed by micro-organisms in decomposing organic matter in stream water. BOD also measures the chemical oxidation of inorganic matter (i.e. the extraction of oxygen from water via chemical reaction). A test is used to measure the amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms during a specified period of time (usually 5 days at 20 C). The rate of oxygen consumption in a stream is affected by a number of variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain kinds of micro organisms, and the type of organic and inorganic material in the water. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved oxygen in rivers and streams. The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate and die. Sources of BOD include; animal manure; wastewater treatment plants; failing septic systems; and urban storm water runoff.

Sampling Considerations BOD is affected by the same factors that affect dissolved oxygen. Aeration of stream water by rapids and waterfalls, for example will accelerate the decomposition of organic and inorganic material. Therefore, BOD levels at a sampling site with slower, deeper waters might be higher for a given volume of organic and inorganic material than the levels for a similar site in highly aerated waters. BOD measurement requires taking two samples at each site. One is tested immediately for dissolved oxygen, and the second is incubated in the dark at 20 C for 5 days and then tested for the amount of dissolved oxygen remaining. The difference in oxygen levels between the first test and the second test, in milligrams per liter (mg/L), is the amount of BOD. This represents the amount of oxygen consumed by

micro organisms to break down the organic matter present in the sample bottle during the incubation period. Because of the 5-day incubation, the tests should be conducted in a laboratory.

Faecal Bacteria Members of two bacteria groups, coliforms and faecal streptococci are used as indicators of possible sewage contamination, because they are commonly found in human and animal faeces. Although they are generally not harmful themselves, they indicate the possible presence of pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria, viruses, and protozoon’s that also live in human and animal digestive systems. Therefore, their presence in streams suggests that pathogenic micro organisms might also be present and might be a health risk. Since it is difficult, time-consuming and expensive to test directly for the presence of a large variety of pathogens, water is usually tested for what is the considered the best indicator of them all: E.Coli instead. Sources of faecal contamination to surface waters include wastewater treatment plants (sewage) and runoff from agricultural land with animal manure. In addition to the possible health risk associated with the presence of elevated levels of faecal bacteria, they can also cause cloudy water, unpleasant odours, and an increased oxygen demand. Indicator bacteria types and what they can tell you The most commonly tested faecal bacteria indicators are total coliforms, faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli (= E.Coli), faecal streptococci, and enterococci. All but E. coli are composed of a number of species of bacteria that share common characteristics such as shape, habitat, or behaviour; E. coli is a single species in the faecal coliform group and it is the one that is most tested as an indicator of contamination with the whole group of pathogenic organisms. E. coli occurs in human faeces, but some can also be present in animal manure.

Sampling and equipment Bacteria can be difficult to sample and analyze, for many reasons. Natural bacteria levels in streams can vary significantly; bacteria conditions are strongly correlated with rainfall, and thus comparing wet and dry weather bacteria data can be a problem; many analytical methods have a low level of precision yet can be quite complex; and absolutely sterile conditions are required to collect and handle Page 29

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samples. It is critical when monitoring bacteria that all containers and surfaces with which the sample will come into contact be sterile. It is also possible to test the water on: • Heavy metals like Zinc, Lead and Mercury; • Pesticides; • Chemical Oxygen Demand or COD;

Sampling moment In dryer periods with a few days of dry weather the river runs with relatively stable water rates, within these periods riverbed erosion takes place delivering bonded compounds in the riverbed to the water stream (i.e. phosphates and pesticides). During rain or just after raining, the river is relatively unstable with rapidly increasing water rates with surface runoff of the surrounding land (with compounds bonded to the surface layers of i.e. agricultural land) being added to the water stream. The water stream will then be brown of silt and have a water rate which is up to 10 times the original water rate in dryer moments.

AWF at the Sg. Bertam near MARDI, Tanah Rata; this is very suitable for taking samples for chemical analysis or biological samples. Left: HWF at the same river; taking samples is now very dangerous because of the enormous increased water flow. The water current not only can sweep you away easily, but also changes in flow very quickly; the flow can increase 10 fold in less then 5 minutes. This also takes place when it is not raining on the place were you are standing, it can just as well be raining somewhere else in the catchment causing a rapid increase in water flow without warning. Always be very careful near the river and watch out when the water colour changes (this can indicate rain somewhere else in the catchment) or when the flow increases.

The period of time when it this has a high flow is called HWF or High Water Flow, the period with a stable ‘normal’ flow; AWF or Average Water Flow. The testing of chemical parameters according to this Manuel; will be carried out during the normal or AWF; since the river has most of the time this flow and thus that chemical quality. However during the programme one can chose for some measurement during HWF, to get results of much higher pollution.

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Getting the results on paper

Heavy siltation from farms on too steep slopes turns the rivers brown (above) after rain, and clocks the Ringlet Reservoir with sediment (left). This also kills (suffocate) most aquatic macro invertebrates in the stream.

The group of aquatic insects namely Mayflies, Metrics are used to do something with the biological Stoneflies and Caddisflies or Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera data you just collected. By using metrics you tell if and Trichoptera are also called EPT-taxa; they are very the water is polluted or not and in which degree. sensitive to pollution. They make it possible to classify the sampling locations/stations according to water pollution. In In this Manual we use the word ‘taxa’ which is in this this Manual we will use a few different metrics to case the same as Order. work with the data of your collected aquatic macro invertebrates. Of the many different metrics that can After you have washed, sieved and sorted the sample, be used to calculate water quality the following are dived the aquatic macro invertebrates according to we going to use: (1) Total Number of Taxa and the groups in the provided table and fill this in. You organism Density Per Sample (total abundance), (2) have to count the number of animals from each Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant Groups, group and fill then in. Then you have to multiply that (3) BMWP indice, (4) ASPT indice and the (5) to the special score for each family. After you have done that, you can dispose the macro invertebrates, Lincoln Quality Index). clean up and work with this data to make the following calculations:

Working with the results

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REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS CAMERON HIGHLANDS 1) Total Number of Taxa (TNT) and Formula: 100% x group number/total number = Organism Density Per Sample (ODPS) percentage group %. After you have made this The total number of all the animals in the sample calculation you have to show these results in a Pie and the total number of taxa (families) found in the Graph. Like the one below. Only animals from Class sample. The more different animals from different I (sensitive) and Class III (tolerant) are chosen in this families, the better. PAMAG, so you can display them in red (bad) for TNT: …… animals in the sample Class III and green (good) Class I. ODPS: ……. Different families (like: Gastropada, Chironimidae or Decapoda) For example: TNT: 176 ODPS: 10 176 animals in sample of which Ephemeroptera 3, Plecoptera 5, Trichoptera 12, Odonata 5, Decapoda 31, Coleoptera 4, Megaloptera 0, Hemiptera 0, Hirundinae 33, Gastropoda 65, Chironimidae 11 2) Percent Abundance of the Major Abundant Groups (PAMAG) For this Manual; 5 groups were made: EPT-taxa (Stonefly,- Mayfly,- and Caddisfly larvae), Decapoda (f res h w ater Crabs), Gastropoda (Snails), Chironimidae (Mosquito larvae) and Hirundinae (Leeches). You have to count all the animals of these groups and calculate the percentage of them in the sample. PAMAG: EPT:......... animals in sample Decapoda:......... animals in sample Gastropoda:......... animals in sample Chironimidae:......... animals in sample Hirundinae:......... animals in sample Total of these groups: ……… animals For example: PAMAG: EPT:...20...... animals in sample Decapoda:....31..... animals in sample Gastropoda:...65...... animals in sample Chironimidae:..11....... animals in sample Hirundinae:...33...... animals in sample Total of these groups: …160…… animals

3) BMWP indice BMWP means: Biological Monitoring Working Party and together with the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) Indices and the Lincoln Quality Index are biological measures to investigate and determine the river pollution. These three measure are the most reliable and most used ‘’biological indices’’ in the world. For this Manuel, they are speciality adapted for this The Cameron Highlands and for the project. In the BMWP aquatic macro invertebrates are divided in groups, according to their tolerance to pollution (pollution Classes I, II & III). Each group gets a score, the higher the score, the more sensitive the animals of that group are, the lower, the more tolerant they are. Scores range from 10 to 1 (10 = very sensitive, Class I and 1 = very tolerant Class III). Example of BMWP is given in the Example Worksheet further below.

100% x 11/160 = 6.9% Chironimidae Total of groups is 164 and Chironimidae is 67  100% x 67/164 = 40.8 % Chironimidae

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Procedure 5) Lincoln Quality Index • Sort the aquatic macro invertebrates present This index combines both BMWP and ASPT and into the groups listed in the BMWP table. gives a water quality index instead of a ‘’biological health’’ index like BMWP and ASPT. In this way the • Ticking off the groups present in the river can be categorised to its water quality in classes. Worksheet. Even if you have more than one Just like with the aquatic macro invertebrates itself. species for a particular group, you have to record that particular group only once. Formula: Lincoln Quality Index = (X + Y)/2 Sum all the scores for all groups ticked on the X = Rating BMWP record sheet to give the BMWP score Y = Rating ASPT You can find those X and Y numbers, by looking You can look up what you score means regarding to them up in the supplied table. In this table you need water quality in the supplied tables. In the example to compare the BMWP and ASPT score and read the water quality according to BMWP is GOOD. out the X and Y rating. These numbers are based on water characteristics and used for this kind of 4) ASPT indice research in water pollution. ASPT means: Average score per taxon and is calculated by dividing the score of the BMWP by the For example: BMWP score was 63, when looking it up in the number of families in the BMWP index. It has the table it says: X = 7 advantage that is more sensitive to show pollution The ASPT score was 6.3, when looking it upo in the table it and it is more reliable because it displays both says: Y = 7 diversity (the more diverse the better the water Then: 7 (Lincoln Quality Index) = (7 + 7)/2 quality) and abundance (the amount of animals in the sample; many of one kind is bad). You can look up what you score means regarding to water quality in the supplied tables. In the example Formula: ASPT = BMWP score/total families the water quality according to the Lincoln Quality Index is A++ or very good. You can look up what you score means regarding to water quality in the supplied tables. In the example the water quality according to ASPT is CLEAN. •

For example (see Example Worksheet further below): 6.3 (ASPT) = 63 (BMWP score) / 10 (families)

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Monitoring and presentation EC and TDS Bertam river (AWF) 70 60 50 40

EC µS/cm

30

TDS mg/l

20 10 0 SP 1

SP 2

SP 3

SP 4

Sample points Line graph with Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) of fictive sample points SP 1, SP2, SP3, SP4 to the measured values in µS/cm and mg/l. Because these sample points are in line (going from upstream SP1 to downstream SP4) the increase in both values indicating human disturbance (i.e. sewage with high EC/TDS) is clearly visible.

Monitoring and data reproduction The program coordinator should have a clear plan for dealing with the data collected each year. Field and lab data sheets should be checked for completeness, data should be screened for outliers, and a database should be developed or adapted to store and manipulate the data. The elements of such a database should be clearly explained in order to allow users to interpret the data accurately and with confidence. The program coordinator has also to decide how to present data results, not only to the general public and to specific data users, but also to the volunteers themselves. It is hard to overemphasize the importance of having established methods of handling volunteer data, analyzing that data, and presenting results effectively to volunteers, the public, and water resource decision-makers. Without these tools and processes, the data that volunteers and program managers have laboured hard to collect are virtually useless.

The program will then surely fail to meet its goals. The volunteer program coordinator or designated analyst should screen and review the field data sheets as they are received. This involves some basic "reality checks." Once volunteer monitoring data has been entered into a database, the next step is to generate reports on the findings of the data. Today's computer software includes a variety of spreadsheet and database packages that allow to sort, manipulate and perform statistical analyses on the data entered into the computer. For most applications, spreadsheets are adequate and have the advantage of being relatively simple to use. We strongly recommend using Microsoft Excel for data storage and manipulation.

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Data presentation

Most used graphs are: Bar Graph • A bar graph uses columns with heights that represent the value of the data point for the parameter being plotted; Pie Chart • Pie charts are used to compare categories within the data set to the whole. The proportion of each category is represented by the size of the wedge. Pie charts are popular due to their simplicity and clarity; Line Graph • A line graph is constructed by connecting the data points with a line. It can be effectively used for depicting changes over time or space. This type of graph places more emphasis on trends and the relationship among data points and less emphasis on any particular data point.

When presenting numerical data, one of your chief goals should be to maintain the attention and interest of your audience. This is very difficult using tables filled with numbers. Most people will not be interested in the absolute values of each parameter at each sampling site. They will want to know the bottom line for each site (e.g., is it good or bad) and seasonal and year to year trends. Graphs and charts, therefore, are typically the best way to present volunteer data. Take care, however, that your graphs "fit" your audience and are not too technical and not too simple. An effective way to display your data is on a map of the stream or watershed. This clearly illustrates the relationship between land uses and the quality of water, habitat, and biological communities. This type of graphic display can be used to effectively show the correlation between specific activities or land uses and the impacts they have on the Regardless of which graphic style is chosen, follow ecosystem. the next rules to ensure that they are used most effectively: Working with the chemical data • Each graph should have a clear purpose. The Working with the data for the chemical part involves graph should be easy to interpret and should insert the data in a database. For the database the relate directly to the content of the text of a common program Excel is the most suitable. The document or the script of a presentation; trends in the collected data can be shown best in a • The data points on a graph should be line graph; this can also be done in Excel. Using a proportional to the actual values so as not to line graph makes it is easier to recognize increases distort the meaning of the graph. Labelling and decreases over a longer period. Make sure that should be clear and accurate and the data the database is updated frequently to prevent loss of values should be easily interpreted from the information. Two people should be involved in scales. Do not overcrowd the points or values processing the data. along the axes. If there is a possibility of misinterpretation, accompany the graph with a table of the data; Graphs and Charts • Keep it simple. The more complex the graph, Graphs can be used to display the summarized results the greater the possibility for of large data sets and to simplify complicated issues misinterpretation; and findings. The three basic types of graphs that are • Limit the number of elements. Pie charts typically used to present monitoring data are: should be limited to five or six wedges, the • Bar graph; bars in a bar graph should fit easily, and the • Pie chart; lines in a line graph should be limited to three • Line graph. or less; Bar graphs are typically used to show results, such as • Consider the proportions of the graph and Aquatic macro invertebrate assessment scores, along expand the elements to fill the dimensions, a vertical or y-axis for a corresponding variable (such thereby creating a balanced effect. Often, a as sampling date or site) which is marked along the horizontal format is more visually appealing horizontal or x-axis. These types of graphs can also and makes labelling easier; have two vertical axes, one on each side, with two sets • Create titles that are simple, yet adequately of results shown in relation to each other and to the describe the information portrayed in the variable along the x-axis. graph;

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Use a legend if one is necessary to describe the categories within the graph; Accompanying captions may also be needed to provide an adequate description of the elements.

Producing Reports On a regular basis, a successful monitoring program should produce reports that summarize key findings to volunteers, data users and the general public, including the media. Depending on the user; different reports are necessary, for example: Professional Report In a report designed for water quality or planning professionals, you should go into detail about: • The purpose of the study; • Who conducted it; • How it was funded; • The used methods; • The quality control measures taken; • Your interpretation of the results; • Your conclusions and recommendations; • Further questions that have arisen as a result of the study; • Graphics, tables and maps may be fairly sophisticated. Be sure to include the raw data in an appendix and note any problems encountered.

Both types of reports should acknowledge the volunteers and the sources of funding.

Publishing of the Report Develop a strategy for distributing and publicizing your report before it is completed. Be sure the REACH committee is confident about the data and comfortable with the statements and conclusions that have been included in the document. Some ideas for distributing the results and informing the public include the following: • Mailing of the report via de REACH member-list or on the website; • Presentations with i.e. PowerPoint on schools, Heritage Hotel or REACH- office; • News releases in the press; • News conferences with diverse press or interested; • Leaflets on the findings, highlighting the study outcome and creating awareness as well as funding; • Exhibitions in schools or public buildings.

Data credibility Credible data meet specific needs and can be used with confidence for those needs. Steps to ensure this include: Properly training, testing, and retraining volunteers; • Evaluating the program's success after an initial pilot stage and making any necessary adjustments; • Assigning specific quality assurance tasks to Lay out of reports qualified individuals in the program; A report for the general public should be short and • Documenting in a written plan all the steps taken to direct. It is very important to write in a non-technical sample, analyze, store, manage and present data; style and to include definitions for terms and concepts that may be unfamiliar to the lay person. Simple charts, summary tables and maps with accompanying explanations can be very useful. This type of report should include a brief description of the program, the purpose of the monitoring, an explanation of the parameters that were monitored, the location of sample sites, a summary of the results and any recommendations that may have been made.

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Glossary Accuracy - a measure of how close repeated trials are to the desired target. Acidity - a measure of the number of free hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that can chemically react with other substances. Benthic - pertaining to the bottom (bed) of a water body. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - the amount of oxygen consumed by micro organisms as they decompose organic materials in water. Biological criteria - numerical values or narrative descriptions that depict the biological integrity of aquatic communities in that state. May be listed in state water quality standards. Community - the whole of the plant and animal population inhabiting a given area. Dissolved oxygen (DO) - oxygen dissolved in water and available for living organisms to use for respiration. Eutrophication - the natural and artificial addition of nutrients to a water body, which may lead to depleted oxygen concentrations. Eutrophication is a natural process that is frequently accelerated and intensified by human activities. Kick net - a fine mesh net used to collect organisms. Kick nets vary in size, but generally are about three feet long and are attached to two wooden poles at each end. Land uses - activities that take place on the land, such as construction, farming, or tree clearing. Macro invertebrate - organisms that lack a backbone and can be seen with the naked eye. pH - a numerical measure of the hydrogen ion concentration used to indicate the alkalinity or acidity of a substance. Measured on a scale of 1.0 (acidic) to 14.0 (basic); 7.0 is neutral. Phosphorus - a nutrient that is essential for plants and animals. Pipet - an eyedropper-like instrument that can measure very small amounts of a liquid. Pool - deeper portion of a stream where water flows slower than in neighbouring, shallower portions.

Protocol - defined procedure. Riffle - shallow area in a stream where water flows swiftly over gravel and rock. Riparian - of or pertaining to the banks of a body of water. Riparian zone - the vegetative area on each bank of a body of water. Submergent plants - plants that live and grow fully submerged under the water. Substrate - refers to a surface. This includes the material comprising the stream bed or the surfaces to which plants or animals may attach or live upon. Taxon (plural taxa) - a level of classification within a scientific system that categorizes living organisms based on their physical characteristics. Taxonomic key - a quick reference guide used to identify organisms. They are available in varying degrees of complexity and detail. Tolerance - the ability to withstand a particular condition, e.g., pollution-tolerant indicat es the ability to live in polluted waters. Tributaries - a body of water that drains into another, typically larger, body of water. Turbidity - murkiness or cloudiness of water, indicating the presence of some suspended sediments, dissolved solids, natural or manmade chemicals, algae, etc. Water quality criteria - maximum concentrations of pollutants that are acceptable. The criteria for water quality are listed in the Water Quality Standards. Water quality standards - written goals for water quality Water catchment - the area of land drained by a particular river or stream system.

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Literature & References This Manual is based on 3 existing programmes for river water quality monitoring, and is derived from them, adapted to the local circumstances for the Cameron Highlands and for the needs of R.E.A.C.H. The methodology like that of the BMWP is adapted and changed in a form suitable for these purposes. Kanjanavanit, Oy, Moonchinda, Niromon , 2002, Handbook for Stream detectives The Green World Foundation Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 1997, Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual, EPA Adopt-A-Stream Foundation, www.streamkeeper.org, 2005, monitoring programmes Consulted Literature & Reports: A study on pollution prevention and water quality improvement program of rivers in Cameron Highlands, National Seminar, March 2005, HANDOUTS, Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting Engineers Abdullah, Shahrizaila, 2003, Country Dialogue on Water, Food and Environment, concept and Process – A Malaysian Experience Cameron Highlands Structure Plan 1998-2010, Majlis Daerah Cameron Highlands Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, 1997, Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual, EPA Genet, J, Chirhart, J, 2004, Development of a Macro invertebrate Index of Biological Integrity (MIBI) for Rivers and Streams of the Upper Mississippi River Basin, Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Biological Monitoring Program Hashim, G.M., Wan Yusoff, W.A., 2003, Environmental Issues In Highlands Agriculture, M a l a y s i a n A g r i c u l t u r a l Re s e a r c h a n d Development Institute (MARDI) Ibrahim I, Ir, National Seminar, March 2005, H A N D O U T Wa t e r q u a l i t y m o d e l l i n g, Government of Malaysia, Adroit Consulting

Engineers

Kanjanavanit, Oy, Moonchinda, Niromon , 2002, Handbook for Stream detectives The Green World Foundation Kumaran, S, Ainuddin, A. N., 2004, Forests, Water and Climate of Cameron Highlands, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Kumaran, S, The Highland ecosystems: The urgency for conservation and protection, WWF Malaysia Mohd. Long, S, Abang, F, Rahim, K.A, 2002, The macro invertebrate community of the fast flowing rivers in the Crocker Range National Park Sabah, Malaysia, ASEAN Review of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (ARBEC) Salam, M, N, A, Tang, J, Aquatic biota studies in the Selangor river basin, WWF Malaysia WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study for the Sustainable Development of the Highlands of Peninsular Malaysia, Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department WWF Malaysia, 2001, Study on the Development of Hill,, Economic Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department WWF Malaysia, 2003, Water for Life presentation Internet sources: www.reach.org.my 10/05/05 http://www.reach.org.my/index.php? option=content&task=category§ionid=17&id=31 &Itemid=55 www.greenworld.org.th 21/03/05 http://www.greenworld.or.th/2_gwf.htm www.environmentagency.gov.uk 18/03/55 http://www.environmentagency.gov.uk/yourenv/eff/ wildlife/inverts/fresh_inverts/545851/545897/ lang=_e&theme=®ion=&subject=&searchfor=water +qualitty..html www.streamkeeper.org 19/03/05 http://www.streamkeeper.org/education/index.htm Page 39

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Attachments Water quality classification based on BMWP Biotic Index, ASPT and Lincoln Quality Index (adapted) biological indice

BMWP

ASPT

score > 66 49 - 65 33 – 49 17 – 33 0 - 16 0 – 2.9 – 4.9 5.0 – 5.9 6.0 – 7.9 8.0 – 10.0

6+ 5.5 5 4.5 4 Lincoln Quality Index 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1

Water Quality Very good Good Moderately good Bad Very bad Very polluted Polluted Moderately polluted Moderately clean Clean Very clean A++ Very good A+ Very good A Very good B Good C Good D Moderately polluted E Moderately polluted F Polluted G Polluted H Very polluted I Very polluted

Rating Standards based on BMWP and ASPT (adapted) The numbers given in the tables are adapted and calculated for this Manual. BMWP Score 60 + 50 – 59 40 – 49 30 – 39 20 – 29 10 – 19 0–9 ASPT 6.0 + 5.5 – 5.9 5.1 – 5.4 4.6 – 5.0 3.6 – 4.5 2.6 – 3.5 0 – 2.5

X Rating 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Y Rating 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Simplified Identification Key (Based on and pictures taken from “Save our streams monitor’s Guide to macro invertebrates”, by Loren Larkin Kellogg, ( Izaak Walton League of America 1992 ))

1. The aquatic macro invertebrate has segmented (jointed) legs ----------------go to-> 2 The aquatic macro invertebrate does not have segmented legs -------------go to->10 2. The aquatic macro invertebrate has more than six legs -------------------------go to-> 11 The aquatic macro invertebrate has six legs ---------------------------------------go to-> 3 3. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body longer than it is wide ------------go to-> 4 4. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no tail or one tail consisting of a single long filament ----------go to-> 5 The aquatic macro invertebrate has two or three tails that are either hairlike or broad (like oars) -------------go to->8 5. The aquatic macro invertebrate has an abdomen that is soft, not plated -----go to-> 6 The aquatic macro invertebrate has an abdomen that is hard plated ----------go to->7 6. The aquatic macro invertebrate has pairs of filaments that extend from the abdomen ----------go to-> 9 The aquatic macro invertebrate has no filaments extending from the sides of the abdomen

------------------------> Caddisfly (Trichoptera) [Very sensitive] 7. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a wide abdomen and large eyes

------------------> Dragonfly (Odonata) [Somewhat sensitive]

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The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body that is hard and stiff, its tail may have tiny hooks and filaments extending

--------> Riffle Beetle (Coleoptera: Elmidae) [Somewhat sensitive] 8. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no gills on the abdomen -----------------go to->9 The aquatic macro invertebrate has gills on the side of its abdomen

-------------------------------> Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) [Very sensitive] 9. The aquatic macro invertebrate has three broad tails

------------------> Damselfly (Odonata) [Somewhat sensitive]

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The aquatic macro invertebrate has two hairlike tails

--------------------------> Stonefly (Plecoptera) [Very sensitive] 10. The aquatic macro invertebrate does not have a distinct head ---------------go to->11 The aquatic macro invertebrate has a distinct head -----------------------------go to->14 11. The aquatic macro invertebrate has no legs or leg-like appendages ----------go to->12 The aquatic macro invertebrate has legs or leg-like appendages and it does not have a head

----------------------------------> Watersnipe Fly [Somewhat sensitive] 12. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body with hard shell(s) ---------------go to->13 The aquatic macro invertebrate has a body with no hard shell ---------------go to->15

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13. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a shell

--------------------> Lunged Snail (Mollusca: Gastropoda) [Not sensitive/Tolerant] 14. The aquatic macro invertebrate has one or more tiny leg-like appendages and has a body that widens at the back end

---------> Blackfly Larva (Diptera: Simuliidae) [Very sensitive]

The aquatic macro invertebrate is the same width at both ends of the body

------> Midgefly (Diptera: Chironimidae) [Not sensitive/Tolerant] 15. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a segmented body ------------------------go to->16

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16. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a soft, plump, caterpillar-like body

-------------------> Cranefly (Diptera: Tipulidae) [Somewhat sensitive] The aquatic macro invertebrate has a worm-like body ----------------------go to->17 17. The aquatic macro invertebrate has a long, segmented worm-like or thread-like body

-------> Aquatic Worm (Oligochaeta: Tubificidae) [Not sensitive/Tolerant] The aquatic macro invertebrate has a segmented body with suckers at each end

-----------------------------> Leech (Hirudinea) [Not sensitive/Tolerant]

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