Lit Review 2

RUNNING HEAD: Latino/a retention rates

Critical Analysis of low Latino/a retention Rates in College Javier Rodriguez Northern Illinois University

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Introduction This paper will discuss specific issues regarding Latinos in higher education. More specifically, the limitations and obstacles Latino students face in regards to admission and retention rates. Most recently Latinos have been attending institutions of higher education in larger numbers. Many universities and even community colleges have been seeing an influx of Latino students coming on to campus and participating in the college going experience. However, with the increase in Latino student populations there is a disproportionate number of Latino students that are not completing their degrees, whether it is a bachelor’s degree from a four-year institution or an associate’s degree from local community college. These margins are even smaller in master and doctoral programs throughout the U.S. This paper aims to cite specific reasons as to why these numbers are low and give some implications on how to combat these issues. This paper will highlight some of the issues facing these low retention rates. Some of the issues highlighted include a brief history of higher education, socioeconomic status (SES, Hispanic Serving Institutions, Parental Support, college preparedness, and citizenship status.

Analysis of the Literature An analysis of the literature for this research focused on a few main motives for why First Generation Latino Students or FGLS lack higher rates of retention in higher education. For many of these students, they must navigate through college while carrying the burdens that prevent them from completing their degree in a manageable time or at all. This research explains some of these reasons, and suggests some implications to combat why FGLS have lower

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retention rates compared to other populations. The reasons explained here include but are not limited to, socioeconomic status (SES), Parental Support, college preparedness/ mattering, and finally citizenship status. These particular obstacles are highlighted most when talking about Latinos in higher education. However, they can also transcend different levels of education including k-12. Another analysis of the literature briefly describes Hispanic serving institutions and their role involving Latinos in higher education.

Brief History The history of Latinos in higher education does not really start up until 1965 when the Higher Education Act or (HEA) was passed. According to the department of Education, the Higher Education Act of 1965 was a legislative document that was signed into law on November 8, 1965 to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in postsecondary and higher education´ (Pub. L. No. 89-329). When the act was introduced it gave opportunities to individuals who were not originally targeted for higher education. This act was also congruent with the labor movement started by Cesar Chavez, and students in the California public school system, during the Chicano movement, paving the way for Latino voices. With this new movement Latinos could start thinking about perusing college, but still faced many issues that hindered their access to higher education. (Arbona, C., & Nora, A. (2007).

Hispanic Serving Institutions Since the sixties, the number of Latinos attending institutions of higher education have increased substantiality. The number of Latinos using federal funds and applying to scholarships

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has also increased, however the retention rates have not increased and do not seem to be changing very much (Arbona, C., & Nora, A. (2007). Institutions who serve large Latino populations have been coined the name Hispanic Serving Institutions or HSI. These institutions have around twenty five percent of students who identify as Latino. These schools usually apply for federal funding under the requirement that they use these funds to advance the student population through means of academic resources to help their retention in school. HSIs are a result of minority-serving institutions, which can also be traced back to historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and tribal colleges and universities who serve more Native American populations. The difference between HSIs, HBCUs and TSIs is that HSIs were not created to serve a specific population but were a result of large populations of Latinos living in a certain area of the country. Some examples would be the south west United States, parts of Florida, California, and even New York (Dayton, B., Gonzalez‐Vasquez, N., Martinez, C. R., & Plum, C. (2004). Federal funding for Hispanic-serving institutions have played a huge part in the recruiting for more Latino students across colleges and universities. The history of federal funding for these institutions dates to when HBCUs and TSIs began receiving federal support as result of their relationship with the United States government. This led to the way in which these institutions regulated and maintained the students they serve. Federal oversight was needed and helped to set a certain criterion for institutions who wanted to claim these funds. Although these funds were useful, the difference between HSIs and HBCUs was that HSIs were founded on PWIs or predominantly white institutions. This is problematic because it affects the learning outcomes and rate of retention that Latinos lack today. Although the money was coming in, students still had to attend an institution that was not aimed at serving them and their needs.

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Socioeconomic Status The Socio-economic status of Latinos and their parents is crucial and has a long-lasting effect on students’ educational outcomes (Coleman et al. 1966; Rist 1970; Jencks 1972; Bourdieu 1977; Metz 1978; Rubinson 1986; Gamoran 1987; Roscigno 2000).

As discussed in the

introduction, one reason for low retention rates is due to the financial burdens many firstgeneration Latinos take on. For many first-generation Latinos, it is difficult to pay for college and many of them must also help support their families. During High School, first-generation collegegoers are more likely to have less access to well-trained counselors (Gandara 2001; McDonough and Fann 2007). These counselors play a huge part in the way students navigate through the application processes. They can be all the difference in the way these students pick and choose where to go to college. They offer information that is necessary for these students to use, and can make the process easier. This is due to the lack of experienced counselors that do not typically work in lower SES communities, so these student have to receive help from newer counselors who lack the capacity to help these students and their specific needs. For Low-income students, it is even harder for them to gain access to information about higher education. Many of them find themselves unable to navigate through the application process because off their family and SES. They are usually under-represented at 4-year colleges and universities. Children of less educated parents, are disadvantaged at all levels and have a harder time understanding the culture of college. These students are usually the ones to drop out first and are often the students who struggle the most when they make it to college. Not only are these students worried about their SES and how they can pay for college, they can not take on the financial burden that comes with college loans and still maintain a good SES. Latinos who face financial struggle tend to do poorly in school and

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in many cases, drop out or must take time off to catch up on their finances. Having a lower SES transcends into their adult life making it harder to complete their degree and for those who manage, they have to sacrifice some aspect of their life, whether it be family, or academics.

Parental Support Financial burdens and low SES can play a significant role in the lives of Latino students. But something that is just as concerning as financial burdens is the amount of parental support one receives when going through college. For many first-generation Latinos, it is difficult to see the end goal of graduation because they do not even know where to begin. Navigating through college can be hard because for many students they are not accustomed to college culture. This can intimidate students and alter their perspectives about what college is and how you can adapt. This feeling of not knowing plays a large part in motivation for these students. It is important to understand that without the support of parents or guardians, these students are facing an uphill battle. Family plays a large part in the way students go through college, and for many of them, that is the guiding reasoning for attending College. Student’s academic success is a combination of both personal characteristics such as mental ability, academic skills, motivation, and goals, and the characteristics of the environment. (Dennis, J. M., Phinney, J. S., & Chuateco, L. I. (2005). Students of color and first-generation students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds use education as the means to better their lives and avoid struggling like their parents. Although many of these students show signs of grit, parents can help their children by creating an expectation of attending college, encouraging them to succeed, and producing emotional support. With the support of parents, students can overcome many obstacles they may encounter while at college. This help can help altar the mindset and attitudes these students have before attending

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these institutions. By supporting their children students will feel more inclined to stay on campus and complete their degree as opposed to dropping out or taking time off. This support is validation for students who need it. This feeling of acceptance will create an opportunity for these students to explore and get out of their comfort zone. As students feel more comfortable about leaving their family, they will be more inclined to take on the full college experience. Unfortunately, the experiences for parental support are often different based on genders. For Latino males, they are expected to attend college more than their counterparts. However, the rate of Latinas being accepted and staying in college is a lot higher than the men. This could be because many men often look for work after secondary schooling as opposed to obtaining a degree. This lack of support for Latinas is problematic because it contributes to the overall idea of how marginalized individuals make meaning of themselves within their environment, in this case campuses. Parental support is crucial in the college preparedness of college going individuals.

College Preparedness College preparedness is essential for student development. The issue of students lacking knowledge about how to navigate college applications, placement tests, and exams used to measure their preparedness for college is problematic for many first-generation Latino students Boden, K. (2011). College preparedness starts early, but is not really measured until individuals reach a certain age. This is usually in High School as students start to enter a more mature state of mind. However, for many, their preparedness is not up to par with other ethnicities, specifically affluent Whites. Often, students form low socioeconomic backgrounds fail in higher education due to the fact that they are not properly prepared to take on the work load of a typical

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undergraduate. Many first-generation Latinos live in communities that do not hold higher education to the same standard as other affluent communities who participate in early prep work for college. The lack of preparedness contributes to their attitudes towards college and may discourages them from finishing. For FGLS, there has been an increase in the attitude they hold regarding college and higher education. From the 1980s to the early 2000s, FGLS who were thinking about college had increased from 40 percent to eighty percent (Boden, K. (2011). This increase in the number of students wanting to obtain a degree is important because it can alter dynamics in the way we educate and prepare students. This increase in attitudes can be attributed to the aspirations and attainment gap which is the gap in which generations of populations place value on education, in this case FGLS (Boden, K. (2011). This change in attitudes have helped the way students have perceived themselves going to college. Although this number may be high, the reality is that FGLS are still a small population on campuses across the United States. Their attitudes might have changed, but it plays little part in their retention rates. For those that do make it to college, they still face the reality of having to navigate academic, social and personal success, even though they are still underprepared for college. Factors that play a big part in this lack of preparedness include, low GPA, and test scores. These tests do not measure non-cognitive learning and are not a certain measure of intelligence. For many FGLS, who come from low SES communities, they tend to do worse on tests and acquire lower GPAs, not because they lack the capacity to learn information, but because they are not receiving quality education that their counterparts are getting in better communities. Low income communities also affect the way students are prepared for school. For FGLS who come from these communities, they have extra baggage that many people can not see. Some have jobs to support their families, come from single parent homes, and live in places

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where crime is a factor. These student struggle to feel validated within their communities and that can transcend into their college journey. Students who are marginalized often feel that they can not fit in within institution of higher education. An example of this, is how they adjust to college life. Students experience a culture shock when they see other students utilizing campus resources like academic advising, tutoring, and even student organizations. These students usually have no idea how to navigate these resources since they were unaware they existed. Many FGLS second guess themselves and struggle to feel validated or that they matter on campus. This stems from their experiences they had before attending college. This lack of validation can hinder their ability to be more social and affects their participation while attending school.

Meaning making/ Validation Two theories that can help to understand how these students make meaning of themselves and the way they feel included include validation and mattering theory. These theories go hand in hand because they can complement and assist each other in the way students seek to matter on campus. Validation Theory, explains how students feel validated or endorsed within their environment, or more commonly their campus. Students, especially FGLS are more likely to do better if they feel a sense of belonging to their campus and the different environments that make up the macro level environment (Equal, D. E., Hurley, S. R., & Padilla, R. (2011). These students already struggle with being a part of an ostracized population. For these students, it is important that they be validated within their campus. Many of them will not feel as though they exist because they are not feeling accepted by the university. For many of the schools in this country, Universities were founded for upper class white males, not Latinos. This reality can pay

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a huge part in the ways see students try and find validation within their college. Even for Hispanic Serving Institutions, these schools were not made for Latino students, and they are not like HBCUs or TSIs. These were founded by predominately White scholars seeking to educate a specific population. HBCUs or NSIs were founded with the sole purpose of serving Black and Native populations in the United States. For FGLS, it is important to feel validated, not just by their environment but the people they see every day. It is important for faculty and staff to be able to validate students who do not already feel so. This can help to improve the environment that these students are engaging in. This creates positive interactions and helps these students feel that they are doing well and that they belong on campus. This change of attitude can also help the retention rates of these students, because it allows them to feel comfortable and feel like they matter in a place that was not built for them (Vaccaro, 2012). Mattering, is also a theory that helps to validate student’s belief in their ability to complete their educational journey. This theory of mattering examines how students try and make meaning of their different identities and how that affects the way they feel about themselves on campus. FGLS often come to college knowing that they are a part of a marginalized class, and they seek to fit in and feel like they matter to their campuses and peers. However, some students report, feeling left out, not being smart enough, or just not being able to relate to anyone on campus. This is problematic because, it can bring forth negative effects on their schooling and personal lives. Students who do not feel like they matter might care less about their grades, and may feel like their campuses do not care about them or their identities (Durham, 2008). By comparison, the more that students found comfort with their faculty the more they perceived themselves as mattering. This indicates that faculty and staff can shape a

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student’s perspective on their importance to their campus (Durham, 2008), (Vaccaro, 2012). As these students move through the system, they find themselves second guessing their ability and end up denying their goal to attend higher education or even finish while they are still enrolled (Boden, K. (2011). For many of these students they need to be validated to feel like they matter, not just before they attend college, but while they are on campus too.

Citizenship Status Citizenship status also plays a big part in the college going student. Latinos make up a large proportion of what used to be DACA, as recipients and the immigrant community in general. Many Latinos who are undocumented students in America are so because they were brought to the U.S. when they were infants or small children. The DREAM Act was designed to confer lawful immigration status to certain individuals who entered this country as children and pursued a higher education degree or served in the U.S. military, often referred to as “DREAMers.” Adams, A., & Boyne, K. S. (2015). For them the reality of school is much harder to achieve because their struggle is a lot more complex than other first-generation students. Being undocumented means they are not eligible for FAFSA or certain scholarships that are awarded to those who have a legal resident status. They are also not allowed to work any jobs, which is a way many students pay for college. However, many of them find employment with places that do not take social security. This is sometimes problematic because this means they are working illegally and could be deported trying to pay for school.

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DACA As stated before, DACA was a federal legislation that allowed recipients to be able to apply for employment authorization, social Security, and in most states, they could apply for a driver’s license. Another big difference is that DACA is not a pathway to citizenship, nor is it an automatic grant for citizenship. This is just a legal way for students to peruse higher education after High School. This act also allows lawful presence within the United States, which is different than lawful status. For DACA students, they can access FAFSA which is federal money that students may apply for to help with college costs. This is helpful for students who succumb to not being able to work within the U.S. Adams, A., & Boyne, K. S. (2015). For students who are not recipients for DACA, they find themselves stuck in a system that was not intended to serve them. They can not apply for any loans or scholarships, and they may not even get access to any aid, or apply for a driver’s license. This is troublesome because this can affect the way thee students navigate through school. Without help from the government these students must find resources elsewhere. As of 2017, the DACA Act that President Obama introduced back in 2012 was repealed by Donald Trump. This created an abundant amount of unrest in higher education, specifically recipients of DACA. Those who are affected are left with questions about how they can continue their degree, and how future students will survive in navigating through school without federal assistance. As many students fear for their education, many more who will begin their journey are now stuck with a dreary future.

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Current state of affairs As the rising rates of FGLS continues to exceed the rate of retention, the issues stated in this paper continue to affect this population. The most relevant would be the dismissal of DACA by the Trump administration. Since the disbandment of DACA in 2017, many students are faced with new challenges and questions. How will they pay for school, how will they finish their degrees, and what is the future looking like for the next generation of college students? As of now, more than 1.7 million Daca recipients will go without support in the coming months and will have to find new solutions on how to afford college without the help of federal assistance. Looking at it from a more local standpoint, more than 68,000 current and potential students will suffer the consequences from the repeal of Daca in the state of Illinois alone, (Hipsman, F., Gómez-Aguiñaga, B., & Capps, R. (2016). This number is alarming considering that Illinois is the 5th largest state that undocumented students require Daca. Other major states that will be affected by this repeal include California, Texas, New York, and Florida. This affects many attitudes and sentiments that students have about attending college, especially undocumented students. Since the repeal, the Trump administration has yet to come up with an alternative for these students. Other alternative programs have since been suspended, and for those who are still receiving the benefits, those resources will soon end. Many students are scrambling to find ways to pay for school and some who are almost done, may have to take time off to finish. There are no sign of new legislation being created for these students, and it will affect higher education drastically. Implications

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Suggested implications that can be determined based off the research include addressing issues of inequality and supporting those individuals who are marginalized in higher education, in this case first generation Latinos. To address these issues and give implications for how to improve the qualities, will be answered one by one. First off, to improve the lives of individuals’ socioeconomic status, one must be able to address that for FGLS who attend institutions of higher education, many of them have lower SES. Institutions need to understand this and be able to support these students who are coming into their campuses. They should be creating programs to help those students not just before they enter, but throughout their entire academic career, or until these students no longer need those services. When addressing the issue of parental support, it is important to understand the family dynamics that FGLS have. For many of them, they are the only communicator between school and their guardians, which in most cases are helping the student pay for college. Institutions need to have staff and faculty who are engaging with these student’s parents and have the resources to help these families understand what to expect when coming to school. This can change the overall family support and the attitude of the student. College preparedness has a lot to do with how k-12 prepare their students for a college going experience. It is important for schools to not only have resources for these students at an early age, but it is also important for them to be able to validate their students. Students who are validated have a better sense of belonging and start to make positive meaning of their experience and environment. The last implication addresses the way in which schools can help FGLS who are undocumented or who used to be a recipient of DACA. Schools should be making resources that help these students, and inform them of their rights while attending school. They must also advocate for their students to help change federal legislature that prevents these students from

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seeking higher education. These implications include the same reasoning, and advocate for better resources to support these students’ retentions rates once in school. Outside resources such as resource centers, students’ organizations, legal services, and financial resources can combat the ways in which these students make meaning of themselves and their environment in college.

Conclusion This paper reflects on the current issues first generation Latinos face while attending college. Retention rates do not reflect the admission rates across the board, and this is due to a number of reasons including but not limited to College preparedness, parental support, financial access and finally citizenship status. The explanations of these causes, invites new implications that can help the rates even out or increase exponentially. The literature explores many avenues in which FGLS struggle to make meaning of themselves in school, and guides many questions as to why the retention rates of these students is so low. As stated above, for students who are struggling to finance their education, it is harder, especially without family support. This is an even bigger problem for students who receive Daca. After the repeal of this initiative, proposed by President Obama, the results are too early to determine, but very easily predicted. The affects will most certainty affect the retention of many of these students. Other than finances and Daca, other issues facing these students would be the support of family. These students find themselves battling two fronts, the fist being a student, the second being a member of a close family. As stated in the paper, it is important for these students to feel like they are supported by their family, especially for those who go to school far from home.

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The support from family, is crucial for students and affects their attitudes about themselves and their school. Socioeconomic status also plays a large part in the way students feel about the value of education. For FGLS, many of them struggle to not only pay for school, but for other components that students will have to face when they get to school such as rent, phone bills, car payments, and other financial obligations that many forget to think about. These students are not from affluent communities and the culture of being part of a lower SES status transcends into college. Finances are a common struggle for many students, not just low SES students. This makes it a lot harder to be able to grasp the financial responsibilities that students face. Parental Support, as talked about in the paper is crucial in the way FGLS feel validated while attending school. As these students prepare to take on college they feel a large sense of family and are close to their roots. This culture of belonging is one-way students make meaning of themselves. Without the support of family, FGLS find it harder to adjust to campus life and it can drastically affect their attitudes and grades. Family is a very important aspect for these students and for some, it is the only thing guiding their reasoning for why they should go to college and complete their degree. The support of family is not just a physical need, but an emotional and spiritual need too. These students must feel that they are supported at every avenue to succeed in college. This feeling to be validated by family is an important component when talking about college preparedness. As these students prepare to take on the next few years of school, they seek to adjust to the climate of campus and need these identities in mind while attending. For students who do not feel prepared, it will be a lot harder for them to adjust. Being prepared can come in many different forms. For many FGLS, they come to campus lacking the resources

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needed to take on the academic demand. Some students lack the capacity to comprehend the material and this makes it harder for them to succeed in their courses. They also lack in financial literacy which is essential to understanding how to not only succeed academically, but to be financially responsible. Being proactive about your education and finances is important for FGLS, however the amount of those who are unprepared is large and affects the retention of these students across campuses in this country.

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References 1. Arbona, C., & Nora, A. (2007). The influence of academic and environmental factors on Hispanic college degree attainment. The Review of Higher Education, 30(3), 247-269. 2. Adams, A., & Boyne, K. S. (2015). Access to Higher Education for Undocumented and Dacamented Students: The Current State of Affairs. Ind. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev., 25, 47. 3. Boden, K. (2011). Perceived academic preparedness of first-generation Latino college students. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 10(2), 96-106. 4. Contreras, F. E., Malcom, L. E., & Bensimon, E. M. (2008). Hispanic serving institutions. Understanding minority serving institutions, 71-90. 5. Dennis, J. M., Phinney, J. S., & Chuateco, L. I. (2005). The role of motivation, parental support, and peer support in the academic success of ethnic minority first-generation college students. Journal of college student development, 46(3), 223-236. 6. Hipsman, F., Gómez-Aguiñaga, B., & Capps, R. (2016). DACA at four: Participation in the Deferred Action program and impacts on recipients. Notes, 1(398,000), 228-000. 7. Kaushal, N. (2008). In‐state tuition for the undocumented: Education effects on Mexican young adults. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 27(4), 771-792. 8. Nuñez, A. M. (2009). Latino students' transitions to college: A social and intercultural capital perspective. Harvard Educational Review, 79(1), 22-48. 9. O’Connor, N., Hammack, F. M., & Scott, M. A. (2010). Social capital, financial knowledge, and Hispanic student college choices. Research in Higher Education, 51(3), 195-219. 10. Rodriguez, J. (2017). Low Retention rates for Latinos. Final Paper, 1-12. 11. Santiago, D. A., & Brown, S. (2004). Federal Policy and Latinos in Higher Education. Pew Hispanic Center. 12. Slaughter, S., & Rhoades, G. (2004). Academic capitalism and the new economy: Markets, state, and higher education. JHU Press. College students. Journal of college student development, 46(3), 223-236. 13. Torres, V. (2004). The diversity among us: Puerto Ricans, Cuban Americans, Caribbean Americans, and Central and South Americans. New directions for student services, 2004(105), 5-16.

From the Readings 14. Dayton, B., Gonzalez‐Vasquez, N., Martinez, C. R., & Plum, C. (2004). Hispanic‐serving institutions through the eyes of students and administrators. New directions for student services, 2004(105), 29-40. 15. Linares, L. I. R., & Muñoz, S. M. (2011). Revisiting validation theory: Theoretical foundations, applications, and extensions. Enrollment Management Journal, 2(1), 12-33