Management Accounting
This document was uploaded by user and they confirmed that they have the permission to share it. If you are author or own the copyright of this book, please report to us by using this DMCA report form. Report DMCA
Overview
Download & View Management Accounting as PDF for free.
More details
- Words: 6,717
- Pages: 36
A REPORT ON COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT IN PRODUCTION ON NET OPERATING INCOME DUE TO USE OF VARIABLE AND ABSORPTION COSTING: A CASE STUDY ON SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD.
PATUAKHALI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY Group-1 (Warrior)
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EFFECTS IN PRODUCTION ON NET OPERATING INCOME DUE TO USE OF VARIABLE AND ABSORPTION COSTING: A CASE STUDY ON SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD.
Prepared For: M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer Department of Accounting and Information System Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Prepared By: Group: 01(Warrior) Level- 3, Semester- II Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Sl. No.
Name of the students
Position
Roll No.
Reg. No.
01
Md. Kamruzzaman
Group Leader
01
00660
02
Shuvradeb Barai
Asst. Group leader
09
00668
03
Abu Zafour
Member
21
00680
04
Sahana Parveen
Member
07
00666
05
Nazmul Alam Siddiqui
Member
25
00565
Management Accounting Course Code: AIS 325
Date of Submission: November 22, 2008 PATUAKHALI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY Group-1 (Warrior)
Date: November 22, 2008
To M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer Department of Accounting and Information System Faculty of Business Administration and Management Subject: Letter of Transmittal
Dear Sir, Here is the report on “Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’ you asked us to prepare this report as a course requirement of Management Accounting. This report focuses on the Management Accounting. We are proud of making this report. We have tried our level best to make the report informative and fruitful. For any classification we will be available and looking for such term paper in coming days. We will be happy to get such type of report further.
Sincerely Yours
Md. Kamruzzaman (Group Leader) Group: 01(Warrior) Level-3, Semester-2 Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Group-1 (Warrior)
A
cknowledgment
At first we desire to express our deepest sense of gratitude of almighty Allah. With profound regard we gratefully acknowledge our respected course teacher M. Takibur Rahman, Lecturer, Department of Accounting and Information System, Faculty of Business Administration and Management for his generous help and day to day suggestion during the survey. We like to give thanks especially to our friends & many individuals, for their enthusiastic encouragements and helps during the preparation of this report and for their assistance in typing and proofreading this manuscript.
Table of Contents Group-1 (Warrior)
Introduction ► Introduction
01
► Origin of the report
02
► Purpose of the report
02
► Limitations and scope of the report
03
► Methodology of the Report
04
Overview of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited ► Overview of Square group
05
► Corporate information
06
► About Square Pharmaceuticals Limited
07
► Mission, Vision and Objectives
08
►Square quality policy
08
►Chronology since inception
09
Description ► Overview of variable costing and absorption costing ► Cost classifications ► Comparison between variable costing and absorption costing
10 11
► The matching principles
12 13
► Advantages of variable costing
14
► Impact of JIT ► Format under differences under two methods
17 18
► Rules regarding absorption costing versus variable costing
20
Problems and Suggesting Actions ► Analysis of absorption costing and variable costing ► Summary result at a glance ► Overall comments Conclusions References
Group-1 (Warrior)
21 28 29 30 31
E
xecutive Summary
This report is an assigned job as a partial fulfillment of course requirement by honorable Course teacher M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer, Department of Accounting & Information System, Faculty of Business Administration and Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University. It is the optimum aggregated outcome of 5 pupils’ about “Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. The view of this report is to find out the effects of variable and absorption costing in production on the net operating in come of a company (Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.). Now its make a great position in the market of Bangladesh. Variable costing and absorption costing are significant elements of a company for the determination of the cost of production, it is also important to know ‘what are the effects of variable and absorption costing on the net operating income of a company.
Group-1 (Warrior)
i
ntroduction
Management accounting is undergoing a renaissance in response to technological changes, globalization, growing risk management concerns. In these challenging times management accountants help ‘steady of the sleep’ by acting as their organizations interprets, sage advisors, and ethical keepers of the numbers. Management accountants are qualified to help their fellow managers achieve good business results because they have earned an advanced certification that addresses all important aspects of accounting inside organizations. For the internal decision making of a company variable costing method is too much significant. Another costing method is absorption costing; this costing method is known as full costing method. This costing method is used for external purpose. It is logical that producing more units would have no impact on profits unless the units are sold. As we will discover in this report, absorption costing—the most widely used method of determining products costs—can artificially increase profits by increasing the quantity of units produced.
Origin of the report We are lucky to say that our honorable course teacher M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer, Department of Accounting and Information System, of Faculty of Group-1 (Warrior)
Business Administration and Management. Assigned us a report on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. This report is prepared on the basis of surveying the Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
Purpose of the Report As a business expectative of future, we should have to gather experience beside our survey. We should not concern our lesion only in classroom but to implement it in practical life that will help us in our future life .A clear objective help in preparation of well decorated report in which other take the right type of decision .So, we identifying objectives is very much important. Our purpose of preparing this report is: To know about the absorption costing and variable costing To explain the difference between absorption (full) costing and variable costing. To prepare an income statement using variable costing and absorption (full) costing. To discuss the effect in production on net operating income due to use of absorption (full) costing and variable costing. To explain the impact of JIT (just-in-time) on the difference between full and variable costing income. To discuss the benefits of variable costing for internal reporting purposes. To discuss the benefits of variable costing for internal reporting purposes. To understand the advantages and disadvantages of both variable and absorption costing.
L
imitations & Scope of the Report
Group-1 (Warrior)
As a student of faculty of Business Administration and Management, 6th semester, this is our initiative for making a report on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’ by meeting a survey. Beside this we have faced the following hindrances in preparing this report: ► Lack of knowledge and experience ► Short of time ► Lack of computer facilities ► Lack of sufficient privileges ► Lack of communication facilities The survey report focuses on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. The survey may not be more comparable or more valid. Moreover, the report is emphasized on the primary data such as interview of the manager of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited, as well as secondary data such as annual report of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
M
ethodology of the Report
Group-1 (Warrior)
This report is based on both primary and secondary data. Initially, the work is started with data those were available at Company’s Annual Report and company’s news letter. Moreover, it becomes helpful to gather some more information from the website of the company. Later on, the work progressed through some depth interviews of good range professionals trying to heat some expected area of the study. After that, an effective questionnaire is designed to collect likely data from the target group of people. Then we analyze those data from many angles, in different aspect and present the information in different segment according to their category, in compact way. We highlight different important things, which we found during our survey. After doing all of those we submit the report to the proper authority.
OVERVIEW OF SQUARE GROUP Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd is the flagship company of Square Group. In stark contrast to its present stature, Square had a rather humble beginning. In 1958, the Company started out as a small scale pharmaceutical venture at Pabna, a small Group-1 (Warrior)
town in Northern Bangladesh. It was a partnership effort of four young and enterprising men under the leadership of the Chairman, Mr. Samson H Chowdhury, whose determination and passion saw it through the turmoil of the early days. In 1964, the Company was turned into a Private Limited Company. After the independence of Bangladesh, 1975 was quite a significant year for Square as it established a technical collaboration with Janssen Pharmaceuticals of Belgium; a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson, USA. In its relentless quest for higher technology, Square signed a technological collaboration agreement with F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. Ltd in 1982. 1985 was another historical year for Square as the Company gained the market leadership for the first time in Bangladesh pharmaceuticals market and since then it has been maintaining its position as the leading pharmaceutical Company of the country. In 1987, Square became the first Bangladeshi company to export its product abroad. The Company stepped into a new era when it was transformed into a Public Limited Company in 1991 and subsequently it was publicly listed at both the stock exchanges in the year 1995. Square Pharmaceutical Ltd has been successfully retaining its market leader position in Bangladesh for the last consecutive 22 years and its current market share is approximately 16%.
CORPORATE INFORMATION Corporate Focus:Our vision, our mission and our objectives are to emphasize on the quality of product, process and services leading to growth of the company imbibed with good governance. Corporate Governance:Group-1 (Warrior)
Top Management: Board of Directors As per provisions of the Article of Association, Board of Directors holds periodic meetings to resolve issue of policies and strategies, recording minutes/decisions for implementation by the Executive Management. Executive Management The Executive Management is headed by the Managing Director, the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) who has been delegated necessary and adequate authority by the Board of Directors. The Executive Management operates through further delegations of authority at every echelon of the line management. The Executive Management is responsible for preparation of segment plans/subsegment plans for every profit centers with budgetary targets for every item of goods & services and are held accountable for deficiencies with appreciation for exceptional performance. These operations are carried out by the Executive Management through series of committees, sub-committees, ad-hock committees, standing committees assisting the line management.
ABOUT SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LIMITED SQUARE today symbolizes a name – a state of mind. But its journey to the growth and prosperity has been no bed of roses. From the inception in 1958, it has today burgeoned into one of the top line conglomerates in Bangladesh. Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd., the flagship company, is holding the strong leadership position in the pharmaceutical industry of Bangladesh since 1985 and is now on its way to becoming a high performance global player.
Group-1 (Warrior)
SQUARE Pharmaceuticals Limited is the largest pharmaceutical company in Bangladesh and it has been continuously in the 1st position among all national and multinational companies since 1985. It was established in 1958 and converted into a public limited company in 1991. The sales turnover of SPL was more than Taka 7.5 Billion (US$ 107.91 million) with about 16.92% market share (April 2006– March 2007) having a growth rate of about 23.17%. SQUARE Pharmaceuticals Limited has extended her range of services towards the highway of global market. She pioneered exports of medicines from Bangladesh in 1987 and has been exporting antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products. This extension in business and services has manifested the credibility of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
VISION, MISSION, AND OBJECTIVES
We view business as a means to the material and social wellbeing of the investors, employees and the society at large, leading to accretion of wealth through financial and moral gains as a part of the process of the human civilization.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Our Mission is to produce and provide quality & innovative healthcare relief for people, maintain stringently ethical standard in business operation also ensuring benefit to the shareholders, stakeholders and the society at large.
Our objectives are to conduct transparent business operation based on market mechanism within the legal & social frame work with aims to attain the mission reflected by our vision.
SQUARE's Quality Policy SQUARE is committed to ensure better life through quality medicine. Ensure strict compliance with WHO standards and local regulatory norms in every phase of sourcing & procuring quality materials, manufacturing, quality assurance and delivery of medicines. Ensure all activities through documented Quality Management System (QMS) complying International Standard requirements of ISO 9001 through continuously developing Human Resources by regular training and participation. SQUARE is committed to undertake appropriate review, evaluation and performance measurement of processes, business activities and Quality Management System for continual improvement to ensure highest standard, customer satisfaction, developing human resources and company's growth.
CHRONOLOGY SINCE INCEPTION 1958 :
Debut of Square Pharma as a Partnership Firm.
1964 :
Converted into a Private Limited Company.
1974 :
Technical Collaboration with Janssen Pharmaceutica, Belgium, a subsidiary of Johnson and Johnson International, USA.
1982 :
Licensing Agreement signed with F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Switzerland.
Group-1 (Warrior)
1985 :
Achieved first position in the Pharmaceutical Market of Bangladesh among all national and multinational companies.
1987 :
Pioneer in pharmaceutical export from Bangladesh.
1991 :
Converted in to a Public Limited Company
1994 :
Initial Public Offering of Square Pharmaceutical Shares.
1995 :
Chemical Division of Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd. starts production of pharmaceutical bulk products (API).
1997 :
Won the National Export trophy for exporting pharmaceuticals.
1998 :
Agro-chemicals & Veterinary Products Division of Square Pharma starts its operation.
2001 :
US FDA/UK MCA standard new Pharmaceutical factory goes into operation built under the supervision of Bovis Lend Lease, UK.
2004 :
Signing of agreement with ROVIPHARM, Vietnam to manufacture and market SQUARE products under license in Vietnam. Secured the top position for the best published accounts and report for 2003 in the manufacturing category for transparency and excellence in corporate reporting.
2005 :
New State-of- the-Art Square Cephlosporins Ltd. goes into operation; built under the supervision of TELSTAR S.A. of Spain as per US FDA/ UK MHRA requirements.
2007 :
Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Dhaka Unit gets the UK MHRA approval.
Overview of Variable and Absorption Costing At least two methods can be used in manufacturing companies to value units of product for accounting purposes— absorption costing and variable costing. These methods differ only in how they treat fixed manufacturing overhead costs. Variable Costing Variable costing includes only variable production costs in product costs. Direct materials, direct labor and variable manufacturing overhead costs would ordinarily be included in product costs under variable costing. Fixed manufacturing overhead is not treated as a product cost under this method. Rather, fixed manufacturing Group-1 (Warrior)
overhead is treated as a period cost and is charged against income each period. This costing system is used for the internal purpose. So, variable costing considered the following— Under variable costing, no fixed overhead is assigned to inventory Fixed overhead is a period expense which enters the income statement as a line item every period regardless of the number of units sold Variable costing excludes fixed manufacturing overhead from inventoriable costs. Absorption Costing Absorption costing treats all production costs as product costs, regardless of whether they are variable or fixed. Under absorption costing, a portion of fixed manufacturing overhead is allocated to each unit of product. Absorption costing is treated as full cost and this costing system is used for the external purpose. So, variable costing considered the following— Under absorption costing, fixed overhead is assigned to units of inventory and shows up in the income statement as part of the cost of goods sold (COGS) when the units are sold When units are produced and not sold, fixed overhead stays in finished goods inventory Absorption costing includes fixed manufacturing overhead in inventoriable costs.
Cost Classifications Cost Classifications—Absorption costing versus Variable Costing Under absorption costing and variable costing, cost can be classified into two ways, 1. Product cost, and 2. Period cost The cost categories under this two cost classification in case of absorption costing and variable costing are shown in the following figure—
Group-1 (Warrior)
Figure: Cost classifications From the above figure we see that under absorption costing method, all manufacturing costs, variable and fixed, are included when determining the unit product cost. Direct materials, direct labor, variable manufacturing overhead, fixed manufacturing overhead costs are included for determining the product costs under absorption costing, and variable selling and administrative expenses and fixed selling and administration expenses are included for determining the period costs. Under the variable costing method, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in product costs and fixed manufacturing overhead, variable and fixed selling and administrative expenses are included for determining the period costs.
Comparison between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing When comparing absorption costing and variable costing income statements, a number of points should be noted: 1. Deferral of fixed manufacturing costs under absorption costing Under absorption costing, if inventories increase then a portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs of the current period is deferred to future periods in the inventory account. When the units are later taken out of inventory and sold, the deferred fixed costs flow through to the income statement as part of cost of goods sold. 2. Differences in inventories under the two methods Group-1 (Warrior)
The ending inventory figures under the variable costing and absorption costing methods are different. Under variable costing, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in inventory. Under absorption costing, both variable and fixed manufacturing costs are included in inventory. 3. Suitability for CVP analysis An absorption costing income statement is not well suited for providing data for CVP computations since it makes no distinction between fixed and variable costs. In contrast, the variable costing method classifies costs by behavior and is very useful in setting-up CVP computations.
Extended Comparison of Income Data The comparative income statement’s effects under the variable costing and absorption costing are as follows— 1. Production equals sales (no change in inventories) When production equals sales, inventories do not change. If inventories do not change, then there is no change in the fixed manufacturing overhead costs in inventories under absorption costing. Therefore, under both costing methods all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead will flow through to the income statement as an expense. In the case of absorption costing it will be part of cost of goods sold. In the case of variable costing, it will be a period expense. 2. Production exceeds sales (inventories increase) When production exceeds sales, inventories grow. If inventories grow, then some of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs will be deferred in inventories under absorption costing. Since all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs are expensed under variable costing, the net operating income reported under absorption costing will be greater than the net operating income reported under variable costing. 3. Sales exceed production (inventories decrease) When sales exceed production, inventories shrink. If inventories decrease, then some of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs that had been deferred in inventories in previous periods will be released to the income statement as part of cost of goods sold as well as all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs. Since only the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs are expensed under variable costing, the net operating income reported under absorption Group-1 (Warrior)
costing will be less than the net operating income reported under variable costing. Relation Between Production Effects on Relation Between Absorption and and Sales for the Period Inventories Variable Costing Net Operating Income
Production = Sales
No change
Production > Sales
Increase
Production < Sales
Decrease
Absorption costing NOI = Variable costing NOI Absorption costing NOI > Variable costing NOI Absorption costing NOI < Variable costing NOI
Figure: Comparative income effects— Absorption Costing and Variable Costing 4. Long-term differences in income Over an extended period of time, the cumulative net operating income figures reported under absorption costing and variable costing will be about the same; they will differ only by the amount of fixed manufacturing overhead cost in ending inventories under absorption costing. Cumulative net operating income figures will be identical whenever ending inventories are reduced to zero.
5. Changes in production volume Variable costing net operating income is not affected by changes in production volume. On the other hand, absorption costing net operating income is affected by changes in production volume. For any given level of sales, net operating income under absorption costing will increase as the level of output increases and hence inventories increase.
The Matching Principles Accountants and managers have been arguing for decades concerning the relative merits of absorption and variable costing. In practice, absorption costing is used far more than variable costing even for internal reports. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, although the perception that absorption costing is required for external reporting undoubtedly plays a key role. The argument for using absorption costing in external reports seems to be based on the matching principle. Group-1 (Warrior)
1. Argument for absorption costing Advocates of absorption costing argue that all manufacturing costs must be assigned to units of product so as to properly match costs with revenues. They argue that fixed manufacturing overhead costs are essential to the production process and must be included when costing units of product, regardless of how the cost behaves. 2. Argument for variable costing Advocates of variable costing argue that fixed manufacturing overhead costs are incurred in order to have the capacity to produce. Moreover, they will be incurred regardless of whether anything is actually produced. Since these costs are not caused by any particular unit of product and are incurred to provide capacity for a particular period, the matching principle would dictate that fixed manufacturing overhead costs must be expensed in the current period.
Advantages of Variable Costing and the Contribution Approach There are a number of advantages to using variable costing (and the contribution approach) in internal reports and analysis. 1. More useful for CVP analysis Variable costing statements provide data that are immediately useful for CVP analysis since they categorize costs on the basis of their behavior. In contrast, it is often difficult to rework absorption costing data so that they can be used in CVP analysis and in decisions. 2. Income is not affected by changes in production volume Under absorption costing, reported net operating income is affected by changes in production since fixed costs are spread across more or fewer units. This can distort income and may even result in income moving in an opposite direction from sales. This does not occur under variable costing. Group-1 (Warrior)
3. Avoids misunderstandings concerning unit product costs Absorption costing unit product costs can be easily misinterpreted as variable costs since they are stated on a per unit basis. Such a misperception can lead to serious errors in making decisions. Variable costing avoids this problem since unit costs include only variable costs. 4. Fixed costs are more visible The impact of fixed costs on profits is emphasized because the total amount of such costs for the period appears separately and is highlighted in the income statement rather than being buried in cost of goods sold and ending inventory. 5. Understandability Managers should find it easier to understand variable costing reports because data are organized by behavior and because variable costing is much closer to cash flow. 6. Control is facilitated Variable costing ties in with cost control methods such as flexible budgets. 7. Incremental analysis is more straight-forward Variable cost corresponds closely with the current out-of-pocket expenditure necessary to produce and sell products and services and can therefore be used more readily in incremental analysis than absorption costing data. And since variable costing net operating income is closer to net cash flow than absorption costing net operating income, it is likely to be more useful to companies that have cash flow problems. However, variable costing is not generally accepted by auditors for external financial reports and is not permitted by the IRS in the United States and by tax authorities in many other countries for income tax calculations. There is some question about whether variable costing is actually prohibited in the United States by official pronouncements and some companies do use some form of variable costing in their external reports, but absorption costing must be considered the most generally accepted practice.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Impact of (just in time) JIT Impact of JIT Inventory Methods When companies use JIT methods for controlling their operations, the distortions of income that can occur under absorption costing largely (or completely) disappear. 1. The cause of distortions in net operating income Erratic movements in net operating income under absorption costing and the differences in net operating income between absorption and variable costing can be traced to changing levels of inventory. When inventory levels are constant or negligible, absorption costing and variable costing methods yield the essentially same net operating income. 2. The JIT solution Under an ideally functioning JIT system, goods are produced strictly to customers’ orders. Finished goods inventories almost disappear and work in process inventories are kept to a minimum. With little or no inventories, fixed manufacturing overhead costs cannot be shifted between periods under absorption costing. As a result, both variable and absorption costing will show essentially the same net operating income figure, and the net operating income under absorption costing will move in the same direction as movements in sales. Group-1 (Warrior)
Absorption Costing (External reporting) and Income Taxes Absorption costing is required for external reporting for a company. A company that attempts to use variable costing on its external financial reports runs the risk that its auditors may not accept the financial statements as conforming to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Tax law on this issue is cleat cut. A company must use absorption costing for its external reports; a manager can also use variable costing income statements for internal reports. No particular accounting problems are created by using both costing methods- the variable costing method for internal reports and the absorption costing method for external reports. Top executives are typically evaluated based on the earnings reported to shareholders on the company’s external financial reports.
Format Differences Under Two Methods Format (Technical) Differences Absorption costing makes a primary classification of costs according to
manufacturing and non–manufacturing functions, emphasizing the gross margin (that is, Sales – COGS) available to cover all fixed and variable selling and administrative expenses. Direct costing makes a primary classification of costs into variable and
fixed categories, emphasizing the contribution margin (that is, sales – variable costs) available to cover all fixed costs. Report Formats The formats for profit reporting under direct costing and absorption costing are different.
Group-1 (Warrior)
The figures under the two approaches will not always be the same.
Interpretation of the Difference The difference between the two income measurement approaches is essentially the difference in the timing of the charge to expense for fixed factory overhead cost. In the absorption costing method, fixed factory overhead is first charged to inventory; thus, it is not charged to expense until the period in which the inventory is sold and included in cost of goods sold (an expense). In contrast, in the variable costing method, fixed factory overhead is charged to expense immediately, and only variable manufacturing costs are included in product inventories. Therefore, if inventories increase during a period (i.e., production exceeds sales), the variable costing method will generally report less operating income than will the absorption costing method; when inventories decrease, the opposite effect will take place.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Rules Regarding Absorption Costing Versus Variable Costing Rules about unit sales and production under the two costing methods are as follows: If sales are variable and production constant a. When production is equal to sales, then absorption costing and variable costing will give the same amount of net income. b. When production is greater than sales, then Net Income under absorption costing will be greater than net income under variable costing because a portion of the fixed costs was deferred to other years under the absorption method. c. When production is less than sales, then Net Income under absorption costing will be less than net income under variable costing because a portion of the fixed costs that were deferred from previous years will be absorbed into this year’s cost of goods sold. d. The value of inventory will be greater under the absorption method because of the deferred costs; however the total unit count will be the same for each accounting method. e. Over the long-term, net income will be equal under both methods. If sales are constant and production is variable then Group-1 (Warrior)
a. Net income under variable costing is not influenced by the fluctuations in sales (given a constant production) because none of the fixed manufacturing costs are deferred. b. Net income under absorption costing is influenced by the fluctuations in sales (given a constant production) because a portion of the fixed manufacturing costs are deferred and may be used each year to increase costs.
Calculation of Product and Period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Calculation of product and period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. by using both Absorption Costing and Variable Costing Methods for the 2007 are shown in the following two tables: Calculation of Product Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars
Total (TK.)
Production in units
3,076,850,000
Direct Material note-1 Variable Manufacturing Overhead Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Total
3,569,146,00 0 215,379,500 523,064,500 4,307,590,00 0
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
1.16 0.07 0.17 1.40
1.16 0.07 1.23
Calculation of Period Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars Sales in units
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Group-1 (Warrior)
Total (TK.) 3,076,620,000
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
523,064,000
-----
0.17
399,960,600
0.13
0.13
615,324,000
0.20
0.20
Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Total
92,298,600 307,662,000 1,938,309,200
0.03 0.10 0.46
0.03 0.10 0.63
Note-1
Direct material includes the raw materials, packaging materials, and purchase of finished goods. Note-2
Fixed manufacturing includes the salaries, allowances and wages, factory employee’s fees lunch, rental expenses, depreciation and others.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Absorption Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2007
Particulars Sales (3,076,620,000 units) note-1 Less Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory note-2 Add cost of goods manufactured note-3 Goods available for sale Less ending inventory note-4 Gross Margin Less Selling and Administration Expenses Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Amounts (TK.)
258,696,200 4,307,590,000 4,566,286,200 259,018,200
399,960,600 615,324,000 92,298,600 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 7,691,550,000
4,307,268,000 3,384,282,000
1,415,245,200 1,969,036,800
Note-1
Sales during the year is 3,760,620,000 units and selling price per unit is tk. 2.50 Note-2
Beginning inventory in the year is 184,783,000 units Note-3 Group-1 (Warrior)
Production during the year is 3,076,850,000 units Note-4
Ending inventory is 185,013,000 units Product cost per unit is tk. 1.40.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Variable Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2007
Particulars Sales (3,076,620,000 units) Less Variable Expenses: Variable Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory Add cost of goods manufactured Goods available for sale Less ending inventory Total Variable selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Contribution Margin (CM) Less Fixed Expenses: Fixed manufacturing overhead Fixed selling and distribution expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Amounts (TK.)
227,283,090 3,784,525,500 4,011,808,590 227,565,990 3,784,242,600 399,960,600 92,298,600
523,064,000 615,324,000 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 7,691,550,000
4,276,501,800 3,415,048,200
1,446,050,000 1,968,998,200
In 2007 opening inventory is 184,783,000 units and ending inventory is 185,013,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (185,013,000 – 184,783,000) = 230,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,969,036,800 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,968,998,200.
Calculation of Product and Period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD.
Calculation of product and period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. by using both Absorption Costing and Variable Costing Methods for the 2006 are shown in the following two tables: Calculation of Product Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars
Total (TK.)
Production in units
2,779,500,000
Direct Material note-1 Variable Manufacturing Overhead Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Total
3,224,220,00 0 194,565,000 523,064,500 3,941,849,50 0
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
1.16 0.07 0.1881865 1.4181865
1.16 0.07 1.23
Calculation of Period Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars Sales in units
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Group-1 (Warrior)
Total (TK.) 2,768,567,000
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
523,064,000
-----
0.1889295
359,913,710
0.13
0.13
615,324,000
0.2222536
0.2222536
Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Total
83,057,010 307,662,000 1,938,309,200
0.03 0.1111268 0.4933804
0.03 0.1111268 0.6823099
Note-1
Direct material includes the raw materials, packaging materials, and purchase of finished goods. Note-2
Fixed manufacturing includes the salaries, allowances and wages, factory employee’s fees lunch, rental expenses, depreciation and others.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Absorption Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2006
Particulars Sales (2,768,567,000 units) note-1 Less Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory note-2 Add cost of goods manufactured note-3 Goods available for sale Less ending inventory note-4 Gross Margin Less Selling and Administrative Expenses Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Amounts (TK.)
246,551,723 3,941,849,377 4,188,401,100 262,056,756
359,913,710 615,324,000 83,057,010 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 6,921,417,500
3,926,344,344 2,995,073,156
1,365,956,720 1,629,116,436
Note-1
Sales during the year is 2,768,567,000 units and selling price per unit is tk. 2.50 Note-2
Beginning inventory in the year is 173,850,000 units Note-3 Group-1 (Warrior)
Production during the year is 2,779,500,000 units Note-4
Ending inventory is 184,783,000 units Product cost per unit is tk. 1.4181865.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Variable Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2006
Particulars Sales (2,768,567,000 units) Less Variable Expenses: Variable Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory Add cost of goods manufactured Goods available for sale Less ending inventory Total Variable selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Contribution Margin (CM) Less Fixed Expenses: Fixed manufacturing overhead Fixed selling and distribution expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Amounts (TK.)
213,835,500 3,418,785,000 3,632,620,500 227,283,090 3,405,337,410 359,913,710 83,057,010
Amounts (TK.) 6,921,417,500
3,848,308,130 3,073,109,370
523,064,000 615,324,000 307,662,000
1,446,050,000 1,627,059,370
In 2006 opening inventory is 173,850,000 units and ending inventory is 184,783,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (184,783,000 – 173,850,000) = 10,933,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,629,116,436 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,627,059,370.
Reconciliation of Net Operating Income The reconciliation of the variable costing and absorption net operating income are shown in the following figure— Particulars Year Variable costing net operating income Add fixed manufacturing overhead costs deferred in inventory under absorption costing Deduct fixed manufacturing overhead costs released from inventory under absorption costing Absorption costing net operating income note-1
Amount (TK.) 2007 1,968,998,200
Amount (TK.) 2006 1,627,059,370
31,452,210
31,413,110
31,413,110
29,356,500
1,969,037,300
1,629,115,980
Note-1
Absorption costing income statement show that the Net operating Income of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. for the year 2007 is tk. 1,969,036,800 but in reconciliation it shows that the company’s Net Operating income is 1,969,037,300. This difference is tk. (1,969,037,300 — 1,969,036,800) =500 and in 2006 absorption costing Net Operating Income is tk. 1,629,116,436 but in reconciliation we see that this is tk. 1,629,116,436. Difference is tk. (1,629,116,436—1,629,115,980) = 456. These differences occurred due to the fractions in different figure.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Summary Result at a Glance The total result of our calculation for the comparison of net effect on net operating income under both methods Absorption Costing and Variable Costing are shown in the following: Particulars Costing method
Year-2007 Absorption
Year-2006
Variable
Absorption
Variable
Product cost
1.40
1.23
1.4181865
1.23
Period cost
0.46
0.63
0.4933804
0.6823099
Net operating income
1,969,036,800 1,968,998,200 1,629,116,436 1,627,059,370
Effects Inventories Net operating income Net operating income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Increased during the year
Increased during the year
Absorption costing net operating income > Variable costing net operating income 1,969,036,800>1,968,998,200
Absorption costing net operating income > Variable costing net operating income 1,629,116,436>1,627,059,370
Overall Comments From the calculations of net operating income of variable costing and absorption costing of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited we see that, in 2006 their net operating income under absorption costing is tk. 1,629,116,436 and under variable costing net operating income is tk. 1,627,059,370. Here a question arise that why this difference is occurred. This difference is occurred due to use of different accounting method. We know that if inventory increase during the year then the net operating income is increased under absorption costing than that of viable costing net operating income statement. Because when inventory increase then fixed manufacturing overhead cost of these ending inventories is deferred to the next period, as a result total cost during the year is decreased. Here fixed manufacturing overhead cost is treated as product cost, but in case of variable costing method fixed manufacturing overhead cost is treated as period cost. So total manufacturing overhead cost is charged in the period regardless their sales volume. As a result net operating income under this method is lower than that of absorption costing method. In 2006 opening inventory is 173,850,000 units and ending inventory is 184,783,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (184,783,000 – 173,850,000) = 10,933,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. In the same way in 2007 opening inventory is 184,783,000 units and ending inventory is 185,013,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (185,013,000 – 184,783,000) = 230,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than that of the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,969,036,800 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,968,998,200.
Group-1 (Warrior)
CONCLUSION Two general approaches are used in manufacturing companies for costing products for the purpose of valuing inventories and cost of goods sold. Absorption costing is generally used for external financial reports. The other approach, called variable costing, is preferred by some managers for internal decision making and must be used when an income statement is prepared in the contribution format. Ordinarily, absorption costing and variable costing produces different figures for net operating income, and the difference can be quite large. In addition to showing how these two methods differ, we will consider the arguments for and against each costing method and we will show how management decisions can be affected by the costing method chosen.
Group-1 (Warrior)
BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Garrison Ray, W. Noreen Eric, and C. Brewer Peter, Managerial Accounting, 12th Edition, McGraw-Hill, pp 276-292. Annual report of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited, 2007-2008. Roychowdhury, S. (2006). Management of earnings through the manipulation of real activities that affect cash flow from operations. Working Paper. MIT Sloan School of Management. Kinney, M. and W. Wempe (2005). JIT Adoption: Theeffects of LIFO reserves and financial reporting and tax incentives. Contemporary Accounting Research 21(3), 603-638. Jiambalvo, J, E. Noreen and T. Shevlin (2007). Incremental information content of the change in percent of production added to inventory. Contemporary Accounting Research, 14(1), 69-97.
Group-1 (Warrior)
PATUAKHALI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY Group-1 (Warrior)
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF EFFECTS IN PRODUCTION ON NET OPERATING INCOME DUE TO USE OF VARIABLE AND ABSORPTION COSTING: A CASE STUDY ON SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD.
Prepared For: M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer Department of Accounting and Information System Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Prepared By: Group: 01(Warrior) Level- 3, Semester- II Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Sl. No.
Name of the students
Position
Roll No.
Reg. No.
01
Md. Kamruzzaman
Group Leader
01
00660
02
Shuvradeb Barai
Asst. Group leader
09
00668
03
Abu Zafour
Member
21
00680
04
Sahana Parveen
Member
07
00666
05
Nazmul Alam Siddiqui
Member
25
00565
Management Accounting Course Code: AIS 325
Date of Submission: November 22, 2008 PATUAKHALI SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY Group-1 (Warrior)
Date: November 22, 2008
To M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer Department of Accounting and Information System Faculty of Business Administration and Management Subject: Letter of Transmittal
Dear Sir, Here is the report on “Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’ you asked us to prepare this report as a course requirement of Management Accounting. This report focuses on the Management Accounting. We are proud of making this report. We have tried our level best to make the report informative and fruitful. For any classification we will be available and looking for such term paper in coming days. We will be happy to get such type of report further.
Sincerely Yours
Md. Kamruzzaman (Group Leader) Group: 01(Warrior) Level-3, Semester-2 Faculty of Business Administration and Management
Group-1 (Warrior)
A
cknowledgment
At first we desire to express our deepest sense of gratitude of almighty Allah. With profound regard we gratefully acknowledge our respected course teacher M. Takibur Rahman, Lecturer, Department of Accounting and Information System, Faculty of Business Administration and Management for his generous help and day to day suggestion during the survey. We like to give thanks especially to our friends & many individuals, for their enthusiastic encouragements and helps during the preparation of this report and for their assistance in typing and proofreading this manuscript.
Table of Contents Group-1 (Warrior)
Introduction ► Introduction
01
► Origin of the report
02
► Purpose of the report
02
► Limitations and scope of the report
03
► Methodology of the Report
04
Overview of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited ► Overview of Square group
05
► Corporate information
06
► About Square Pharmaceuticals Limited
07
► Mission, Vision and Objectives
08
►Square quality policy
08
►Chronology since inception
09
Description ► Overview of variable costing and absorption costing ► Cost classifications ► Comparison between variable costing and absorption costing
10 11
► The matching principles
12 13
► Advantages of variable costing
14
► Impact of JIT ► Format under differences under two methods
17 18
► Rules regarding absorption costing versus variable costing
20
Problems and Suggesting Actions ► Analysis of absorption costing and variable costing ► Summary result at a glance ► Overall comments Conclusions References
Group-1 (Warrior)
21 28 29 30 31
E
xecutive Summary
This report is an assigned job as a partial fulfillment of course requirement by honorable Course teacher M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer, Department of Accounting & Information System, Faculty of Business Administration and Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University. It is the optimum aggregated outcome of 5 pupils’ about “Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. The view of this report is to find out the effects of variable and absorption costing in production on the net operating in come of a company (Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.). Now its make a great position in the market of Bangladesh. Variable costing and absorption costing are significant elements of a company for the determination of the cost of production, it is also important to know ‘what are the effects of variable and absorption costing on the net operating income of a company.
Group-1 (Warrior)
i
ntroduction
Management accounting is undergoing a renaissance in response to technological changes, globalization, growing risk management concerns. In these challenging times management accountants help ‘steady of the sleep’ by acting as their organizations interprets, sage advisors, and ethical keepers of the numbers. Management accountants are qualified to help their fellow managers achieve good business results because they have earned an advanced certification that addresses all important aspects of accounting inside organizations. For the internal decision making of a company variable costing method is too much significant. Another costing method is absorption costing; this costing method is known as full costing method. This costing method is used for external purpose. It is logical that producing more units would have no impact on profits unless the units are sold. As we will discover in this report, absorption costing—the most widely used method of determining products costs—can artificially increase profits by increasing the quantity of units produced.
Origin of the report We are lucky to say that our honorable course teacher M. Takibur Rahman Lecturer, Department of Accounting and Information System, of Faculty of Group-1 (Warrior)
Business Administration and Management. Assigned us a report on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. This report is prepared on the basis of surveying the Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
Purpose of the Report As a business expectative of future, we should have to gather experience beside our survey. We should not concern our lesion only in classroom but to implement it in practical life that will help us in our future life .A clear objective help in preparation of well decorated report in which other take the right type of decision .So, we identifying objectives is very much important. Our purpose of preparing this report is: To know about the absorption costing and variable costing To explain the difference between absorption (full) costing and variable costing. To prepare an income statement using variable costing and absorption (full) costing. To discuss the effect in production on net operating income due to use of absorption (full) costing and variable costing. To explain the impact of JIT (just-in-time) on the difference between full and variable costing income. To discuss the benefits of variable costing for internal reporting purposes. To discuss the benefits of variable costing for internal reporting purposes. To understand the advantages and disadvantages of both variable and absorption costing.
L
imitations & Scope of the Report
Group-1 (Warrior)
As a student of faculty of Business Administration and Management, 6th semester, this is our initiative for making a report on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’ by meeting a survey. Beside this we have faced the following hindrances in preparing this report: ► Lack of knowledge and experience ► Short of time ► Lack of computer facilities ► Lack of sufficient privileges ► Lack of communication facilities The survey report focuses on ‘Comparative Analysis of Effects in Production on Net Operating Income Due to Use of Variable and Absorption Costing: ‘A Case Study on Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd.’. The survey may not be more comparable or more valid. Moreover, the report is emphasized on the primary data such as interview of the manager of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited, as well as secondary data such as annual report of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
M
ethodology of the Report
Group-1 (Warrior)
This report is based on both primary and secondary data. Initially, the work is started with data those were available at Company’s Annual Report and company’s news letter. Moreover, it becomes helpful to gather some more information from the website of the company. Later on, the work progressed through some depth interviews of good range professionals trying to heat some expected area of the study. After that, an effective questionnaire is designed to collect likely data from the target group of people. Then we analyze those data from many angles, in different aspect and present the information in different segment according to their category, in compact way. We highlight different important things, which we found during our survey. After doing all of those we submit the report to the proper authority.
OVERVIEW OF SQUARE GROUP Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd is the flagship company of Square Group. In stark contrast to its present stature, Square had a rather humble beginning. In 1958, the Company started out as a small scale pharmaceutical venture at Pabna, a small Group-1 (Warrior)
town in Northern Bangladesh. It was a partnership effort of four young and enterprising men under the leadership of the Chairman, Mr. Samson H Chowdhury, whose determination and passion saw it through the turmoil of the early days. In 1964, the Company was turned into a Private Limited Company. After the independence of Bangladesh, 1975 was quite a significant year for Square as it established a technical collaboration with Janssen Pharmaceuticals of Belgium; a subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson, USA. In its relentless quest for higher technology, Square signed a technological collaboration agreement with F. Hoffman-La Roche & Co. Ltd in 1982. 1985 was another historical year for Square as the Company gained the market leadership for the first time in Bangladesh pharmaceuticals market and since then it has been maintaining its position as the leading pharmaceutical Company of the country. In 1987, Square became the first Bangladeshi company to export its product abroad. The Company stepped into a new era when it was transformed into a Public Limited Company in 1991 and subsequently it was publicly listed at both the stock exchanges in the year 1995. Square Pharmaceutical Ltd has been successfully retaining its market leader position in Bangladesh for the last consecutive 22 years and its current market share is approximately 16%.
CORPORATE INFORMATION Corporate Focus:Our vision, our mission and our objectives are to emphasize on the quality of product, process and services leading to growth of the company imbibed with good governance. Corporate Governance:Group-1 (Warrior)
Top Management: Board of Directors As per provisions of the Article of Association, Board of Directors holds periodic meetings to resolve issue of policies and strategies, recording minutes/decisions for implementation by the Executive Management. Executive Management The Executive Management is headed by the Managing Director, the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) who has been delegated necessary and adequate authority by the Board of Directors. The Executive Management operates through further delegations of authority at every echelon of the line management. The Executive Management is responsible for preparation of segment plans/subsegment plans for every profit centers with budgetary targets for every item of goods & services and are held accountable for deficiencies with appreciation for exceptional performance. These operations are carried out by the Executive Management through series of committees, sub-committees, ad-hock committees, standing committees assisting the line management.
ABOUT SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LIMITED SQUARE today symbolizes a name – a state of mind. But its journey to the growth and prosperity has been no bed of roses. From the inception in 1958, it has today burgeoned into one of the top line conglomerates in Bangladesh. Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd., the flagship company, is holding the strong leadership position in the pharmaceutical industry of Bangladesh since 1985 and is now on its way to becoming a high performance global player.
Group-1 (Warrior)
SQUARE Pharmaceuticals Limited is the largest pharmaceutical company in Bangladesh and it has been continuously in the 1st position among all national and multinational companies since 1985. It was established in 1958 and converted into a public limited company in 1991. The sales turnover of SPL was more than Taka 7.5 Billion (US$ 107.91 million) with about 16.92% market share (April 2006– March 2007) having a growth rate of about 23.17%. SQUARE Pharmaceuticals Limited has extended her range of services towards the highway of global market. She pioneered exports of medicines from Bangladesh in 1987 and has been exporting antibiotics and other pharmaceutical products. This extension in business and services has manifested the credibility of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited.
VISION, MISSION, AND OBJECTIVES
We view business as a means to the material and social wellbeing of the investors, employees and the society at large, leading to accretion of wealth through financial and moral gains as a part of the process of the human civilization.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Our Mission is to produce and provide quality & innovative healthcare relief for people, maintain stringently ethical standard in business operation also ensuring benefit to the shareholders, stakeholders and the society at large.
Our objectives are to conduct transparent business operation based on market mechanism within the legal & social frame work with aims to attain the mission reflected by our vision.
SQUARE's Quality Policy SQUARE is committed to ensure better life through quality medicine. Ensure strict compliance with WHO standards and local regulatory norms in every phase of sourcing & procuring quality materials, manufacturing, quality assurance and delivery of medicines. Ensure all activities through documented Quality Management System (QMS) complying International Standard requirements of ISO 9001 through continuously developing Human Resources by regular training and participation. SQUARE is committed to undertake appropriate review, evaluation and performance measurement of processes, business activities and Quality Management System for continual improvement to ensure highest standard, customer satisfaction, developing human resources and company's growth.
CHRONOLOGY SINCE INCEPTION 1958 :
Debut of Square Pharma as a Partnership Firm.
1964 :
Converted into a Private Limited Company.
1974 :
Technical Collaboration with Janssen Pharmaceutica, Belgium, a subsidiary of Johnson and Johnson International, USA.
1982 :
Licensing Agreement signed with F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Switzerland.
Group-1 (Warrior)
1985 :
Achieved first position in the Pharmaceutical Market of Bangladesh among all national and multinational companies.
1987 :
Pioneer in pharmaceutical export from Bangladesh.
1991 :
Converted in to a Public Limited Company
1994 :
Initial Public Offering of Square Pharmaceutical Shares.
1995 :
Chemical Division of Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd. starts production of pharmaceutical bulk products (API).
1997 :
Won the National Export trophy for exporting pharmaceuticals.
1998 :
Agro-chemicals & Veterinary Products Division of Square Pharma starts its operation.
2001 :
US FDA/UK MCA standard new Pharmaceutical factory goes into operation built under the supervision of Bovis Lend Lease, UK.
2004 :
Signing of agreement with ROVIPHARM, Vietnam to manufacture and market SQUARE products under license in Vietnam. Secured the top position for the best published accounts and report for 2003 in the manufacturing category for transparency and excellence in corporate reporting.
2005 :
New State-of- the-Art Square Cephlosporins Ltd. goes into operation; built under the supervision of TELSTAR S.A. of Spain as per US FDA/ UK MHRA requirements.
2007 :
Square Pharmaceuticals Ltd., Dhaka Unit gets the UK MHRA approval.
Overview of Variable and Absorption Costing At least two methods can be used in manufacturing companies to value units of product for accounting purposes— absorption costing and variable costing. These methods differ only in how they treat fixed manufacturing overhead costs. Variable Costing Variable costing includes only variable production costs in product costs. Direct materials, direct labor and variable manufacturing overhead costs would ordinarily be included in product costs under variable costing. Fixed manufacturing overhead is not treated as a product cost under this method. Rather, fixed manufacturing Group-1 (Warrior)
overhead is treated as a period cost and is charged against income each period. This costing system is used for the internal purpose. So, variable costing considered the following— Under variable costing, no fixed overhead is assigned to inventory Fixed overhead is a period expense which enters the income statement as a line item every period regardless of the number of units sold Variable costing excludes fixed manufacturing overhead from inventoriable costs. Absorption Costing Absorption costing treats all production costs as product costs, regardless of whether they are variable or fixed. Under absorption costing, a portion of fixed manufacturing overhead is allocated to each unit of product. Absorption costing is treated as full cost and this costing system is used for the external purpose. So, variable costing considered the following— Under absorption costing, fixed overhead is assigned to units of inventory and shows up in the income statement as part of the cost of goods sold (COGS) when the units are sold When units are produced and not sold, fixed overhead stays in finished goods inventory Absorption costing includes fixed manufacturing overhead in inventoriable costs.
Cost Classifications Cost Classifications—Absorption costing versus Variable Costing Under absorption costing and variable costing, cost can be classified into two ways, 1. Product cost, and 2. Period cost The cost categories under this two cost classification in case of absorption costing and variable costing are shown in the following figure—
Group-1 (Warrior)
Figure: Cost classifications From the above figure we see that under absorption costing method, all manufacturing costs, variable and fixed, are included when determining the unit product cost. Direct materials, direct labor, variable manufacturing overhead, fixed manufacturing overhead costs are included for determining the product costs under absorption costing, and variable selling and administrative expenses and fixed selling and administration expenses are included for determining the period costs. Under the variable costing method, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in product costs and fixed manufacturing overhead, variable and fixed selling and administrative expenses are included for determining the period costs.
Comparison between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing When comparing absorption costing and variable costing income statements, a number of points should be noted: 1. Deferral of fixed manufacturing costs under absorption costing Under absorption costing, if inventories increase then a portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs of the current period is deferred to future periods in the inventory account. When the units are later taken out of inventory and sold, the deferred fixed costs flow through to the income statement as part of cost of goods sold. 2. Differences in inventories under the two methods Group-1 (Warrior)
The ending inventory figures under the variable costing and absorption costing methods are different. Under variable costing, only the variable manufacturing costs are included in inventory. Under absorption costing, both variable and fixed manufacturing costs are included in inventory. 3. Suitability for CVP analysis An absorption costing income statement is not well suited for providing data for CVP computations since it makes no distinction between fixed and variable costs. In contrast, the variable costing method classifies costs by behavior and is very useful in setting-up CVP computations.
Extended Comparison of Income Data The comparative income statement’s effects under the variable costing and absorption costing are as follows— 1. Production equals sales (no change in inventories) When production equals sales, inventories do not change. If inventories do not change, then there is no change in the fixed manufacturing overhead costs in inventories under absorption costing. Therefore, under both costing methods all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead will flow through to the income statement as an expense. In the case of absorption costing it will be part of cost of goods sold. In the case of variable costing, it will be a period expense. 2. Production exceeds sales (inventories increase) When production exceeds sales, inventories grow. If inventories grow, then some of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs will be deferred in inventories under absorption costing. Since all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs are expensed under variable costing, the net operating income reported under absorption costing will be greater than the net operating income reported under variable costing. 3. Sales exceed production (inventories decrease) When sales exceed production, inventories shrink. If inventories decrease, then some of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs that had been deferred in inventories in previous periods will be released to the income statement as part of cost of goods sold as well as all of the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs. Since only the current fixed manufacturing overhead costs are expensed under variable costing, the net operating income reported under absorption Group-1 (Warrior)
costing will be less than the net operating income reported under variable costing. Relation Between Production Effects on Relation Between Absorption and and Sales for the Period Inventories Variable Costing Net Operating Income
Production = Sales
No change
Production > Sales
Increase
Production < Sales
Decrease
Absorption costing NOI = Variable costing NOI Absorption costing NOI > Variable costing NOI Absorption costing NOI < Variable costing NOI
Figure: Comparative income effects— Absorption Costing and Variable Costing 4. Long-term differences in income Over an extended period of time, the cumulative net operating income figures reported under absorption costing and variable costing will be about the same; they will differ only by the amount of fixed manufacturing overhead cost in ending inventories under absorption costing. Cumulative net operating income figures will be identical whenever ending inventories are reduced to zero.
5. Changes in production volume Variable costing net operating income is not affected by changes in production volume. On the other hand, absorption costing net operating income is affected by changes in production volume. For any given level of sales, net operating income under absorption costing will increase as the level of output increases and hence inventories increase.
The Matching Principles Accountants and managers have been arguing for decades concerning the relative merits of absorption and variable costing. In practice, absorption costing is used far more than variable costing even for internal reports. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, although the perception that absorption costing is required for external reporting undoubtedly plays a key role. The argument for using absorption costing in external reports seems to be based on the matching principle. Group-1 (Warrior)
1. Argument for absorption costing Advocates of absorption costing argue that all manufacturing costs must be assigned to units of product so as to properly match costs with revenues. They argue that fixed manufacturing overhead costs are essential to the production process and must be included when costing units of product, regardless of how the cost behaves. 2. Argument for variable costing Advocates of variable costing argue that fixed manufacturing overhead costs are incurred in order to have the capacity to produce. Moreover, they will be incurred regardless of whether anything is actually produced. Since these costs are not caused by any particular unit of product and are incurred to provide capacity for a particular period, the matching principle would dictate that fixed manufacturing overhead costs must be expensed in the current period.
Advantages of Variable Costing and the Contribution Approach There are a number of advantages to using variable costing (and the contribution approach) in internal reports and analysis. 1. More useful for CVP analysis Variable costing statements provide data that are immediately useful for CVP analysis since they categorize costs on the basis of their behavior. In contrast, it is often difficult to rework absorption costing data so that they can be used in CVP analysis and in decisions. 2. Income is not affected by changes in production volume Under absorption costing, reported net operating income is affected by changes in production since fixed costs are spread across more or fewer units. This can distort income and may even result in income moving in an opposite direction from sales. This does not occur under variable costing. Group-1 (Warrior)
3. Avoids misunderstandings concerning unit product costs Absorption costing unit product costs can be easily misinterpreted as variable costs since they are stated on a per unit basis. Such a misperception can lead to serious errors in making decisions. Variable costing avoids this problem since unit costs include only variable costs. 4. Fixed costs are more visible The impact of fixed costs on profits is emphasized because the total amount of such costs for the period appears separately and is highlighted in the income statement rather than being buried in cost of goods sold and ending inventory. 5. Understandability Managers should find it easier to understand variable costing reports because data are organized by behavior and because variable costing is much closer to cash flow. 6. Control is facilitated Variable costing ties in with cost control methods such as flexible budgets. 7. Incremental analysis is more straight-forward Variable cost corresponds closely with the current out-of-pocket expenditure necessary to produce and sell products and services and can therefore be used more readily in incremental analysis than absorption costing data. And since variable costing net operating income is closer to net cash flow than absorption costing net operating income, it is likely to be more useful to companies that have cash flow problems. However, variable costing is not generally accepted by auditors for external financial reports and is not permitted by the IRS in the United States and by tax authorities in many other countries for income tax calculations. There is some question about whether variable costing is actually prohibited in the United States by official pronouncements and some companies do use some form of variable costing in their external reports, but absorption costing must be considered the most generally accepted practice.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Impact of (just in time) JIT Impact of JIT Inventory Methods When companies use JIT methods for controlling their operations, the distortions of income that can occur under absorption costing largely (or completely) disappear. 1. The cause of distortions in net operating income Erratic movements in net operating income under absorption costing and the differences in net operating income between absorption and variable costing can be traced to changing levels of inventory. When inventory levels are constant or negligible, absorption costing and variable costing methods yield the essentially same net operating income. 2. The JIT solution Under an ideally functioning JIT system, goods are produced strictly to customers’ orders. Finished goods inventories almost disappear and work in process inventories are kept to a minimum. With little or no inventories, fixed manufacturing overhead costs cannot be shifted between periods under absorption costing. As a result, both variable and absorption costing will show essentially the same net operating income figure, and the net operating income under absorption costing will move in the same direction as movements in sales. Group-1 (Warrior)
Absorption Costing (External reporting) and Income Taxes Absorption costing is required for external reporting for a company. A company that attempts to use variable costing on its external financial reports runs the risk that its auditors may not accept the financial statements as conforming to generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). Tax law on this issue is cleat cut. A company must use absorption costing for its external reports; a manager can also use variable costing income statements for internal reports. No particular accounting problems are created by using both costing methods- the variable costing method for internal reports and the absorption costing method for external reports. Top executives are typically evaluated based on the earnings reported to shareholders on the company’s external financial reports.
Format Differences Under Two Methods Format (Technical) Differences Absorption costing makes a primary classification of costs according to
manufacturing and non–manufacturing functions, emphasizing the gross margin (that is, Sales – COGS) available to cover all fixed and variable selling and administrative expenses. Direct costing makes a primary classification of costs into variable and
fixed categories, emphasizing the contribution margin (that is, sales – variable costs) available to cover all fixed costs. Report Formats The formats for profit reporting under direct costing and absorption costing are different.
Group-1 (Warrior)
The figures under the two approaches will not always be the same.
Interpretation of the Difference The difference between the two income measurement approaches is essentially the difference in the timing of the charge to expense for fixed factory overhead cost. In the absorption costing method, fixed factory overhead is first charged to inventory; thus, it is not charged to expense until the period in which the inventory is sold and included in cost of goods sold (an expense). In contrast, in the variable costing method, fixed factory overhead is charged to expense immediately, and only variable manufacturing costs are included in product inventories. Therefore, if inventories increase during a period (i.e., production exceeds sales), the variable costing method will generally report less operating income than will the absorption costing method; when inventories decrease, the opposite effect will take place.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Rules Regarding Absorption Costing Versus Variable Costing Rules about unit sales and production under the two costing methods are as follows: If sales are variable and production constant a. When production is equal to sales, then absorption costing and variable costing will give the same amount of net income. b. When production is greater than sales, then Net Income under absorption costing will be greater than net income under variable costing because a portion of the fixed costs was deferred to other years under the absorption method. c. When production is less than sales, then Net Income under absorption costing will be less than net income under variable costing because a portion of the fixed costs that were deferred from previous years will be absorbed into this year’s cost of goods sold. d. The value of inventory will be greater under the absorption method because of the deferred costs; however the total unit count will be the same for each accounting method. e. Over the long-term, net income will be equal under both methods. If sales are constant and production is variable then Group-1 (Warrior)
a. Net income under variable costing is not influenced by the fluctuations in sales (given a constant production) because none of the fixed manufacturing costs are deferred. b. Net income under absorption costing is influenced by the fluctuations in sales (given a constant production) because a portion of the fixed manufacturing costs are deferred and may be used each year to increase costs.
Calculation of Product and Period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Calculation of product and period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. by using both Absorption Costing and Variable Costing Methods for the 2007 are shown in the following two tables: Calculation of Product Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars
Total (TK.)
Production in units
3,076,850,000
Direct Material note-1 Variable Manufacturing Overhead Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Total
3,569,146,00 0 215,379,500 523,064,500 4,307,590,00 0
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
1.16 0.07 0.17 1.40
1.16 0.07 1.23
Calculation of Period Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars Sales in units
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Group-1 (Warrior)
Total (TK.) 3,076,620,000
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
523,064,000
-----
0.17
399,960,600
0.13
0.13
615,324,000
0.20
0.20
Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Total
92,298,600 307,662,000 1,938,309,200
0.03 0.10 0.46
0.03 0.10 0.63
Note-1
Direct material includes the raw materials, packaging materials, and purchase of finished goods. Note-2
Fixed manufacturing includes the salaries, allowances and wages, factory employee’s fees lunch, rental expenses, depreciation and others.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Absorption Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2007
Particulars Sales (3,076,620,000 units) note-1 Less Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory note-2 Add cost of goods manufactured note-3 Goods available for sale Less ending inventory note-4 Gross Margin Less Selling and Administration Expenses Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Amounts (TK.)
258,696,200 4,307,590,000 4,566,286,200 259,018,200
399,960,600 615,324,000 92,298,600 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 7,691,550,000
4,307,268,000 3,384,282,000
1,415,245,200 1,969,036,800
Note-1
Sales during the year is 3,760,620,000 units and selling price per unit is tk. 2.50 Note-2
Beginning inventory in the year is 184,783,000 units Note-3 Group-1 (Warrior)
Production during the year is 3,076,850,000 units Note-4
Ending inventory is 185,013,000 units Product cost per unit is tk. 1.40.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Variable Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2007
Particulars Sales (3,076,620,000 units) Less Variable Expenses: Variable Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory Add cost of goods manufactured Goods available for sale Less ending inventory Total Variable selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Contribution Margin (CM) Less Fixed Expenses: Fixed manufacturing overhead Fixed selling and distribution expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Amounts (TK.)
227,283,090 3,784,525,500 4,011,808,590 227,565,990 3,784,242,600 399,960,600 92,298,600
523,064,000 615,324,000 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 7,691,550,000
4,276,501,800 3,415,048,200
1,446,050,000 1,968,998,200
In 2007 opening inventory is 184,783,000 units and ending inventory is 185,013,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (185,013,000 – 184,783,000) = 230,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,969,036,800 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,968,998,200.
Calculation of Product and Period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD.
Calculation of product and period cost of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. by using both Absorption Costing and Variable Costing Methods for the 2006 are shown in the following two tables: Calculation of Product Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars
Total (TK.)
Production in units
2,779,500,000
Direct Material note-1 Variable Manufacturing Overhead Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Total
3,224,220,00 0 194,565,000 523,064,500 3,941,849,50 0
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
1.16 0.07 0.1881865 1.4181865
1.16 0.07 1.23
Calculation of Period Cost under Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Particulars Sales in units
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead note-2 Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Group-1 (Warrior)
Total (TK.) 2,768,567,000
Per Unit Cost (TK.) Absorption Costing Variable Costing
523,064,000
-----
0.1889295
359,913,710
0.13
0.13
615,324,000
0.2222536
0.2222536
Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Total
83,057,010 307,662,000 1,938,309,200
0.03 0.1111268 0.4933804
0.03 0.1111268 0.6823099
Note-1
Direct material includes the raw materials, packaging materials, and purchase of finished goods. Note-2
Fixed manufacturing includes the salaries, allowances and wages, factory employee’s fees lunch, rental expenses, depreciation and others.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Absorption Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2006
Particulars Sales (2,768,567,000 units) note-1 Less Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory note-2 Add cost of goods manufactured note-3 Goods available for sale Less ending inventory note-4 Gross Margin Less Selling and Administrative Expenses Variable selling and distribution expenses Fixed selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Amounts (TK.)
246,551,723 3,941,849,377 4,188,401,100 262,056,756
359,913,710 615,324,000 83,057,010 307,662,000
Amounts (TK.) 6,921,417,500
3,926,344,344 2,995,073,156
1,365,956,720 1,629,116,436
Note-1
Sales during the year is 2,768,567,000 units and selling price per unit is tk. 2.50 Note-2
Beginning inventory in the year is 173,850,000 units Note-3 Group-1 (Warrior)
Production during the year is 2,779,500,000 units Note-4
Ending inventory is 184,783,000 units Product cost per unit is tk. 1.4181865.
SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. Variable Costing Income Statement For the Year Ended 31 March 2006
Particulars Sales (2,768,567,000 units) Less Variable Expenses: Variable Cost of Goods Sold: Beginning inventory Add cost of goods manufactured Goods available for sale Less ending inventory Total Variable selling and distribution expenses Variable administrative expenses Contribution Margin (CM) Less Fixed Expenses: Fixed manufacturing overhead Fixed selling and distribution expenses Fixed administrative expenses Net Operating Income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Amounts (TK.)
213,835,500 3,418,785,000 3,632,620,500 227,283,090 3,405,337,410 359,913,710 83,057,010
Amounts (TK.) 6,921,417,500
3,848,308,130 3,073,109,370
523,064,000 615,324,000 307,662,000
1,446,050,000 1,627,059,370
In 2006 opening inventory is 173,850,000 units and ending inventory is 184,783,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (184,783,000 – 173,850,000) = 10,933,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,629,116,436 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,627,059,370.
Reconciliation of Net Operating Income The reconciliation of the variable costing and absorption net operating income are shown in the following figure— Particulars Year Variable costing net operating income Add fixed manufacturing overhead costs deferred in inventory under absorption costing Deduct fixed manufacturing overhead costs released from inventory under absorption costing Absorption costing net operating income note-1
Amount (TK.) 2007 1,968,998,200
Amount (TK.) 2006 1,627,059,370
31,452,210
31,413,110
31,413,110
29,356,500
1,969,037,300
1,629,115,980
Note-1
Absorption costing income statement show that the Net operating Income of SQUARE PHARMACEUTICALS LTD. for the year 2007 is tk. 1,969,036,800 but in reconciliation it shows that the company’s Net Operating income is 1,969,037,300. This difference is tk. (1,969,037,300 — 1,969,036,800) =500 and in 2006 absorption costing Net Operating Income is tk. 1,629,116,436 but in reconciliation we see that this is tk. 1,629,116,436. Difference is tk. (1,629,116,436—1,629,115,980) = 456. These differences occurred due to the fractions in different figure.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Summary Result at a Glance The total result of our calculation for the comparison of net effect on net operating income under both methods Absorption Costing and Variable Costing are shown in the following: Particulars Costing method
Year-2007 Absorption
Year-2006
Variable
Absorption
Variable
Product cost
1.40
1.23
1.4181865
1.23
Period cost
0.46
0.63
0.4933804
0.6823099
Net operating income
1,969,036,800 1,968,998,200 1,629,116,436 1,627,059,370
Effects Inventories Net operating income Net operating income
Group-1 (Warrior)
Increased during the year
Increased during the year
Absorption costing net operating income > Variable costing net operating income 1,969,036,800>1,968,998,200
Absorption costing net operating income > Variable costing net operating income 1,629,116,436>1,627,059,370
Overall Comments From the calculations of net operating income of variable costing and absorption costing of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited we see that, in 2006 their net operating income under absorption costing is tk. 1,629,116,436 and under variable costing net operating income is tk. 1,627,059,370. Here a question arise that why this difference is occurred. This difference is occurred due to use of different accounting method. We know that if inventory increase during the year then the net operating income is increased under absorption costing than that of viable costing net operating income statement. Because when inventory increase then fixed manufacturing overhead cost of these ending inventories is deferred to the next period, as a result total cost during the year is decreased. Here fixed manufacturing overhead cost is treated as product cost, but in case of variable costing method fixed manufacturing overhead cost is treated as period cost. So total manufacturing overhead cost is charged in the period regardless their sales volume. As a result net operating income under this method is lower than that of absorption costing method. In 2006 opening inventory is 173,850,000 units and ending inventory is 184,783,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (184,783,000 – 173,850,000) = 10,933,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than the variable costing method. In the same way in 2007 opening inventory is 184,783,000 units and ending inventory is 185,013,000 units. Here we see that inventories are increased (185,013,000 – 184,783,000) = 230,000 units during the year, as a result net operating income is increased under the absorption costing method than that of the variable costing method. The net operating income under absorption costing method is tk. 1,969,036,800 and variable costing method’s net operating income is tk. 1,968,998,200.
Group-1 (Warrior)
CONCLUSION Two general approaches are used in manufacturing companies for costing products for the purpose of valuing inventories and cost of goods sold. Absorption costing is generally used for external financial reports. The other approach, called variable costing, is preferred by some managers for internal decision making and must be used when an income statement is prepared in the contribution format. Ordinarily, absorption costing and variable costing produces different figures for net operating income, and the difference can be quite large. In addition to showing how these two methods differ, we will consider the arguments for and against each costing method and we will show how management decisions can be affected by the costing method chosen.
Group-1 (Warrior)
BIBLIOGRAPHY H. Garrison Ray, W. Noreen Eric, and C. Brewer Peter, Managerial Accounting, 12th Edition, McGraw-Hill, pp 276-292. Annual report of Square Pharmaceuticals Limited, 2007-2008. Roychowdhury, S. (2006). Management of earnings through the manipulation of real activities that affect cash flow from operations. Working Paper. MIT Sloan School of Management. Kinney, M. and W. Wempe (2005). JIT Adoption: Theeffects of LIFO reserves and financial reporting and tax incentives. Contemporary Accounting Research 21(3), 603-638. Jiambalvo, J, E. Noreen and T. Shevlin (2007). Incremental information content of the change in percent of production added to inventory. Contemporary Accounting Research, 14(1), 69-97.
Group-1 (Warrior)
Related Documents
Management Accounting
June 2020 2
Management Accounting
October 2019 18
Management Accounting
December 2019 32
Management Accounting
April 2020 17
Management Accounting
November 2019 32
