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ul lor de gândire, ci

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gândirea HVWH R DFWLYLWDWH SVLKLF

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psihologie,

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ândirea este un obiect de studiu pentru

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de sau vQ PRG RELúQXLW GHFXUJH vQ PRG µQRUPDO¶ vQ PLQ LOH oamenilor, sinteti]kQG úL LQIRUPD LLOH H[WUHP GH GLYHUVLILFDWH SH FDUH OH IXUQL]HD]  GLVFLSOLQH SUHFXP FLEHUQHWLFD WHRULD LQIRUPD LHL QHXURUHJXO

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sau gramatica, logica QXHVWHRúWLLQ

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decât cu psihologia , F FLHDQXGHVFULHúL

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u de mic ar fi efortul intelectual necesar

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accept

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nirii de a crede în ea.“2

,DW FkWHYDH[HPSOHGHLQIHUHQ HHOHPHQWDUH  'DW ILLQGSUHPLVDµ

x = 10’, putem infera concluzia ‘x = 5’. (2) Din premisa ‘x2 ¶UH]XOW SULQLQIHUHQ µx = 4 sau x = (–4)’. (3) )LLQG GDWH GUHSWHOH D  E  úL F  SUHFXP úL UHOD LD GH SDUDOHOLVP GLQ SUHPLVHOH µD  __ E ¶ úL µE  __ F ¶ UH]XOW 

concluzia: ‘(a) || (c)’. (4) Date fiind premisele: µ7RDWHSDWUXODWHUHOHVXQWSROLJRDQH¶úL

‘Toate romburile sunt patrulatere’, se poate infera concluzia: ‘Toate romburile sunt poligoane’. (5)

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Orient. (6) Intrând într-R FDPHU

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filamentul becului; s-a defectat comutatorul etc. ÌQO Q XLUHD ORJLF  GLQWUH SUHPLVH úL FRQFOX]LH VH PDL QXPHúWH úL

argument – WHUPHQ SUHIHUDW GH F LQIHUHQ

WUH XQLL ORJLFLHQL vQ ORFXO FHOXL GH

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, cei doi termeni nu sunt, credem noi, pe deplin sinonimi. A argumenta sau a

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– cu alte cuvinte, a infera; în multe cazuri,

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argumente de acest tip:  $ILUPD LDF DULDXQXLFHUFQXSRDWHILvQQLFLXQFD]HJDO FX DULD XQXL S WUDW IDLPRDVD SUREOHP  FXQRVFXW  vQ LVWRULD PDWHPDWLFLL GUHSW µFYDGUDWXUD FHUFXOXL¶  QX HVWH FkWXúL GH SX LQ GH OD VLQH HYLGHQW  'H FH úL FXP V  QH FRQYLQJHP GH DGHY UXO HL" $YHP QHYRLH GH XQ DUJXPHQW $FHVWD D IRVW IRUPXODW vQ DQXO  GH F WUH PDWHPDWLFLDQXO

Ferdinand Lindemann (1852 -   GXS  FXP XUPHD]  DULD S WUDWXOXL l2 – latura lDYkQGvQRULFHVLWXD LHROXQJLPH (valoare numHULF  vQ VLVWHPXO PHWULF  ILQLW  DVWIHO vQFkW úL VXSUDID D

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(8)

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într-XQYLROHQWFRQIOLFWFXHYLGHQ HOHSHUFHSWLYH,DW

FHIHOGHDUJXPHQWH

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corabie dispare în larg, la limita orizontului, se pierde din vedere mai vQWkLFRFDVDXFRUSXOQDYHLúLDELDSHXUP GLVSDUHúLFDWDUJXOFDúLFXP

corabia s-ar scufunda în mare –úLLQYHUVDWXQFLFkQGRFRUDELHVHLYHúWH din larg mai întâLL VH ] UHúWHFDWDUJXOúLDELDSHXUP DSDUHGLQYDOXULúL FRFD QDYHL FD úL FXP FRUDELD V-ar ridica din mare; umbra pe care o SURLHFWHD]  S PkQWXO SH VXSUDID D OXQLL vQ WLPSXO HFOLSVHORU GH OXQ  HVWH

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zenit este mai mic. Toate aceste fapte nu se pot explica altcumva decât GDF QHUHSUH]HQW PS PkQWXOFDSHXQFRUSFHUHVFGHPDULGLPHQVLXQLúL GH IRUP  VIHULF  DELD PDL WkU]LX V D DIODW FX FHUWLWXGLQH F  SODQHWD

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jurul axei sale).   8Q FRSLO SRDWH IL FRQWUDULDW DWXQFL FkQG vL VSXQHP F  GHOILQLL QX VXQW SHúWL FL PDPLIHUH FD úL QRL RDPHQLL YLD

– GHúL SULQ PHGLXO ORU GH

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– întrucât nu au ‘sânge rece’, nu se înPXO HVF SULQ LFUH úL QX UHVSLU  SULQ branhii, ci sunt mamifere, deoarece au ‘sânge cald’, nasc pui vii, pe care vL KU QHVF FX ODSWH úL UHVSLU  SULQ SO PkQL DYkQG GH DFHHD QHYRLH V  VH

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nemijlocit dintr-R VLQJXU  SUHPLV  – DúD FXP VH vQWkPSO  úL vQ LQIHUHQ H de genul: (10) ùWLLQG F  µ1LFL R SDV UH QX HVWH SDWUXSHG¶ UH]XOW  F  µ1LFL XQSDWUXSHGQXHVWHSDV UH¶

(11)

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DEVWUDF LHGHIDSWXOUHJUHWDELOF vQUHDOLWDWHOXFUXULOHQXVWDXFKLDUDúD 

s-DU SXWHD LQIHUD GH DLFL F magistrat’.

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numesc LQIHUHQ

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, ci n premise,

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multe premise avem de-DIDFHFXLQIHUHQ HPHGLDWHVDXUD

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a)

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DGHY UDWH VXV LQ FRQFOX]LD GDU QX R JDUDQWHD]  úL FRQFOX]LD FRQ LQH R

inforPD LHFDUHQX H[LVW vQSUHPLVH³3ÌQLQIHUHQ HOHLQGXFWLYHFRQFOX]LD nu decurge cu necesitate logLF GLQSUHPLVH – motiv pentru care concluziile vQWHPHLDWH LQGXFWLY QX VXQW QLFLRGDW  DEVROXW FHUWH FL PDL PXOW VDX mai SX LQ SUREDELOH 2EVHUYD LD HVWH YDODELO  vQ FD]XO LQGXF LLORU incomplete FDUHVHED]HD] SHXUP WRUXOPHFDQLVPLQIHUHQ LDODYkQGGHLQYHVWLJDWR PXO LPH QHQXP UDELO  VH SRW H[DPLQD XQXO FkWH XQXO GRDU R SDUWH GLQ HOHPHQWHOHHLGDF vQWRDWHFD]XULOHH[DPLQDWHVHFRQVWDW I U H[FHS LL R DQXPLW  SURSULHWDWH VDX UHOD LH VH JHQHUDOL]HD]  FRQVWD

tarea pentru toate elemeQWHOHPXO LPLLGHIHQRPHQHLQYHVWLJDWHLQFOXVLY acelea care nu au SXWXW V  ILH H[DPLQDWH GLUHFW vQWUXFkW se presupune F  QX SRW V  DSDU 

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premisele lor deoarece sunt mai generale decât acestea; cu alte cuvinte, FRQFOX]LDXQHLLQIHUHQ HLQGXFWLYHVSXQHPDLPXOWGHFkWFHHDFHVHSRDWH

extrage din premisele asumate. b) În LQIHUHQ HOH GHGXFWLYH concluzia decurge cu necesitate ORJLF  GLQ SUHPLVH FX DOWH FXYLQWH ILLQG GDWH úL DFFHSWDWH SUHPLVHOH FRQFOX]LDUH]XOW GLQHOHQHDS UDW,QIHUHQ HOH 

acest sens. Unul dintre motivele care explLF

– (4) sunt ilustrative în

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În vreme ce asupra iQIHUHQ HORULQGXFWLYHQXVHSRWIRUPXODGHFkW XQHOH UHFRPDQG UL PHWRGRORJLFH vQ FDUH VH FRQGHQVHD]  UH]XOWDWHOH úL H[SHULHQ D DFXPXODWH vQ GHFXUVXO FHUFHW ULORU úWLLQ LILFH vQVXPkQGX

-se ,  FKLDU IRUPX-

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ODUHD XQRU UHJXOL úLSULQFLSLL FODUH SUHFLVHúLRUGRQDWHVLVWHPDWLF ,DW  GH

ce logica în sens strict WUHEXLH SULYLW  FD VWXGLX IRUPDO FRQVDFUDW QXPDL i pe scurt, ca WHRULH D GHGXF LHLÌQJUDQL H PDL SX LQ VWULFWH DúD-numita ORJLF  JHQHUDO  DERUGHD]  úL DOWH SUREOHPH – FXP VXQW FHOH SULYLQG OLPEDMXO FRQFHSWHOH WHRUHWLFH GHILQL LD FODVLILFDUHD LQGXF LD HWF –, probleme abordate, cu metode diferite, úL GH alte discipline, logica neavând exclusivitate în cercetarea lor, dar oferind R SHUVSHFWLY  SURSULH úL HOXFLG UL GLQWUH FHOH PDL LPportante. Aceste

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–

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L PHWDIL]LFH GkQG

DGHY UXOXLRVHPQLILFD LHµWHKQLF ¶úLFDDWDUHRSHUD LRQDO  ÌQFHOHFHXUPHD] YRPFRQVLGHUDF DGHY

el, falsitatea sunt, din punct de vedere logic QHDS UDW PHWDIL]LF VDX WHRORJLF  QLúWH SURSULHW DSDU LQ

lucrurilor VDX HQWLW

LORU UHDOH

UXOúLvQRSR]L LHFX úL

epistemologic (nu

L VDX vQVXúLUL FDUH QX

, aIODWH vQDIDUDFRQúWLLQ HLQRDVWUH ci

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UDWH

pot fi sau false din punct de vedere logic – chiar

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nu sunt reale, H[LVW sau QXH[LVW

vQPRGHIHFWLY$GHY UDWHVDXIDOVHSRW

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-un anumit limbaj, despre

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Vom numi analitice

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analitice sunt toate a prioriDGLF

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pendent -

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(1) ‘Toate unghiurile cu laturile în prelungire sunt congruente.’ (2) ‘2ULFHQXP UQDWXUDOHVWHSDUVDXLPSDU¶ (3) ‘'DF  GRX  P ULPL $ úL % VXQW ILHFDUH HJDO  FX R D WUHLD P ULPH&DWXQFL$

%¶

(4) ‘Toate mamiferele sunt vivipare.’ $GHY UXO

DFHVWRU

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-

L úL

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Vom numi sintetice SURSULHW

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vQ

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factuale, având – în – un caracter a posteriori, întrucât nu putem

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lume,O

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este

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ei bazându-VHSHIUHFYHQ DVWDWLVWLF

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LL

nii ale

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valide, D F URU XWLOL]DUH HVWH XQD GLQWUH FRQGL LLOH FDUH DVLJXU ideilor noastre. 1.9DOLGLWDWHDFDSURSULHWDWHORJLF

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declarative, validitatea VDX FRUHFWLWXGLQHD IRUPDO WDWHD ORJLF  VXQW SURSULHW

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L DOH SURSR]L LLORU  UHVSHFWLY LQYDOLGL

-

L DOH LQIHUHQ HORU FD vQO Q XLUL GH SURSR]L LL

Robert Blanché VSXQH F  ÄQX WUHEXLH V  VH FRQIXQGH validitatea unui UD LRQDPHQW cu DGHY UXO SURSR]L LLORU FDUH vO FRPSXQ³ GkQG GRX  exemple în acest sens: (i) ‘Orice triunghi este trilater, deci orice trilater este triunghi’; (ii) ‘Orice triunghi este patrulater, deci unele patrulatere VXQWWULXQJKLXUL¶Ä2FOLS GHUHIOHF LHYDDU WDF SULPDLQIHUHQ YDOLG  GHúL FHOH GRX  SURSR]L LL VXQW DGHY UDWH úL F  FHD GH YDOLG GHúLFHOHGRX SURSR]L LLVXQWIDOVH³

18

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-a doua este

(11) ‘Vacile nebuQHDXS

USHSLHSW¶

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-a dreptul

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a) este

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rate; aceasta -

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accidental sau artificios R FRQFOX]LH DGHY

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(fals)

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– atât

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?

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– aparent

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este incorect: 'DF DSULQGEHFXOvQFDPHU HVWHOXPLQ

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sine qua non pentru

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recte. Putem sesiza acum mai bine în ce sens logica este un instrument

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logica vQ VHQV VWULFW ILLQG vQ FHD PDL VXPDU IRUPDODOGHPRQVWUD LHL.

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– studiul

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LL

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– capra de la -a capra’ sau

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, mentative,

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caracter tautologic, principiul ‘A este A’ SUHFL]HD]

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este’ are în acest

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obiectul indicat de termenul ‘om’ este omulúLQXDOW

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21

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L IRU H

L FDUH VH H[FOXG vQWUH HOH RUL WLQG V  VH DQLKLOH]H

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µ

X este alb’ nu

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în realitate HVWH SRVLELO



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lumii reale. În domeniul ideal

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n studiu sistematic al logicii teoretice pentru a-úL GD LQWXLWLY VHDPDGH IDSWXOF R

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regulii tertium non datur HVWH XWLO

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sibil,

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24

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completare sau un corolar al non-FRQWUDGLF LHL DWXQFL FkQG VFULH „Principiul non-FRQWUDGLF LHL HVWH DFHOD F  vQ JHQHUDO R SURSR]L LH HVWH VDX DGHY F  DGHY

UDW

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bastru

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– tertium non daturµ8QQXP

catelor la numai

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potriviW F

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ani, cel mult, se va produce un mare cutremur’; ‘Universul este infinit în VSD LX úL WLPS QHFUHDW úL LQGHVWUXFWLELO¶HWFVXQWGRDUFkWHYDH[HPSOH GH SURSR]L LL F URUD QX OL VH SRDWH DWULEXL FX FHUWLWXGLQH YDORDUHD ORJLF  µDGHY UDW¶VDXµIDOV¶SXWHPVSXQHGHVSUHHOHFHOPXOWF VXQWSODX]LELOH

probabile, inteligibile, FUHGLELOH ú D P G /RJLFD PRGHUQ  D HODERUDW sisteme polivalente, cu n YDORUL ORJLFH vQ FDUH SULQFLSLXO WHU XOXL H[FOXV VH DSOLF  HYHQWXDO vQ IRUPH JHQHUDOL]DWH úL QHLQWXLWLYH GHPRQVWUDELOH úL

inteligibile numai formal. Marea utilitate a principiulXL WHU XOXL H[FOXV FRQVW

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în care a sesizat deosebirea – PHQ LRQDW

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– întrH DGHY

UXULOH GH

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ipii anterioare, între care fundamental este principiul non-FRQWUDGLF LHL vQ YUHPH FH DGHY UXULOH IDFWXDOHvúLDXWHPHLXOvQDFHVWDOSDWUXOHDSULQFLSLXDOUD LXQLLVXILciente. Ä5D LRQDPHQWHOHQRDVWUHVSXQH/HLEQL]vQ Monadologie, sunt întemeiate pe GRX  PDUL SULQFLSLL SULQFLSLXO FRQWUDGLF LHL, în virtutea F UXLD socotim fals WRW FH FXSULQGH vQ VLQH R FRQWUDGLF LH úL DGHY UDW ceea ce HVWH RSXV IDOVXOXL DGLF  vQ FRQWUDGLF LH FX DFHVWD úL SULQFLSLXO UD LXQLL

suficiente vQ YLUWXWHD F

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temeiurile acestea de cele mai multe ori nu ne pot fi cunoscute“.26 ÌQFRQFHS LDOXL/HLEQL]SULQFLSLXOUD LXQLLVXILFLHQWHHVWHVROLGDU

cu o YL]LXQHPHWDIL]LF

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eveniment în sfera realului se produce în virtutea unei cauze – pe care /HLEQL] R H[SOLF  vQWU-R PDQLHU  PHWDIL]LF  FX WRWXO DSDUWH GH FDUH XOWHULRUVSLULWXOúWLLQ LILFV-DSXWXWGLVSHQVDFXGHVWXO XúXULQ  'HYHQLQG R UHJXO  GH ED]  vQ PHWRGRORJLD úWLLQ LILF  principiul UD LXQLL VXILFLHQWH UHVSLQJH vQ HJDO  P VXU  dogmatismul – acceptarea QHFRQGL LRQDW DXQRUµHYLGHQ H¶VDXµUHYHOD LL¶FHQXPDLH[SULP I U V  DUJXPHQWH]H

QLúWH

scepticismul –

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suficient

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, ci ca model

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lumii – JkQG SH FDUH +HJHO vO YD vQ

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iectau

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matematicii, ca XQ MRF LQWHOHFWXDO ED]DW SH FRQYHQ LL PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ DUELWUDUH úL QHLQWXLWLYH vQWU-un limbaj simbolic dezgolit de orice

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