Linguistic - Lesson.docx
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nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpj;jYk; mwpKfk; ,d;W kpf Ntfkhf tsu;r;rp ngw;W tUk; xU Jiwahf nkhopapay; Jiw tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. mjdhy; ,d;iwa r%fj;jpy; mj;Jiw kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtkhd xU ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ. nkhopj; Jiwapy; kUj;Jt Jiwapy; njhlu;ghly;
Jiwapy;
nghwpapayhsu;fs;>
r%ftpay;
Jiwapy;
cstpapyhsu;fs;> khdplapyhsu;fs;> jj;Jtpayhsu;fs;> fdpzp Jiwapy;
Clfj;
mfuhjp
Jiwapy; jahupj;jy;
Jiwapy;
nkhopngau;g;Gj;
Jiwapy;
Jiwapdu;fSk; ,d;W nkhopapaiyg; gad;gLj;jpf;nfhs;gtu;fshf cs;shu;fs;. me;j tifapy; nkhopapay; Jiw ,d;W kpfTk; gpugy;akhd> gaDila xU Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw;W tUfpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; Jiwapy; mit nkhopf;F nkhop NtWgLfpd;wd. mNjNghy; xU nkhopapy; ,Uf;Fk; xypfs; ,d;DnkhU nkhopapy; ,Ug;gjpy;iy. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;s m> M> ,> <> c> C> v> V> I> x> X> xs Mfpa capu; xypfs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,Uf;fpd;wd. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhopapYs;s we"
wE Mfpa
xypfSfSf;F ,izahd xypfs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. MfNt mtw;iwf; Fwpg;gjw;F fPo;tUk; nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
we
æ
wE
ǣ
jkpo; nkhopapy; aho;g;ghzg; Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;LNk ,t;tpU xypfSk; cs;sd. cjhuzk;: md;dk; (ænnam)
Mrpupau; (ǣsiriyar)
kuk; (mæram)
eha; (nǣy)
Mq;fpy nkhopapYk; ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd FwpaPLfs; ,y;iy. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Mg;gpy; vd;gij apple vd vOjp æpple vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. vWk;G vd;gij ant vd vOjp ænt vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. passport vd vOjp pǣssport vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;.
jkpo; khztu;fSf;Fr; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd tplakhf cs;sJ rpq;fs vOj;Jf;fshd we" nkhopapy;
wE Nghd;wtw;iw fw;gpg;gjhFk;. ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd vOj;Jf;fs; jkpo;
,d;ikahy;
,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf;
fw;gpg;gjpy;
Mrpupau;fs;
rpf;fy;fis
vjpu;
Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. ,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf; fw;gjpy; Fwpg;ghf cr;rupg;gjpy; jkpo; khztu;fSk; rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf: rpq;fs nkhopr; nrhy;yhd we;A; (cz;ik) vd;gij jkpo; nkhopapy; vOjpdhy; ‘mj;j’ vd;W vOj Ntz;Lk; my;yJ ‘vj;j’ vd;W vOj Ntz;Lk;. mj;j vd;gJ jkpo; Ngr;R tof;fpy; je;ijapd; rNfhjup (khkp) vdg; nghUs;gLk;. mNjNghy; vj;j vd vOjpdhy; rupahd cr;rupg;igg; ngw;Wf;nfhLf;f KbahJ. ,t;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; nkhopapay; FwpaPlhd æ vd;gijg; gad;gLj;jp æththa vd vOjp rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupf;f KbAk;. mNjNghy; rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;f; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ nrhy; Kjypy; tUfpd;w c vd;gjw;F ,izahfr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; W
vd;w vOj;J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt u vd
cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;lTk; KbAk; vOjpf;fhl;lTk; KbAk;. Mdhy; me;j c nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ nrhy; ,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;G c vd tUtjpy;iy. Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;wJ. mg;nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;Gk; khWgLk;. Mdhy; FwpaPL ,Ue;jhNy rpq;fs khztu;fSf;F kpf ,yFthf mt;ntOj;ij ,dq;fz;L cr;rupf;f KbAk;. mJ ,d;ikahy; mtu;fs; mt;ntOj;ijr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; c vdg; gpioahf vOjpg; gpioahf cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf: ehL vd;w nrhy;ypYs;s ,Wjp xyp c vd cr;rupf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs khztu;fs; mr;nrhy;iyr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; kdvq vd vOjp naadu vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. khL> fhL> tPL> FUtp> cg;G vd cfuk; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; tUk; ,lq;fspnyy;yhk; khztu;fs; u vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. ,J gpioahd cr;rupg;G KiwahFk;. ,t;tplj;jpy; MrpupaUf;F nkhopapay; Jiz nra;fpd;wJ. mjhtJ c vd;gJ nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ u vd;w FwpaPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mNj c nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; kw;Wk; ,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w nghOJ nkhopapaypy; ω vd;w FwpaPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt nrhy;ypd; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; ,e;jf; FwpaPl;il vOJtjd; %yk; rpq;fs khztu;fs; jkpo;r; nrhw;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupg;gjw;F topNaw;gLj;jpf; nfhLf;fyhk;. ehL vd;gij nkhopapay; FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jp naadω
vd vOjp cr;rupf;fyhk;. ,e;jf;
FwpaPL khztu;fSf;F vOj;ij ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sr; rpukhf ,Uf;Fkhapd; naaduω vd vOjp cr;rupf;fyhk;.
rpq;fs nkhopapy; xt;nthU xypf;Fk; xt;nthU vOj;J cz;L. jkpo; nkhoapy; gy xypfs; ,Uf;fpd;wd. mt;thwhd xypfs; nthd;iwAk; vOJtjw;F vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; me;j xypfs; ,e;j ,lj;jpy; tUfpd;w nghOJ ,t;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLk; vd;gjw;Fupa tpjpKiwfs; jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;sd. mt;tpjpfspd; mbg;gilapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gJk; fw;Wf;nfhs;tJk; kpfTk; rpukkhd tplakhFk;. mr;rpukj;ijg; Nghf;Fk; Jiwahf nkhopapay; Jiw tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopapy; g vd;w xypia vLj;J Nehf;FNthk;.
nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (glk;) nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (mg;gk;)
g
,uz;L capnuOj;Jf;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUfpd;w nghOJ β, * (jghy;) ,d vOj;jhd ‘k;;’ vOj;ij mLj;J tUfpd;w nghOJ b, n (jk;gp)
vd cr;rupf;fg;gLk;. vOjpf; fhl;lg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd jkpo; nkhop cr;rupg;G NtWghLfisj; jkpo; nkhopiaj; jha; nkhopahff;nfhs;shj khztu;fSf;F ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;tjw;F nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs; ngupJk; Jiz epw;fpd;wd. ,t;thW nkhopapd; fl;likg;gpid nkhopapay; FwpaPLfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; MFk;. mjdhy; mikg;G nkhopapay; gw;wp jkpohrpupau;fs; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mg;gpupTfSs;> mikg;G nkhopapay;> gadhf;f nkhopapay;> cstpay; nkhopapay;> xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;> r%f nkhopapay; Nghd;wit ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gilaitahf cs;sd. mjdhy; ,t;thwd nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa mwpT> tpsf;fk;> njspT ngw;W nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Jiwapy;
nghOJ
Mrpupau;fsJ
fw;gpj;jw;
nraw;ghLfisAk;
khztu;fsJ
fw;ww;
nraw;ghLfisAk; ntw;wpfukhf mikj;Jf;nfhs;s KbAk;. Mjyhy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;F Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jidf; fUj;jpw;nfhz;L> 1. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk; 2. mikg;G nkhopapay; 3. gadhf;f nkhopapay; 4. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;
5. cstpay; nkhopapay; 6. rKjha nkhopapay; Nghd;w
,uz;lhk;
nkhop
fw;gpj;jw;
JiwAld;
njhlu;Gila
nkhopapaw;
gpupTfs;
,g;ghlnewpapy; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. myF - xd;W 1.0. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk; Nehf;fk;: 1.
nkhop kw;Wk; nkhopapay; Mfpatw;Wf;;fpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;Fjy;.
2.
nkhopapaypd; gpupTfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy;.
3.
,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpj;jypy; nkhopapaypd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
1.1.
nkhopf;Fk; nkhopapaYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL
tpgupj;jy;.
1.1.1. nkhop vd;why; vd;d? nkhop vd;gJ xU njhlu;ghlw;; fUtp vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ kdpjd; ehfuPfkile;jJ Kjy; ,d;W tiu guk;giu guk;giuahff; filgpbf;fg;gLtJk; Ngr;nrhypfisAk; vOj;Jf;fisAk; FwpaPLfisAk; Kiwahfg;
(Systematic
use)
gad;gLj;jp
xU
Fwpg;gpl;l
nkhopr;
r%fj;jpw;Fs;
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wNkh my;yJ njhlu;ghlNyh epfoj; JizGupAk; fUtp nkhop vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kdpju; xUtiunahUtu; Gupe;Jnfhz;L xU $l;lkhfTk; xU rKjhakhfTk; tho nkhop gad;gLfpd;wJ. kdpjdpd; ehfuPfk;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> tho;f;if tpjpKiwfs;> cwTfs;> czu;Tfs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;nfy;yhk; mbg;gilahf nkhop tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; jdp kdpj rpe;jidiag; ngUf;fp rKjhaj;Jld; xd;wpize;J tho nkhop cjtpahf cs;sJ. 1.1.2. nkhopapay; vd;why; vd;d?
goq;fhy kdpjdpd; nkhopia Muha;r;rp nra;jtu;fs;> Muk;gfhyq;fspy; xNu nkhopNa Ngrg;gl;ljhfTk; mjd; gpd;dNu gy fpisfshfg; gpupe;J ehSf;F ehs; mit tsu;r;rpaile;jjhfTk; mwpa Kbfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; `Pg;U nkhopjhd; cyfpy; Njhd;wpa Kjy; nkhop vd;gJk; mjd; gpd;du; kdpjdhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;litNa Vida nkhopfs; vd;gJk; goq;fhy kf;fspd; vz;zkhFk;. kf;fs; kj;jpapy; Mapuf; fzf;fhd nkhopfs; Ngrg;gbDk; mk;nkhopfs; midj;Jk; mjw;Fupa fl;likg;gpNyNa mike;jpUf;Fk;. mtw;Ws; rpy nkhopfs; gy xw;Wikf; $Wfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. mj;jifa nkhopfs;> xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf rpq;fsk;> ghyp> xuprh Nghd;w nkhopfs; xNu jd;ikAilait. mjdhy; mit Mupa nkhopf;
FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo;> njYq;F> fd;dlk;> kiyahsk; Mfpa nkhopfs; xNu tifahd fl;likg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJld; gy xw;WikfisAk; jk;kfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;sikahy; ,e;ehd;F nkhopfSk; jpuhtplk; vd;w nkhopf; FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;jit vd mf;fhy nkhop Ma;thsuhd fhyl;nty; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;. ,t;thW cyf nkhopfSs; xw;WikAk; Ntw;WikAk; ,Ug;gJ ,ay;Ng. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L cyf nkhopfis gpd;tUkhW ehd;F tiffshf tifg;gLj;jpAs;shu;fs;. 1.
jdpepiy nkhopfs; (Isolation Language)
2.
xl;Lepiy nkhopfs; (Agglutinative Language)
3.
cl;gpizg;G epiy nkhopfs; (Inflexional Language)
4.
cs;slf;F nkhopfs; (Incoparating Language)
,tw;Ws; ve;j nkhopahf ,Ue;jhYk; mtw;Wf;F ,U cUtq;fs; cs;sd. kdpjd; jhd; Ngrf;$ba Ngr;R tof;F nkhopf;Fk; mt;tpU cUtq;fs; cs;sd vd;gJ nkhopapayhsu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mt;tpU cUtq;fSk; rpy gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mtw;iwf; fPo;tUk; tiuglk; %yk; mwpe;Jnfhs;syhk;. nkhop
Gw cUtk;
vOj;jpay;
xypapay;
mf cUtk;
,yf;fztpay;
xypadpay;
nghUz;ikapay;
cUgdpay;
njhlupay;
,t;thW xypay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay;> nghUz;ikapay; vd nkhop gw;wpa midj;J tpsf;fq;fisAk; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;s ,aNy nkhopapay; MFk;. nkhopia tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;Ak; Jiw nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ nkhopapd; mikg;G vt;thW tbtk; ngWfpd;wJ? me;j mikg;gpy; gq;FngWk; epiyfs; (Levels) vit? $Wfs; (features) vit? myFfs;
(unites) vitnait?
,tw;Wf;F
,ilNaahd
njhlu;Gfs;
vit?
mit
vt;thnwy;yhk;
njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? mt;thW njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLtjhy; KOikahd nkhopaikg;Gf;fs; vt;thW ntspg;gLfpd;wd Nghd;wtw;iw nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. NkYk; nkhop vt;thW rKjhaj;jpy; gq;Nfw;W> Kiwrhu; kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh gzpfisr; nra;tjw;Fj; Jizahf mikfpd;wJ vd;gJ Nghd;w
tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopaikg;G (Language Structure) nkhopapd; gad;ghL (Language Use) Mfpa ,U ngUk; gpupTfs; nkhopapaypy; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. nkhopapd; ,t;thwhd xt;nthU $WfisAk; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;gtu;fs; nkhopapayhsu;fs; (Linguists) vdg;gLfpd;whu;fs;. kuG rhue;j ,yf;fzk; kugpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjpypUe;J khWgl;L> ,yf;fzj;ijg; Gjpa fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; Nehf;Fk; Kiwik khw;wpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kugpyf;fz> khw;wpyf;fz NtWghLfs; kugpyf;fzk;
khw;wpyf;fzk;
1. jha;nkhopahsu;fshy; vOjg;gl;lJ.
nkhop Ma;thsu; ahuhYk; vOjg;glyhk;
2. xU r%fj;jpy; tof;fpy; cs;s
nkhop gw;wp fw;f Mu;tk; ciltu;fSf;fhf
nkhop gw;wp mr;r%fj;jpdUf;fhf
vOjg;glJ.
vOjg;gl;lJ. 3. vOj;J nkhopf;F Kf;fpaj;jtk; mspf;fg;gl;lJ. 4. tpjp Kiwf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp
1.2.
Ngr;R nkhop> vOj;J nkhop Mfpa ,uz;ilg; gw;wpAk; Muha;fpd;wJ. tpsf;f
Kiwf;F
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp nkhop
jha;nkhopahsd; jhd; vOj
Ma;thsu; ahUk; vOjyhk; vd;w Nghf;fhy;
Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nghf;fhy; gy
goq;Fb nkhopfSf;Fk; ,yf;fzk; vOjg;gl;L
nkhopfs; mope;J Nghapd.
mit capNuhl;lk; ngw;wd.
nkhop gw;wpa nkhopapaypd; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd fUj;Jf;fs;
nkhopapay; rpe;jidfs; gjpndl;lhk; E}w;whz;lstpy; Njhw;wk; ngw Muk;gpj;jhYk; mj;JiwahdJ> gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpd;dNu tpQ;Qhdk; rhu;e;j Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw Muk;gpj;jJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapay; JiwahdJ> nkhopia tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;J nkhop gw;wp gpd;tUk; fUj;Jf;fis Kd; itf;fpd;wJ. m).
nkhopapd; fl;likg;G mbg;gilapy; vy;yh nkhopfSNk rkkhdit.
mjpfsthd kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w nkhop vd;w nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh my;yJ Mq;fpy
cjhuzkhf
cyfpy;
tifapy; Mq;fpy nkhop cau;thd
nkhopapy; fijj;jhy; kl;LNk r%fj;jpy; nfsutk;
fpilf;Fk; vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh jtwhdit. xU nkhop mk;nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk;
r%fj;jpd;
Njitia epiwNtw;Wkhdhy; mJ mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;l nkhopNa. me;j tof;fpYs;s midj;J nkhopfSNk mijg; gad;gLj;Jk;
r%fj;jpd;
tifapy;
Njitia
cyf
epiwNtw;WtdthfNt
mike;Js;sd. mjdhy; nkhopfSf;fpilNa Vw;wj; jho;Tfs; ,y;iy. mjdhy; ,e;j
nkhopjhd;
cau;thd nkhop ,e;j nkhop jho;thd nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;F
MfNt
jtwhdjhFk;.
,e;j
nkhop tsu;r;rpaile;j nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j nkhop ,e;j nkhop tsu;r;rp Fd;wpa nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtkw;w gad;gLj;JNthupd;
r%fg;
nkhop
Nghd;w
gz;ghLld;
kdg;ghq;Ffs;
njhlu;Gila
mk;nkhopiag;
tsu;r;rpNa
md;wp
nkhop
njhlu;ghdJ my;y. M).
,J ,dpikahd nkhop> ,J fbdkhd nkhop> ,J nfhLikahd nkhop
nkhopia tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. xt;nthUtUf;Fk;
vd;nwy;yhk;
mtutu; nkhop ,dpikahdNj. mUikahdNj.
jdpr;rpwg;GilaNj. ,).
nkhopiag;
nghWj;jstpy;
Kjypy;
Njhd;wpaJ
Ngr;R
tof;Nf.
Ngr;R
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl vOj;J tof;F Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. mjdhy; Ngr;R jho;e;jJ. vOj;J tof;Nf cau;e;jJ vd;gJ jtwhd kdg;ghq;F MFk;.
tof;if
tof;F
Ngr;R tof;F vOj;J tof;iftpl
ve;jtifapYk; jho;e;jJ my;y. <).
rpyu; rpy Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapYs;s nfhr;irr; nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L mJ
Ngr;R tof;F vd;w KbTf;F tUfpd;whu;fs;. mJ mr;r%fk; rhu;e;j Muha;e;J ghu;j;jhy; mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w Ngr;R gad;gLj;jg;gLtjid mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
jho;thd
kdg;ghq;Nfad;wp
tof;fpYk;
nfhr;irr;
nrhw;fs;
MfNt xU rKjhaj;jpy; tof;fpYs;s
Ngr;R
tof;F
nkhopfis cau;e;jJ> jho;e;jJ vd tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. cyf tof;fpy; midj;J Ngr;R tof;FfSNk cau;thditNa. c).
nkhopahdJ fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; khw;wq;fisg; ngw;W tsu;r;rp mile;J tUk;
JiwahFk;. mjw;F mbg;gil fhuzk; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; r%fj;jpd; tsu;r;rpAkhFk;. MfNt nkhopahdJ> khw;wq;fis
cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L
xU khw;wKk;
mjw;Nfw;wtifapy;
khWk; ,ay;Gila xU JiwahFk;. 1.3.
nkhopapay; gpupTfs;
nkhopapaw; JiwahdJ> jw;NghJ kpf Ntfkhf tsu;e;J tUk; xU JiwahFk;. mjdhy; ,d;W gy;NtW nkhopfspd; mikg;Gf;fs; Ma;T nra;ag;gl;LtUfpd;wd. mt;thW Ma;T nra;tjw;F nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; Jiz nra;fpd;wd.
i. mikg;G nkhopapay; (Structural Linguistic) nkhopapd;
mikg;ig
tpsf;Fk;
gpupT
mikg;G
nkhopapay;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
nkhopapaypd; je;ij vdg;gLk; r#u; vd;gtNu mikg;G nkhopapay; gw;wpa nfhs;ifia ntspapl;ltuhthu;. ii. nghJnkhopapay; (General Linguistic) nkhopfspd; gy;NtW epiyfs;> tplaq;fs;($Wfs;)> njhlu;Gfs; gw;wp
tpgupf;Fk;
gpupT nghJ nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopapay; kw;nwhU tifapYk; ,U ngUk; gpupTfshf tFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. i. Nfhl;ghl;L nkhopapay; (Theoretical Linguistics) ,g;gpuptpDs; nkhopapd; mikg;G> nkhopapd; gad;ghL njhlu;ghd nfhs;iffs; KiwahfTk; njspthfTk; epiwthfTk; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ii. gadhf;f nkhopapay; (Applied Linguistic) nkhopf; nfhs;iffisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopr; #oy;fspw; nkhop gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fisAk; nkhopapd; gad;ghL gw;wpa gpupT gadhf;f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk;
nkhop
gad;gLj;jp
tplaq;fisAk;
MuhAk;
fw;gpj;jypy;
gadhf;f
nkhopapay; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. 1.4.
nkhopapaypd; kpf Kf;fpa gpupTfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; tUkhW>
1.4.1. tpsf;f nkhopapay; (Descriptive Linguistic) xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopapd; mikg;ig xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpy nkhopapaw; Nfhl;ghLfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ tpsf;f Linguistic) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l kf;fshy; toq;fg;gLk; nkhopapd; nkhopapaypd;
nkhopapay; (Descriptive
fhyg; gFjpapy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,d tif
mikg;gpidAk; nrhy; tsj;ijg; gw;wpAk; Muha;tNj tpsf;f
Fwpf;Nfhs; MFk;. mt;thW MuhAk; NghJ xU nkhopapd; xypaikg;G>
nrhy;yikg;G> njhluikg;G> thf;fpa mikg;G> nghUz;ik Nghd;wit gw;wp tpupthf Muhag;gLk;. tpsf;f
nkhopapaYf;F
tpj;jpl;l
ngUik
,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;bw;F
fhyg;gFjpapy; tho;e;j mnkupf;f nkhopapay; mwpQu;fisNa rhUk;. Nghah]; (1858 – 1942)> rgPu; (1884 – 1939) GSk; gPy;l; (1884 –
1949)
Kw;gl;l
me;jtifapy; Nghd;w
nkhopapay; mwpQu;fs; Kf;fpakhff; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rKjhaj;jpd; fyhrhuj;Jld;
$batu;fshthu;fs;. nkhop vd;gJ
njhlu;GilajhFk;.
xt;nthU
nkhopf;Fnkd
rpwg;ghd xU fl;likg;G cz;L. Mjyhy; xU nkhopia Ma;T nra;Ak; nghOJ vspik (Simplicity)> Kuz;ghbd;ik (Consistency), KOikj; jd;ik (Completeness) mikg;gpidg; Kd;djhfNt mwpe;JzUk; jd;ik (Prediction) Mfpa ehd;F Kf;fpakhd Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ tpsf;f nkhopapaypy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
gz;Gfs;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; gpupthf tpsq;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; MFk;. ,g;gpupNt nkhopapay; tuyhw;wpy; xU GJ
$Wtjhapd; nkhopapaw; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
,Uj;jy;
ngWk; Nfhl;ghLfshFk;.
tpsf;f nkhopapay; gy cl;gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. MapDk; mt;
vd;DksTf;F nkhopapaypy; kpf
gw;wp
cl;gpupTfSs;
(Structural
mj;jpahaj;ij
ngWk;
xU
Linguistic)
Muk;gpj;J
gpupthFk;.
itj;jJ
Fwpg;ghff;
Jiwapy; ngUk; Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa xU gpupthf ,g;gpupT
,g;guptpd; mbg;gilapy; nkhopia Ma;T nra;j nkhopapaw; Jiwf;F>
nkhopapd; ,U ngUk; $Wfis ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ.
mitahtd>
m). xyp tbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l Ngr;R nkhop M). vOj;J my;yJ tuptbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l vOj;J nkhop mikg;G nkhopapaYf;F tpj;jpl;l ngUik G@k; gPy;L kw;Wk; rgPu; MfpNaiur; rhUk;.
mj;NjhL
gpshf;>
igf;>
bNuf;fu;>
`u;up];>
ielh>
];lhl\;
Nghd;w
nkhopapay; ty;Ydu;fs; nkhopia xypad;> cUgd; Nghd;w mbg;gilapy; Ma;T nra;J tpsf;fq;fis Kd; itj;jhu;fs;. mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
mikg;G
nkhopapay;
tsu;r;rp
ngw;Ws;sJ. 1.4.2. tuyhw;W nkhopapay; (Historical Linguistic) xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopiag; gw;wp tpsf;Fk; nkhopapaw; tpsf;f nkhopapay; vd;gJ Nghy; gy;NtW fhyr; #oy;fspy; toq;fpa nkhopfs; tuyhw;W uPjpapy; tpsf;FtJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; nkhopapd; Muk;gk;> ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; mk;nkhopapd; epiy my;yJ ,ay;G Nehf;fpy; Ma;T
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
mk;nkhopapy;
Jiw
gw;wp mjhtJ
Vw;gl;l
xU
khw;wq;fs;>
Nghd;wtw;iw gy;NtW fhyfl;lq;fshf tFj;J tuyhw;W
nra;tJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xU nkhopapy;>
fhyj;Jf;Ff; fhyk; Vw;gLk; xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> nghUz;ik njhlu;ghd khw;wq;fis Muha;tJ ,jd; mbg;gil Nehf;fkhFk;. cjhuzkhfj;
jkpo;
nkhopia
vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy; jkpo; nkhopapd; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; gw;wp tuyhw;W uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;a Ntz;Lkhdhy; Ntw;Wik
cUGfs; gw;wp njhy;fhg;gpau; Kd; itj;Js;s fUj;Jf;fs; vit? rq;f
fhyj;jpy; mit vt;thW toq;fg;gl;ld? Ntw;Wik cUGfSs; vit kiwe;jikf;fhd fhuzq;fs; vd;d? ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; vit? jw;fhy Ngr;R tof;fpy; mit
kiwe;jd?
mt;thW
Ntw;Wik cUGfspy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fs;
vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? vOj;J tof;fpy; mit vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? Ntw;Wik cUGfs; ,f;fhyj;jpy; vt;thW mtw;wpy; Vw;gl;Ls;skhw;wq;fs; vit? Nghd;wtw;wpd; nghOJ jkpo; nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w
toq;fg;gLfpd;wd?
mbg;gilapy;
Ntw;Wik
Ma;T
cUGfspd;
nra;fpd;w tuyhw;wpid
mwpe;Jnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. fp.gp.17Mk; E}w;whz;by; nrhw; gpwg;G (Etymology) gw;wpa Ma;T Muk;gpj;jJ. mJNt
tuyhw;W
nkhopapay;
Ma;Tf;F
tpj;jpl;lJ
vdyhk;.
MapDk;
E}w;whz;bNyNa tuyhw;W nkhopapay; Ma;Tj; Jiw xU jdpg; ngUk;
18Mk;
Jiwahf tsu
Muk;gpj;jJ vd;gJ mwpQu;fspd; fUj;jhf cs;sJ. 1.4.3. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and Contrastive Linguistic) xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j gy;NtW nkhopfis xg;gPL nra;J mtw;wpd; %y nkhopiaf; fz;Lgpbj;J mk; %y nkhopapypUe;J Vida nkhopfs; vy;yhk; vt;thW gy;NtWgl;l nkhopfshff; fpisj;jd vd Ma;T nra;tJ xg;gPl;L nkhopapayhFk;. VjhtJ ,uz;L nkhopfis xypapay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay; kw;Wk; nghUz;ikapay; Nghd;wtw;wpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L mt;tpU nkhopfSf;Fk; ,ilapYs;s xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfis Ma;T nra;tJ xg;G epiy nkhopapayhFk;. 1.4.4. khdpltpay; nkhop (Anthropological Linguistic) vOj;J tof;fpy; ,y;yhJ Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;Lk; cs;s nkhop mikg;igAk; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> ehfuPfk; Nghd;wtw;iw Ma;T nkhopapay; gpupT khdpltpay; nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. gz;ghl;bd; jhf;fj;ij Ma;T nra;tNj khdpltpay;
mk;nkhop
nra;Ak; me;jtifapy; nkhopapy;>
nkhopapaypd; gpujhd Nehf;fkhFk;.
1930Mk; Mz;L fhyg; gFjpapNyNa ,k;nkhopapaw; Jiw tsu;e;jJ vdyhk;. gNuh> vkNdh> gl;lhrhu;ah Nghd;Nwhu; rpjk;guehjgps;is nkhopfis
,t;tha;Tj;
Jiwapy;
rf;jpNty;>
Rg;igah>
Nghd;Nwhu; jkpo; ehl;by; nfhlF> frgh> Nfhlh> ,Ush Nghd;w
khdpltpay; nkhopapaypd; mbg;gilapy; Muha;e;jhu;fs;.
1.4.5. cstpay; nkhopapay; (Psychological Linguistic)
cstpay; nkhopapayhdJ> nkhopapd; nraw;ghLfs;> nkhop gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sy; Nghd;wtw;iw euk;gpay; nkhopapaypD}lhf mwpe;Jnfhs;sf;
elj;ijthjf;
cs;slf;fpajhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk;
%isf;Fk; nkhop fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpidAk;
$bajhf cs;sJ.
1.4.6. r%f nkhopapay; (Socio Linguistic) nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. r%fk; ,y;iyNay; nkhop ,y;iy; nkhop ,y;iyNay; r%fkpy;iy vdf; $WksTf;Fr; r%fKk; nkhopAk; xd;Wld; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
xU r%fj;jpy; thOk;
kdpju;fspd;
xd;W ,ilj; njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;ldthff; gz;ghL>
fyhrhuk;>
tuyhW>
nghUshjhuk;> murpay; vd midj;J tplaq;fisAk; ntspg;gLj;JtJ nkhopNa. mjdhy; jhd; nkhopahdJ xU r%fj;ijg; glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;Lk; fz;zhb vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy;
xU r%fj;jpy; nkhop vt;thW gad;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid Muha;tNj r%f nkhopapayhFk;. r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fkpilapyhd neUq;fpa njhlu;GfisAk; NtWrpy cl; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilapyhd rpwg;Gj; jd;ik> Mw;wy;> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;> epiyNgW> nkhopf; fw;wy; -
njhlu;G> cl;$Wfs;> nghJj; jd;ik>
nkhopapy;
GJikahf;fk;>
nkhopapd;
fw;gpj;jy;> nkhop NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;iw Muha;tNj
r%f nkhopapayhFk;.
myF ,uz;L mikg;G nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; nkhopapd; gpupTfs; Nehf;fk; 1. xypapay; kw;Wk; xypadpaypd; fl;likg;ig tpsf;Fjy; 2. cUgdpapy; gw;wp tpgupj;jy; 3. njhlupay; gw;wp tpsf;fkspj;jy; 4. nghUz;ikapay; gw;wp njspTgLj;Jjy;
2.1. xypapay; (Phonetics)
$WfisAk;
kdpj ehfuPfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w nkhopapy; Kjypy; Njhd;wpaJ Ngr;nrhypfs;.
kdpjd;
NgRfpd;w nghOJ gy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;whd;. mit Ngr;nrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. mg;Ngr;nrhypfs;
gw;wp
MuhAk;
gpupT
xypapay;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy;
Ngr;nrhypfs; %d;W tifg;gLfpd;wd. (m). ngsjpf xypapay; (Acoustic Phonetics) ngsjpf xypapay; gw;wpa Ma;tpy; Ngr;nrhypfspd; ngsjpfj; jd;ik gw;wp Muhag;gLfpd;wJ. xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; mirthy; fhw;wZf;fspy; cz;lhFk; mjpu;T> ntspf;fhw;wpy; Vw;gLk; mjpu;r;rpaiy> ePsk; Kjypait ngsjpf Ma;tpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,e;j Ma;tpy; mjpfkhf tpQ;Qhd
fUtpfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
fzpjk;>
ngsjpfk;>
kw;Wk;
nkhopapay;
Mfpatw;wpy; njspe;j mwpTk; gapw;rpAKilatu;fs; kl;LNk ,j;Jiwapy; rpwg;ghfr; nraw;gl KbAk;. (M). Nfl;nghypfs; (Auditory Phonetics) Nfl;nghypapay; vd;gJ kdpjdpd; Nfl;Fk; mjhtJ nrtpkLf;Fk; jd;ikapid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L xypfis MuhAk; JiwahFk;. MapDk; mtutupd; nrtpapd; Nfl;Fk; jd;ikf;Nfw;g xyp NtWgLtjhy; ,J Ma;Tf;Fg; nghUe;jhJ vd;Wk;; thjpLfpd;wdu;. (,). cr;rupg;G xypapay; my;yJ xypg;gpay; (Articulacy Phonetics) nkhopapaypy; xypapaypd; Ma;Tj; Jiwf;Fg; ngsjpf kw;Wk; Nfl;nghypapaiy tpl cr;rupg;G xypapaNy ngupJk; gad;gLfpd;w JiwahfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;w JiwahfTk; cs;sJ. Vndd;why; ,j;JiwNa kdpjdpd; xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; nray;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpQ;Qhd Kiwapy; Ngr;nrhypfis kpf vspikahf> vspjhf Muha;fpdw;J. Ngr;nrhypfs; gpwf;Fk; Kiw> mtw;wpd; tifg;ghL> vz;zpf;if> mtw;NwhL njhlu;GgLk; NtW xypfs;> Jiz xypg;G Kiwfs;> Nghd;wtw;iwAk; xypapay; tiffisAk; mtw;Wf;fpilNaAs;s njhlu;GfisAk; KiwahfTk; tpQ;Qhd KiwapYk; MuhAk; my;yJ tpsf;Fk; gFjp xypapay; (Phonetics) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. njhy;fhg;gpaUk; ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo; Mfpatw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl xypapid tpsf;fpr; nry;fpd;whu;. mNjNghy; Ngr;nrhypfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Muha;NthUf;Fk; mtw;iw tpsf;f gad;gLgit
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fNsahFk;.
nkhopahrpupau;fs;
,g;Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
gw;wp
mwpe;jpUj;jy; kpfTk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. fhuzk; nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cr;rupg;G kpfTk; mtrpakhFk;. cjhuzkhf jkpo; nkhopapy; y> s> o vd %d;W xypfs; cs;sd. ,it xt;nthd;Wk; cr;rupg;G uPjpapy; NtWgLfpd;wd. mt;NtWghLfis mwpahj xUtu; ,k;%d;W
xypfisAk; xNu tpjkhf cr;rupg;ghu;. mt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w nghOJ nrhy;ypd; nghUs; NtWgLk;. cjhuzkhf: myF - msT> fjpu;> $u;ik moF - tbT> rpwg;G msF - md;dg;ngil> ngz;kapy;> ngz;Nfhop MfNt ,t;thW xypfspd; cr;rupg;G NtWghLfis mwpe;jpUe;jhy; kl;LNk mk;nkhopapidr; rpwe;j Kiwapy; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. Fwpg;ghf nkhopj; Jiwapy;
kpf
mtrpakhfpd;wJ.
2.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fSk; mtw;wpd; njhopw;ghLfSk; Ngr;nrhypfis
xypg;gjw;Fg;
gad;gLk;
cly;
cWg;Gf;fNs
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
my;yJ
xypAWg;Gf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. kdpjdpy; cjLfs; Kjy; EiuaPuy; tiuAs;s cWg;Gf;fs; Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
me;jtifapy;
,it
%d;W
ngUk;
gpupTfshfg;
gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 1. neQ;Rg; gFjp 2. njhz;ilg; gFjp 3. jiyg; gFjp ,e;j gFjpfspy; KiwNa capu;j;jy; (respiration), Fuy; vOg;Gjy; (voicing), xypj;jy; (articulation) Kjypa %d;W nray;fs; eilngWfpd;wd. 2.1.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
glk; tiujy; Ntz;Lk;
1. ,jo;> cjL (Lips) 2. gy; (teath) 3. Edpaz;zk; (Alveolar ridge/alveolum) 4. ,ilaz;zk; (dome) 5. filaz;zk; (velum) 6. cs;ehf;F (uvula) 7. eh tpspk;G (blade of the tongue) 8. Edp eh (tip of the tongue) 9. ,ileh (centre of the tongue) 10. fileh (dorsum) 11. mbeh (root of the tongue) 12. %f;fiw (nasal cavity) 13. %f;fiw thapy; (velic) 14. Kd; njhz;il (pharynx) 15. %r;Rf; Foy; %b my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; %b (epiglottis) 16. xypj; jirfs; (vocal chords) 17. %r;Rf; Foy; my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; (trachea) 18. Fuy; tis (larynx/adam’s apple)
2.1.1.2. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fspd; njhopw;ghLfs; 1. ,jo; my;yJ cjL ,jo;fspd; nraw;ghLfshy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs; ,jopd; xypfs; (Labials) vdg;gLfpd;wd. fPo; ,jOk; Nky; ,jYk; Nru;e;J fhw;wpidj; jLj;J epWj;Jfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; ,t;tpjo;fs; NrUkplj;jpy;> rpwpa ,ilntspia Vw;gLj;jp> mt;tpilntspapilNa fhw;iwr; nrYj;jp mjpur; nra;tjd;
%yk; rpy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapy;> ,jo;fs; ,iztjhy; g> k Mfpa xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. fPopjOk; gy;Yk; ,ize;J nghUe;Jtjd; %yk; t xyp gpwf;fpd;wJ. 2. gy; ‘gy;Y Nghdhy; nrhy;Y Nghr;R’ vd;gJ KJnkhopahf ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gw;fs; ,y;iynadpy; czit nky;YtJ kl;Lky;y nrhy;iyr; nrhy;yTk; KbahJ vd;gjw;fhfTkhFk;. me;jstpw;F nrhw;fis cr;rupg;gjpy; gw;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. Nky; gy; tupirAk; fPo; gy; tupirAk; ehf;fhYk; ,jo;fshYk; njhl;Lk;> ,ilntdpfis Vw;gLj;jpAk; xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. mt;thW vOk; xypfs; gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; j> e Mfpa xypfs; gy;nyhypfshf cs;sd. ,jid njhy;fhg;gpau; ‘gy; Kjy; kUq;fpy; eh Edpgue;J> xw;wj; jhkpdpJ gpwf;Fk; jfu efuk; vd;fpwhu;. 3. mz;zk; thapy;
Nkw;gFjpapYs;s
fbdkhd
gFjp
mz;zk;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
xypfs;
gpwg;gij
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L mz;zk;> Edp mz;zk;> ,ilaz;zk;> filaz;zk; vd %d;W
tifahf
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. ehf;F ,J mirAk; cWg;G Mifahy; xypAWg;Gf;fSs; ehf;F kpf Kf;fpa cWg;ghff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. ehit mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L gpwf;Fk; xypfspd; mbg;gilapy; ehf;fpid Edp eh> eh tpspk;G> ,ileh> fileh> mbeh vd Ie;J gFjpfshg; gFf;Ffpd;wdu;. m). Edp ehthy; vOfpd;w xypfs;> Edp eh xypfs; vdg;gLk;. M). Edp ehTk; gy;Yk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpehg; gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLk;. ,). Edp ehTk; Edp mz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh Edpaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. <). Edp ehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh ,ilaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. c). Edpeh ,U gw;fSf;fpilNa ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh gy;ypil xypfs; vdg;gLk;. (Edpeh gy;ypil xypfs; - gy;nyhypfs;> Ezpaz;z xypfs;> ehtis xyp> gy;ypil xyp vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.)
C). ,ilehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> ,ileh ,ilaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. v). fil ehTk; filaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> fileh filaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;.
5. cs; ehf;F cs; ehf;F my;yJ cs;eh vd;gJ thapd; mbg;gFjpapy; njhq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; xU jirg; gFjpahFk;. Kd; njhz;ilapypUe;J %f;fiwf;Fr; nry;Yk; thapiyj; jpwf;fNth my;yJ %lNth ,J gad;gLfpd;wJ. 6. Kd; njhz;il %f;fiw thapy;> fhw;Wf;Foy;> tha;ghij Mfpad ,g;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 7. %f;fiw fhw;W %f;fiw thapypUe;J Nky; Nehf;fpr; nrd;W fPNo ,wq;fp %f;fpy; Kbfpd;wJ. %f;fpd; %yk; cr;rupf;fg;gLk; xypfs; %f;nfhypfs; vdg;gLk;. 8. fhw;Wf; Foy; fhw;Wf; Foy; topahf fhw;W EiuaPuYf;Fr; nrd;W tUk;. ,jd; Nkw;gFjp njhz;il my;yJ Fuy;tis vdg;gLk;. xypfis ntspg;gLj;Jtjpy; ,t;TWg;Gk; Jiz nra;fpd;wJ. 9. fhw;Wf; Foy; %b fhw;Wf; Foypd; njhlf;fj;jpy; ,J cs;sJ. Rthrpf;Fk; nghOJ jpwe;jpUf;Fk;. czT cz;Zk; nghOJ %bf;nfhs;Sk;. xyp vOg;Gtjpy; ,t;TWg;gpw;Fk; gq;Fz;L. 10. Fuy;tis fhw;Wf; Foypd; xypj; jirfspd; miktplk; ,JthFk;. 11. xypj; jirfs;
xypj; jirNa Fuy; ehz; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J nky;ypa cWjpahd ,U jirg; gFjpfshFk;. ,tw;Wf;F ,ilg;gl;l ,ilntsp xypj;jir thapy; vdg;gLk;. xypj; jirfs; mfd;wpUf;Fk; nghOJ fhw;W jq;F jilapd;wp nray;gLk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; xypj; jir mjpu;tjpy;iy. mg;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> xypg;gpy;yh xypfs; (voiceless sound) vdg;gLk;. mNjNghy; thapy; FWfp xypj;jir mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; xypg;Gil xypfs; (voiced sound) vdg;gLk;. 12. EiuaPuy; ,J cjutpjhdk; kw;Wk; tpyh vYk;gpYs;s jir ehu;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; nraw;ghl;bdhy; tpupe;Jr; RUq;Fk;. tpupAk; nghOJ fhw;W cs;Ns nrd;W RUq;Fk; nghOJ ntspNa tUfpd;wJ. ,JNt xU %r;R my;yJ Rthrk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. EiuaPuypd; nraw;ghl;lhy; fhw;W kplw;wpy; tUk;NghJ xypf;fhw;W> Fuy; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. Fuy; mjpu;TilaJ. mNjNghy; ,irj; jd;ikAKilaJ. me;jf; Fuy; %f;F my;yJ thapYs;s cWg;Gf;fs; %yk; milgl;Lr; rpy Fwpg;gpl;l miy ePsKk;> mjpu;Tk; Vw;gl;L ntspNaWk; NghJ ‘xypfs;’ gpwf;fpd;wd.
mt;nthypfs;> %f;F> ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Kiwahd
nraw;ghl;lhy; ntspNaWk; NghJ Kiwahd xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. mjdhy; ,e;j cWg;Gf;fs; xypr;ry;yilfs; (Sound Filters) vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. xypj;jw; njhopypy;
,aq;Fk; xypg;ghd;fs;
,aq;fh xypg;ghd;fs;
fPopjo;> ehf;F
Nkypjo;> Nkw;gy;> mz;zk;> Nky; njhz;il
%f;F xyp Cf;fp vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.1.2. capu; xypfs; EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk; Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mjhtJ
%r;Rf;
fhw;whdJ>
,aq;Fk;
xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk;
,aq;fh
xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa vt;tpj jilAkpd;wp nry;fpd;w nghOJ capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; m Kjy; xs tiuahd capu; xypfs; mt;thW gpwf;fpd;wd? nghJthf capu; xypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpy; ehf;F> ,jo; Mfpa ,uz;L cWg;Gf;fSk; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;w nghOJ ,t;TWg;Gf;fspd; nraw;ghl;L epiy> 1. ehf;fpd; Kd;Ndhf;fpr; nraw;gLk; jpwd; (Advancement of the tongue) 2. ehf;F mz;zj;ij Nehf;fp vOk; cauj;jpd; msT (Hight of the tongue) 3. ,jo;fspd; mikg;G my;yJ epiy ( Position of the Labiolistaion) Mfpa %d;wpd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
capu; xypfis cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;Lk; glk;
capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehf;fpd; cauk; vt;thW mikfpd;wJ vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L capu; xypfs;> Nky; capu;> ,il capu;> fPo; capu; vd %d;W tifahfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 1. Nky; capu;
i - ,iy> ,Q;rp ,
ii - ePyk;
< Ξ - ,Lg;G> ,sik
ΞΞ - ePsk;
u - cLk;G> ckp
c
C
uu - Cu;> G+
ω - ehL> cg;G
2. ,il capu;
e - vYk;G> ntg;gk;
v
ee- Vyk;> Njrk;>
V ə - vOk;G> vz;zk;
əə - Vzp> Nfs;tp
x - o - xl;lfk;> nfhk;G
X - oo - XL> Nfhop
3. fPo; capu;
a - mg;gk;> el m
aa - ML> ghy;
M ε - md;G> kuk;
εε - Mrpupau;> ghu;
capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehtpd; Kd; my;yJ eL my;yJ gpd; gFjp nraw;glyhk;.
,jid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L capu; xypfs;> Kd; capu;fs;> eL
capu;fs;> gpd; capu;fs;> fPo; capu;fs; vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 1. Kd; capu; , - i - ,iy v - e - vyp 2. eL capu;
< - ii -
, - Ξ - ,sik
< - ΞΞ -
c - ω - ehL v - ə - vWk;G
V - əə - VL
3. gpd; capu; c - u - cyfk;
C - uu - Coy;
x - o - xl;lfk;
X - oo - XL
4. fPo; capu; m - a - mk;kh
M - aa - ML
m - ε - md;dk;
Kd; capu;
M - εε - fiu
eL capu;
gpd; capu;
,> <> Ξ, Ξ Ξ- c>ω
,><> i,ii, b"B
c>C u,uu,W"W!
Nky; ,il capu; v>V>e,ee,t"tA
x>X> o,oo,T´
əə
fPo; ,il capu; fPo; ,il capu;
v>V>ə,əə
m>M> a,aa,w"wd m>M>a,aa,ε,εε fPo; capu;
1.
fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
m (a)
2.
fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp
-
M (aa)
3.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
, (i)
4.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp
5.
eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
6.
eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby; capu; xyp
7.
Nky; gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp
8.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp
-
C (uu)
9.
eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
x (o)
10.
eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp
-
X (oo)
I - ai - Iau;> if
-
< (ii) -
-
v (e)
V (ee) -
c (u)
xs- ou - xsitahu;> nksdk;
2.1.3. nka; xypfs; EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk; Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW my;yhky; fhw;W jilgl;Nlh my;yJ jpir khw;wj;jpw;Fl;gl;Nlh gpwf;Fk; xyp nka;nahyp vdg;gLk;. mjhtJ EiuaPuypypUe;J ntsptUk; fhw;W thaiwapy; milgl;Nlh> rpwpa ,ilntspA+lhf ntspg;gl;Nlh> ehtpd; ,U tpspk;Gg;gFjpfs; topahf ntspg;gl;Nlh my;yJ %f;fpd; topahf ntspNaWk; nghONjh gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; nka;nahypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. nka;nahypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fjpd;NghJ xypg;ghd;fs; gythwhf jq;F jilapd;wp tise;Jk; nespe;Jk; nraw;gLfpd;wd. mit tise;Jk; nespe;Jk; nraw;gLtnjd;gJ thapd; gpw mirah Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshfpa
mz;zk;>
Fuy;tis>
Nkypjo;
Mfpatw;wpy;
cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w
xypfSf;Nfw;wthW ,it nghUe;JtjhFk;. ,J xypg;G Kiw (Manner of articulation) vdg;gLk;. fhw;W EiuaPuypNyh my;yJ Fuy;tisapNyh my;yJ filaz;zj;jpNyh my;yJ thaiwapNyh VjhtJ xU ,lj;jpy; jilg;gl;L thaiwapNyh my;yJ %r;riwapNyh xypA+f;fkile;J ntspNaWfpd;wJ. ,t;thW %r;R jilg;gLk; ,t;tplq;fs; xypg;gplq;fs; (point of articulation) vdg;gLfpd;wd. %r;Rj; jil VJkpd;wp fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ capu; xypfs; gpwg;gjhy; capu; xypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpd;NghJ xypg;gplq;fs; ,y;iy. xypg;G Kiwia mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L nka;nahypfs; gpd;tUkhW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 1. milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs;> ty;nyhypfs; (Stop polisives) Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy;
fhw;iw
Kw;whfj;
jil
nra;J
ntspapLk;NghJ
gpwf;Fk;
xypfs;
milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; f> r> l> j> g> w Mfpa MW ty;ypd xypfSk; milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: f-k
-
fz;
r-c
-
rf;fuk;
l-T
-
jl;L
j - t - jk;gp g-p
-
gl;L
2. cunrhypfs; (Fricatives) %r;Rf; fhw;W thaiwapy; tUk;NghJ KOtJk; jLf;fhky; %r;R ntspNaWk; ghijia xypg;ghdhy; FWf;fp me;j ,Lf;fpd; topNa nrYj;jpdhy; cuha;Tj; jd;ik (friction) Vw;gLk;. ,t;thW cuha;Tj; jd;ikNahL gpwf;Fk; xypfNs cunrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: g- β
-
khu;G> rgyk;
g - f - ghj;jpkh ` - h - `up ] - s - ]yhk;> m];jp
3. milg;Gunrhypfs; my;yJ ntbg;Gunrhyp (Stops Fricatives) Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy; fhw;iw Kw;whfj; jil nra;J ntspapLk;NghJ rw;W cury; jd;ikAld; xypf;fg;gLk; xyp milg;Gunrhyp vdg;gLk;. cjhuzk;: g - C - gr;ir r - j - gQ;rk;
4. %f;nfhyp (Nassals)
fhw;W tha; topahf my;yhky; %f;fhy; ntspaplg;gLk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; $f;nfhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: q-ŋ -
jq;fk;
Q-ñ-
QhapW
z - N - fz; e -ṉ -
ez;L
k -m-
kuk;
d -n -
tdk;
5. kUq;nfhypfs; (Laterals) ehf;fpd; ,U kUq;fhYk; fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; kUq;nfhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: y - l-
gyk;
s - ḷ - tsk; o - ḻ - fodp 6. tUnlhyp Edp eh Edp md;dj;ij tUbr; nry;Yk; NghJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; tUnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: u - r - fuk; 7. tiseh xyp ehf;F tise;J mz;zj;ijj; njhl gpwf;Fk; xypfs; tiseh xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: g -ṭ -
gl;L
g -ḍ -
gz;lk;
z; - N -
jz;lid
s - ḷ - gs;sk; o - ḻ - tho;f
8. Mnlhypfs; (Trills) Edp eh Edp mz;zj;Jld; ,ize;J mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; Mnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: w-R-
gwit
9. miu capu; capu; xyp jd;ikAk; nka; xyp jd;ikAk; ngw;wpUf;Fk; nka;nahypfs; miu capu; nka;nahypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: t - v - tay; a - y - ahid
jkpo; nkhopapYs;s u> w> e> d> z> y> s> o cr;rupg;G Kiwfs;
jkpo; nkhop nka;nahypfspd; ml;ltiz xypg;gplk;
,jo;
gy;
Edpeh
tiseh
gy;
,ileh
fileh
,ilaz;zk;
,ilaz;zk;
c
k
xypg;G Kiw
milg;nghyp
%f;nfhyp
cunrhyp
kUq;nfhyp
p
b
t
ṭ
d
g;
j;
m
ṉ
k;
e;
β
s
g
]
j
g
l;
r;
f;
n
ṇ
ñ
ŋ
d;
z;
Q;
q;
l y;
tUnlhyp
ḍ
r
ḻ
ḷ o s
u; Mnlhyp
ṛ w;
miuAapu;
2.2.
v
y
t;
a;
xypadpay; (Phonology)
Ngr;nrhypfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sTk; NtWgLj;jp mwpaTk; Kw;gl;l nghOJ Njhw;wk; ngw;wNj vOj;J tbtkhFk;. ,J kugpyf;fzj;jpy; vOj;J vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vOj;J> nkhopapaypy; xypad; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopapd; vOj;Jf;fs; gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. rpy nkhopfspy; Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk;> rpq;fsk; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; Xu; xypf;F Xu; xypad; cz;L. Mdhy; jkpo; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; gy xypfs; cz;L. Mdhy; mt;ntht;nthU xypf;Fk; xypad;fs; ,y;iy. mjhtJ xd;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l xypfSf;F xNu vOj;J tbtNk gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzk;: Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
jkpo;
k
l
f
h
y
f
g
.
f
,t;thwhd xypfspd; vOj;jhf;fj;jpw;F rpy mbg;gil nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs; mtrpakhfpd;wd. mj;jifa Nfhl;ghLfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; tpsf;FtNj xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kugpyf;fzk; ,jid vOj;jpay; vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ. xyp
-
xU nkhopapy; njhlu;ghlYf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
Ngr;nrhypfs; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. xypad;
-
xU nkhopapy; nghUs; khw;wj;jpid Vw;gLj;jf; fhuzkhf
cs;s xyp tbtq;fs; xypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. khw;nwhypad;fs;
-
xypg;G xw;WikAila xypfis xNu xypadpd; fPo;
nfhz;L te;J mit tUk; ,lq;fs; my;yJ xypr; #oy;fs; tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW tiuaiw Ngr;nrhypfs; khw;nwhypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
nra;ag;gl;l
xypad;fs; / /
vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk; khw;nwhypad;fs; [ ] vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk;
vOjg;gLk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapd; xypadpay; mikg;G gpd;tUkhW fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. 1.
ty;ypdk;
[ka] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - fUk;G [ka]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - mf;fh [ha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ha, y - fhfk;
/f/
[ga] ,d vOj;jhd ‘q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ga, . - Njq;fha;
[ca,sa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ca,sa, p"i - me;jr; rl;b> rdp [ca]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ca, p - gr;ir [sa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ sa, i - thrk;
/r/
[ja] ,d vOj;jhd ‘Q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ja, c - gQ;R
[-] nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy. Ntw;W nkhopr; nrhw;fspy; kl;Lk; tUk; - LkPy;> lkhy; [ṭ]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ṭa, g - gl;lk; [ḍ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ḍa, v - glk;
/l/
[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘z;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, ~ - gz;lk;;
[ta] [da]
nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ta, ; - jiy
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ da, ; - gj;J
[tha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ tha, o - fjT
/j/
[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘e;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, |- ge;J
[pa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - glk; [pa]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - mg;gk; [βa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ βa, * - jghy;
/g/
[ba] ,d vOj;jhd ‘k;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ mba, n - mk;G
[-] nrhy;ypd; Kd; tUtjpy;iy. te;jhy; Kd;dhy; ‘,’ tUk; - ,wg;gu; [r]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ r, Ür - New;W [ṛ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ṛ, r - MW
/w/ 2.
nky;ypdk; /q/-
[ŋ], x
/Q/-
[ñ], [ -
fQ;R
/e/-
[ṉ], k -
ed;wp
rq;F
-
/ z / - [N], K - kz;
3.
/k/-
[m], u - kzp
/d/-
[n], k -
khd;
,ilapdk; /a/-
[y], h
/u/-
[R], r
/y/-
[l], ,
ahid
-
thuk; kyu;
2.3.
/t/-
[v], j
-
tay;
/ o/ -
[ḻ], <
-
jkpo;
/s/-
[ḷ], < -
tsk;
cUgdpapy; (Morphology)
nkhopapd; nrhy; mikg;G gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT cUgdpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xyp vd;gJ rj;jk;. xypad; vd;gJ vOj;J. me;j xypad; jdpj;Njh my;yJ Nru;e;Njh nghUs; jUkhapd; mJ cUgd; vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapy; NkYk; gpupf;f Kbahj nghUSs;s kpfr; rpwpa tbtk; cUG (Morph) vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapd; epiyapy; nrhy;Yk; nrhy;ypy; ,ize;Js;s xl;Lf;fs; epiyapYk; nghUs; juf; $ba tbtj;jpid cUgd; (Morphime) vdg;gLk;. mt;thwhd cUgd;fisAk; mjd; top mike;j cUGfisAk; tpsf;FtJ cUgdpayhFk;.
2.3.1. jdp cUgd; XnuOj;J xU nrhy;
- G+> kh> <> M> jP> eP> ik> ig> ij> it> if> Nfh> Ngh>
- ML> fhL> khL> kio> kiy> tiy> XL> NfhL> Nfhop
%d;nwOj;J xU nrhy;
- kyu;> tdk;> japu;> ghrk;> Nfhyk;> gok;> tay;> mk;kh
,r;nrhw;fisg; gpupf;f KbahJ. cjhuzkhf: kyu; vd;w nrhy;iy k + yu; vd;Nwh my;yJ ky + u; vd;Nwh gpupf;f KbahJ. mt;thW gpupj;jhYk; mit nghUs; ju khl;lh. mjdhy; ,it xt;nthd;Wk; jdpj; jdpg; nghUis czu;j;Jk; jdpj; jdp cUgd;fs; MFk;. mt;thW jdpg; nghUis czu;j;JtJ cUgd; vdg;gLk;. 2.3.2. fl;Lz;l cUgd; fPo;tUk; nrhw;fis mtjhdpAq;fs;. 1.
kyu;fs; = kyu; + fs; kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpiz gd;ik tpFjp
kyu;fs; vd;w nrhy;ypy; ,uz;L $Wfs; cs;sd. xd;W kyu;. kw;iwaJ fs;. kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisj; jUfpd;wJ. fs; vd;gJ m.wpizg; gd;ikia czu;j;Jk; tpFjpahFk;. 2.
kyu;fis = kyu; + fs; + I kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp I - Ntw;Wik cUG
kyu;fis vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikg; nghUisAk;; I vd;gJ Ntw;WikiaAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd. 3.
kyu;fisNah = kyu; + fs; + I + X kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp I - Ntw;Wik cUG X - tpdh vOj;J
kyu;fisNah vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikiaAk; I vd;gJ Ntw;Wik cUigAk; X vd;gJ tpdhg; nghUisAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd. Nkw; $wg;gl;Ls;s cjhuzq;fSs; kyu;> fs;> I> X Mfpa midj;JNk jdpj; jdp cUgd;fNs. Mdhy; mtw;Ws; kyu; vd;w nrhy; kl;LNk jdpj;J nghUs; czu;j;Jk;. Vida fs; vd;w m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjpNah my;yJ I vd;w ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUNgh my;yJ X vd;w tpdh vOj;Njh jdpj;J nghUs; czu;j;j khl;lh. mit jdpj; jdpNah my;yJ Nru;e;Njh kyu; vd;w nrhy;Yld; ,ize;jhy; kl;LNk nghUs; czu;j;j KbAk;. ,t;thW xU nrhy;Yld; ,ize;Njh my;yJ rhu;e;Njh my;yJ fl;Lz;Nlh nghUs; czu;j;Jk; cUgd;fs; fl;Lz;l cUgd;fs; (Bound Morph) vdg;gLk;. kugpyf;fzk; kyu;fisNah vd;w nrhy;ypy; tUk; kyu; vd;gJ xU nrhy; vdTk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp vdTk; I vd;gJ ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG vdTk; X vd;gJ tpdh vOj;J vdTk; Fwpg;gpLk;. Mdhy; nkhopapay; ,it midj;ijAk; cUgd;fs; vd Fwpg;gpLk;. MfNt xU cUgd; xU nrhy;yhfTk; mikyhk; my;yJ xU nrhy;ypd; gFjpahfTk;
mikayhk;. xU nrhy; Xu; cUgidf; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l cUgd;fisAk; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. cjhuzk;: kyu;
-
xU cUgdhyhd nrhy;
kyu;fs;
-
,U cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
kyu;fis -
%d;W cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
kyu;fisNah - ehd;F cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
2.3.4. xl;Lf;fs; (Affixes) xU nrhy;ypy; jdpj;J epw;fhky; cUgdhd mbr; nrhy;Yld; (stem) ,ize;jpUg;git xl;Lf;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,t;nthl;Lf;fs; %d;W tifg;gLk;. mitahtd>
1.
1.
Kd;ndhl;L (prefix)
2.
gpd;ndhl;L (suffix)
3.
,ilnahl;L (infix)
Kd;ndhl;L (prefix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;F Kd;ghf ,izgit Kd;ndhl;L vdg;gLk;. Mq;fpy
disquality,
impossible,
absent,
indecent
(ab,
dis,
im,
in)
nkhopapy; Nghd;w
Kd;ndhl;Lf;fSf;F cjhuzkhFk;. wjkïnqj" wjux.," wj,ËK (wj)
nrhw;fs; Mfpait
rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. jkpopy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; nfhz;l nrhw;fs; ,y;iy vd;Wk; jkpopy; tlnkhopr; nrhw;fshd mRj;jk;> mePjp> mtkupahij>
toq;fg;gLfpd;w
mepahak;> mtkhdk; Nghd;w
nrhw;fspy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; tUfpd;wd vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Mq;fpy nkhopapNyNa mjpfkhd nfhz;l nrhw;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd;Wk; jkpo; kw;Wk; w Mfpa ,U vOj;Jf;fSk;
Kd;ndhl;Lfs;
rpq;fs nkhopfspNy KiwNa m>
Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshf ,lk;ngWfpd;wd vdTk; FWpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.
gpd;ndhl;L (suffix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fspd; gpd;du; ,izAk; xl;Lf;fs; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. foolish,
timly,
acceptance Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; ish, ly, tance Mfpad gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. rpq;fs nkhopapy; wdfjñ hkafkuq" .sfhah" Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; tUf;fpd;w ñ" uq"
h Nghd;wit rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. te;Njd;> te;Njhk;>
te;jha;> mtu;fs; Nghd;w jkpo; nrhw;fspy;> Vd;> Xk;> Ma;> fs; Nghd;wit gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. jkpo; nkhoapy; ghy;> vz;> ,lk; czu;j;Jk; tpidr; nrhw;fspy; tUk; tpFjpfs; midj;Jk; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. NkYk; ,ilepiyfs;> Mf;f cUGfs; midj;JNk gpd;ndhl;Lf;fNs. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapy; gpd;ndhl;L
mjpfkhd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; jkpo; nkhopiag; nkhop
vd;Wk;
Fwpg;gpLtu;.
mNjNghy;
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk;
mjpfshthd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; cz;L. 3.
,ilnahl;L my;yJ cs;nshl;L(infix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;fpilNa cUgd;fs; ,iztjhy; nghUs; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
nghUs; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; xl;Lf;fs; nkhopfspNyNa
,ilnahl;Lf;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mt;thW
cyfpNy
rpy
,ilnahl;Lf;fs; cs;sd. cjhuzkhf fpNuf;f nkhopapy; koon vd;Dk; nrhy;
XL vDk; nghUs; jUk;. mr;nrhy;NyhL m vd;Dk; cUG ,izj;J komon vd nghOJ Xl;lf;fhuu; vdg; nghUs; jUk;. ,q;Nf m vd;w cUG ,ilnahl;lhfr;
tUk;
nraw;gLfpd;wJ.
jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; fhy ,ilepiyfs; xU nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; te;jhYk; mit NtW nrhw;fspd;
cs;Ns GFj;jg;glhikahy; mtw;iw ,ilnahl;L vdf;nfhs;s KbahJ
jkpowpQu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mjdhy; mtu;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy;
vd;gJ
,ilnahl;Lf;fs; ,y;iy vd;Nw
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;.
2.3.5. khw;WUgd; (appllomorph) Xu; cUgdpd; khw;W tbtk; khw;WUgdhFk;. mjhtJ cUgd;fspd; gy;NtW tbtq;fNs khw;WUgd;fshFk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy;> Firs Person Singular 1. I
I went to kandy yesterday. ,q;F I vd;gJ vOthahf te;Js;sJ.
2. My
It is my pen.
,q;F my vd;gJ Mwhk; Ntw;Wik mikg;gpy; te;Js;sJ.
3. Me
She asked me. ,q;F me vd;gJ ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik tbtpy; te;Js;sJ.
4. Mine
It is mine. ,q;F mine vd;gJ> I, My, Me Mfpait tuhj ,lq;fspy; tUk;.
,NjNghy;
jkpo;
nkhopapy;
jd;ik
xUikiaf;
Fwpf;f
xd;Wf;F
Nkw;gl;l
cUgd;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. jd;ik xUik ehd;
ehd; gs;spf;Fr; nrd;Nwd;.
vd;Dila
,J vd;Dila Gj;jfk;
vd;id
vd;id kwf;f Ntz;lhk;
vdf;F
vOtha; Mwhk; Ntw;Wik
,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik
vdf;Fg; grpapy;iy
ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik
me;jtifapy; xU nrhy; xU nghUisf; Fwpf;Fk; epiyapy; cUgd; vd;Wk; mg;nghUisf; fhl;Lk; gy;NtW cUGfs; epiyapy; khw;WUGfs; vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jdp cUgNdh my;yJ cUgd;fNsh ,ize;J nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. ,t;thW cUgd; xd;Nwh my;yJ gyNth ,ize;J vt;thW nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wp tpgupg;gJ cUgdpayhFk;.
myF 3 4.0.
gadhf;f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
Nehf;fk; 1.
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;
2.
nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisj; njspTgLj;Jjy;
3.
nkhop ngau;g;G gw;wpa tpsf;fijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;
4.
mfuhjp gad;ghL gw;wp tpgupj;jy;
ghl mwpKfk; ,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;lhdJ>
tuyhw;wpy;
gy
Gul;rpfis
Vw;gLj;jpa
fhyg;
gFjpahff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mf;Nlhgu; Gul;rp vd r%fj;jpYk; gy ehLfspd; tpLjiy vd ehl;L tuyhw;wpYk; ,uz;L cyfg; Nghu;fs; ele;J Kbe;j Kjy; E}w;whz;L vd Nghu; tuyhw;wpYk; jfty; njhlu;G> fzpdpg; Gul;rp vdj; njhopy;El;g tuyhw;wpYk; Gul;rp nra;j fhyg;gFjpahf
,f;fhyg; gFjp rpwg;G ngWfpd;wJ. mNjNghy; nkhop gw;wpa Ma;tpYk; nkhop fw;wy;fw;gpj;jypYk; ngUk; jpUg;gq;fis Vw;gLj;jpajd; %yk; nkhopj;JiwapYk; ,f;fhyg;gFjp ngUk; Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpaJ vdyhk;. tpsf;f nkhopapay;> khw;wpyf;fzk;> Nfhl;ghLfs; vd nkhopapay;> nkhopj; Jiwapy; ngUk; khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;jpd. nkhopj; Jiw njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghLfs;> mtw;wpd; khw;wq;fs;> mtw;iw vj;Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;> mt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ Vw;gLk; mikg;G NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;wpid cs;slf;fpa gFjpahf gadhf;f nkhopapay; mike;Js;sJ. ,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; nkhopj; Jiwapy; Vw;gl;l Nfhl;ghl;L khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpisTfis>
nkhop
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy;>
nkhop
ngau;g;G>
nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy;>
Ngr;Rf;FiwghLfs; mit njhlu;ghd jPu;Tfs; Nghd;w gy Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;Jk; gpupT gadhf;f nkhopapay; MFk;. ,g;ghlj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL> ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gila nkhopngau;g;G kw;Wk; mfuhjp gad;ghL Mfpa tplaq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ. 4.1.
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpupTfs;
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpd;tUkhW gy gpupTfisf; nfhz;ljhf mike;Js;sJ. 1.
nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;
2.
nkhop ngau;g;G
3.
mfuhjpapay;
4.
Ngr;Rf; FiwghLfSk; jPu;TfSk;
5.
nkhop jpl;lkpLjy;
4.1.
nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;
gadhf;f
nkhopapay;
Jiwapy;
kpf
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWtJ
nkhop
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw;
nraw;ghlhFk;. mjhtJ gadhf;f nkhopapay; Jiwia Kw;WKOjhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; Jiw fw;wy;fw;gpj;jy; JiwahFk;. ,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; Vw;gl;l nkhopaikg;G tpjpfs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfspd; nry;thf;fhy; nkhop fw;gpj;jypy; gy;NtW khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. Fwpg;ghf nkhop fw;gpj;jy; KiwfspYk; cj;jpfspYk; ngUk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. tpsf;f nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghl;L mbg;gilapYk; ];fpd;dupd; Gwelj;ijf; Nfhl;ghl;L mbg;gilapYk; Nfl;L - Ngry; gof;f Kiw vOe;J
gy Mz;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mNjNghy; Nehk; nrhk;];fpapd; khw;wpyf;fz Nfhl;ghLk; gpahN[apd; MSif cstpay; (Cognaitive Psychologe) Nfhl;ghLk; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy; Vw;gLj;jpa khw;wNk MSiftpjprhu; fw;wy; Kiwfs; (Cognative Psychology code learning method) MFk;. mNjNghy; xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and Contrastive Linguistics) JiwAk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy; nry;yhf;Fr; nrYj;jpd. ,t;thW gadhf;f nkhopapaypy; fw;Nghupd; Njitfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Rkhu; mWgjpw;Fk; Nkw;gl;l nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;L> eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;ld. gadhf;f nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;tUk; tplaq;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. (i).
nkhop fw;Fk; #oy;
(ii).
nkhopj; jpwd;fs;
(iii).
fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghLfs;
(iv).
fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;
(v).
fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> El;g Kiwfs;
(vi).
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL
(vii).
ghlj;jpl;lk; -
ghl cs;slf;fk;> ghlE}y;> fw;wy; tsq;fs;
(viii). Mrpupau; (ix).
khztu;
(x).
,izg;ghltpjhdr; nraw;ghLfs;
(xi).
kjpg;gPL
(xii).
gpd;D}l;lk;
4.2.
nkhop ngau;g;G
%y nkhopapYs;s (Sourse Language) tplaj;ij mjw;F epfuhd ,yf;F nkhop tplakhfg; (Target Language)
ngau;g;gJ
my;yJ
nkhop
khw;wk;
nra;ag;gLtJ
nkhopngau;g;G
vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW nkhopngau;f;Fk; nghOJ nghUSf;F KjyplKk; eilf;F ,uz;lhk; ,lKk; jUk;tz;zk; nkhopngau;j;jy; mtrpakhFk;.
nkhopngau;g;G tiffs; (m).
nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G
,d;W Vw;gl;Ls;s etPd njhopy;El;g JiwAld; njhlu;Gila NjitfSf;Nfw;g nkhopapay; JiwapYk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. cyfshtpa uPjpapy; ntspahFk; GJg; GJ njhopy;El;gk;rhu; tplaq;fs;> fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fs;> Ma;Tfs;> jpwdha;Tf; Fwpg;Gfs; Mfpatw;wpd; rhuhk;rq;fs; my;yJ RUf;fq;fs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl Ntz;ba Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. me;jtifapy; %y nkhopapYs;s tplaq;fspd; rhuhk;rq;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mtw;iw ,yf;F nkhopapy; nkhop ngau;j;jy; nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;. (M).
jOty;
%y nkhopapYs;s nra;jpia cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L mijg; ngWk; nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; jdJ tpUg;gj;jpw;F Vw;wthW $l;bAk; Fiwj;Jk; khw;wpaikj;Jk; ,yf;F nkhopapy; Gide;J jUtJ jOty; MFk;. (,).
KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G
%y nkhopapYs;s vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> ge;jp> fl;Liu> E}ypd; xU gFjp> KOikahd E}y; (text) vd vJthf ,Ue;jNghJk; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,d;wp vt;tpj NtWghLkpd;wp mg;gbNa ,yf;F nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;gJ KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;. ,k;Kiwapy; nkhopngau;g;G Nfhl;ghLfSk; mZF KiwfSk; KOikahfg; gpd;gw;wgl;L nkhopngau;g;G nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. (c).
tpQ;Qhdk;rhu; nkhopngau;g;G
,q;F tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwapy; cs;s nra;jpNa
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ.
,r;nraw;ghl;by;
njhlu;ghlYf;F my;yJ fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLk; fUtpahf kl;LNk nkhop gad;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwd nkhopngau;g;gpy; mzpeak; nrwpe;j nkhopeil jtpu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. mNjNghy; nghUs; kaf;fk; jUk; nrhw;fs;> njhlu;fs;> rpNyilfs;> tu;zidfs; jtpu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. (C).
,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;G
nghJthf Mf;f ,yf;fpaq;fs; czu;r;rpAld; $baitahf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ftpij> ehlfk;> rpWfij> ehty; Nghd;wit czu;r;rpf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtkspg;gd. ,t;thwhdtw;iw nkhopngau;f;fpd;w nghOJ %y nkhopapYs;s czu;r;rp> Rit Nghd;wtw;wpw;F gq;fk; Vw;glhj tifapy; nkhopngau;g;G mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. MfNt ,t;tifahd nkhopngau;g;gpy; nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> jhd; xU nkhopngau;g;ghsd; -
gilg;ghsd; vd ,U ghj;jpuq;fis Vw;fNtz;bAs;shd;. mJkl;Lkd;wp
,t;thwhd nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> %y nkhop kw;Wk; ,yf;F nkhop Mfpa ,U nkhopfspYk; rpwe;j MSikAk; jpwikAk; gilg;ghw;wy; jpwDk; ngw;wpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghl;by; Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s midj;J nkhopngau;g;Gf;fSk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; fiyj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghlj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghl E}y;fis tbtikj;jy;> Mrpupau;fSf;Fg; gapw;rpaspj;jy;> khztu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpj;jy; Nghd;w ,uz;lhk; nkhop Jiwapy;
mfuhjpapay;
mfuhjpapay; (Lecicography) vd;gJ> nrhy; gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahf ,Ug;gjhy; mJ nkhop gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahd nkhopapaypd; gy;NtW gpupTfSld; njhlu;Ggl;ljhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mfuhjpapy; ,lk;ngWk; nrhw;fs;> nrhw;fspd; ,ay;GfSf;Fk; mfuhjp tifikf;Fk; gadhspapd; Njitf;Fk; mfuhjpahsu; cUthf;fpf; nfhz;l newpKiwfSf;Fk; Vw;g gy;NtW gjpTf;$WfisAk; ciladtha; mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xU mfuhjpg; gjpthdJ> jiyr; nrhy;(Head word)> nrhy; %yk; my;yJ nrhw; gpwg;G (etymology), xypg;G Kiw
(pronouncation),
vLj;Jf;
fhl;ly;
(spelling),
,yf;fzg;
nghUs;>
nrhw;nghUs;>
nrhw;nghUs;-tupir Kiw> jiyr; nrhy;Yf;fhd tof;Fg; gapw;rp> Fwpg;ghd;fs;(lables), Nkw;Nfhs;fs; Nghd;w gy $Wfisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ,g;gjpTf; $Wfs; xt;nthd;Wk;
gw;wpa
jfty;fisg;
ngw
mfuhjpahsu;fs;
nfhs;fpd;whu;fs;. mfuhjp tiffs; 1. fiyf;fsQ;rpak; 2. tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpak; 3. nkhop mfuhjp (m). xU nkhop mfuhjp jkpo;
Mq;fpyk;
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;
rpq;fsk; (M).
jkpo;
,Unkhop mfuhjp
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;-Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;
nkhopapaiyNa
Jizahff;
jkpo; Mq;fpyk;-];ghdp~; (,).
gd;nkhop mfuhjp `pe;jp
F[uhj;jp-fh~;kPup-cUJ
njYq;F
fd;dlk;-`pe;jp-F[uhj;jp
fd;dlk;
kiyahsk;-njYq;F-jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;
4.
fhyKiw mfuhjp
5.
tuyhw;W mfuhjp
6. nrhw; gpwg;G mfuhjp 7. xg;gpay; mfuhjp 8. rpwg;gfuhjpfs; Nghd;wit
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpd;wd.
,t;tfujpfSk;
,uz;lhk;
nkhop
fw;gpj;jypy;
njspT> gad;ghL> mfuhjpapYs;s tplaq;fs;> mfuhjpiag; gad;gLj;Jk; Kiwfs; Nghd;witg; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fisg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sy; mtrpakhFk;.
myF 4 4.0.
xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;
Nehf;fk; 1.
jkpo;
kw;Wk;
rpq;fs
nkhopfis>
xyp>
vOj;J>
nrhy;>
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J xw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L 3.
jkpo;
rpq;fs nkhopfis
nkhopfis> xyp>
njhlu;>
nghUs;
nfhs;sy;
vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs;
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J Ntw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sy; ghl mwpKfk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau; xUtu; khztupd; jha; nkhopiag; gw;wp mwpe;jpUj;jy;
mtrpakhFk;.
,yq;ifiag;
nghWj;jstpy;
jkpohdJ>
rpq;fs
nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltu;fSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;wikahy; ,q;Nf jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; xg;gPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. nghJthfj; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; xNu fl;likg;igAiladthff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. MapDk; Mq;fhq;Nf rpy NtWghLfSk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,g;ghlj;jpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs;> xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;ag;gl;L xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfs; ,dq;fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 4.1.
jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; Xu; xg;gPL
4.1.1 xyp> vOj;J 4.1.1.1.
capu; xyp kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
m
M
w
a
,
wd
aa
b
<
c
B
i
C
W
W!
u
ii v
V
t
e
ta
I ft
uu
x ai
T
X ´
o
xs oo
T!
au
ee rpq;fs nkhopapy; cs;s Mdhy; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;yhj ,U capu; xypfSk; vOj;Jf;fSk; tUkhW>
we
æ
wE
ǣ
,tw;wpdbg;gilapy; 1.
jkpo; capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; rpq;fs capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
2.
3.
4.
-
14
jkpo; capu;f; Fwpy; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
5
rpq;fs capu;f; Fwpy; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
6
-
12
jkpo; capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
5
rpq;fs capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
6
jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYNk I kw;Wk; xs Mfpa ,uz;Lk;
$l;nlhypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd. 5.
jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy;
tUfpd;wd. mit nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ ,Wjpapy; tUfpd;w
kl;LNk
nghOJ capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fshfNt
tUfpd;wd. 6.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; capu; vOj;Jf;fspy; ,lk;ngWtjpy;iy. Mdhy;
rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,lk; ngWfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: ft" tA
4.1.1.2.
capu;f; FwpaPLfs;
capu; vOj;J
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;
m
-
-
M
h
d
,
p
s
<
P
S q" =
c
1.
C
}> +
+
v
n
f
V
N
fa
I
i
ff
x
nh
f d
X
Nh
f da
xs
ns
jkpo;
nkhop
NghyNt
Q
f !
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk;
capu;f;
FwpaPLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 2.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f;FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,lq;fspy;
Nky; tUfpd;w nka;f; FwpaPlhd Gs;sp rpy ,lq;fspy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhopapy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: fa
-
f da -
nka;naOj;Jf;fspd;
fha" fka" fÉ" fï fida" flda" fjda" f,da
,lq;fspy;
nka;f;
FwpaPLf;s
4.1.1.3.
nka;naOj;Jf;fs;
f; la
r; É
l; c
Ü
;a
ṭ
t
k
z;
g;
w;
ma
¾
p
ṛ
k;
d;
q;
Q;
x
Coa
Ka
ka
ï
ŋ
ñ
N
ṉ
m
a;
1.
j;
u;
e;
y;
ha
¾
l
y
R
,a
t; õ
ka
o; ḻ
n
s;
ḷ
v
jkpo; nkhopapy; nrhy; Kjypy; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; tUtjpy;iy. mNjNghy;
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy. 2.
jkpo;
nkhopapy;
nka;naOj;ijf;
Fwpg;gjw;F
nka;
vOj;jpd;
,lg;gLfpd;wJ. rpq;fs nkhoapy; ,U tpjkhd nka;f; FwpaPLfs; cs;sd.
a cjhuzk;:-
s
Ü" ï" â 4.1.1.4.
a
;a"
capu; nka;naOj;Jf;fs;
f
r
l
j
g
w
Nky;
Gs;sp
l
p
q
Q Co
K
k
ñ
N
a
u r
y
m
t
z
X
h
;
ṭ
k
1.
g
c
r
p
e k ṉ
y
r
k u
d k
n
m t
o
s
R ,
j
<
<
L
v
ḻ
ḷ
jkpo;
nkhop
NghyNt rpq;fs nkhopapYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fSlDk; nka;naOj;Jf;fSlDk; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; ,ize;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; Njhw;wk; ngWfpd;wd. 2.
jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;s xt;nthU xypf;Fk; vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; mit
tUfpd;w nghOJ vt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;F nkhopapy; xt;nthU capu;nka; xypf;Fk; 3.
ve;j ,lj;jpy;
tpjpKiwfs; cs;sd. Mdhy; rpq;fs
jdpj; jdp vOj;Jf;fs; cs;sd.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fis vOJk; NghJ nka;f;FwpaPlhd Gs;sp ,lg;gLtjpy;iy.
Mdhy;
rpq;fs
nkhoapy;
capu;f;FwpaPLfSk;
nka;f;
FwpaPLfSk; ,izj;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; vOjg;gLfpd;wd. 4.1.2. njhlu;fs; nkhopapd; njhlHfs; gw;wpa Ma;T njhlupay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nrhw;fs; jdpj;J epd;W nghUs; czHj;jpdhYk; mit ,ize;J epd;W njhluhf mikfpd;w nghOJjhd; mJ KOik ngWfpd;wJ. ,t;thW njhlupy; nrhw;fs; rel="nofollow"> nrhy;yikg;Gfs; mikAk; KiwNa njhlHKiw (order) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd njhlHfspy; rpy cWg;Gfs; kpf neUq;fpa njhlHG nfhz;L mikfpd;w nghOJ mit mz;ikAWg;Gfs;
(Immediate
constituents)
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mj;NjhL
mz;ikAWg;Gfspy; fhzg;gLk; ,iaG njhlupiaG (Concord) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. jkpo; nkhopapy; njhluikg;G
njhlu;
,t;thW
cs;s
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
eP
njhlH - 1
th
ng.njh. + tp.njh. + nra.ngh. + Nt + tp.K.
njhlu;
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
Nt.njh.
tp.
ng.njh.
fe;jd;
eha;
I
mbj;jhd;
,j;njhlupy; Xu; vOtha;> xU nraw;gLnghUs;> xU gadpiy cz;L. kugpyf;fzj;jpy; ,j;njhlH jdp thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
njhlH - 2 njhlu;
njh1
ng.njh.
ng.
njh2
tp.njh.
ng.njh. tp.njh.
,.nrh. tp.K. ng. ,.nrh. tp.K.
ehd; ck;
te;Njd;
fky; ck; te;jhd;
ehDk; fkYk; te;Njhk;.
,j;njhlupy; ,uz;L njhlHfs; ,ize;Js;sd. ,j;njhlH kugpyf;fzj;jpy; $l;L thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
rpq;fs nkhopapy; njhluikg;G rpq;fs nkhopapYk; ,t;thwhd njhluikg;G cz;L. v-L: njhlH - 1
njhlu;
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
.ng.njh.
tp.K.
f,Akd
fmar
Nyzh
lhs
Ngu
mzpy;
fap nfha;ahg;gok;
rhg;gpLk;
njhlH - 2
njhlu;
ng.njh.
ng.njh. ng.njh.
tp.njh.
ng.njh
ng.m. tp.K.
ng. ,.nrh. ng. ,.nrh ng. ,.nrh.
uu hd¿fjda kk ehd;
ap
hs
Ek;g ap va
ck; eP
kqU ap
ck; mts; ck;
hs
n`he;j ey;y
weh
hs
fyd|
ahONth ez;gHfs;
ehDk; ePAk; mtSk; ey;y ez;gHfs;.
,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; njhluikg;G mike;Js;sJ. nghJthfNt ,uz;L nkhopfspYk; xNu mikg;ghfNt njhlHfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
4.1.3. nghUz;ikapay; (Semantics)
nkhopapd; nghUz;ik (meaning) gw;wpa nra;jpfisj; jUtjhfg; nghUz;ikapay; mike;Js;sJ. mjhtJ nrhy;ypd; nghUis tpsf;Ftjhf ,g;gFjp mike;Js;sJ. nghUz;ikapy; gy tifahfg; gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
m).
tUzidg; nghUz;ikapay; nrhy; kw;Wk; njhlHfspd; nghUis tpsf;FfpwJ. gb -
ngaH tpid
XL -
c,h
ch jk
M).
-
gb
gbj;jyhfpa nray;
ngaH tpid
osh
-
-
$iu XL
XLjyhfpa nray;
- [ya - ePH> - [a - ntw;wp
le,Eh - nfNya - fhL
tuyhw;Wg; nghUz;ikapay; nghUs; khw;wj;jpidAk; mjw;fhd fhuzq;fisAk; tpsf;FfpwJ. nrhy;
goe;jkpo;
jw;fhyj;jkpo;
fjpH
new;fjpH
vf;];Nu fjpH
thf;F
thHj;ij
ehw;wk;
thf;Fr;rPl;L eWehw;wk;
JHehw;wk;
,t;thwhd nrhw;fisr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; fhZjy; rw;W mupjhf cs;sik Fwpg;gplj;;jf;fjhFk;. MapDk; ,yq;ifapy; Ml;rp nra;j NghHj;Jf;Nfau; kw;Wk; xy;yhe;ju; gad;gLj;jpa nrhw;fs; ,k;nkhopapy; cs;sikiaf; fhz Kbfpd;wJ. rpq;fsr; nrhy; ÿïßh Jk;upa uq,A;ekaf.a
jpirr;nrhy; fldaÉÑh - Gifapujk; Nfhr;rpa l=iaish - rikayiw
Ky;njd;Nf
,).
F];]pa
nghJg; nghUz;ikapay; nkhopayFfspd; nghUisAk; gz;igAk; tpsf;FfpwJ. tPL
- ,y;yk;
kyH
-é
Áy;
- Gj;jfk;
u, - mqIam
-
ky - G~;g
- kyH
kßhd - ysj,d
-
eupah - `ptyh
- eup
fk¿ï - moau -
neOk; - gj;k - jhkiu
,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia tpsf;fyhk;. rpq;fs nkhopapy; nrhy;yikg;ghdJ> jkpo; nkhop NghyNt mike;Js;sJ. 1. jpiz - rpq;fs nkhopapYk; cau; jpiz> m/wpizr; nrhw;fs; cs;sd. 2. ghy;
- Mz;ghy;> ngz;ghy;> ghy; my;yhjit vd ghy; %d;W tifahfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
3. vz; - xUik> gd;ik vd ,U gpupTfshfg; gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. ,lk; - jkpo; nkhop NghyNt jd;ik> Kd;dpiy> glu;f;if vd %d;W
tiffshfg;
gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 5. Ntw;Wik - jkpo; nkhopapy; vl;L Ntw;Wik Fwpg;gplg;gl> rpq;fs nkhopapy; 9 Ntw;Wikfs; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd. 6. fhy ,ilepiyfs;> tpidr; nrhw;fs;> tpidnar;rq;fs; jkpo; nkhop Nghd;w mikg;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sd. 7. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; vOtha;> gadpiy> nrag;gLnghUs; vd thf;fpa fl;likg;G mika> jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; thf;fpakhdJ> vOtha;> nrag;gLnghUs;> gadpiy vd;w xOq;fikg;gpy; mike;Js;sJ.
myF 5 4.0.
cstpay; nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
Nehf;fk; 1. nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;igj; njspTgLj;jy; 2. cstpaYf;Fk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpid tpsf;Fjy; 3. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fis cstpay; mbg;gilapy; jPu;j;jy; ghl mwpKfk; nkhop fw;gjw;Fk; %isf;Fk; ,ilNahd njhlu;G> ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; cstpay; Nfhl;ghLfspd; nry;thf;F> nkhop fw;fpd;wnghOJ khztu;fs; ,lu;gLk; ,lq;fs;> mt;tplu;ghLfis cstpay; uPjpapy; vt;thW jPu;j;Jf;nfhs;syhk; vd;gJ gw;wpa tpsf;fk; ,g;ghlj;jpy; Kd; itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4.1.
nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G
4.2.
cstpapy; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs;
4.2.1. elj;ijthj Nfhl;ghL
elj;ijthjf; NFhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; J}z;bj; Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghL Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. nkhopapd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> elj;ijapd; mbg;gilapy; cUthf;fk; ngw;Ws;sJ. J}z;b Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghlhdJ> mfj;Nj epfOk; nrad;Kiwiaf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;stpy;iy khwhf nkhopf;Fk; fw;wYf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,iltpidapd; gpwg;ghf;fk; nkhopf; fw;if vd;fpd;wJ. ,f;nfhs;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; fw;wy; vd;gJ mtjhdpf;ff; $ba tpisthFk;. ,f;fw;wy; nray;KiwahdJ> jd;dpaf;f mbg;gilapy;
J}z;b-Jyq;fy;
%yk;
,lk;ngWtjhFk;.
jd;dpaf;f
mbg;gilapyhd
gof;fj;ij
cUthf;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F J}z;b-Jyq;fy; nrad;Kiwapyhd elj;ijia cUthf;Ftjw;F> ntFkjpy; nfhLj;jy; gad;gLfpd;wJ. ntFkjp mspj;jyhdJ> elj;ijia kPs typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. elj;ijthjf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapyhd nkhop fw;wyhdJ> kPs typAWj;jy; Kiwapy; fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ. Kjyhk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfSf;fpilNa xw;Wik fhzg;gbd; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;if ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. mit ,uz;Lf;FkpilNa NtWghLfs; fhzg;gbd;> fw;Nghd; jdJ fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; rpf;fiy vjpu;Nehf;Ftjw;fhd tha;g;Gfs; cs;sd. ,r;re;ju;g;gj;jpy; khztDf;F kPs typAWj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; J}z;b-Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghl;by; khztd; fw;wypy; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;j;jy; Kjd;ik ngWfpd;wJ. fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> cj;jpfis khw;wpaikj;jy;> kPs typAWj;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;. 4.2.2. fz;fhzpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL ,f;Nfhl;ghl;il
cUthf;fpatu;
fpwrd;
Mthu;.
,tu;
nkhopia
cs;thq;fYf;Fk;
nkhopiaf;
fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;fp cs;shu;. nkhopia cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> Mokhd epiyapy; eilngWk; nraw;ghlhFk;. ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;ifAk; Mokhd epiyapy; epfo;tjhapd; mJ nghUs; nghjpe;jjhf mikAnkd ek;Gfpd;wdu;. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wyhdJ> fw;wyhf ,lk;ngWk;NghJ> nkhopapd; mikg;G> kw;Wk; tpjpfs; Nghd;wit Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,tupd;
Nfhl;ghl;by;
fpufpj;jy;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpd;wJ.
,J
csr;
nraw;ghl;bid
typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. mJNt nkhop cs;thq;fiy epfo;j;Jfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhop fw;wypy; kdntOr;rpfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. kdntOr;rprhu; epiyapy; nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghL tpidj;jpwDld; mikahJ. MfNt mjw;Fupa #oiy cUthf;fp ,uz;lhk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL ,lk;ngwy; mtrpakhFk;. 4.2.3. mwpiff; Nfhl;ghL mwpiff;Nfhl;ghlhdJ> csr;nraw;ghl;ilg; gw;wpajhFk;. ,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; mwpifr; nrad;KiwahdJ> khw;wk;> nghJikg;gLj;Jjy;> kPs; fl;likj;jy; Mfpatw;iw mfj;Nj nra;fpd;wJ. nkhop fw;wy; vdgJ fw;Nghdpd; mwpif tpUj;jpahFk;. fw;Nghd; vz;zf;fUit rupahd Kiwapy; tpsq;fpa gpd;du; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. mwpif tpUj;jpahdJ> nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd; NjitahFk;. nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd; mwpif epfo;fpd;wJ. J}z;b-Jyq;fy; ghu;f;f NtWgl;ljhFk;.
,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd;
mbg;gilapy;
fw;Nghd;
nkhop
gw;wp
rpe;jpf;fpd;whd;.
tpsq;fpf;nfhs;fpd;whd;. Qhgfg;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;. 4.2.4. r%f fyhrhu Nfhl;ghL tpnfhl;];fp vd;w Nfhl;ghl;lhsu; vd;gtu;> nkhop vd;gJ milahs Kiwikia nfhz;ljhff; fUJfpd;whu;. ,e;j milahsk;rhu; Kiwik jiyKiw jiyKiwahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ. ,tu;> nkhopahdJ> r%fkakhdJk; jd;id ikag;gLj;Jk; mfk; rhu;e;j njhopw;ghl;ilf; nfhz;lnjdf; fUjpdhu;. rpe;jidf;F mbg;gil nkhopahFk;. ,tuJ fUj;Jg;gb> vz;zKk; Ngr;Rk; NtWgl;l %yj;ijf;nfhz;lit. njhlf;fj;jpy; vz;zkhdJ tha;nkhop rhuhjjhfTk; Ngr;rhdJ mwpTepiy rhuhj; jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. nkhop fw;ifr; nraw;ghlhdJ> rpf;fyhd fUtpiaf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ. mJ fw;Nghdpd; rpe;jidiaj; jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; mJ nrhw;fspd; %yk; Gj;jhf;fkhd rpe;jidia ntspf;nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ. nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghlhdJ gpwupd; cjtpAld; ,lk;ngWtjhFk;. mjhtJ fw;Nghd; tsu;e;Njhupd;> ngw;Nwhupd;> rktaJf; FOf;fspd;> Mrpupaupd;> r%fj;jtupd; cjtpNahL nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;.
4.3.
nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL
nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL vt;thW mike;Js;sJ vd;gij tpsf;Fk; Jiwahf cstpaYld; njhlu;Ggl;l euk;gpapy; nkhopapay; Jiw cs;sJ. euk;gpay; nkhopapayhdJ> xU kdpjd; nkhopia cs;thq;Fjy;(aqusitions), fpufpj;jy; (comprehention),
ntspg;gLj;Jjy;(production)
Nghd;w nraw;ghLfs; %isapy; vt;thW epfo;fpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wp tpsf;Ftjhf mike;Js;sJ. euk;gpay; nkhopapayhsu;fs;> euk;gpay; nkhopapay; Ma;T Jiwapd; Ma;T KiwfisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk;> tpjpKiwfisAk; euk;gpay;> tpQ;Qhdk;> nkhopapay;> nkhop MSif> njhlu;ghly;>
euk;gpay;>
cstpay;
Nghd;w
gpupTfis
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L
tiuaiw
nra;fpd;whu;fs;. mJ njhlu;ghfg; gy;NtW Nrhjid El;gq;fisAk; NtWgl;l Nfhl;ghLfisAk; mwpKfk; nra;Js;shu;fs;. euk;gpay; ty;Yeu;fs;> %isia nkhopAld; njhlu;GgLj;Jtjd; %yk; euk;gpay; nkhopapay; kw;Wk; cstpay; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfis cUthf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. Ngr;R
FiwghLilaatu;fSf;F
euk;gpay;
nkhopapay;
mbg;gilapNyNa
rpfpr;irfs;
toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopAld; njhlu;Gila %is gFjpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl ,r;rpfpr;ir Kiwfs; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; nkhop fw;wYld; %isapd; nraw;ghLfs; kpf neUq;fpa njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sjhff; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
4.4.
nkhop fw;wYld; njhlu;Gila rpf;fy;fis cstpay; uPjpapy; jPu;j;jy;
nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. MapDk; nkhopiaf; fw;gpf;Fk; nghOJk; fw;Wk;nfhs;Sk; nghOJk; kdepiy Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. kdjpd; ,af;fj;jpw;F Vw;g fUj;Jk; nrhy;Yk; njhlu;GgLj;jg;gl;L>
ntspg;gLfpd;wd.
,jid
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl
nkhopahdJ
tbtk;
ngWfpd;wJ. Foe;ij gpwe;jJk; mjw;F ahUk; nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhLg;gjpy;iy. Foe;ij jhdhfNt jhd; thOk; #oypypUe;J rpWfr; rpWf nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf jdJ jha;> je;ij> rNfhjuu;fspd; Ngr;R> tho;f;if Kiw Nghd;wtw;iw cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mjw;Nfw;wthW jhDk; nraw;gl Kaw;rp nra;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; Foe;ij Kiwrhuh Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf; fw;Wf;nfhz;L gpd;du; ghlrhiyapy; nkhopia Kiwrhu; Kiwapy; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf ghlrhiyapy; vOj;J tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mt;thW Ngr;R tof;F %yj;jpypUe;J vOj;J tof;fpw;F khWk; epiyapy; (from oracy to literacy) Foe;ij gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;wJ. ,e;epiyapy; Foe;ij nkhopiag; gw;wp rpwe;j mwpitg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mjd;NghJ nkhop
njhlu;ghd
kdg;ghq;FfSk;
language
attituds)
cUthfpd;wd.
nkhopiaf;
fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit Njitg;gLfpd;wd. ,tw;iw cstpay; nkhopapay; MA;thsu;fs; fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghL vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;. ,NjNghd;Wjhd; xU nkhopia ,uz;lhk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;gtu;fSf;Fk; nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit Njitg;gLfpd;wd. mit rupahd Kiwapy; mikahj NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; cstpay; rhu; rpf;fy;fs; rpy tUkhW> 4.3.1. r%fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; nghJthf rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ vOj;J tof;F my;yJ epak tof;F nkhopNa fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;r; r%fj;jpy; vOj;J tof;Nfh my;yJ epak tof;Nfh Ngrg;gLtjpy;iy. khwhfg; Ngr;R tof;Nf tof;fpYs;sJ. vOj;J tof;F my;yJ epak tof;F %yk; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;Wf;nfhz;l khztu;fs;> mjid jdJ md;whl tho;f;ifapy; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ rpy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; xU khztu; vt;thNwDk; jkpo; nkhopapy; ciuahl Ntz;Lk; vd;w
Mirapy; cztfk; xd;wpy; nrd;W ciuahLfpd;whu;. mt;Tiuahly; gpd;tUkhW mike;jpUe;jik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ. thbf;ifahsu;: mz;zd; til ,Uf;fpd;wjh? filf;fhuu;(rpupj;jthW): ky;yp nkhd tNlj Xd? thbf;ifahsu;: vdf;F ,uz;L gUg;G tilfSk; Ie;J cSe;J tilfSk; jhUq;fs;. filfhuu;(,g;nghOJk; rpupj;jthNw): vr;ruapj ky;yp? thbf;ifahsu;(jhDk; rpupj;jthNw): Mkhk;. mz;zd;. ehd; vt;tsT ju Ntz;Lk;? ,t;thW ciuahly; njhlu;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; jd;dk;gpf;ifNahL ciuahliy Muk;gpj;j khztu;> jdJ jkpiof; Nfl;L filf;fhuu; rpupj;jJk; jhd; gpioahd nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tpl;NlNlNdh vd;w jLkhw;wj;jpy;
gpd;du;
mt;Tiuahliy
njhlu
jaq;Ffpd;whu;.
mj;jaf;fkhdJ
mk;khztd;
jkpo;nkhopapy; ciuahLtjw;Fj; jilahf mike;JtpLfpd;wJ. vq;Nf ehk; jtwhfg; Ngrp tpLNthNkh vd;w jaf;fNk ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;Fk; khztu;fsplk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk; cstpay; rhu; rpf;fyhFk;. 4.3.2. ghy; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; tFg;giwapy; khztu;fs; Mz;fs; ngz;fs; vd ,Ughyhuhk; fw;fpd;w nghOJ nraw;ghLfspy;
nraw;gLtjidAk;
fhzyhk;.
,t;thwhd
jho;Tr;rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpdw;hu;fs;. 4.3.4. ghl cs;slf;fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;
re;ju;g;gq;fspy;
Kd;dwptw;w
khztu;fs;
,ay;ghfNt jkpo; nkhop fbdkhdJ vd rpq;fs khztu;fSk; rpq;fs nkhop fbdkhdJ vd jkpo; khztu;fSk;
vjpu;
kiwahd
kdg;ghq;fpidNa
nfhz;Ls;shu;fs;.
mJkl;Lkd;wp
rpy
re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ghl cs;slf;fq;fs; khztu;fsJ jpwDf;F Vw;w tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. my;yJ mtu;fs; vjpu;ghu;j;j tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; jq;fshy; ghlj;ijr; rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;f KbahJs;sNj vd;w vjpu;kiwahd vz;zk; khztu;fisf; fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;dilar; nra;ayhk;. 4.3.4. fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop> mk;nkhop cupj;jhFk; r%fk;> mr;r%fj;jpd;
fyhrhuk;>
gz;ghL Nghd;wit njhlu;ghf Neu;kiw vz;zk; my;yJ kdg;ghq;F my;yhky; vjpu;kiw vz;zk; my;yJ kdg;ghq;F ,Uf;Fkhapd; mk;khztu;fshy; jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;s tpUk;gpa nkhopia vf;fhyj;jpYk; fw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ. 4.3.5. Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; ,d;W ,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs; jkpou;fNs. mNjNghy; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs; rpq;fstu;fNs. MfNt Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd Neu;kiwahd kdg;ghq;F ,y;yhJ tplj;J khztu;fs; fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Fthu;fs;. 4.3.6. fw;gpj;jy; Kiw rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; ,d;W khztu;fs; etPd njhopy;El;gj;jpd;ghy; mjpf Mu;tk; nfhz;Ls;s fhyg;gFjp. MfNt khztu;fSk; fw;gpj;jypy; etPd KiwfisNa tpUk;Gfpd;whu;fs;. mJkl;Lkd;wp nraw;ghLrhu;e;j fw;gpj;jy; KiwapNyNa mjpf Mu;tj;Jld; mk;nkhop rhu;e;j r%fk;> fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL Nghd;wit njhlu;gpy; Kjy; tFg;gpNyNa
khztu;
kj;jpapy;
Neu;kiwahd
vz;zj;ij>
kdg;ghq;if
Vw;gLj;jptpLjy;
mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mJkl;Lkd;wp khztu;fsJ jha;nkhop> mk;nkhoprhu;e;j r%fk;> gz;ghL>
fyhrhuk;
Nghd;wit
njhlu;gpy;
Mrpupau;
Neu;kiwahd
vz;zj;ijAk;
kdg;ghq;ifAk;
nfhz;bUg;gijAk; khztu;fs; mwpar; nra;jy; mtrpakhFk;. khztu;fs; r%fj;jpy; nrd;W NgRfpd;w nghOJ Vw;gLfpd;w rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;g;gjw;F Kjypy; mtu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpf;Fk; Ngr;R tof;F epak tof;F my;yhkYk; gpuNjr tof;F my;yhkYk; ghu;j;Jf;nfhs;Sjy; mtrpahfpd;wJ. MfNt nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpj;jhy; nghUj;jkhdjhf mikAk;. mj;NjhL cstpay; uPjpapy; mk;khztu;fisf; fw;wy; nraw;ghLfSf;Fj; jahu;g;gLj;Jjy; Mrpupaupd; jiyaha filikahf cs;sJ. khztu;fs; Ngrg;NghtJ jha; nkhopay;y. ,uz;lhk; nkhop. Mjyhy; gpioahfg; NgRtJ gw;wp rpe;jpf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy. Muk;gj;jpy; gpioahfg; NgrpdhYk; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; gapw;rp ngw;W jtWfisj; jpUj;jpf;nfhs;syhk; vd mtu;fis Cf;fg;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.
myF 6 6.0.
r%f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
ghl mwpKfk; ,uz;lhk; nkhoj;Jiwapy; nkhopf; nfhs;iffis
cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsHr;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy;> eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; Nghd;w tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wpAk; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mj;NjhL Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;wnghOJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;Jf;Fupa Ngr;R tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ epak tof;iff; fw;gpg;gjh vd;gJ ngUk; rpf;fyhf mike;Js;sJ. ghlj;jpl;lk; tbtikg;gtu;fSf;Fk; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; ,J ngUk; rpf;fyhfNt mike;Js;sJ. MfNt ,t;tpaypy; Nkw; $wg;gl;Ls;s tplaq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;;fs; Kd; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Nehf;fk; 1.
khzu;fSf;Fr; r%f nkhopapay; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Mfpatw;Wf;fpilahyhd njhlu;ig njspTgLj;Jjy;.
2.
r%f nkhopapay; Jiwapy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply; Nghd;wit gw;wpa tpsf;fj;ijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;.
3.
nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;.
4.
nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig mwpar; nra;jy;.
5.
Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba nghJ tof;F gw;wp njspTgLj;jjy;.
6.1.
nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;
kdpj ehfupfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w tplakhf nkhop fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mjdhy; nkhopAk; r%fKk; ,uz;luf; fye;jit vdf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopapd; tsu;r;rpf;Fr; r%fKk; r%f tsu;r;rpf;F nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L r%f nkhopapay; ,aq;Ffpd;wJ. r%f nkhopapaYf;Fj; Njitahd mbg;gilj; juTfisj; jUgitahf mikg;G nkhopapaYk; tpsf;f nkhopapaYk; cs;sd. r%f nkhopapay;> nkhop NgRk; kf;fsJ r%fj;jpd; mikg;G> mr;r%fj;jpd; gpd;dzp> mr;r%fk; vt;thW ,aq;Ffpd;wJ Nghd;w tplaq;fisAk; juTfisAk; jUfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopapay; kw;Wk; r%fk; rhu;e;j juTfisAk; tplaq;fisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; xUq;fpizj;j nkhopapay; Ma;T my;yJ nkhopapay; fy;tp r%f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf> xU r%f kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpid Ma;T> Kjyhtjhf gy;NtW Ma;thsu;fs; Ma;T nra;J Kd; itj;Js;s fpis nkhopapay; gw;wpa nfhs;iffisg; gad;gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd; gpd;du; mr;r%ff; $WfisAk; gbepiy mikg;GfisAk; mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Ngr;R tof;FfisAk; mjd; $WfisAk; ,dq;fz;L r%f nkhopapay; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; nkhopg; gad;ghlhdJ> r%f mikg;ghYk; r%ff; $WfshYk; #oy;fshYk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJ vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. kdpjdpd; gupzhk tsHr;rpNahL Njhw;wk; ngw;w nkhopahdJ> nky;y nky;y tsHr;rpg; ghijia Nehf;fp Kd;Ndw;wkile;jJ. nkhop tsHr;rp vd;gJ nkhop vt;thW tsHr;rp ngw;W te;Js;sJ vd;gjhFk;. nkhop tsHr;rpAld; neUq;fpa njhlHGilaJ r%f tsHr;rp. Vnddpy;; r%fk; tsHr;rp mila mila nkhopAk; tsHr;rp milAk;. r%f tsHr;rpahdJ jha;nkhop %yk; ,lk;ngWtNjhL mr;r%fk; rhHe;j gz;ghL> tpOkpak; vd;gdTk; tsHr;rp ngWk;. MfNt r%f tsHr;rpapd; mbg;gilapNyNa nkhop tsHr;rpAk; mlq;fpAs;sJ. nkhop tsHr;rpapy; Kjd;ikg; gq;F tfpg;gJ nkhopj; jpl;lkplyhFk;. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xU nkhopiar; r%fj; Njitf;F Vw;w tifapy; Kiwahf xOq;FgLj;JtjhFk;. njhlf;ff; fhyq;fspy; nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; gw;wpa vz;zq;fs; r%fj;jpy; ,Ue;j nghOJk; mit xU Kiwikahd tifg;gLj;jyhf mike;jpUf;ftpy;iy. Mdhy; ehsiltpy; gy;NtW ehLfspd; nkhopg; gad;ghLfs; kw;Wk; jpl;lkpLjy;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy; jpwikahfr; nray;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mt;thW nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpl;L tsHr;rp ngwr; nra;tjw;Fg; gy;NtW nfhs;iffs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld. mtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapNyNa
nkhopj;jpl;lkply;
midj;J
ehLfspYk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xUtifahd nkhopg; guhkupg;G my;yJ Kfhikj;Jtk; vd;W epê];Lgpdp (1968) Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;. mtH fUj;Jg;gb nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy; %d;W ngUk; gpupTfspy; mlq;Ffpd;wJ.
nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;
nkhop tsHr;rp
nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjiy eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy;
,g;gpupTfspd; mbg;gilapNyNa nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; nray;gLj;jg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. gy nkhopfs; Ngrg;gLk; ehLfspy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ me;ehl;by; thOk; midj;J kf;fspd; eyd;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;sy; NjitahFk;. nrk;nkhopfs;> ngUk;ghd;ik kf;fshy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> rpWghd;ik kf;fshy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> goq;Fb ,dj;jtHfspd; nkhopfs; vd midj;J tifg;gl;l nkhopfisAk; tifg;gLj;jiy mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;nfhs;iffs; cUthf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,t;thNw nray;gLj;jg;gly; NjitahFk;. NkYk; ,f;fhy kf;fspd; mwptpay;> r%ftpay;> nghUshjhuk;> murpay; Nghd;w midj;Jj; NjitfisAk; epiwNtw;Wk; tifapy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;. Njrpa nkhopfs;> Ml;rp nkhopfs;> caHfy;tp gapw;W nkhopfs;> kf;fs; fUj;Jg; gupkhw;w nkhopfs;>
ngUk;ghd;ik
nkhopfs;>
rpWghd;ik
nkhopfs;
vd;w
mbg;gilapy;
nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpLjYk; gd;nkhopr; r%fq;fis cila ehl;by; nkhop njhlHghd Kuz;ghLfs; Njhd;whjpUf;f toptFf;Fk;.
nkhop tsHr;rpg; gbKiwfs; nkhop tsHr;rpahdJ Kf;fpakhd %d;W gbKiwfisf; nfhz;lJ. mitahtd> m).
vOj;JUthf;fk;
M).
GJikahf;fk;
,).
epiyNgwhf;fk;
(m).
vOj;JUthf;fk;
vOj;JUthf;fk; vd;gJ r%fj; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;Fjy; MFk;. mjhtJ r%fk; kw;Wk; mjd; Njitfs; Nghd;wit ehSf;F ehs; khw;wk; mile;j tz;zKs;sd. mJ jtpu xU r%fk; gy;NtW r%fq;fSld; ,ilj;njhlHGfisAk; Vw;gLj;jpf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,J r%f khw;wkhFk;. cjhuzkhf ,yq;iftho; rpq;fs kf;fs; cyf ehLfSldhd ,ilj;njhlHghy; Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhw;fs; gytw;iw epj;jKk; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. cjhuzkhf>
Fanta, File, Form, Fathima, France Nghd;w nrhw;fisf;
Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,r;nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; F vd;w Mq;fpy nkhop vOj;Jf;F ,izahd rpq;fs vOj;J Njitg;gl;lJ. mjw;fika> F vd;w Mq;fpy vOj;jpw;;Fg; gjpyhf * vd;w rpq;fs vOj;ij cUthf;fpdhu;fs;. mjdhy; NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fs; ,d;W rpq;fs nkhopapy;>
Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xyp ngaHg;G
Fanta
*ekagd
ngd;l;lh
File
*hs,a
igy;
Form gbtk;
f*da¾ï
NghHk;
Fathima
*d;a;ssud
jkpo;; ghdk; Nfhg;G
ghj;jpkh
ghj;jpkh
vd toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thW r%fj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;FjNy vOj;JUthf;fk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Nghd;w vOj;JUthf;fk; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,Jtiu ,lk;ngwtpy;iy. Mdhy; ,t;thwhd vOj;Jfspd; Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; Fanta, France, Frank, Fathima, Cauliflower, German, Japan Nghd;w nrhw;fisj; jkpo;nkhopapy; vOJtjw;Ff; fbdkhf cs;sJ. Mjyhy; mtw;Wf;Fupa jkpo; vOj;Jfs; Njitahf cs;sd. (M).
GJikahf;fk;
ehSf;F ehs; tsHr;rpailAk; Gjpa njhopy;El;gq;fSf;Nfw;g xt;nthU JiwapYk; Gjpa Gjpa nrhw;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehSf;F ehs; gy;NtW Gjpa nrhw;fs;
cUthfpatz;zKs;sd.
mr;nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;w
midj;J
ehLfSk;
mr;nrhw;fSf;Fupa Gjpa nrhw;fisj; jkJ jha;nkhopapy; cUthf;f Ntz;ba epiy Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. Mq;fpy nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; midj;J ehLfSk; midj;Jj; JiwfSk; mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mJNt fiyr; nrhy;yhf;fk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff; fzpdpj; Jiw rhHe;j Mq;fpyr;
nrhw;fSf;Fj;
rpq;fs
kw;Wk;
jkpo;nkhopfspy;;
fPo;tUk;
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
fiyr;nrhw;fs;
Computer
mß.Klh
gupfzf;fa
Thchnology
;dËKkh
jhf;~za
Cell phone
cx.u ÿrl;Kh
[q;fk Juf;fj;jda
fzpdp njhopy;El;gk; miyNgrp
,t;thW Gjpa Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Fupa fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; Fwpg;gpl;l Jiwfs; tsHr;rpailfpd;wd. Gjpa
njhopy;El;g tsHr;rpf;F Vw;w tifapYk; mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
Vw;gLk; NjitfSf;F Vw;gTk; fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ nkhop GJikahf;fk; ngWfpd;wJ. (,). epiyNgwhf;fk; epiyNgwhf;fk; vd;gJ nkhopapd; xt;nthU epiyiaAk; vspik> rPHik> gad;ghl;Lj; jpwik Kjypatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; jug;gLj;JtjhFk;. nkhopia ,t;thW jug;gLj;Jfpd;w nghOJ mk;nkhop epiyNgwhf;fk; ngWfpd;wJ. epiyNgwhf;fj;jpw;nfdr; rpy nfhs;iffis tiuaWj;Jf; nfhz;L
mf;nfhs;iffspd;
mbg;gilapy;
nkhopj;jpl;lq;fisr;
nray;gLj;Jjy;
nkhopapd;
gad;ghl;Lf;Fr; nrk;ik gaf;Fk;. nkhopfspy; epiyNgw;Wj; jd;ik Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; fPo;f;fz;l %d;W Kjd;ikahd $Wfs; JizGupfpd;wd.
nkhopahw;wy; my;yJ nkhopj;jpwd;
nkhop tof;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk; nghJj;jd;ikfs;
nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; Njitahd mstpw;F Vw;gLk; tsHr;rp
NkYk; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;nfd epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjpy; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mitahtd: vOj;J tof;fpy; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. Ngr;R tof;fpy; rKjhaj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fj;jpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. nrhw;fsQ;rpaq;fis cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. fy;tpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfd ,yf;fzq;fs;> ghlg;Gj;jfq;fs;> mfuhjpfs; Kjypadtw;iw cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;. guty; nra;jpj; njhlHgpy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfdr; nrhw;fs;> ,yf;fzr; RUf;fq;fs;> vspjhd nrhw;nwhlH mikg;Gfs; Nghd;wtw;iw epiyNgwhf;ff; nfhs;ifapd; topahf cUthf;fy;. Ml;rpj;Jiwf;fhd nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;. ePjpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;jf; $ba Kiwapy; ehl;L nkhopfspy; Ntz;ba Gjpa nrhw;fs;> nkhopf;$Wfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;.
tsUk; mwptpay; Jiwapd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F Vw;wthW GJg;GJr; nrhw;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw mikg;gjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.
,t;thW epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjd; %yk; xU nkhopia tsHr;rpg;
6.2.
ghijapy; ,l;Lr; nry;yyhk;.
nkhopapd; rKjhag; gzpfs;
6.2.1. rKjhak; gy cWg;gpdHfs; NrHe;jJ FLk;gk;;;;; gy FLk;gq;fs; NrHe;jJ r%fk;; gy r%fq;fspd; njhFg;G rKjhak;. xU r%fj;jpy; thOk; kdpj ,dk;> mt;tpdj;jpd; ehfupfk;> tsHr;rp> tuyhW> gz;ghL> fiy> fyhrhuk;> tho;tpay;> rKjhaepiy> nghUshjhuk;> fy;tp Nghd;w midj;ijAk; ntspg;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpaf; $W nkhopahFk;. NkYk; nkhop xU r%fj;jpw;Fs;Sk; gy r%fq;;fSf;Fs;Sk; njhlHGfis Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. mjd; %yk; nkhopf;$WfSf;Fk; r%ff;; $WfSf;FkpilNa kpf neUf;fkhd njhlHGfs; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
me;jtifapy; ,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo; rpq;fs nkhopfs;
fPo;tUkhW ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa caHe;j rKjhag; gzpfis Nkw;nfhz;l tz;zKs;sd. (m).
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wf; fUtp
nkhopapd; Kjd;ikahd gad;ghL fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wkhFk;. fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wk; vd;gJ Mq;fpyj;jpy; Communication vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. ,r;nrhy; ,yj;jPd; nkhopr;nrhy;yhd Communis vd;gjpypUe;J Njhw;wk; ngw;wjhFk;. ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; ,r;nrhy;Yf;Fg; nghJthf;F> gfpHe;Jnfhs;> nray;tpisT> gad;> nra;jpiag; gug;G vd;Dk; nghUs;fs; cs;sd. MfNt xUtUf;F> ,UtUf;F> gyUf;F ,ilNa my;yJ gy mikg;GfSf;fpilNa ,lk;ngWk; nra;jpg; gupkhw;wKk; mjdhy; Vw;gLk; GupjYk; fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; vdg;gLk;. xU nra;jpiaj; njuptpg;gtH jhd; $w tUk; fUj;;ij my;yJ nra;jpiaf; Nfl;NghH my;yJ ngWeUf;Fr; rpy FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jpf; $WtNjhL Nfl;NghuJ fUj;JfisAk; ngw Kay;tjhFk;. nkhopapay; #oypy; nra;jpiaj; jUeUk; (Source) ngWeUk; (Receiver) kdpjHfshf mikfpd;wdH. ,yq;ifiag; nghWj;jstpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfisj; jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltHfs; jq;fSf;Fs; fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wj;jpy;
nkhopfshff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;wdH. MfNt gy;ypd> gy;fyhrhur; rKjhaf; fl;likg;gpy; ,d xw;Wikf;F fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; kpfTk; Kf;fpakhFk;. mjw;F nkhop kpfTk; gad;ghLilajhf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; mg;gzpiar; nrt;tNd nra;aj; njhlq;fpAs;sikiaj; jw;fhyj;jpy; fhz Kbfpd;wJ. (M).
,U r%fq;fspd; tho;tpaiy ntspg;gLj;Jjy;
jkpo;nkhopahdJ ,yq;ifapy; thOk; jkpoHfspd; tho;tpaiyg; glk;gpbj;Jf; fhl;Ltjhf mike;Js;sJ. aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; kiyafj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; tho;fpd;w Vida jkpoHfs; kl;Lk; K];ypk;fs;> mtHfsJ jdpj;jd;ik> fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL> kjk; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;F ,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo;nkhop ngupJk; cjtpahf cs;sJ. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhop ,yq;ifapy; tho;fpd;w rpq;fs kf;fspd; tho;tpay;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> kjk; Nghd;wtw;iw ntspg;gLj;Jtjhf mike;Js;sJ. (,). fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfshff; fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Fwpg;ghfg; NghH Kbtile;jjd; gpd;dHj; jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo; nkhopiaAk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;whHfs;. Vnddpy; ,q;F tho;fpd;w ,dq;fs; jq;fSf;fpilNa ciuahlhikahy; Vw;gl;l vjpHkiwahd Gupe;JzHNt Aj;jk; Vw;glf;
fhuzk;
vd;w
cz;ikia
czHe;J
nfhz;likahFk;.
me;jtifapy;
jkpo;nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;fhd gzp epiwNtWtjhfTk; mk;nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpd; Njitia epiwNtw;WtjhfTk; cs;sJ. mjd; %yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;nkhop jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpwe;j rKjhag; gzpia Mw;Wfpd;wikia mwpe;Jnfhs;s Kbfpd;wJ. NkYk; ntspehl;ltHfSf;Fj; jkpo;nkhop nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhaj;jpw;Nf gzp Mw;WtjhfTk; mike;Js;sJ. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhopiaj; jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gjd; %yk; rpq;fsr; r%fk; ed;ik ngWfpd;wJ. mjidj; jkpoHfSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fk; gadilfpd;wJ. mk;nkhopia ntspehl;ltHfSf;Ff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhak; gadilfpd;wJ. ,t;thW jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo;nkhopiaAk; fw;Wf;nfhs;tjd; %yk; Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fs; jq;fSf;Fs; njhlHghliy VwgLj;jpf; nfhz;L rpwe;j Gupe;JzHitAk; el;GzHitAk; tsHj;J ,d ey;ypzf;fj;jpid Nkk;gLj;jyhk;. mjd;%yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;> rpq;fsr; r%fq;fs; ,d xw;WikNahLk; mikjpNahLk; jq;fsJ tho;f;ifiaj; njhlu KbAk;. mJ ,yq;ifapd; epiyahd rkhjhdj;jpw;F topNfhYtJ kl;Lkd;wpg; Gyk;ngaHe;J may;ehLfspy; mfjpfshfj; Jd;gq;fSf;fpilNa tho;e;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; jkpoHfSf;F kPz;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; te;J tho;tjw;F Xu; ce;Jjiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nray;ghlhdJ
Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa ey;ypzf;fj;ijAk; xw;WikiaAk; Vw;gLj;Jk; kpfg;ngupa rKjhag; gzpia Mw;wpf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. (<).
Áy;fisg; gilj;jy;
,yq;ifapy; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfspNy gy;NtW Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ,yf;fz Áy;fs;> Gyk;ngaH kf;fs; rhHe;j ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ehl;Lg;Gw ,yf;fpaq;fs;> fy;tpapay; rhHe;j Áy;fs;> etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; rhHe;j Áy;fs; Nghd;w gy;Jiw Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gl;l tz;zKs;sd. mjd;%yKk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; jq;fsJ r%fq;fSf;Fg; gad;ghLiladthf mike;Js;sd. (c).
nkhop ngaHg;G
gy;NtW rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; Mq;fpy Áy;fis jkpo; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gjd; %yk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; r%fq;fSf;F kpfTk; gaDila xU nray;ghl;bid mjd; njhd;ik Nghd;wtw;iwr; rpq;fsr; r%k; mwpe;Jnfhs;s tha;g;ghf mikfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd nkhopngaHg;Gfs; %yk; ,UnkhopfspYKs;s gy mupa Áy;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpYs;s nra;jpfis mk;nkhop rhHe;j r%fq;fs; mwpe;Jnfhs;s Kbfpd;wJ. ,ae;jpu nkhopngaHg;G ,d;W kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j nkhopngaHg;G Kiwahf tsHr;rpaile;J tUfpd;wJ. ,yq;ifapYk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; njhlHghd ,ae;jpu nkhopngaHg;Gr; nray;ghLfs; jw;nghOJ njhlq;fg;gl;Lg; gyH mjpy;
mfuhjp
jkpo;> rpq;fs xUnkhop mfuhjpfs;
jkpo; - rpq;fs kw;Wk; rpq;fs - jkpo; ,Unkhop mfuhjpfs;
jkpo; - rpq;fsk; - Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; rpq;fsk; - jkpo; - Mq;fpyk; Kk;nkhop mfuhjpfs;
vd ,yq;ifapy; gy mfuhjpfs; fhye;NjhWk; Njhd;wpa tz;zKs;sd. Fwpg;ghfj; jw;fhyj;jpy; mbf;fb mfuhjpfs; ntspaplg;gLfpd;wd. Vnddpy; ,yq;if muR ghlrhiy khztu;fSk; mur mYtyfq;fspy; njhypy; GupAk; murhq;f Copau;fSk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfis ,uz;lhk;
nkhopfshff; fw;wypy; Nju;r;rp ngWjy; fl;lhakhFk; vd;w Gjpa nkhopf; nfhs;ifia eilKiwg;gLj;jpAs;sikahy; kf;fs; mk;nkhopfisf; fw;gjpy; mjpf MHtk; fhl;Lfpd;wdH. mjdhy; mk; nkhopr; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia mwpe;Jnfhs;tjw;F mfuhjpfs; Njitahfpd;wd. jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs mfuhjpfspd; Njitia czHe;J muRrhH kw;Wk; muRrhuhg; gy;NtW epWtdq;fs; mfuhjpfis cUthf;fp ntspapl;l tz;zKs;sd. mtw;Ws; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $ba mfuhjpfshf> fy;tp mikr;R kw;Wk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Mfpait ,ize;J 2018 Mk; Mz;L ntspapl;Ls;s jkpo;-rpq;fs (,uz;lhk; nkhop) mfuhjpAk; murfUk nkhopfs; jpizf;fsj;jpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;s mfuhjpfSk; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $baitahf tpsq;Ffpd;wd. tpsq;Ffpd;wd. mt;tfuhjpfs; gs;spf;$l khztHfs; Kjy; njhopy;GupgtHfs; tiu kpfTk; gaDiladthf mike;Js;sd. (C).
fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fk;
jw;fhyj;jpy; vq;Fk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vjpYk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vd;w xU epiyg;ghL epyTfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xt;nthU kzpj;JspapYk; Gjpa Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; Njhd;wpatz;zKs;sd. Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehs;NjhWk; Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; cUthfpatz;zKs;sd. MfNt mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis me;eje;j nkhopapy; cUthf;f
Ntz;baJ fhyj;jpd; Njitahf cs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf fzpdpAld; njhlHGila Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Ff; fPo;tUk; fiyr;nrhw;fs; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
internet
wka;¾cd,h
md;jH[hya
,izak;
email
úoahq;A ;eme,A
website
fjí wvúh
tpj;Aj; njg;ghy; ntg; mltpa
kpd;dQ;ry;
tisj;jsk;
Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; nrhw;fisj;
jUfpd;wd
vd;w
tifapYk; mk;nkhopfs; rKjhaj;jpw;F cjTfpd;wd.
6.3. nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G xU r%fj;jpy; fhyq;fhykhf ,Ue;J tUk; gof;f tof;fq;fs;> czT Kiwfs;> Nghd;wtw;wpd;
njhFg;G
gz;ghL
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
,yFtpy;
fiyfs;> topghl;L Kiwfs; khw;wkilahj
gz;ghL
mr;r%fj;jpw;nfdr; rpwg;ghf mike;j $Wfisj; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,t;thwhd gz;ghl;Lf; $Wfis xd;wpizg;gJ nkhopahFk;. Mjyhy; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilNa neUq;fpa njhlHGz;L. gz;ghL vd;gJ gue;j nghUisf; nfhz;l xU nrhy; MFk;. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Culture vdg;gLk; nrhy; gz;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gjhf mike;Js;sJ. rpy mwpQHfs; culture vd;w nrhy; fyhrhuk; vd;gijf; Fwpg;gjhff; fUJtNjhL fyhrhuk; NtW> gz;ghL NtW vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLtH. NtW rpyH fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL Mfpa ,uz;LNk xd;Wjhd; vd typAWj;Jfpd;wdH. MapDk; xU r%fj;jpd; khw;wkilAk; $Wfs; fyhrhuk; vd;Wk; khw;wkilahj $Wfs; gz;ghL vd;Wk; kpf ,yFthff; fyhrhuj;ijAk; gz;ghl;ilAk; gpupj;jwpayhk;. MfNt khWtJ fyhrhuk;; khwhjJ gz;ghL. Xu; ,df;FOtpd; tuyhW> r%ff; fl;likg;Gfs;> kj topghLfs;> ek;gpf;iffs;> fiy> nkhop> njhopy;rhH njupTfs;> fUtpfs; vd midj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpaJ gz;ghL vdyhk;. ,J nghUs;rhH gz;ghL> FwpaPLrhH gz;ghL> mbg;gilg; gz;ghL> fyg;Gg; gz;ghL> gy; gz;ghL vdg; gy tifg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; nkhopNahL gz;ghl;il ,izj;Jg; ghHg;gjw;F NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s gz;ghL vd;w nrhy;ypy; cs;slq;Fk; tplaq;fs; gad;jukhl;lh. nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; vd;fpd;w Nehf;fpy; gz;ghL vd;gJ xU kdpjd; jhd; rhHe;j rKjhar; nray;ghl;by; gq;Nfw;Fk; tifahd mwpT vdyhk;. mjhtJ jhd; thOk; r%fj;jpy; jd;Dld; thOk; kdpjHfshy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLk; xj;j elj;ij gw;wpa mwpTk; gpw kdpjuhy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;glf; $ba r%fr; nray;ghLfs; gw;wpa mwpTkhFk;. ,j;jifa mwpT rKjhaj;jpy;> rKjhaj;jhy; ngwg;gl;l xd;whf ,Uf;Fk;. ,ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwit Muha;jy; Ntz;Lk;. xUtH NgRfpd;w nkhopapd; mikg;igg; nghWj;Nj mtH ghHf;Fk; cyfKk; mikAk;. mNjNghy; xU r%fj;jpd; gz;ghL> mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w
nkhopapy; ntspg;gLk;. me;jtifapy;
nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L. nkhopiag; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;Fg; gz;ghLk; gz;ghl;ilg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;F nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit. kdpjd; jd; nray;ghLfis nkhop %yNk ntspg;gLj;Jfpwhd;. nkhopapd; gad;ghbd;wp kdjdhy; cyfpy; tho KbahJ. me;jtifapy; kdpjdpd; fUj;Jfis cUthf;FtJk; vz;zq;fis cUthf;FtJk; nkhopNa. vz;zq;fis cUthf;FtJ vd;gJ jdpj;j xU nray;ghL md;W. mJ xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzq;fspd; fl;likg;ghy; mikf;fg;gLtJ. mj;jifa ,yf;fzf; fl;likg;igf; nfhz;L kdpjd; cyfpYs;s nghUs;fisg; ghFgLj;Jfpwhd;. Mf nkhopapd; mikg;gpw;F Vw;gr; rpy jd;ikfis Vw;wpr; rKjhaj;jpy; toq;fp tug;gLfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapd; mikg;ghfNt gz;ghL fl;likf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,U NtWgl;l nkhop mikg;igf; nfhz;l r%fj;jpduJ cyfg;ghHit> ,U NtWgl;ljhfNt ,Uf;Fk;. ,U NtWgl;l nkhopr; r%fj;jpdupd; nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLk; nrhw;fs; xd;whf miktjpy;iy. xU nkhopapy; xd;iwg; gw;wp Vuhskhd nrhw;fSk; NtWnkhopapy; mj;jifa jd;ik ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;. xU nkhopapy; tpyq;Ffs; gw;wp my;yJ gwitfs; gw;wp cs;s nrhw;fs; NtW nkhopapy; ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
cjhuzk;: Mq;fpy nkhopapy; cs;s Bun (gd;)> Bread (g;nul;)> Burger (gHfH)> Pizza (gPl;rh)> Biscut (gp];fl;)> Fried Rice (gpiul; iu];) Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,r;nrhw;fs;
Mq;fpNyaHfspd;
czTld;
njhlHGgl;l
nrhw;fshFk;.
mNjNghy;
jkpo;
nkhopapYs;s $o;> Njhir> ,l;yp> rhk;ghH> Jitay;> nghq;fy; Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,r;nrhw;fs; jkpoHfspd; gz;ghl;Lld; njhlHGgl;l nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; vyg;g> M];kp> Qhdfj;jh> vk;Gs; jpay;> fl;l rk;NghNy> YZ kpup]; Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,it rpq;fs nkhop NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;Lld; njhlu;Ggl;l nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; nkhopapd; ,yf;fzf; $Wfshd jpiz> ghy;> vz;> ,lk; Nghd;wdTk; nkhopf;F nkhop khWgLtjidf; fhzyhk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLk;
you vd;w nrhy;
aho;g;ghzj; jkpoupd;
Ngr;R tof;fpy;
gpd;tUkhW
toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ. eP
-
Kd;dpiy xUik jd;idtpl tajpy; Fiwe;jtHfisAk; rk taJilatu;fisAk; ez;gHfisAk; tpspf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
ePH
-
Kd;dpiy xUik rk
taJilatu;fisAk;
MrpupaHfs;
khztHfisAk;
tpspg;gjw;Fk;
gad;gLfpd;wJ. ePq;fs;
-
Kd;dpiy kupahij xUik> gd;ik
jd;id tpl tajpy; ngupatHfisAk; (jha;> je;ijaH) gd;ikg; nghUspy; tpspg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wJ. aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; ,t;thwhd ghFghLfs; ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gz;ghL MFk;. ez;giu tpspg;gJ Nghy; ngw;NwhiuAk; MrpupaiuAk; tpspj;jy; jkpoH gz;ghlhfhJ. mNjNghy; MrpupHfs; $l khztHfis kjpg;Gld; tpspf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;fhf ‘ePH’ vd;w nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. goq;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L kiwe;J Nghd ‘ePH’ vd;w nrhy;iyj; jw;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;Jk; Xu; ,dkhf aho;g;ghzj; jkpopdk; tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. MapDk; Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ,j;jifa xU gz;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;G ,d;ikahy; mtHfs; ,isa rNfhjud; Kjy; ngw;NwhH> MrpupaH> ez;gH> xUtu; vd midtiuAk; ePH vd tpspg;gjw;F ‘you’ vd;w nrhy;iyNa gad;gLj;Jfpd;whHfs;. mNjNghy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspNy tof;fpYs;s
cwTKiwr; nrhw;fs; mk;nkhopfs; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;bid vLj;Jiug;gdthf mike;Js;sd. cjhuzk;: rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
Mq;fpyk;
whshd
ma;ah
mz;zh
u,A,s
ky;yp
jk;gp
brother (elder)
wlald
mf;fh
mf;fh
sister (younger)
kx.s
eq;fp
jq;if
udud
khkh
khkh
kekaod
brother (younger)
sister (elder) uncle
nee;jh
khkp
aunty
,r;nrhw;fis Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fk; Mq;fpy nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL njspthfj; njupfpd;wJ. mt;thwhd NtWghl;Lf;Ff; fhuzk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs ,dj;jpd; gz;ghL MFk;. mg;gz;ghL nkhopapy; njupfpd;wikia Nky;tUk; nrhw;fs; njspthf vLj;J tpsf;Ffpd;wd. vdNt nkhopahdJ gz;ghl;il ntspf;fhl;Lk; xU fUtp vd;Wk; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
,jdbg;gilapy;
Nehf;Ffpd;w
nghOJ
xt;nthU rKjhaj;jpd; tho;f;if Kiwf;F Vw;g mr;rKjhak; gad;gLj;Jk; nkhopapy;> nrhw;fs; ,lk;ngw;wpUf;Fk;. tho;f;if Kiw vd;gJ gz;ghl;bd; xU Kf;fpaf; $W MFk;. ,jd; %yk; rKjhaj;jpw;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;FkpilNa neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xU rKjhaj;jpy; nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;witahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 6.5.
Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba tof;F gw;wp njspTgLj;jjy;.
nghJthfg; Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjpy; gyu; gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. mjw;Ff; fhuzk; fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w Ngr;R tof;fhFk;. Fwpg;ghf ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ ,r;rpf;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf
,d;W
,yq;ifapy;
jkpo;
nkhopahdJ
ehL
KOtJk;
,uz;lhk;
nkhopahff;
fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW fw;gpf;fpd;w epWtdq;fs; Ngr;R tof;F jkpo; fw;gpg;gjw;fhf fw;wy;
rhjdq;fis
tbtikf;fpd;w
nghOJ
rpy
Fwpg;gpl;l
gpuNjr
Ngr;R
tof;fpidg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;whu;fs;. gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;F vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;ijr; Nru;e;jtu;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; tof;fhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> aho;g;ghz gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;fpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;iua> vd;l
Nghd;w nrhw;fs; kiyafj;jpy; vd;l> VTl;L> vd;Dila vdg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mJNt K];ypk; kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; Vd;l vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,JNghy; ,yq;ifapy; gpuNjrj;Jf;Fg; gpuNjrk; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F NtWgLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;if fw;gpf;f cUthf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; ,t;thwhd gpuNjr tof;FfNs gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; fw;gpgtu; midj;Jg; gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;Ffs; gw;wpa mwpitg; ngw;wpUf;fhtpl;lhy; mtuhy; nrhw;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupj;J fw;gpf;f KbahJ. mJ kl;Lkd;wp Ngr;R tof;fpid fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; khztu;fSf;Fk; mJ rpf;fiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. rpy fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; vOj;J tof;Nf Ngr;R tof;fhff; fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. khztu;fs; mt;thwhd vOj;J tof;fpid rKjhaj;jpy; jq;fsJ md;whlj; NjitfSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;;whu;fs;. ,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ
midj;Jg;
gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; nghJthf cs;s Ngr;R tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> vd;l> thq;f Nghd;w nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; kpf ,yFthf fw;gpf;fyhk;> fw;fyhk;> gad;gLj;jyhk;. MfNt ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpg;gjw;F vy;yhg; gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; gad;gLj;j Vw;wtifapy; nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.
Jiwapy;
nghwpapayhsu;fs;>
r%ftpay;
Jiwapy;
Clfj;
Jiwapy; jahupj;jy;
nkhopngau;g;Gj;
Jiwapy;
Jiwapdu;fSk; ,d;W nkhopapaiyg; gad;gLj;jpf;nfhs;gtu;fshf cs;shu;fs;. me;j tifapy; nkhopapay; Jiw ,d;W kpfTk; gpugy;akhd> gaDila xU Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw;W tUfpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; Jiwapy;
wE Mfpa
xypfSfSf;F ,izahd xypfs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. MfNt mtw;iwf; Fwpg;gjw;F fPo;tUk; nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
we
æ
wE
ǣ
jkpo; nkhopapy; aho;g;ghzg; Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;LNk ,t;tpU xypfSk; cs;sd. cjhuzk;: md;dk; (ænnam)
Mrpupau; (ǣsiriyar)
kuk; (mæram)
eha; (nǣy)
Mq;fpy nkhopapYk; ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd FwpaPLfs; ,y;iy. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Mg;gpy; vd;gij apple vd vOjp æpple vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. vWk;G vd;gij ant vd vOjp ænt vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. passport vd vOjp pǣssport vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;.
jkpo; khztu;fSf;Fr; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd tplakhf cs;sJ rpq;fs vOj;Jf;fshd we" nkhopapy;
wE Nghd;wtw;iw fw;gpg;gjhFk;. ,tw;Wf;F ,izahd vOj;Jf;fs; jkpo;
,d;ikahy;
,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf;
fw;gpg;gjpy;
Mrpupau;fs;
rpf;fy;fis
vjpu;
Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. ,t;ntOj;Jf;fisf; fw;gjpy; Fwpg;ghf cr;rupg;gjpy; jkpo; khztu;fSk; rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf: rpq;fs nkhopr; nrhy;yhd we;A; (cz;ik) vd;gij jkpo; nkhopapy; vOjpdhy; ‘mj;j’ vd;W vOj Ntz;Lk; my;yJ ‘vj;j’ vd;W vOj Ntz;Lk;. mj;j vd;gJ jkpo; Ngr;R tof;fpy; je;ijapd; rNfhjup (khkp) vdg; nghUs;gLk;. mNjNghy; vj;j vd vOjpdhy; rupahd cr;rupg;igg; ngw;Wf;nfhLf;f KbahJ. ,t;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; nkhopapay; FwpaPlhd æ vd;gijg; gad;gLj;jp æththa vd vOjp rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupf;f KbAk;. mNjNghy; rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;f; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ nrhy; Kjypy; tUfpd;w c vd;gjw;F ,izahfr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; W
vd;w vOj;J gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt u vd
cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;lTk; KbAk; vOjpf;fhl;lTk; KbAk;. Mdhy; me;j c nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ nrhy; ,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;G c vd tUtjpy;iy. Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;wJ. mg;nghOJ mjdJ cr;rupg;Gk; khWgLk;. Mdhy; FwpaPL ,Ue;jhNy rpq;fs khztu;fSf;F kpf ,yFthf mt;ntOj;ij ,dq;fz;L cr;rupf;f KbAk;. mJ ,d;ikahy; mtu;fs; mt;ntOj;ijr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; c vdg; gpioahf vOjpg; gpioahf cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf: ehL vd;w nrhy;ypYs;s ,Wjp xyp c vd cr;rupf;fg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs khztu;fs; mr;nrhy;iyr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; kdvq vd vOjp naadu vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. khL> fhL> tPL> FUtp> cg;G vd cfuk; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; tUk; ,lq;fspnyy;yhk; khztu;fs; u vd cr;rupf;fpd;whu;fs;. ,J gpioahd cr;rupg;G KiwahFk;. ,t;tplj;jpy; MrpupaUf;F nkhopapay; Jiz nra;fpd;wJ. mjhtJ c vd;gJ nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ u vd;w FwpaPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mNj c nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; kw;Wk; ,Wjpapy; Fw;wpaYfukhf tUfpd;w nghOJ nkhopapaypy; ω vd;w FwpaPL gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. MfNt nrhy;ypd; ,ilapYk; ,WjpapYk; ,e;jf; FwpaPl;il vOJtjd; %yk; rpq;fs khztu;fs; jkpo;r; nrhw;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupg;gjw;F topNaw;gLj;jpf; nfhLf;fyhk;. ehL vd;gij nkhopapay; FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jp naadω
vd vOjp cr;rupf;fyhk;. ,e;jf;
FwpaPL khztu;fSf;F vOj;ij ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sr; rpukhf ,Uf;Fkhapd; naaduω vd vOjp cr;rupf;fyhk;.
rpq;fs nkhopapy; xt;nthU xypf;Fk; xt;nthU vOj;J cz;L. jkpo; nkhoapy; gy xypfs; ,Uf;fpd;wd. mt;thwhd xypfs; nthd;iwAk; vOJtjw;F vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; me;j xypfs; ,e;j ,lj;jpy; tUfpd;w nghOJ ,t;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLk; vd;gjw;Fupa tpjpKiwfs; jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;sd. mt;tpjpfspd; mbg;gilapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gJk; fw;Wf;nfhs;tJk; kpfTk; rpukkhd tplakhFk;. mr;rpukj;ijg; Nghf;Fk; Jiwahf nkhopapay; Jiw tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopapy; g vd;w xypia vLj;J Nehf;FNthk;.
nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (glk;) nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUfpd;w nghOJ p, m (mg;gk;)
g
,uz;L capnuOj;Jf;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUfpd;w nghOJ β, * (jghy;) ,d vOj;jhd ‘k;;’ vOj;ij mLj;J tUfpd;w nghOJ b, n (jk;gp)
vd cr;rupf;fg;gLk;. vOjpf; fhl;lg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd jkpo; nkhop cr;rupg;G NtWghLfisj; jkpo; nkhopiaj; jha; nkhopahff;nfhs;shj khztu;fSf;F ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;tjw;F nkhopapay; FwpaPLfs; ngupJk; Jiz epw;fpd;wd. ,t;thW nkhopapd; fl;likg;gpid nkhopapay; FwpaPLfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; MFk;. mjdhy; mikg;G nkhopapay; gw;wp jkpohrpupau;fs; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mg;gpupTfSs;> mikg;G nkhopapay;> gadhf;f nkhopapay;> cstpay; nkhopapay;> xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;> r%f nkhopapay; Nghd;wit ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gilaitahf cs;sd. mjdhy; ,t;thwd nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa mwpT> tpsf;fk;> njspT ngw;W nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Jiwapy;
nghOJ
Mrpupau;fsJ
fw;gpj;jw;
nraw;ghLfisAk;
khztu;fsJ
fw;ww;
nraw;ghLfisAk; ntw;wpfukhf mikj;Jf;nfhs;s KbAk;. Mjyhy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;F Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s nkhopapay; Jiwfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jidf; fUj;jpw;nfhz;L> 1. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk; 2. mikg;G nkhopapay; 3. gadhf;f nkhopapay; 4. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;
5. cstpay; nkhopapay; 6. rKjha nkhopapay; Nghd;w
,uz;lhk;
nkhop
fw;gpj;jw;
JiwAld;
njhlu;Gila
nkhopapaw;
gpupTfs;
,g;ghlnewpapy; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. myF - xd;W 1.0. nkhopapay; - Xu; mwpKfk; Nehf;fk;: 1.
nkhop kw;Wk; nkhopapay; Mfpatw;Wf;;fpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;Fjy;.
2.
nkhopapaypd; gpupTfis mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy;.
3.
,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpj;jypy; nkhopapaypd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij
1.1.
nkhopf;Fk; nkhopapaYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL
tpgupj;jy;.
1.1.1. nkhop vd;why; vd;d? nkhop vd;gJ xU njhlu;ghlw;; fUtp vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ kdpjd; ehfuPfkile;jJ Kjy; ,d;W tiu guk;giu guk;giuahff; filgpbf;fg;gLtJk; Ngr;nrhypfisAk; vOj;Jf;fisAk; FwpaPLfisAk; Kiwahfg;
(Systematic
use)
gad;gLj;jp
xU
Fwpg;gpl;l
nkhopr;
r%fj;jpw;Fs;
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wNkh my;yJ njhlu;ghlNyh epfoj; JizGupAk; fUtp nkhop vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kdpju; xUtiunahUtu; Gupe;Jnfhz;L xU $l;lkhfTk; xU rKjhakhfTk; tho nkhop gad;gLfpd;wJ. kdpjdpd; ehfuPfk;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> tho;f;if tpjpKiwfs;> cwTfs;> czu;Tfs; Nghd;wtw;wpw;nfy;yhk; mbg;gilahf nkhop tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; jdp kdpj rpe;jidiag; ngUf;fp rKjhaj;Jld; xd;wpize;J tho nkhop cjtpahf cs;sJ. 1.1.2. nkhopapay; vd;why; vd;d?
goq;fhy kdpjdpd; nkhopia Muha;r;rp nra;jtu;fs;> Muk;gfhyq;fspy; xNu nkhopNa Ngrg;gl;ljhfTk; mjd; gpd;dNu gy fpisfshfg; gpupe;J ehSf;F ehs; mit tsu;r;rpaile;jjhfTk; mwpa Kbfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; `Pg;U nkhopjhd; cyfpy; Njhd;wpa Kjy; nkhop vd;gJk; mjd; gpd;du; kdpjdhy; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gl;litNa Vida nkhopfs; vd;gJk; goq;fhy kf;fspd; vz;zkhFk;. kf;fs; kj;jpapy; Mapuf; fzf;fhd nkhopfs; Ngrg;gbDk; mk;nkhopfs; midj;Jk; mjw;Fupa fl;likg;gpNyNa mike;jpUf;Fk;. mtw;Ws; rpy nkhopfs; gy xw;Wikf; $Wfisf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. mj;jifa nkhopfs;> xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf rpq;fsk;> ghyp> xuprh Nghd;w nkhopfs; xNu jd;ikAilait. mjdhy; mit Mupa nkhopf;
FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j nkhopfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo;> njYq;F> fd;dlk;> kiyahsk; Mfpa nkhopfs; xNu tifahd fl;likg;igf; nfhz;Ls;sJld; gy xw;WikfisAk; jk;kfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;sikahy; ,e;ehd;F nkhopfSk; jpuhtplk; vd;w nkhopf; FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;jit vd mf;fhy nkhop Ma;thsuhd fhyl;nty; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;. ,t;thW cyf nkhopfSs; xw;WikAk; Ntw;WikAk; ,Ug;gJ ,ay;Ng. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L cyf nkhopfis gpd;tUkhW ehd;F tiffshf tifg;gLj;jpAs;shu;fs;. 1.
jdpepiy nkhopfs; (Isolation Language)
2.
xl;Lepiy nkhopfs; (Agglutinative Language)
3.
cl;gpizg;G epiy nkhopfs; (Inflexional Language)
4.
cs;slf;F nkhopfs; (Incoparating Language)
,tw;Ws; ve;j nkhopahf ,Ue;jhYk; mtw;Wf;F ,U cUtq;fs; cs;sd. kdpjd; jhd; Ngrf;$ba Ngr;R tof;F nkhopf;Fk; mt;tpU cUtq;fs; cs;sd vd;gJ nkhopapayhsu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mt;tpU cUtq;fSk; rpy gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sd. mtw;iwf; fPo;tUk; tiuglk; %yk; mwpe;Jnfhs;syhk;. nkhop
Gw cUtk;
vOj;jpay;
xypapay;
mf cUtk;
,yf;fztpay;
xypadpay;
nghUz;ikapay;
cUgdpay;
njhlupay;
,t;thW xypay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay;> nghUz;ikapay; vd nkhop gw;wpa midj;J tpsf;fq;fisAk; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;Ls;s ,aNy nkhopapay; MFk;. nkhopia tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;Ak; Jiw nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ nkhopapd; mikg;G vt;thW tbtk; ngWfpd;wJ? me;j mikg;gpy; gq;FngWk; epiyfs; (Levels) vit? $Wfs; (features) vit? myFfs;
(unites) vitnait?
,tw;Wf;F
,ilNaahd
njhlu;Gfs;
vit?
mit
vt;thnwy;yhk;
njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? mt;thW njhlu;GgLj;jg;gLtjhy; KOikahd nkhopaikg;Gf;fs; vt;thW ntspg;gLfpd;wd Nghd;wtw;iw nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. NkYk; nkhop vt;thW rKjhaj;jpy; gq;Nfw;W> Kiwrhu; kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh gzpfisr; nra;tjw;Fj; Jizahf mikfpd;wJ vd;gJ Nghd;w
tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapay; tpsf;Ffpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopaikg;G (Language Structure) nkhopapd; gad;ghL (Language Use) Mfpa ,U ngUk; gpupTfs; nkhopapaypy; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. nkhopapd; ,t;thwhd xt;nthU $WfisAk; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;gtu;fs; nkhopapayhsu;fs; (Linguists) vdg;gLfpd;whu;fs;. kuG rhue;j ,yf;fzk; kugpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjpypUe;J khWgl;L> ,yf;fzj;ijg; Gjpa fz;Nzhl;lj;jpy; Nehf;Fk; Kiwik khw;wpyf;fzk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kugpyf;fz> khw;wpyf;fz NtWghLfs; kugpyf;fzk;
khw;wpyf;fzk;
1. jha;nkhopahsu;fshy; vOjg;gl;lJ.
nkhop Ma;thsu; ahuhYk; vOjg;glyhk;
2. xU r%fj;jpy; tof;fpy; cs;s
nkhop gw;wp fw;f Mu;tk; ciltu;fSf;fhf
nkhop gw;wp mr;r%fj;jpdUf;fhf
vOjg;glJ.
vOjg;gl;lJ. 3. vOj;J nkhopf;F Kf;fpaj;jtk; mspf;fg;gl;lJ. 4. tpjp Kiwf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp
1.2.
Ngr;R nkhop> vOj;J nkhop Mfpa ,uz;ilg; gw;wpAk; Muha;fpd;wJ. tpsf;f
Kiwf;F
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
mspf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzk; gw;wp nkhop
jha;nkhopahsd; jhd; vOj
Ma;thsu; ahUk; vOjyhk; vd;w Nghf;fhy;
Ntz;Lk; vd;w Nghf;fhy; gy
goq;Fb nkhopfSf;Fk; ,yf;fzk; vOjg;gl;L
nkhopfs; mope;J Nghapd.
mit capNuhl;lk; ngw;wd.
nkhop gw;wpa nkhopapaypd; tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd fUj;Jf;fs;
nkhopapay; rpe;jidfs; gjpndl;lhk; E}w;whz;lstpy; Njhw;wk; ngw Muk;gpj;jhYk; mj;JiwahdJ> gj;njhd;gjhk; E}w;whz;bd; gpd;dNu tpQ;Qhdk; rhu;e;j Jiwahf tsu;r;rp ngw Muk;gpj;jJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapay; JiwahdJ> nkhopia tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;J nkhop gw;wp gpd;tUk; fUj;Jf;fis Kd; itf;fpd;wJ. m).
nkhopapd; fl;likg;G mbg;gilapy; vy;yh nkhopfSNk rkkhdit.
mjpfsthd kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w nkhop vd;w nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh my;yJ Mq;fpy
cjhuzkhf
cyfpy;
tifapy; Mq;fpy nkhop cau;thd
nkhopapy; fijj;jhy; kl;LNk r%fj;jpy; nfsutk;
fpilf;Fk; vd;w kdg;ghq;Nfh jtwhdit. xU nkhop mk;nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk;
r%fj;jpd;
Njitia epiwNtw;Wkhdhy; mJ mq;fPfupf;fg;gl;l nkhopNa. me;j tof;fpYs;s midj;J nkhopfSNk mijg; gad;gLj;Jk;
r%fj;jpd;
tifapy;
Njitia
cyf
epiwNtw;WtdthfNt
mike;Js;sd. mjdhy; nkhopfSf;fpilNa Vw;wj; jho;Tfs; ,y;iy. mjdhy; ,e;j
nkhopjhd;
cau;thd nkhop ,e;j nkhop jho;thd nkhop vd;w kdg;ghq;F
MfNt
jtwhdjhFk;.
,e;j
nkhop tsu;r;rpaile;j nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtk; tha;e;j nkhop ,e;j nkhop tsu;r;rp Fd;wpa nkhop my;yJ Kf;fpaj;Jtkw;w gad;gLj;JNthupd;
r%fg;
nkhop
Nghd;w
gz;ghLld;
kdg;ghq;Ffs;
njhlu;Gila
mk;nkhopiag;
tsu;r;rpNa
md;wp
nkhop
njhlu;ghdJ my;y. M).
,J ,dpikahd nkhop> ,J fbdkhd nkhop> ,J nfhLikahd nkhop
nkhopia tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. xt;nthUtUf;Fk;
vd;nwy;yhk;
mtutu; nkhop ,dpikahdNj. mUikahdNj.
jdpr;rpwg;GilaNj. ,).
nkhopiag;
nghWj;jstpy;
Kjypy;
Njhd;wpaJ
Ngr;R
tof;Nf.
Ngr;R
mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl vOj;J tof;F Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. mjdhy; Ngr;R jho;e;jJ. vOj;J tof;Nf cau;e;jJ vd;gJ jtwhd kdg;ghq;F MFk;.
tof;if
tof;F
Ngr;R tof;F vOj;J tof;iftpl
ve;jtifapYk; jho;e;jJ my;y. <).
rpyu; rpy Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapYs;s nfhr;irr; nrhw;fisf; nfhz;L mJ
Ngr;R tof;F vd;w KbTf;F tUfpd;whu;fs;. mJ mr;r%fk; rhu;e;j Muha;e;J ghu;j;jhy; mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w Ngr;R gad;gLj;jg;gLtjid mtjhdpf;fyhk;.
jho;thd
kdg;ghq;Nfad;wp
tof;fpYk;
nfhr;irr;
nrhw;fs;
MfNt xU rKjhaj;jpy; tof;fpYs;s
Ngr;R
tof;F
nkhopfis cau;e;jJ> jho;e;jJ vd tiuaiw nra;a KbahJ. cyf tof;fpy; midj;J Ngr;R tof;FfSNk cau;thditNa. c).
nkhopahdJ fhyj;jpw;Ff; fhyk; khw;wq;fisg; ngw;W tsu;r;rp mile;J tUk;
JiwahFk;. mjw;F mbg;gil fhuzk; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; r%fj;jpd; tsu;r;rpAkhFk;. MfNt nkhopahdJ> khw;wq;fis
cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L
xU khw;wKk;
mjw;Nfw;wtifapy;
khWk; ,ay;Gila xU JiwahFk;. 1.3.
nkhopapay; gpupTfs;
nkhopapaw; JiwahdJ> jw;NghJ kpf Ntfkhf tsu;e;J tUk; xU JiwahFk;. mjdhy; ,d;W gy;NtW nkhopfspd; mikg;Gf;fs; Ma;T nra;ag;gl;LtUfpd;wd. mt;thW Ma;T nra;tjw;F nkhopapaypd; gy gpupTfs; Jiz nra;fpd;wd.
i. mikg;G nkhopapay; (Structural Linguistic) nkhopapd;
mikg;ig
tpsf;Fk;
gpupT
mikg;G
nkhopapay;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
nkhopapaypd; je;ij vdg;gLk; r#u; vd;gtNu mikg;G nkhopapay; gw;wpa nfhs;ifia ntspapl;ltuhthu;. ii. nghJnkhopapay; (General Linguistic) nkhopfspd; gy;NtW epiyfs;> tplaq;fs;($Wfs;)> njhlu;Gfs; gw;wp
tpgupf;Fk;
gpupT nghJ nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopapay; kw;nwhU tifapYk; ,U ngUk; gpupTfshf tFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. i. Nfhl;ghl;L nkhopapay; (Theoretical Linguistics) ,g;gpuptpDs; nkhopapd; mikg;G> nkhopapd; gad;ghL njhlu;ghd nfhs;iffs; KiwahfTk; njspthfTk; epiwthfTk; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ii. gadhf;f nkhopapay; (Applied Linguistic) nkhopf; nfhs;iffisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; Fwpg;gpl;l nkhopr; #oy;fspw; nkhop gw;wpa tpsf;fq;fisAk; nkhopapd; gad;ghL gw;wpa gpupT gadhf;f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk;
nkhop
gad;gLj;jp
tplaq;fisAk;
MuhAk;
fw;gpj;jypy;
gadhf;f
nkhopapay; kpf Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. 1.4.
nkhopapaypd; kpf Kf;fpa gpupTfs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; tUkhW>
1.4.1. tpsf;f nkhopapay; (Descriptive Linguistic) xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopapd; mikg;ig xU Fwpg;gpl;l rpy nkhopapaw; Nfhl;ghLfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpsf;FtJ tpsf;f Linguistic) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mjhtJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l kf;fshy; toq;fg;gLk; nkhopapd; nkhopapaypd;
nkhopapay; (Descriptive
fhyg; gFjpapy;> xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,d tif
mikg;gpidAk; nrhy; tsj;ijg; gw;wpAk; Muha;tNj tpsf;f
Fwpf;Nfhs; MFk;. mt;thW MuhAk; NghJ xU nkhopapd; xypaikg;G>
nrhy;yikg;G> njhluikg;G> thf;fpa mikg;G> nghUz;ik Nghd;wit gw;wp tpupthf Muhag;gLk;. tpsf;f
nkhopapaYf;F
tpj;jpl;l
ngUik
,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;bw;F
fhyg;gFjpapy; tho;e;j mnkupf;f nkhopapay; mwpQu;fisNa rhUk;. Nghah]; (1858 – 1942)> rgPu; (1884 – 1939) GSk; gPy;l; (1884 –
1949)
Kw;gl;l
me;jtifapy; Nghd;w
nkhopapay; mwpQu;fs; Kf;fpakhff; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; xU Fwpg;gpl;l rKjhaj;jpd; fyhrhuj;Jld;
$batu;fshthu;fs;. nkhop vd;gJ
njhlu;GilajhFk;.
xt;nthU
nkhopf;Fnkd
rpwg;ghd xU fl;likg;G cz;L. Mjyhy; xU nkhopia Ma;T nra;Ak; nghOJ vspik (Simplicity)> Kuz;ghbd;ik (Consistency), KOikj; jd;ik (Completeness) mikg;gpidg; Kd;djhfNt mwpe;JzUk; jd;ik (Prediction) Mfpa ehd;F Kf;fpakhd Ntz;Lk; vd;gJ tpsf;f nkhopapaypy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
gz;Gfs;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; gpupthf tpsq;FtJ mikg;G nkhopapay; MFk;. ,g;gpupNt nkhopapay; tuyhw;wpy; xU GJ
$Wtjhapd; nkhopapaw; nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ.
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
,Uj;jy;
ngWk; Nfhl;ghLfshFk;.
tpsf;f nkhopapay; gy cl;gpupTfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. MapDk; mt;
vd;DksTf;F nkhopapaypy; kpf
gw;wp
cl;gpupTfSs;
(Structural
mj;jpahaj;ij
ngWk;
xU
Linguistic)
Muk;gpj;J
gpupthFk;.
itj;jJ
Fwpg;ghff;
Jiwapy; ngUk; Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa xU gpupthf ,g;gpupT
,g;guptpd; mbg;gilapy; nkhopia Ma;T nra;j nkhopapaw; Jiwf;F>
nkhopapd; ,U ngUk; $Wfis ,dq;fz;Lnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Ue;jJ.
mitahtd>
m). xyp tbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l Ngr;R nkhop M). vOj;J my;yJ tuptbtq;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l vOj;J nkhop mikg;G nkhopapaYf;F tpj;jpl;l ngUik G@k; gPy;L kw;Wk; rgPu; MfpNaiur; rhUk;.
mj;NjhL
gpshf;>
igf;>
bNuf;fu;>
`u;up];>
ielh>
];lhl\;
Nghd;w
nkhopapay; ty;Ydu;fs; nkhopia xypad;> cUgd; Nghd;w mbg;gilapy; Ma;T nra;J tpsf;fq;fis Kd; itj;jhu;fs;. mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
mikg;G
nkhopapay;
tsu;r;rp
ngw;Ws;sJ. 1.4.2. tuyhw;W nkhopapay; (Historical Linguistic) xU Fwpg;gpl;l fhyr; #oypy; toq;Fk; nkhopiag; gw;wp tpsf;Fk; nkhopapaw; tpsf;f nkhopapay; vd;gJ Nghy; gy;NtW fhyr; #oy;fspy; toq;fpa nkhopfs; tuyhw;W uPjpapy; tpsf;FtJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; nkhopapd; Muk;gk;> ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; mk;nkhopapd; epiy my;yJ ,ay;G Nehf;fpy; Ma;T
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
mk;nkhopapy;
Jiw
gw;wp mjhtJ
Vw;gl;l
xU
khw;wq;fs;>
Nghd;wtw;iw gy;NtW fhyfl;lq;fshf tFj;J tuyhw;W
nra;tJ tuyhw;W nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xU nkhopapy;>
fhyj;Jf;Ff; fhyk; Vw;gLk; xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> nghUz;ik njhlu;ghd khw;wq;fis Muha;tJ ,jd; mbg;gil Nehf;fkhFk;. cjhuzkhfj;
jkpo;
nkhopia
vLj;Jf;nfhz;lhy; jkpo; nkhopapd; Ntw;Wik cUGfs; gw;wp tuyhw;W uPjpapy; Ma;T nra;a Ntz;Lkhdhy; Ntw;Wik
cUGfs; gw;wp njhy;fhg;gpau; Kd; itj;Js;s fUj;Jf;fs; vit? rq;f
fhyj;jpy; mit vt;thW toq;fg;gl;ld? Ntw;Wik cUGfSs; vit kiwe;jikf;fhd fhuzq;fs; vd;d? ,ilf; fhyq;fspy; vit? jw;fhy Ngr;R tof;fpy; mit
kiwe;jd?
mt;thW
Ntw;Wik cUGfspy; Vw;gl;l khw;wq;fs;
vt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? vOj;J tof;fpy; mit vt;thW
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd? Ntw;Wik cUGfs; ,f;fhyj;jpy; vt;thW mtw;wpy; Vw;gl;Ls;skhw;wq;fs; vit? Nghd;wtw;wpd; nghOJ jkpo; nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w
toq;fg;gLfpd;wd?
mbg;gilapy;
Ntw;Wik
Ma;T
cUGfspd;
nra;fpd;w tuyhw;wpid
mwpe;Jnfhs;sf; $bajhf ,Uf;Fk;. fp.gp.17Mk; E}w;whz;by; nrhw; gpwg;G (Etymology) gw;wpa Ma;T Muk;gpj;jJ. mJNt
tuyhw;W
nkhopapay;
Ma;Tf;F
tpj;jpl;lJ
vdyhk;.
MapDk;
E}w;whz;bNyNa tuyhw;W nkhopapay; Ma;Tj; Jiw xU jdpg; ngUk;
18Mk;
Jiwahf tsu
Muk;gpj;jJ vd;gJ mwpQu;fspd; fUj;jhf cs;sJ. 1.4.3. xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and Contrastive Linguistic) xNu FLk;gj;ijr; Nru;e;j gy;NtW nkhopfis xg;gPL nra;J mtw;wpd; %y nkhopiaf; fz;Lgpbj;J mk; %y nkhopapypUe;J Vida nkhopfs; vy;yhk; vt;thW gy;NtWgl;l nkhopfshff; fpisj;jd vd Ma;T nra;tJ xg;gPl;L nkhopapayhFk;. VjhtJ ,uz;L nkhopfis xypapay;> xypadpay;> cUgdpay;> njhlupay; kw;Wk; nghUz;ikapay; Nghd;wtw;wpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L mt;tpU nkhopfSf;Fk; ,ilapYs;s xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfis Ma;T nra;tJ xg;G epiy nkhopapayhFk;. 1.4.4. khdpltpay; nkhop (Anthropological Linguistic) vOj;J tof;fpy; ,y;yhJ Ngr;R tof;fpy; kl;Lk; cs;s nkhop mikg;igAk; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> ehfuPfk; Nghd;wtw;iw Ma;T nkhopapay; gpupT khdpltpay; nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. gz;ghl;bd; jhf;fj;ij Ma;T nra;tNj khdpltpay;
mk;nkhop
nra;Ak; me;jtifapy; nkhopapy;>
nkhopapaypd; gpujhd Nehf;fkhFk;.
1930Mk; Mz;L fhyg; gFjpapNyNa ,k;nkhopapaw; Jiw tsu;e;jJ vdyhk;. gNuh> vkNdh> gl;lhrhu;ah Nghd;Nwhu; rpjk;guehjgps;is nkhopfis
,t;tha;Tj;
Jiwapy;
rf;jpNty;>
Rg;igah>
Nghd;Nwhu; jkpo; ehl;by; nfhlF> frgh> Nfhlh> ,Ush Nghd;w
khdpltpay; nkhopapaypd; mbg;gilapy; Muha;e;jhu;fs;.
1.4.5. cstpay; nkhopapay; (Psychological Linguistic)
cstpay; nkhopapayhdJ> nkhopapd; nraw;ghLfs;> nkhop gw;wpa Nfhl;ghLfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;sy; Nghd;wtw;iw euk;gpay; nkhopapaypD}lhf mwpe;Jnfhs;sf;
elj;ijthjf;
cs;slf;fpajhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. NkYk;
%isf;Fk; nkhop fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpidAk;
$bajhf cs;sJ.
1.4.6. r%f nkhopapay; (Socio Linguistic) nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. r%fk; ,y;iyNay; nkhop ,y;iy; nkhop ,y;iyNay; r%fkpy;iy vdf; $WksTf;Fr; r%fKk; nkhopAk; xd;Wld; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
xU r%fj;jpy; thOk;
kdpju;fspd;
xd;W ,ilj; njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;ldthff; gz;ghL>
fyhrhuk;>
tuyhW>
nghUshjhuk;> murpay; vd midj;J tplaq;fisAk; ntspg;gLj;JtJ nkhopNa. mjdhy; jhd; nkhopahdJ xU r%fj;ijg; glk; gpbj;Jf; fhl;Lk; fz;zhb vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy;
xU r%fj;jpy; nkhop vt;thW gad;gLfpd;wJ vd;gjid Muha;tNj r%f nkhopapayhFk;. r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fkpilapyhd neUq;fpa njhlu;GfisAk; NtWrpy cl; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L r%fj;jpw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilapyhd rpwg;Gj; jd;ik> Mw;wy;> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;> epiyNgW> nkhopf; fw;wy; -
njhlu;G> cl;$Wfs;> nghJj; jd;ik>
nkhopapy;
GJikahf;fk;>
nkhopapd;
fw;gpj;jy;> nkhop NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;iw Muha;tNj
r%f nkhopapayhFk;.
myF ,uz;L mikg;G nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; nkhopapd; gpupTfs; Nehf;fk; 1. xypapay; kw;Wk; xypadpaypd; fl;likg;ig tpsf;Fjy; 2. cUgdpapy; gw;wp tpgupj;jy; 3. njhlupay; gw;wp tpsf;fkspj;jy; 4. nghUz;ikapay; gw;wp njspTgLj;Jjy;
2.1. xypapay; (Phonetics)
$WfisAk;
kdpj ehfuPfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w nkhopapy; Kjypy; Njhd;wpaJ Ngr;nrhypfs;.
kdpjd;
NgRfpd;w nghOJ gy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;whd;. mit Ngr;nrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. mg;Ngr;nrhypfs;
gw;wp
MuhAk;
gpupT
xypapay;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
me;jtifapy;
Ngr;nrhypfs; %d;W tifg;gLfpd;wd. (m). ngsjpf xypapay; (Acoustic Phonetics) ngsjpf xypapay; gw;wpa Ma;tpy; Ngr;nrhypfspd; ngsjpfj; jd;ik gw;wp Muhag;gLfpd;wJ. xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; mirthy; fhw;wZf;fspy; cz;lhFk; mjpu;T> ntspf;fhw;wpy; Vw;gLk; mjpu;r;rpaiy> ePsk; Kjypait ngsjpf Ma;tpy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,e;j Ma;tpy; mjpfkhf tpQ;Qhd
fUtpfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.
fzpjk;>
ngsjpfk;>
kw;Wk;
nkhopapay;
Mfpatw;wpy; njspe;j mwpTk; gapw;rpAKilatu;fs; kl;LNk ,j;Jiwapy; rpwg;ghfr; nraw;gl KbAk;. (M). Nfl;nghypfs; (Auditory Phonetics) Nfl;nghypapay; vd;gJ kdpjdpd; Nfl;Fk; mjhtJ nrtpkLf;Fk; jd;ikapid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L xypfis MuhAk; JiwahFk;. MapDk; mtutupd; nrtpapd; Nfl;Fk; jd;ikf;Nfw;g xyp NtWgLtjhy; ,J Ma;Tf;Fg; nghUe;jhJ vd;Wk;; thjpLfpd;wdu;. (,). cr;rupg;G xypapay; my;yJ xypg;gpay; (Articulacy Phonetics) nkhopapaypy; xypapaypd; Ma;Tj; Jiwf;Fg; ngsjpf kw;Wk; Nfl;nghypapaiy tpl cr;rupg;G xypapaNy ngupJk; gad;gLfpd;w JiwahfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;w JiwahfTk; cs;sJ. Vndd;why; ,j;JiwNa kdpjdpd; xyp cWg;Gf;fspd; nray;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpQ;Qhd Kiwapy; Ngr;nrhypfis kpf vspikahf> vspjhf Muha;fpdw;J. Ngr;nrhypfs; gpwf;Fk; Kiw> mtw;wpd; tifg;ghL> vz;zpf;if> mtw;NwhL njhlu;GgLk; NtW xypfs;> Jiz xypg;G Kiwfs;> Nghd;wtw;iwAk; xypapay; tiffisAk; mtw;Wf;fpilNaAs;s njhlu;GfisAk; KiwahfTk; tpQ;Qhd KiwapYk; MuhAk; my;yJ tpsf;Fk; gFjp xypapay; (Phonetics) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. njhy;fhg;gpaUk; ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo; Mfpatw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl xypapid tpsf;fpr; nry;fpd;whu;. mNjNghy; Ngr;nrhypfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; Muha;NthUf;Fk; mtw;iw tpsf;f gad;gLgit
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fNsahFk;.
nkhopahrpupau;fs;
,g;Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
gw;wp
mwpe;jpUj;jy; kpfTk; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. fhuzk; nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cr;rupg;G kpfTk; mtrpakhFk;. cjhuzkhf jkpo; nkhopapy; y> s> o vd %d;W xypfs; cs;sd. ,it xt;nthd;Wk; cr;rupg;G uPjpapy; NtWgLfpd;wd. mt;NtWghLfis mwpahj xUtu; ,k;%d;W
xypfisAk; xNu tpjkhf cr;rupg;ghu;. mt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w nghOJ nrhy;ypd; nghUs; NtWgLk;. cjhuzkhf: myF - msT> fjpu;> $u;ik moF - tbT> rpwg;G msF - md;dg;ngil> ngz;kapy;> ngz;Nfhop MfNt ,t;thW xypfspd; cr;rupg;G NtWghLfis mwpe;jpUe;jhy; kl;LNk mk;nkhopapidr; rpwe;j Kiwapy; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. Fwpg;ghf nkhopj; Jiwapy;
kpf
mtrpakhfpd;wJ.
2.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fSk; mtw;wpd; njhopw;ghLfSk; Ngr;nrhypfis
xypg;gjw;Fg;
gad;gLk;
cly;
cWg;Gf;fNs
Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
my;yJ
xypAWg;Gf;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. kdpjdpy; cjLfs; Kjy; EiuaPuy; tiuAs;s cWg;Gf;fs; Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
me;jtifapy;
,it
%d;W
ngUk;
gpupTfshfg;
gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 1. neQ;Rg; gFjp 2. njhz;ilg; gFjp 3. jiyg; gFjp ,e;j gFjpfspy; KiwNa capu;j;jy; (respiration), Fuy; vOg;Gjy; (voicing), xypj;jy; (articulation) Kjypa %d;W nray;fs; eilngWfpd;wd. 2.1.1.1. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fs;
glk; tiujy; Ntz;Lk;
1. ,jo;> cjL (Lips) 2. gy; (teath) 3. Edpaz;zk; (Alveolar ridge/alveolum) 4. ,ilaz;zk; (dome) 5. filaz;zk; (velum) 6. cs;ehf;F (uvula) 7. eh tpspk;G (blade of the tongue) 8. Edp eh (tip of the tongue) 9. ,ileh (centre of the tongue) 10. fileh (dorsum) 11. mbeh (root of the tongue) 12. %f;fiw (nasal cavity) 13. %f;fiw thapy; (velic) 14. Kd; njhz;il (pharynx) 15. %r;Rf; Foy; %b my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; %b (epiglottis) 16. xypj; jirfs; (vocal chords) 17. %r;Rf; Foy; my;yJ fhw;Wf; Foy; (trachea) 18. Fuy; tis (larynx/adam’s apple)
2.1.1.2. Ngr;RWg;Gf;fspd; njhopw;ghLfs; 1. ,jo; my;yJ cjL ,jo;fspd; nraw;ghLfshy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs; ,jopd; xypfs; (Labials) vdg;gLfpd;wd. fPo; ,jOk; Nky; ,jYk; Nru;e;J fhw;wpidj; jLj;J epWj;Jfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; ,t;tpjo;fs; NrUkplj;jpy;> rpwpa ,ilntspia Vw;gLj;jp> mt;tpilntspapilNa fhw;iwr; nrYj;jp mjpur; nra;tjd;
%yk; rpy xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapy;> ,jo;fs; ,iztjhy; g> k Mfpa xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. fPopjOk; gy;Yk; ,ize;J nghUe;Jtjd; %yk; t xyp gpwf;fpd;wJ. 2. gy; ‘gy;Y Nghdhy; nrhy;Y Nghr;R’ vd;gJ KJnkhopahf ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gw;fs; ,y;iynadpy; czit nky;YtJ kl;Lky;y nrhy;iyr; nrhy;yTk; KbahJ vd;gjw;fhfTkhFk;. me;jstpw;F nrhw;fis cr;rupg;gjpy; gw;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. Nky; gy; tupirAk; fPo; gy; tupirAk; ehf;fhYk; ,jo;fshYk; njhl;Lk;> ,ilntdpfis Vw;gLj;jpAk; xypfis vOg;Gfpd;wd. mt;thW vOk; xypfs; gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; j> e Mfpa xypfs; gy;nyhypfshf cs;sd. ,jid njhy;fhg;gpau; ‘gy; Kjy; kUq;fpy; eh Edpgue;J> xw;wj; jhkpdpJ gpwf;Fk; jfu efuk; vd;fpwhu;. 3. mz;zk; thapy;
Nkw;gFjpapYs;s
fbdkhd
gFjp
mz;zk;
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
xypfs;
gpwg;gij
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L mz;zk;> Edp mz;zk;> ,ilaz;zk;> filaz;zk; vd %d;W
tifahf
tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. ehf;F ,J mirAk; cWg;G Mifahy; xypAWg;Gf;fSs; ehf;F kpf Kf;fpa cWg;ghff; fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. ehit mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L gpwf;Fk; xypfspd; mbg;gilapy; ehf;fpid Edp eh> eh tpspk;G> ,ileh> fileh> mbeh vd Ie;J gFjpfshg; gFf;Ffpd;wdu;. m). Edp ehthy; vOfpd;w xypfs;> Edp eh xypfs; vdg;gLk;. M). Edp ehTk; gy;Yk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpehg; gy;nyhypfs; vdg;gLk;. ,). Edp ehTk; Edp mz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh Edpaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. <). Edp ehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh ,ilaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. c). Edpeh ,U gw;fSf;fpilNa ,iztjhy; vOk; xypfs;> Edpeh gy;ypil xypfs; vdg;gLk;. (Edpeh gy;ypil xypfs; - gy;nyhypfs;> Ezpaz;z xypfs;> ehtis xyp> gy;ypil xyp vdTk; toq;fg;gLk;.)
C). ,ilehTk; ,ilaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> ,ileh ,ilaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;. v). fil ehTk; filaz;zKk; ,iztjhy; gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> fileh filaz;z xypfs; vdg;gLk;.
5. cs; ehf;F cs; ehf;F my;yJ cs;eh vd;gJ thapd; mbg;gFjpapy; njhq;fpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; xU jirg; gFjpahFk;. Kd; njhz;ilapypUe;J %f;fiwf;Fr; nry;Yk; thapiyj; jpwf;fNth my;yJ %lNth ,J gad;gLfpd;wJ. 6. Kd; njhz;il %f;fiw thapy;> fhw;Wf;Foy;> tha;ghij Mfpad ,g;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 7. %f;fiw fhw;W %f;fiw thapypUe;J Nky; Nehf;fpr; nrd;W fPNo ,wq;fp %f;fpy; Kbfpd;wJ. %f;fpd; %yk; cr;rupf;fg;gLk; xypfs; %f;nfhypfs; vdg;gLk;. 8. fhw;Wf; Foy; fhw;Wf; Foy; topahf fhw;W EiuaPuYf;Fr; nrd;W tUk;. ,jd; Nkw;gFjp njhz;il my;yJ Fuy;tis vdg;gLk;. xypfis ntspg;gLj;Jtjpy; ,t;TWg;Gk; Jiz nra;fpd;wJ. 9. fhw;Wf; Foy; %b fhw;Wf; Foypd; njhlf;fj;jpy; ,J cs;sJ. Rthrpf;Fk; nghOJ jpwe;jpUf;Fk;. czT cz;Zk; nghOJ %bf;nfhs;Sk;. xyp vOg;Gtjpy; ,t;TWg;gpw;Fk; gq;Fz;L. 10. Fuy;tis fhw;Wf; Foypd; xypj; jirfspd; miktplk; ,JthFk;. 11. xypj; jirfs;
xypj; jirNa Fuy; ehz; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J nky;ypa cWjpahd ,U jirg; gFjpfshFk;. ,tw;Wf;F ,ilg;gl;l ,ilntsp xypj;jir thapy; vdg;gLk;. xypj; jirfs; mfd;wpUf;Fk; nghOJ fhw;W jq;F jilapd;wp nray;gLk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; xypj; jir mjpu;tjpy;iy. mg;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs;> xypg;gpy;yh xypfs; (voiceless sound) vdg;gLk;. mNjNghy; thapy; FWfp xypj;jir mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; xypg;Gil xypfs; (voiced sound) vdg;gLk;. 12. EiuaPuy; ,J cjutpjhdk; kw;Wk; tpyh vYk;gpYs;s jir ehu;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; nraw;ghl;bdhy; tpupe;Jr; RUq;Fk;. tpupAk; nghOJ fhw;W cs;Ns nrd;W RUq;Fk; nghOJ ntspNa tUfpd;wJ. ,JNt xU %r;R my;yJ Rthrk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. EiuaPuypd; nraw;ghl;lhy; fhw;W kplw;wpy; tUk;NghJ xypf;fhw;W> Fuy; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. Fuy; mjpu;TilaJ. mNjNghy; ,irj; jd;ikAKilaJ. me;jf; Fuy; %f;F my;yJ thapYs;s cWg;Gf;fs; %yk; milgl;Lr; rpy Fwpg;gpl;l miy ePsKk;> mjpu;Tk; Vw;gl;L ntspNaWk; NghJ ‘xypfs;’ gpwf;fpd;wd.
mt;nthypfs;> %f;F> ehf;F> mz;zk;> ,jo;fs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; Kiwahd
nraw;ghl;lhy; ntspNaWk; NghJ Kiwahd xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. mjdhy; ,e;j cWg;Gf;fs; xypr;ry;yilfs; (Sound Filters) vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. xypj;jw; njhopypy;
,aq;Fk; xypg;ghd;fs;
,aq;fh xypg;ghd;fs;
fPopjo;> ehf;F
Nkypjo;> Nkw;gy;> mz;zk;> Nky; njhz;il
%f;F xyp Cf;fp vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.1.2. capu; xypfs; EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk; Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mjhtJ
%r;Rf;
fhw;whdJ>
,aq;Fk;
xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk;
,aq;fh
xypg;ghd;fSf;Fk; ,ilNa vt;tpj jilAkpd;wp nry;fpd;w nghOJ capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; m Kjy; xs tiuahd capu; xypfs; mt;thW gpwf;fpd;wd? nghJthf capu; xypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpy; ehf;F> ,jo; Mfpa ,uz;L cWg;Gf;fSk; Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpd;wd. capu; xypfs; gpwf;fpd;w nghOJ ,t;TWg;Gf;fspd; nraw;ghl;L epiy> 1. ehf;fpd; Kd;Ndhf;fpr; nraw;gLk; jpwd; (Advancement of the tongue) 2. ehf;F mz;zj;ij Nehf;fp vOk; cauj;jpd; msT (Hight of the tongue) 3. ,jo;fspd; mikg;G my;yJ epiy ( Position of the Labiolistaion) Mfpa %d;wpd; mbg;gilapy; tpsf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
capu; xypfis cr;rupj;Jf; fhl;Lk; glk;
capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehf;fpd; cauk; vt;thW mikfpd;wJ vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L capu; xypfs;> Nky; capu;> ,il capu;> fPo; capu; vd %d;W tifahfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 1. Nky; capu;
i - ,iy> ,Q;rp ,
ii -
< Ξ - ,Lg;G> ,sik
ΞΞ -
u - cLk;G> ckp
c
C
uu - Cu;> G+
ω - ehL> cg;G
2. ,il capu;
e - vYk;G> ntg;gk;
v
ee- Vyk;> Njrk;>
V ə - vOk;G> vz;zk;
əə - Vzp> Nfs;tp
x - o - xl;lfk;> nfhk;G
X - oo - XL> Nfhop
3. fPo; capu;
a - mg;gk;> el m
aa - ML> ghy;
M ε - md;G> kuk;
εε - Mrpupau;> ghu;
capu; xypfis cr;rupf;Fk; nghOJ ehtpd; Kd; my;yJ eL my;yJ gpd; gFjp nraw;glyhk;.
,jid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L capu; xypfs;> Kd; capu;fs;> eL
capu;fs;> gpd; capu;fs;> fPo; capu;fs; vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 1. Kd; capu; , - i - ,iy v - e - vyp 2. eL capu;
< - ii -
, - Ξ - ,sik
< - ΞΞ -
c - ω - ehL v - ə - vWk;G
V - əə - VL
3. gpd; capu; c - u - cyfk;
C - uu - Coy;
x - o - xl;lfk;
X - oo - XL
4. fPo; capu; m - a - mk;kh
M - aa - ML
m - ε - md;dk;
Kd; capu;
M - εε - fiu
eL capu;
gpd; capu;
,> <> Ξ, Ξ Ξ- c>ω
,><> i,ii, b"B
c>C u,uu,W"W!
Nky; ,il capu; v>V>e,ee,t"tA
x>X> o,oo,T´
əə
fPo; ,il capu; fPo; ,il capu;
v>V>ə,əə
m>M> a,aa,w"wd m>M>a,aa,ε,εε fPo; capu;
1.
fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
m (a)
2.
fPo; eL ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp
-
M (aa)
3.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
, (i)
4.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby;; capu; xyp
5.
eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpahf; Fwpy;; capu; xyp
6.
eL Kd; ,jo; Ftpah neby; capu; xyp
7.
Nky; gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp
8.
Nky; Kd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp
-
C (uu)
9.
eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp Fwpy;; capu; xyp
-
x (o)
10.
eL gpd; ,jo; Ftp neby; capu; xyp
-
X (oo)
I - ai - Iau;> if
-
< (ii) -
-
v (e)
V (ee) -
c (u)
xs- ou - xsitahu;> nksdk;
2.1.3. nka; xypfs; EiuaPuypypUe;J ntspNaWk; fhw;W> ve;j Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshYk; vt;tpj jq;F jilAk; Vw;gLj;jhky; tha; topahf ,ay;ghf ntspNaWfpd;w nghOJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; capu; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW my;yhky; fhw;W jilgl;Nlh my;yJ jpir khw;wj;jpw;Fl;gl;Nlh gpwf;Fk; xyp nka;nahyp vdg;gLk;. mjhtJ EiuaPuypypUe;J ntsptUk; fhw;W thaiwapy; milgl;Nlh> rpwpa ,ilntspA+lhf ntspg;gl;Nlh> ehtpd; ,U tpspk;Gg;gFjpfs; topahf ntspg;gl;Nlh my;yJ %f;fpd; topahf ntspNaWk; nghONjh gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; nka;nahypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. nka;nahypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fjpd;NghJ xypg;ghd;fs; gythwhf jq;F jilapd;wp tise;Jk; nespe;Jk; nraw;gLfpd;wd. mit tise;Jk; nespe;Jk; nraw;gLtnjd;gJ thapd; gpw mirah Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshfpa
mz;zk;>
Fuy;tis>
Nkypjo;
Mfpatw;wpy;
cr;rupf;fg;gLfpd;w
xypfSf;Nfw;wthW ,it nghUe;JtjhFk;. ,J xypg;G Kiw (Manner of articulation) vdg;gLk;. fhw;W EiuaPuypNyh my;yJ Fuy;tisapNyh my;yJ filaz;zj;jpNyh my;yJ thaiwapNyh VjhtJ xU ,lj;jpy; jilg;gl;L thaiwapNyh my;yJ %r;riwapNyh xypA+f;fkile;J ntspNaWfpd;wJ. ,t;thW %r;R jilg;gLk; ,t;tplq;fs; xypg;gplq;fs; (point of articulation) vdg;gLfpd;wd. %r;Rj; jil VJkpd;wp fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ capu; xypfs; gpwg;gjhy; capu; xypfspd; gpwg;ghf;fj;jpd;NghJ xypg;gplq;fs; ,y;iy. xypg;G Kiwia mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L nka;nahypfs; gpd;tUkhW tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 1. milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs;> ty;nyhypfs; (Stop polisives) Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy;
fhw;iw
Kw;whfj;
jil
nra;J
ntspapLk;NghJ
gpwf;Fk;
xypfs;
milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. jkpo; nkhopapy; f> r> l> j> g> w Mfpa MW ty;ypd xypfSk; milg;nghypfs; my;yJ ntbg;nghypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
cjhuzk;: f-k
-
fz;
r-c
-
rf;fuk;
l-T
-
jl;L
j - t - jk;gp g-p
-
gl;L
2. cunrhypfs; (Fricatives) %r;Rf; fhw;W thaiwapy; tUk;NghJ KOtJk; jLf;fhky; %r;R ntspNaWk; ghijia xypg;ghdhy; FWf;fp me;j ,Lf;fpd; topNa nrYj;jpdhy; cuha;Tj; jd;ik (friction) Vw;gLk;. ,t;thW cuha;Tj; jd;ikNahL gpwf;Fk; xypfNs cunrhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: g- β
-
khu;G> rgyk;
g - f - ghj;jpkh ` - h - `up ] - s - ]yhk;> m];jp
3. milg;Gunrhypfs; my;yJ ntbg;Gunrhyp (Stops Fricatives) Ngr;RWg;Gf;fshy; fhw;iw Kw;whfj; jil nra;J ntspapLk;NghJ rw;W cury; jd;ikAld; xypf;fg;gLk; xyp milg;Gunrhyp vdg;gLk;. cjhuzk;: g - C - gr;ir r - j - gQ;rk;
4. %f;nfhyp (Nassals)
fhw;W tha; topahf my;yhky; %f;fhy; ntspaplg;gLk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; $f;nfhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: q-ŋ -
jq;fk;
Q-ñ-
QhapW
z - N - fz; e -ṉ -
ez;L
k -m-
kuk;
d -n -
tdk;
5. kUq;nfhypfs; (Laterals) ehf;fpd; ,U kUq;fhYk; fhw;W ntspNaWk; NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; kUq;nfhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: y - l-
gyk;
s - ḷ - tsk; o - ḻ - fodp 6. tUnlhyp Edp eh Edp md;dj;ij tUbr; nry;Yk; NghJ gpwf;fpd;w xypfs; tUnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: u - r - fuk; 7. tiseh xyp ehf;F tise;J mz;zj;ijj; njhl gpwf;Fk; xypfs; tiseh xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: g -ṭ -
gl;L
g -ḍ -
gz;lk;
z; - N -
jz;lid
s - ḷ - gs;sk; o - ḻ - tho;f
8. Mnlhypfs; (Trills) Edp eh Edp mz;zj;Jld; ,ize;J mjpUk;NghJ gpwf;Fk; xypfs; Mnlhypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: w-R-
gwit
9. miu capu; capu; xyp jd;ikAk; nka; xyp jd;ikAk; ngw;wpUf;Fk; nka;nahypfs; miu capu; nka;nahypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: t - v - tay; a - y - ahid
jkpo; nkhopapYs;s u> w> e> d> z> y> s> o cr;rupg;G Kiwfs;
jkpo; nkhop nka;nahypfspd; ml;ltiz xypg;gplk;
,jo;
gy;
Edpeh
tiseh
gy;
,ileh
fileh
,ilaz;zk;
,ilaz;zk;
c
k
xypg;G Kiw
milg;nghyp
%f;nfhyp
cunrhyp
kUq;nfhyp
p
b
t
ṭ
d
g;
j;
m
ṉ
k;
e;
β
s
g
]
j
g
l;
r;
f;
n
ṇ
ñ
ŋ
d;
z;
Q;
q;
l y;
tUnlhyp
ḍ
r
ḻ
ḷ o s
u; Mnlhyp
ṛ w;
miuAapu;
2.2.
v
y
t;
a;
xypadpay; (Phonology)
Ngr;nrhypfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sTk; NtWgLj;jp mwpaTk; Kw;gl;l nghOJ Njhw;wk; ngw;wNj vOj;J tbtkhFk;. ,J kugpyf;fzj;jpy; vOj;J vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vOj;J> nkhopapaypy; xypad; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopapd; vOj;Jf;fs; gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. rpy nkhopfspy; Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk;> rpq;fsk; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; Xu; xypf;F Xu; xypad; cz;L. Mdhy; jkpo; Nghd;w nkhopfspy; gy xypfs; cz;L. Mdhy; mt;ntht;nthU xypf;Fk; xypad;fs; ,y;iy. mjhtJ xd;Wf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l xypfSf;F xNu vOj;J tbtNk gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzk;: Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
jkpo;
k
l
f
h
y
f
g
.
f
,t;thwhd xypfspd; vOj;jhf;fj;jpw;F rpy mbg;gil nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs; mtrpakhfpd;wd. mj;jifa Nfhl;ghLfis tpQ;Qhd uPjpapy; tpsf;FtNj xypadpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. kugpyf;fzk; ,jid vOj;jpay; vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;wJ. xyp
-
xU nkhopapy; njhlu;ghlYf;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;
Ngr;nrhypfs; xypfs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. xypad;
-
xU nkhopapy; nghUs; khw;wj;jpid Vw;gLj;jf; fhuzkhf
cs;s xyp tbtq;fs; xypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd. khw;nwhypad;fs;
-
xypg;G xw;WikAila xypfis xNu xypadpd; fPo;
nfhz;L te;J mit tUk; ,lq;fs; my;yJ xypr; #oy;fs; tiuaiw nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. mt;thW tiuaiw Ngr;nrhypfs; khw;nwhypad;fs; vdg;gLfpd;wd.
nra;ag;gl;l
xypad;fs; / /
vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk; khw;nwhypad;fs; [ ] vd;w FwpaPl;bDs;Sk;
vOjg;gLk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapd; xypadpay; mikg;G gpd;tUkhW fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. 1.
ty;ypdk;
[ka] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - fUk;G [ka]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ka, l - mf;fh [ha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ha, y - fhfk;
/f/
[ga] ,d vOj;jhd ‘q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ga, . - Njq;fha;
[ca,sa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ca,sa, p"i - me;jr; rl;b> rdp [ca]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ca, p - gr;ir [sa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ sa, i - thrk;
/r/
[ja] ,d vOj;jhd ‘Q;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ ja, c - gQ;R
[-] nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy. Ntw;W nkhopr; nrhw;fspy; kl;Lk; tUk; - LkPy;> lkhy; [ṭ]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ ṭa, g - gl;lk; [ḍ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ḍa, v - glk;
/l/
[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘z;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, ~ - gz;lk;;
[ta] [da]
nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ ta, ; - jiy
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ da, ; - gj;J
[tha] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ tha, o - fjT
/j/
[nda] ,d vOj;jhd ‘e;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ nda, |- ge;J
[pa] nrhy;ypd; Kjypy; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - glk; [pa]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ pa, m - mg;gk; [βa] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ βa, * - jghy;
/g/
[ba] ,d vOj;jhd ‘k;’ cld; tUk; nghOJ mba, n - mk;G
[-] nrhy;ypd; Kd; tUtjpy;iy. te;jhy; Kd;dhy; ‘,’ tUk; - ,wg;gu; [r]
nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; jdJ nka;Ald; tUk; nghOJ r, Ür - New;W [ṛ] ,U capu;fSf;F ,ilapy; tUk; nghOJ ṛ, r - MW
/w/ 2.
nky;ypdk; /q/-
[ŋ], x
/Q/-
[ñ], [ -
fQ;R
/e/-
[ṉ], k -
ed;wp
rq;F
-
/ z / - [N], K - kz;
3.
/k/-
[m], u - kzp
/d/-
[n], k -
khd;
,ilapdk; /a/-
[y], h
/u/-
[R], r
/y/-
[l], ,
ahid
-
thuk; kyu;
2.3.
/t/-
[v], j
-
tay;
/ o/ -
[ḻ], <
-
jkpo;
/s/-
[ḷ], < -
tsk;
cUgdpapy; (Morphology)
nkhopapd; nrhy; mikg;G gw;wp MuhAk; gpupT cUgdpay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. xyp vd;gJ rj;jk;. xypad; vd;gJ vOj;J. me;j xypad; jdpj;Njh my;yJ Nru;e;Njh nghUs; jUkhapd; mJ cUgd; vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapy; NkYk; gpupf;f Kbahj nghUSs;s kpfr; rpwpa tbtk; cUG (Morph) vdg;gLk;. xU nkhopapd; epiyapy; nrhy;Yk; nrhy;ypy; ,ize;Js;s xl;Lf;fs; epiyapYk; nghUs; juf; $ba tbtj;jpid cUgd; (Morphime) vdg;gLk;. mt;thwhd cUgd;fisAk; mjd; top mike;j cUGfisAk; tpsf;FtJ cUgdpayhFk;.
2.3.1. jdp cUgd; XnuOj;J xU nrhy;
- G+> kh> <> M> jP> eP> ik> ig> ij> it> if> Nfh> Ngh>
- ML> fhL> khL> kio> kiy> tiy> XL> NfhL> Nfhop
%d;nwOj;J xU nrhy;
- kyu;> tdk;> japu;> ghrk;> Nfhyk;> gok;> tay;> mk;kh
,r;nrhw;fisg; gpupf;f KbahJ. cjhuzkhf: kyu; vd;w nrhy;iy k + yu; vd;Nwh my;yJ ky + u; vd;Nwh gpupf;f KbahJ. mt;thW gpupj;jhYk; mit nghUs; ju khl;lh. mjdhy; ,it xt;nthd;Wk; jdpj; jdpg; nghUis czu;j;Jk; jdpj; jdp cUgd;fs; MFk;. mt;thW jdpg; nghUis czu;j;JtJ cUgd; vdg;gLk;. 2.3.2. fl;Lz;l cUgd; fPo;tUk; nrhw;fis mtjhdpAq;fs;. 1.
kyu;fs; = kyu; + fs; kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpiz gd;ik tpFjp
kyu;fs; vd;w nrhy;ypy; ,uz;L $Wfs; cs;sd. xd;W kyu;. kw;iwaJ fs;. kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisj; jUfpd;wJ. fs; vd;gJ m.wpizg; gd;ikia czu;j;Jk; tpFjpahFk;. 2.
kyu;fis = kyu; + fs; + I kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp I - Ntw;Wik cUG
kyu;fis vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikg; nghUisAk;; I vd;gJ Ntw;WikiaAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd. 3.
kyu;fisNah = kyu; + fs; + I + X kyu; - G+ fs; - m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp I - Ntw;Wik cUG X - tpdh vOj;J
kyu;fisNah vd;gjpy; kyu; vd;gJ G+ vd;w nghUisAk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ikiaAk; I vd;gJ Ntw;Wik cUigAk; X vd;gJ tpdhg; nghUisAk; czu;j;Jfpd;wd. Nkw; $wg;gl;Ls;s cjhuzq;fSs; kyu;> fs;> I> X Mfpa midj;JNk jdpj; jdp cUgd;fNs. Mdhy; mtw;Ws; kyu; vd;w nrhy; kl;LNk jdpj;J nghUs; czu;j;Jk;. Vida fs; vd;w m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjpNah my;yJ I vd;w ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUNgh my;yJ X vd;w tpdh vOj;Njh jdpj;J nghUs; czu;j;j khl;lh. mit jdpj; jdpNah my;yJ Nru;e;Njh kyu; vd;w nrhy;Yld; ,ize;jhy; kl;LNk nghUs; czu;j;j KbAk;. ,t;thW xU nrhy;Yld; ,ize;Njh my;yJ rhu;e;Njh my;yJ fl;Lz;Nlh nghUs; czu;j;Jk; cUgd;fs; fl;Lz;l cUgd;fs; (Bound Morph) vdg;gLk;. kugpyf;fzk; kyu;fisNah vd;w nrhy;ypy; tUk; kyu; vd;gJ xU nrhy; vdTk; fs; vd;gJ m/wpizg; gd;ik tpFjp vdTk; I vd;gJ ,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik cUG vdTk; X vd;gJ tpdh vOj;J vdTk; Fwpg;gpLk;. Mdhy; nkhopapay; ,it midj;ijAk; cUgd;fs; vd Fwpg;gpLk;. MfNt xU cUgd; xU nrhy;yhfTk; mikyhk; my;yJ xU nrhy;ypd; gFjpahfTk;
mikayhk;. xU nrhy; Xu; cUgidf; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. my;yJ xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l cUgd;fisAk; nfhz;bUf;fyhk;. cjhuzk;: kyu;
-
xU cUgdhyhd nrhy;
kyu;fs;
-
,U cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
kyu;fis -
%d;W cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
kyu;fisNah - ehd;F cUgd;fshyhd nrhy;
2.3.4. xl;Lf;fs; (Affixes) xU nrhy;ypy; jdpj;J epw;fhky; cUgdhd mbr; nrhy;Yld; (stem) ,ize;jpUg;git xl;Lf;fs; vdg;gLk;. ,t;nthl;Lf;fs; %d;W tifg;gLk;. mitahtd>
1.
1.
Kd;ndhl;L (prefix)
2.
gpd;ndhl;L (suffix)
3.
,ilnahl;L (infix)
Kd;ndhl;L (prefix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;F Kd;ghf ,izgit Kd;ndhl;L vdg;gLk;. Mq;fpy
disquality,
impossible,
absent,
indecent
(ab,
dis,
im,
in)
nkhopapy; Nghd;w
Kd;ndhl;Lf;fSf;F cjhuzkhFk;. wjkïnqj" wjux.," wj,ËK (wj)
nrhw;fs; Mfpait
rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. jkpopy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; nfhz;l nrhw;fs; ,y;iy vd;Wk; jkpopy; tlnkhopr; nrhw;fshd mRj;jk;> mePjp> mtkupahij>
toq;fg;gLfpd;w
mepahak;> mtkhdk; Nghd;w
nrhw;fspy; Kd;ndhl;Lf;fs; tUfpd;wd vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Mq;fpy nkhopapNyNa mjpfkhd nfhz;l nrhw;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd;Wk; jkpo; kw;Wk; w Mfpa ,U vOj;Jf;fSk;
Kd;ndhl;Lfs;
rpq;fs nkhopfspNy KiwNa m>
Kd;ndhl;Lf;fshf ,lk;ngWfpd;wd vdTk; FWpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
2.
gpd;ndhl;L (suffix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fspd; gpd;du; ,izAk; xl;Lf;fs; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. foolish,
timly,
acceptance Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; ish, ly, tance Mfpad gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. rpq;fs nkhopapy; wdfjñ hkafkuq" .sfhah" Nghd;w nrhw;fspy; tUf;fpd;w ñ" uq"
h Nghd;wit rpq;fs nkhopapy; tUk; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. te;Njd;> te;Njhk;>
te;jha;> mtu;fs; Nghd;w jkpo; nrhw;fspy;> Vd;> Xk;> Ma;> fs; Nghd;wit gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. jkpo; nkhoapy; ghy;> vz;> ,lk; czu;j;Jk; tpidr; nrhw;fspy; tUk; tpFjpfs; midj;Jk; gpd;ndhl;Lf;fshFk;. NkYk; ,ilepiyfs;> Mf;f cUGfs; midj;JNk gpd;ndhl;Lf;fNs. me;jtifapy; jkpo; nkhopapy; gpd;ndhl;L
mjpfkhd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; jkpo; nkhopiag; nkhop
vd;Wk;
Fwpg;gpLtu;.
mNjNghy;
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk;
mjpfshthd gpd;ndhl;Lf;fs; cz;L. 3.
,ilnahl;L my;yJ cs;nshl;L(infix) Ntu;r; nrhw;fSf;fpilNa cUgd;fs; ,iztjhy; nghUs; khw;wk; Vw;gLfpd;wJ.
nghUs; khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jk; xl;Lf;fs; nkhopfspNyNa
,ilnahl;Lf;fs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mt;thW
cyfpNy
rpy
,ilnahl;Lf;fs; cs;sd. cjhuzkhf fpNuf;f nkhopapy; koon vd;Dk; nrhy;
XL vDk; nghUs; jUk;. mr;nrhy;NyhL m vd;Dk; cUG ,izj;J komon vd nghOJ Xl;lf;fhuu; vdg; nghUs; jUk;. ,q;Nf m vd;w cUG ,ilnahl;lhfr;
tUk;
nraw;gLfpd;wJ.
jkpo; nkhopiag; nghWj;jstpy; fhy ,ilepiyfs; xU nrhy;ypd; ,ilapy; te;jhYk; mit NtW nrhw;fspd;
cs;Ns GFj;jg;glhikahy; mtw;iw ,ilnahl;L vdf;nfhs;s KbahJ
jkpowpQu;fspd; fUj;jhFk;. mjdhy; mtu;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy;
vd;gJ
,ilnahl;Lf;fs; ,y;iy vd;Nw
Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;.
2.3.5. khw;WUgd; (appllomorph) Xu; cUgdpd; khw;W tbtk; khw;WUgdhFk;. mjhtJ cUgd;fspd; gy;NtW tbtq;fNs khw;WUgd;fshFk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy;> Firs Person Singular 1. I
I went to kandy yesterday. ,q;F I vd;gJ vOthahf te;Js;sJ.
2. My
It is my pen.
,q;F my vd;gJ Mwhk; Ntw;Wik mikg;gpy; te;Js;sJ.
3. Me
She asked me. ,q;F me vd;gJ ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik tbtpy; te;Js;sJ.
4. Mine
It is mine. ,q;F mine vd;gJ> I, My, Me Mfpait tuhj ,lq;fspy; tUk;.
,NjNghy;
jkpo;
nkhopapy;
jd;ik
xUikiaf;
Fwpf;f
xd;Wf;F
Nkw;gl;l
cUgd;fs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. jd;ik xUik ehd;
ehd; gs;spf;Fr; nrd;Nwd;.
vd;Dila
,J vd;Dila Gj;jfk;
vd;id
vd;id kwf;f Ntz;lhk;
vdf;F
vOtha; Mwhk; Ntw;Wik
,uz;lhk; Ntw;Wik
vdf;Fg; grpapy;iy
ehd;fhk; Ntw;Wik
me;jtifapy; xU nrhy; xU nghUisf; Fwpf;Fk; epiyapy; cUgd; vd;Wk; mg;nghUisf; fhl;Lk; gy;NtW cUGfs; epiyapy; khw;WUGfs; vdTk; Fwpg;gplg;gLk;. ,tw;iw mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jdp cUgNdh my;yJ cUgd;fNsh ,ize;J nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. ,t;thW cUgd; xd;Nwh my;yJ gyNth ,ize;J vt;thW nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wp tpgupg;gJ cUgdpayhFk;.
myF 3 4.0.
gadhf;f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
Nehf;fk; 1.
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;
2.
nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisj; njspTgLj;Jjy;
3.
nkhop ngau;g;G gw;wpa tpsf;fijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;
4.
mfuhjp gad;ghL gw;wp tpgupj;jy;
ghl mwpKfk; ,Ugjhk;
E}w;whz;lhdJ>
tuyhw;wpy;
gy
Gul;rpfis
Vw;gLj;jpa
fhyg;
gFjpahff;
fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mf;Nlhgu; Gul;rp vd r%fj;jpYk; gy ehLfspd; tpLjiy vd ehl;L tuyhw;wpYk; ,uz;L cyfg; Nghu;fs; ele;J Kbe;j Kjy; E}w;whz;L vd Nghu; tuyhw;wpYk; jfty; njhlu;G> fzpdpg; Gul;rp vdj; njhopy;El;g tuyhw;wpYk; Gul;rp nra;j fhyg;gFjpahf
,f;fhyg; gFjp rpwg;G ngWfpd;wJ. mNjNghy; nkhop gw;wpa Ma;tpYk; nkhop fw;wy;fw;gpj;jypYk; ngUk; jpUg;gq;fis Vw;gLj;jpajd; %yk; nkhopj;JiwapYk; ,f;fhyg;gFjp ngUk; Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpaJ vdyhk;. tpsf;f nkhopapay;> khw;wpyf;fzk;> Nfhl;ghLfs; vd nkhopapay;> nkhopj; Jiwapy; ngUk; khw;wq;fis Vw;gLj;jpd. nkhopj; Jiw njhlu;ghd Nfhl;ghLfs;> mtw;wpd; khw;wq;fs;> mtw;iw vj;Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;jyhk;> mt;thW gad;gLj;jg;gLk;NghJ Vw;gLk; mikg;G NtWghLfs; Nghd;wtw;wpid cs;slf;fpa gFjpahf gadhf;f nkhopapay; mike;Js;sJ. ,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; nkhopj; Jiwapy; Vw;gl;l Nfhl;ghl;L khw;wq;fs; kw;Wk; mtw;wpd; tpisTfis>
nkhop
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy;>
nkhop
ngau;g;G>
nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy;>
Ngr;Rf;FiwghLfs; mit njhlu;ghd jPu;Tfs; Nghd;w gy Jiwfspy; gad;gLj;Jk; gpupT gadhf;f nkhopapay; MFk;. ,g;ghlj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL> ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYld; njhlu;Gila nkhopngau;g;G kw;Wk; mfuhjp gad;ghL Mfpa tplaq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ. 4.1.
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpupTfs;
gadhf;f nkhopapay; gpd;tUkhW gy gpupTfisf; nfhz;ljhf mike;Js;sJ. 1.
nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;
2.
nkhop ngau;g;G
3.
mfuhjpapay;
4.
Ngr;Rf; FiwghLfSk; jPu;TfSk;
5.
nkhop jpl;lkpLjy;
4.1.
nkhop fw;gpj;jy;-fw;wy;
gadhf;f
nkhopapay;
Jiwapy;
kpf
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWtJ
nkhop
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw;
nraw;ghlhFk;. mjhtJ gadhf;f nkhopapay; Jiwia Kw;WKOjhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; Jiw fw;wy;fw;gpj;jy; JiwahFk;. ,f;fhyg;gFjpapy; Vw;gl;l nkhopaikg;G tpjpfs; kw;Wk; Nfhl;ghLfspd; nry;thf;fhy; nkhop fw;gpj;jypy; gy;NtW khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. Fwpg;ghf nkhop fw;gpj;jy; KiwfspYk; cj;jpfspYk; ngUk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gl;ld. tpsf;f nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghl;L mbg;gilapYk; ];fpd;dupd; Gwelj;ijf; Nfhl;ghl;L mbg;gilapYk; Nfl;L - Ngry; gof;f Kiw vOe;J
gy Mz;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mNjNghy; Nehk; nrhk;];fpapd; khw;wpyf;fz Nfhl;ghLk; gpahN[apd; MSif cstpay; (Cognaitive Psychologe) Nfhl;ghLk; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy; Vw;gLj;jpa khw;wNk MSiftpjprhu; fw;wy; Kiwfs; (Cognative Psychology code learning method) MFk;. mNjNghy; xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay; (Comparative and Contrastive Linguistics) JiwAk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; Kiwapy; nry;yhf;Fr; nrYj;jpd. ,t;thW gadhf;f nkhopapaypy; fw;Nghupd; Njitfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Rkhu; mWgjpw;Fk; Nkw;gl;l nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;L> eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;ld. gadhf;f nkhopapay; mbg;gilapy; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;tUk; tplaq;fs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. (i).
nkhop fw;Fk; #oy;
(ii).
nkhopj; jpwd;fs;
(iii).
fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghLfs;
(iv).
fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;
(v).
fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> El;g Kiwfs;
(vi).
fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL
(vii).
ghlj;jpl;lk; -
ghl cs;slf;fk;> ghlE}y;> fw;wy; tsq;fs;
(viii). Mrpupau; (ix).
khztu;
(x).
,izg;ghltpjhdr; nraw;ghLfs;
(xi).
kjpg;gPL
(xii).
gpd;D}l;lk;
4.2.
nkhop ngau;g;G
%y nkhopapYs;s (Sourse Language) tplaj;ij mjw;F epfuhd ,yf;F nkhop tplakhfg; (Target Language)
ngau;g;gJ
my;yJ
nkhop
khw;wk;
nra;ag;gLtJ
nkhopngau;g;G
vdg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW nkhopngau;f;Fk; nghOJ nghUSf;F KjyplKk; eilf;F ,uz;lhk; ,lKk; jUk;tz;zk; nkhopngau;j;jy; mtrpakhFk;.
nkhopngau;g;G tiffs; (m).
nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G
,d;W Vw;gl;Ls;s etPd njhopy;El;g JiwAld; njhlu;Gila NjitfSf;Nfw;g nkhopapay; JiwapYk; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. cyfshtpa uPjpapy; ntspahFk; GJg; GJ njhopy;El;gk;rhu; tplaq;fs;> fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fs;> Ma;Tfs;> jpwdha;Tf; Fwpg;Gfs; Mfpatw;wpd; rhuhk;rq;fs; my;yJ RUf;fq;fs; nkhopngau;f;fg;gl Ntz;ba Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. me;jtifapy; %y nkhopapYs;s tplaq;fspd; rhuhk;rq;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mtw;iw ,yf;F nkhopapy; nkhop ngau;j;jy; nghUs; RUf;f nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;. (M).
jOty;
%y nkhopapYs;s nra;jpia cs;thq;fpf; nfhz;L mijg; ngWk; nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;ghsu; jdJ tpUg;gj;jpw;F Vw;wthW $l;bAk; Fiwj;Jk; khw;wpaikj;Jk; ,yf;F nkhopapy; Gide;J jUtJ jOty; MFk;. (,).
KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G
%y nkhopapYs;s vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> thf;fpak;> ge;jp> fl;Liu> E}ypd; xU gFjp> KOikahd E}y; (text) vd vJthf ,Ue;jNghJk; vt;tpj khw;wKk; ,d;wp vt;tpj NtWghLkpd;wp mg;gbNa ,yf;F nkhopapy; nkhopngau;g;gJ KOikahd nkhopngau;g;G vdg;gLk;. ,k;Kiwapy; nkhopngau;g;G Nfhl;ghLfSk; mZF KiwfSk; KOikahfg; gpd;gw;wgl;L nkhopngau;g;G nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. (c).
tpQ;Qhdk;rhu; nkhopngau;g;G
,q;F tpQ;Qhdj; Jiwapy; cs;s nra;jpNa
Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ.
,r;nraw;ghl;by;
njhlu;ghlYf;F my;yJ fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wj;jpw;Fg; gad;gLk; fUtpahf kl;LNk nkhop gad;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwd nkhopngau;g;gpy; mzpeak; nrwpe;j nkhopeil jtpu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. mNjNghy; nghUs; kaf;fk; jUk; nrhw;fs;> njhlu;fs;> rpNyilfs;> tu;zidfs; jtpu;f;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. (C).
,yf;fpa nkhopngau;g;G
nghJthf Mf;f ,yf;fpaq;fs; czu;r;rpAld; $baitahf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ftpij> ehlfk;> rpWfij> ehty; Nghd;wit czu;r;rpf;F Kf;fpaj;Jtkspg;gd. ,t;thwhdtw;iw nkhopngau;f;fpd;w nghOJ %y nkhopapYs;s czu;r;rp> Rit Nghd;wtw;wpw;F gq;fk; Vw;glhj tifapy; nkhopngau;g;G mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. MfNt ,t;tifahd nkhopngau;g;gpy; nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> jhd; xU nkhopngau;g;ghsd; -
gilg;ghsd; vd ,U ghj;jpuq;fis Vw;fNtz;bAs;shd;. mJkl;Lkd;wp
,t;thwhd nkhopngau;g;ghsd;> %y nkhop kw;Wk; ,yf;F nkhop Mfpa ,U nkhopfspYk; rpwe;j MSikAk; jpwikAk; gilg;ghw;wy; jpwDk; ngw;wpUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghl;by; Nkw;$wg;gl;Ls;s midj;J nkhopngau;g;Gf;fSk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. mjdhy; fiyj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghlj;jpl;lk; jahupj;jy;> ghl E}y;fis tbtikj;jy;> Mrpupau;fSf;Fg; gapw;rpaspj;jy;> khztu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpj;jy; Nghd;w ,uz;lhk; nkhop Jiwapy;
mfuhjpapay;
mfuhjpapay; (Lecicography) vd;gJ> nrhy; gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahf ,Ug;gjhy; mJ nkhop gw;wpa tpQ;Qhd uPjpapyhd Ma;Tj; Jiwahd nkhopapaypd; gy;NtW gpupTfSld; njhlu;Ggl;ljhff; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. mfuhjpapy; ,lk;ngWk; nrhw;fs;> nrhw;fspd; ,ay;GfSf;Fk; mfuhjp tifikf;Fk; gadhspapd; Njitf;Fk; mfuhjpahsu; cUthf;fpf; nfhz;l newpKiwfSf;Fk; Vw;g gy;NtW gjpTf;$WfisAk; ciladtha; mikf;fg;gLfpd;wd. xU mfuhjpg; gjpthdJ> jiyr; nrhy;(Head word)> nrhy; %yk; my;yJ nrhw; gpwg;G (etymology), xypg;G Kiw
(pronouncation),
vLj;Jf;
fhl;ly;
(spelling),
,yf;fzg;
nghUs;>
nrhw;nghUs;>
nrhw;nghUs;-tupir Kiw> jiyr; nrhy;Yf;fhd tof;Fg; gapw;rp> Fwpg;ghd;fs;(lables), Nkw;Nfhs;fs; Nghd;w gy $Wfisf; nfhz;bUg;gjhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. ,g;gjpTf; $Wfs; xt;nthd;Wk;
gw;wpa
jfty;fisg;
ngw
mfuhjpahsu;fs;
nfhs;fpd;whu;fs;. mfuhjp tiffs; 1. fiyf;fsQ;rpak; 2. tho;tpaw; fsQ;rpak; 3. nkhop mfuhjp (m). xU nkhop mfuhjp jkpo;
Mq;fpyk;
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;
rpq;fsk; (M).
jkpo;
,Unkhop mfuhjp
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;-Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;
nkhopapaiyNa
Jizahff;
jkpo; Mq;fpyk;-];ghdp~; (,).
gd;nkhop mfuhjp `pe;jp
F[uhj;jp-fh~;kPup-cUJ
njYq;F
fd;dlk;-`pe;jp-F[uhj;jp
fd;dlk;
kiyahsk;-njYq;F-jkpo;-Mq;fpyk;
4.
fhyKiw mfuhjp
5.
tuyhw;W mfuhjp
6. nrhw; gpwg;G mfuhjp 7. xg;gpay; mfuhjp 8. rpwg;gfuhjpfs; Nghd;wit
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpd;wd.
,t;tfujpfSk;
,uz;lhk;
nkhop
fw;gpj;jypy;
myF 4 4.0.
xg;gPl;L kw;Wk; xg;G epiy nkhopapay;
Nehf;fk; 1.
jkpo;
kw;Wk;
rpq;fs
nkhopfis>
xyp>
vOj;J>
nrhy;>
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J xw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L 3.
jkpo;
rpq;fs nkhopfis
nkhopfis> xyp>
njhlu;>
nghUs;
nfhs;sy;
vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs;
Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;J Ntw;Wikfis ,dq;fz;L nfhs;sy; ghl mwpKfk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau; xUtu; khztupd; jha; nkhopiag; gw;wp mwpe;jpUj;jy;
mtrpakhFk;.
,yq;ifiag;
nghWj;jstpy;
jkpohdJ>
rpq;fs
nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltu;fSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;wikahy; ,q;Nf jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; xg;gPL nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. nghJthfj; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; xNu fl;likg;igAiladthff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. MapDk; Mq;fhq;Nf rpy NtWghLfSk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,g;ghlj;jpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs;> xyp> vOj;J> nrhy;> njhlu;> nghUs; Mfpatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;gPL nra;ag;gl;L xw;Wik> Ntw;Wikfs; ,dq;fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 4.1.
jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; Xu; xg;gPL
4.1.1 xyp> vOj;J 4.1.1.1.
capu; xyp kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
m
M
w
a
,
wd
aa
b
<
c
B
i
C
W
W!
u
ii v
V
t
e
ta
I ft
uu
x ai
T
X ´
o
xs oo
T!
au
ee rpq;fs nkhopapy; cs;s Mdhy; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;yhj ,U capu; xypfSk; vOj;Jf;fSk; tUkhW>
we
æ
wE
ǣ
,tw;wpdbg;gilapy; 1.
jkpo; capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; rpq;fs capu; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
2.
3.
4.
-
14
jkpo; capu;f; Fwpy; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
5
rpq;fs capu;f; Fwpy; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs;
6
-
12
jkpo; capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
5
rpq;fs capu;f; neby; xypfs; kw;Wk; vOj;Jf;fs; -
6
jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYNk I kw;Wk; xs Mfpa ,uz;Lk;
$l;nlhypfs;
vdg;gLfpd;wd. 5.
jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;bYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy;
tUfpd;wd. mit nrhy; ,ilapy; my;yJ ,Wjpapy; tUfpd;w
kl;LNk
nghOJ capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fshfNt
tUfpd;wd. 6.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; capu; vOj;Jf;fspy; ,lk;ngWtjpy;iy. Mdhy;
rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,lk; ngWfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: ft" tA
4.1.1.2.
capu;f; FwpaPLfs;
capu; vOj;J
jkpo;
rpq;fsk;
m
-
-
M
h
d
,
p
s
<
P
S q" =
c
1.
C
}> +
+
v
n
f
V
N
fa
I
i
ff
x
nh
f d
X
Nh
f da
xs
ns
jkpo;
nkhop
NghyNt
Q
f !
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk;
capu;f;
FwpaPLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. 2.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;f;FwpaPLfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ,lq;fspy;
Nky; tUfpd;w nka;f; FwpaPlhd Gs;sp rpy ,lq;fspy; capu;f; FwpaPLfs;
gad;gLj;jg;gLtjpy;iy. Mdhy; rpq;fs nkhopapy;
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w
gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzk;: fa
-
f da -
nka;naOj;Jf;fspd;
fha" fka" fÉ" fï fida" flda" fjda" f,da
,lq;fspy;
nka;f;
FwpaPLf;s
4.1.1.3.
nka;naOj;Jf;fs;
f; la
r; É
l; c
Ü
;a
ṭ
t
k
z;
g;
w;
ma
¾
p
ṛ
k;
d;
q;
Q;
x
Coa
Ka
ka
ï
ŋ
ñ
N
ṉ
m
a;
1.
j;
u;
e;
y;
ha
¾
l
y
R
,a
t; õ
ka
o; ḻ
n
s;
ḷ
v
jkpo; nkhopapy; nrhy; Kjypy; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; tUtjpy;iy. mNjNghy;
rpq;fs
nkhopapYk; nka;naOj;Jf;fs; nrhy; Kjypy; tUtjpy;iy. 2.
jkpo;
nkhopapy;
nka;naOj;ijf;
Fwpg;gjw;F
nka;
vOj;jpd;
,lg;gLfpd;wJ. rpq;fs nkhoapy; ,U tpjkhd nka;f; FwpaPLfs; cs;sd.
a cjhuzk;:-
s
Ü" ï" â 4.1.1.4.
a
;a"
capu; nka;naOj;Jf;fs;
f
r
l
j
g
w
Nky;
Gs;sp
l
p
q
Q Co
K
k
ñ
N
a
u r
y
m
t
z
X
h
;
ṭ
k
1.
g
c
r
p
e k ṉ
y
r
k u
d k
n
m t
o
s
R ,
j
<
<
L
v
ḻ
ḷ
jkpo;
nkhop
NghyNt rpq;fs nkhopapYk; capu; vOj;Jf;fSlDk; nka;naOj;Jf;fSlDk; capu;f; FwpaPLfs; ,ize;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; Njhw;wk; ngWfpd;wd. 2.
jkpo; nkhopapy; cs;s xt;nthU xypf;Fk; vOj;Jf;fs; ,y;iy. Mdhy; mit
tUfpd;w nghOJ vt;thW cr;rupf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;F nkhopapy; xt;nthU capu;nka; xypf;Fk; 3.
ve;j ,lj;jpy;
tpjpKiwfs; cs;sd. Mdhy; rpq;fs
jdpj; jdp vOj;Jf;fs; cs;sd.
jkpo; nkhopapy; capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fis vOJk; NghJ nka;f;FwpaPlhd Gs;sp ,lg;gLtjpy;iy.
Mdhy;
rpq;fs
nkhoapy;
capu;f;FwpaPLfSk;
nka;f;
FwpaPLfSk; ,izj;J capu;nka; vOj;Jf;fs; vOjg;gLfpd;wd. 4.1.2. njhlu;fs; nkhopapd; njhlHfs; gw;wpa Ma;T njhlupay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. nrhw;fs; jdpj;J epd;W nghUs; czHj;jpdhYk; mit ,ize;J epd;W njhluhf mikfpd;w nghOJjhd; mJ KOik ngWfpd;wJ. ,t;thW njhlupy; nrhw;fs; rel="nofollow"> nrhy;yikg;Gfs; mikAk; KiwNa njhlHKiw (order) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,t;thwhd njhlHfspy; rpy cWg;Gfs; kpf neUq;fpa njhlHG nfhz;L mikfpd;w nghOJ mit mz;ikAWg;Gfs;
(Immediate
constituents)
vdg;gLfpd;wd.
mj;NjhL
mz;ikAWg;Gfspy; fhzg;gLk; ,iaG njhlupiaG (Concord) vdg;gLfpd;wJ. jkpo; nkhopapy; njhluikg;G
njhlu;
,t;thW
cs;s
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
eP
njhlH - 1
th
ng.njh. + tp.njh. + nra.ngh. + Nt + tp.K.
njhlu;
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
Nt.njh.
tp.
ng.njh.
fe;jd;
eha;
I
mbj;jhd;
,j;njhlupy; Xu; vOtha;> xU nraw;gLnghUs;> xU gadpiy cz;L. kugpyf;fzj;jpy; ,j;njhlH jdp thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
njhlH - 2 njhlu;
njh1
ng.njh.
ng.
njh2
tp.njh.
ng.njh. tp.njh.
,.nrh. tp.K. ng. ,.nrh. tp.K.
ehd; ck;
te;Njd;
fky; ck; te;jhd;
ehDk; fkYk; te;Njhk;.
,j;njhlupy; ,uz;L njhlHfs; ,ize;Js;sd. ,j;njhlH kugpyf;fzj;jpy; $l;L thf;fpak; vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
rpq;fs nkhopapy; njhluikg;G rpq;fs nkhopapYk; ,t;thwhd njhluikg;G cz;L. v-L: njhlH - 1
njhlu;
ng.njh.
tp.njh.
.ng.njh.
tp.K.
f,Akd
fmar
Nyzh
lhs
Ngu
mzpy;
fap nfha;ahg;gok;
rhg;gpLk;
njhlH - 2
njhlu;
ng.njh.
ng.njh. ng.njh.
tp.njh.
ng.njh
ng.m. tp.K.
ng. ,.nrh. ng. ,.nrh ng. ,.nrh.
uu hd¿fjda kk ehd;
ap
hs
Ek;g ap va
ck; eP
kqU ap
ck; mts; ck;
hs
n`he;j ey;y
weh
hs
fyd|
ahONth ez;gHfs;
ehDk; ePAk; mtSk; ey;y ez;gHfs;.
,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; njhluikg;G mike;Js;sJ. nghJthfNt ,uz;L nkhopfspYk; xNu mikg;ghfNt njhlHfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.
4.1.3. nghUz;ikapay; (Semantics)
nkhopapd; nghUz;ik (meaning) gw;wpa nra;jpfisj; jUtjhfg; nghUz;ikapay; mike;Js;sJ. mjhtJ nrhy;ypd; nghUis tpsf;Ftjhf ,g;gFjp mike;Js;sJ. nghUz;ikapy; gy tifahfg; gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
m).
tUzidg; nghUz;ikapay; nrhy; kw;Wk; njhlHfspd; nghUis tpsf;FfpwJ. gb -
ngaH tpid
XL -
c,h
ch jk
M).
-
gb
gbj;jyhfpa nray;
ngaH tpid
osh
-
-
$iu XL
XLjyhfpa nray;
- [ya - ePH> - [a - ntw;wp
le,Eh - nfNya - fhL
tuyhw;Wg; nghUz;ikapay; nghUs; khw;wj;jpidAk; mjw;fhd fhuzq;fisAk; tpsf;FfpwJ. nrhy;
goe;jkpo;
jw;fhyj;jkpo;
fjpH
new;fjpH
vf;];Nu fjpH
thf;F
thHj;ij
ehw;wk;
thf;Fr;rPl;L eWehw;wk;
JHehw;wk;
,t;thwhd nrhw;fisr; rpq;fs nkhopapy; fhZjy; rw;W mupjhf cs;sik Fwpg;gplj;;jf;fjhFk;. MapDk; ,yq;ifapy; Ml;rp nra;j NghHj;Jf;Nfau; kw;Wk; xy;yhe;ju; gad;gLj;jpa nrhw;fs; ,k;nkhopapy; cs;sikiaf; fhz Kbfpd;wJ. rpq;fsr; nrhy; ÿïßh Jk;upa uq,A;ekaf.a
jpirr;nrhy; fldaÉÑh - Gifapujk; Nfhr;rpa l=iaish - rikayiw
Ky;njd;Nf
,).
F];]pa
nghJg; nghUz;ikapay; nkhopayFfspd; nghUisAk; gz;igAk; tpsf;FfpwJ. tPL
- ,y;yk;
kyH
-é
Áy;
- Gj;jfk;
u, - mqIam
-
ky - G~;g
- kyH
kßhd - ysj,d
-
eupah - `ptyh
- eup
fk¿ï - moau -
neOk; - gj;k - jhkiu
,t;thW jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia tpsf;fyhk;. rpq;fs nkhopapy; nrhy;yikg;ghdJ> jkpo; nkhop NghyNt mike;Js;sJ. 1. jpiz - rpq;fs nkhopapYk; cau; jpiz> m/wpizr; nrhw;fs; cs;sd. 2. ghy;
- Mz;ghy;> ngz;ghy;> ghy; my;yhjit vd ghy; %d;W tifahfg; gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.
3. vz; - xUik> gd;ik vd ,U gpupTfshfg; gFf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4. ,lk; - jkpo; nkhop NghyNt jd;ik> Kd;dpiy> glu;f;if vd %d;W
tiffshfg;
gpupf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 5. Ntw;Wik - jkpo; nkhopapy; vl;L Ntw;Wik Fwpg;gplg;gl> rpq;fs nkhopapy; 9 Ntw;Wikfs; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wd. 6. fhy ,ilepiyfs;> tpidr; nrhw;fs;> tpidnar;rq;fs; jkpo; nkhop Nghd;w mikg;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sd. 7. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; vOtha;> gadpiy> nrag;gLnghUs; vd thf;fpa fl;likg;G mika> jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; thf;fpakhdJ> vOtha;> nrag;gLnghUs;> gadpiy vd;w xOq;fikg;gpy; mike;Js;sJ.
myF 5 4.0.
cstpay; nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
Nehf;fk; 1. nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;igj; njspTgLj;jy; 2. cstpaYf;Fk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;gpid tpsf;Fjy; 3. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fis cstpay; mbg;gilapy; jPu;j;jy; ghl mwpKfk; nkhop fw;gjw;Fk; %isf;Fk; ,ilNahd njhlu;G> ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wypy; cstpay; Nfhl;ghLfspd; nry;thf;F> nkhop fw;fpd;wnghOJ khztu;fs; ,lu;gLk; ,lq;fs;> mt;tplu;ghLfis cstpay; uPjpapy; vt;thW jPu;j;Jf;nfhs;syhk; vd;gJ gw;wpa tpsf;fk; ,g;ghlj;jpy; Kd; itf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 4.1.
nkhop fw;wYf;Fk; %isf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G
4.2.
cstpapy; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfs;
4.2.1. elj;ijthj Nfhl;ghL
elj;ijthjf; NFhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; J}z;bj; Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghL Njhw;wk; ngw;wJ. nkhopapd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> elj;ijapd; mbg;gilapy; cUthf;fk; ngw;Ws;sJ. J}z;b Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghlhdJ> mfj;Nj epfOk; nrad;Kiwiaf; ftdj;jpw; nfhs;stpy;iy khwhf nkhopf;Fk; fw;wYf;Fk; ,ilapyhd ,iltpidapd; gpwg;ghf;fk; nkhopf; fw;if vd;fpd;wJ. ,f;nfhs;ifapd; mbg;gilapy; fw;wy; vd;gJ mtjhdpf;ff; $ba tpisthFk;. ,f;fw;wy; nray;KiwahdJ> jd;dpaf;f mbg;gilapy;
J}z;b-Jyq;fy;
%yk;
,lk;ngWtjhFk;.
jd;dpaf;f
mbg;gilapyhd
gof;fj;ij
cUthf;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F J}z;b-Jyq;fy; nrad;Kiwapyhd elj;ijia cUthf;Ftjw;F> ntFkjpy; nfhLj;jy; gad;gLfpd;wJ. ntFkjp mspj;jyhdJ> elj;ijia kPs typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. elj;ijthjf; Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapyhd nkhop fw;wyhdJ> kPs typAWj;jy; Kiwapy; fl;bnaOg;gg;gl;Ls;sJ. Kjyhk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfSf;fpilNa xw;Wik fhzg;gbd; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;if ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. mit ,uz;Lf;FkpilNa NtWghLfs; fhzg;gbd;> fw;Nghd; jdJ fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; rpf;fiy vjpu;Nehf;Ftjw;fhd tha;g;Gfs; cs;sd. ,r;re;ju;g;gj;jpy; khztDf;F kPs typAWj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; J}z;b-Jyq;fy; Nfhl;ghl;by; khztd; fw;wypy; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;j;jy; Kjd;ik ngWfpd;wJ. fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> cj;jpfis khw;wpaikj;jy;> kPs typAWj;jy; Nghd;wtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; ,r;nraw;ghlhdJ ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;. 4.2.2. fz;fhzpg;Gf; Nfhl;ghL ,f;Nfhl;ghl;il
cUthf;fpatu;
fpwrd;
Mthu;.
,tu;
nkhopia
cs;thq;fYf;Fk;
nkhopiaf;
fw;wYf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghl;il tpsf;fp cs;shu;. nkhopia cs;thq;fy; vd;gJ> Mokhd epiyapy; eilngWk; nraw;ghlhFk;. ,uz;lhk; nkhopf; fw;ifAk; Mokhd epiyapy; epfo;tjhapd; mJ nghUs; nghjpe;jjhf mikAnkd ek;Gfpd;wdu;. ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;wyhdJ> fw;wyhf ,lk;ngWk;NghJ> nkhopapd; mikg;G> kw;Wk; tpjpfs; Nghd;wit Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. ,tupd;
Nfhl;ghl;by;
fpufpj;jy;
Kf;fpaj;Jtk;
ngWfpd;wJ.
,J
csr;
nraw;ghl;bid
typAWj;Jfpd;wJ. mJNt nkhop cs;thq;fiy epfo;j;Jfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhop fw;wypy; kdntOr;rpfs; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wd. kdntOr;rprhu; epiyapy; nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghL tpidj;jpwDld; mikahJ. MfNt mjw;Fupa #oiy cUthf;fp ,uz;lhk; fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jw; nraw;ghL ,lk;ngwy; mtrpakhFk;. 4.2.3. mwpiff; Nfhl;ghL mwpiff;Nfhl;ghlhdJ> csr;nraw;ghl;ilg; gw;wpajhFk;. ,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; mwpifr; nrad;KiwahdJ> khw;wk;> nghJikg;gLj;Jjy;> kPs; fl;likj;jy; Mfpatw;iw mfj;Nj nra;fpd;wJ. nkhop fw;wy; vdgJ fw;Nghdpd; mwpif tpUj;jpahFk;. fw;Nghd; vz;zf;fUit rupahd Kiwapy; tpsq;fpa gpd;du; nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. mwpif tpUj;jpahdJ> nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd; NjitahFk;. nkhop tpUj;jpf;F Kd; mwpif epfo;fpd;wJ. J}z;b-Jyq;fy; ghu;f;f NtWgl;ljhFk;.
,f;Nfhl;ghl;bd;
mbg;gilapy;
fw;Nghd;
nkhop
gw;wp
rpe;jpf;fpd;whd;.
tpsq;fpf;nfhs;fpd;whd;. Qhgfg;gLj;Jfpd;whd;. fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;. 4.2.4. r%f fyhrhu Nfhl;ghL tpnfhl;];fp vd;w Nfhl;ghl;lhsu; vd;gtu;> nkhop vd;gJ milahs Kiwikia nfhz;ljhff; fUJfpd;whu;. ,e;j milahsk;rhu; Kiwik jiyKiw jiyKiwahfg; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L tUfpd;wJ. ,tu;> nkhopahdJ> r%fkakhdJk; jd;id ikag;gLj;Jk; mfk; rhu;e;j njhopw;ghl;ilf; nfhz;lnjdf; fUjpdhu;. rpe;jidf;F mbg;gil nkhopahFk;. ,tuJ fUj;Jg;gb> vz;zKk; Ngr;Rk; NtWgl;l %yj;ijf;nfhz;lit. njhlf;fj;jpy; vz;zkhdJ tha;nkhop rhuhjjhfTk; Ngr;rhdJ mwpTepiy rhuhj; jd;ikiaAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. nkhop fw;ifr; nraw;ghlhdJ> rpf;fyhd fUtpiaf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wJ. mJ fw;Nghdpd; rpe;jidiaj; jPu;khdpf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; mJ nrhw;fspd; %yk; Gj;jhf;fkhd rpe;jidia ntspf;nfhz;L tUfpd;wJ. nkhop fw;ww; nraw;ghlhdJ gpwupd; cjtpAld; ,lk;ngWtjhFk;. mjhtJ fw;Nghd; tsu;e;Njhupd;> ngw;Nwhupd;> rktaJf; FOf;fspd;> Mrpupaupd;> r%fj;jtupd; cjtpNahL nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;whd;.
4.3.
nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL
nkhop fw;wypy; %isapd; nraw;ghL vt;thW mike;Js;sJ vd;gij tpsf;Fk; Jiwahf cstpaYld; njhlu;Ggl;l euk;gpapy; nkhopapay; Jiw cs;sJ. euk;gpay; nkhopapayhdJ> xU kdpjd; nkhopia cs;thq;Fjy;(aqusitions), fpufpj;jy; (comprehention),
ntspg;gLj;Jjy;(production)
Nghd;w nraw;ghLfs; %isapy; vt;thW epfo;fpd;wd vd;gJ gw;wp tpsf;Ftjhf mike;Js;sJ. euk;gpay; nkhopapayhsu;fs;> euk;gpay; nkhopapay; Ma;T Jiwapd; Ma;T KiwfisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk;> tpjpKiwfisAk; euk;gpay;> tpQ;Qhdk;> nkhopapay;> nkhop MSif> njhlu;ghly;>
euk;gpay;>
cstpay;
Nghd;w
gpupTfis
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L
tiuaiw
nra;fpd;whu;fs;. mJ njhlu;ghfg; gy;NtW Nrhjid El;gq;fisAk; NtWgl;l Nfhl;ghLfisAk; mwpKfk; nra;Js;shu;fs;. euk;gpay; ty;Yeu;fs;> %isia nkhopAld; njhlu;GgLj;Jtjd; %yk; euk;gpay; nkhopapay; kw;Wk; cstpay; nkhopapay; Nfhl;ghLfis cUthf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. Ngr;R
FiwghLilaatu;fSf;F
euk;gpay;
nkhopapay;
mbg;gilapNyNa
rpfpr;irfs;
toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopAld; njhlu;Gila %is gFjpfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;Nl ,r;rpfpr;ir Kiwfs; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. me;jtifapy; nkhop fw;wYld; %isapd; nraw;ghLfs; kpf neUq;fpa njhlu;gpidf; nfhz;Ls;sjhff; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpd;wJ.
4.4.
nkhop fw;wYld; njhlu;Gila rpf;fy;fis cstpay; uPjpapy; jPu;j;jy;
nkhopahdJ r%fk; rhu;e;jJ. MapDk; nkhopiaf; fw;gpf;Fk; nghOJk; fw;Wk;nfhs;Sk; nghOJk; kdepiy Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWfpd;wJ. kdjpd; ,af;fj;jpw;F Vw;g fUj;Jk; nrhy;Yk; njhlu;GgLj;jg;gl;L>
ntspg;gLfpd;wd.
,jid
mbg;gilahff;nfhz;Nl
nkhopahdJ
tbtk;
ngWfpd;wJ. Foe;ij gpwe;jJk; mjw;F ahUk; nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhLg;gjpy;iy. Foe;ij jhdhfNt jhd; thOk; #oypypUe;J rpWfr; rpWf nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf jdJ jha;> je;ij> rNfhjuu;fspd; Ngr;R> tho;f;if Kiw Nghd;wtw;iw cs;thq;fpf;nfhz;L mjw;Nfw;wthW jhDk; nraw;gl Kaw;rp nra;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; Foe;ij Kiwrhuh Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf; fw;Wf;nfhz;L gpd;du; ghlrhiyapy; nkhopia Kiwrhu; Kiwapy; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf ghlrhiyapy; vOj;J tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mt;thW Ngr;R tof;F %yj;jpypUe;J vOj;J tof;fpw;F khWk; epiyapy; (from oracy to literacy) Foe;ij gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;wJ. ,e;epiyapy; Foe;ij nkhopiag; gw;wp rpwe;j mwpitg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;fpd;wJ. mjd;NghJ nkhop
njhlu;ghd
kdg;ghq;FfSk;
language
attituds)
cUthfpd;wd.
nkhopiaf;
fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit Njitg;gLfpd;wd. ,tw;iw cstpay; nkhopapay; MA;thsu;fs; fw;gpj;jw; Nfhl;ghL vdf; Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;fs;. ,NjNghd;Wjhd; xU nkhopia ,uz;lhk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;gtu;fSf;Fk; nkhopiaf; fw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fk; gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Kiwahd newpKiwfs;> mZFKiwfs;> #oy; Nghd;wit Njitg;gLfpd;wd. mit rupahd Kiwapy; mikahj NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhf ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; khztu;fs; vjpu;Nehf;Fk; cstpay; rhu; rpf;fy;fs; rpy tUkhW> 4.3.1. r%fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; nghJthf rpq;fs khztu;fSf;Fj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ vOj;J tof;F my;yJ epak tof;F nkhopNa fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;r; r%fj;jpy; vOj;J tof;Nfh my;yJ epak tof;Nfh Ngrg;gLtjpy;iy. khwhfg; Ngr;R tof;Nf tof;fpYs;sJ. vOj;J tof;F my;yJ epak tof;F %yk; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;Wf;nfhz;l khztu;fs;> mjid jdJ md;whl tho;f;ifapy; gad;gLj;Jk; NghJ rpy rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. cjhuzkhfj; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; xU khztu; vt;thNwDk; jkpo; nkhopapy; ciuahl Ntz;Lk; vd;w
Mirapy; cztfk; xd;wpy; nrd;W ciuahLfpd;whu;. mt;Tiuahly; gpd;tUkhW mike;jpUe;jik mtjhdpf;fg;gl;lJ. thbf;ifahsu;: mz;zd; til ,Uf;fpd;wjh? filf;fhuu;(rpupj;jthW): ky;yp nkhd tNlj Xd? thbf;ifahsu;: vdf;F ,uz;L gUg;G tilfSk; Ie;J cSe;J tilfSk; jhUq;fs;. filfhuu;(,g;nghOJk; rpupj;jthNw): vr;ruapj ky;yp? thbf;ifahsu;(jhDk; rpupj;jthNw): Mkhk;. mz;zd;. ehd; vt;tsT ju Ntz;Lk;? ,t;thW ciuahly; njhlu;fpd;wJ. Muk;gj;jpy; jd;dk;gpf;ifNahL ciuahliy Muk;gpj;j khztu;> jdJ jkpiof; Nfl;L filf;fhuu; rpupj;jJk; jhd; gpioahd nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jp tpl;NlNlNdh vd;w jLkhw;wj;jpy;
gpd;du;
mt;Tiuahliy
njhlu
jaq;Ffpd;whu;.
mj;jaf;fkhdJ
mk;khztd;
jkpo;nkhopapy; ciuahLtjw;Fj; jilahf mike;JtpLfpd;wJ. vq;Nf ehk; jtwhfg; Ngrp tpLNthNkh vd;w jaf;fNk ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;Fk; khztu;fsplk; mjpfkhff; fhzg;gLk; cstpay; rhu; rpf;fyhFk;. 4.3.2. ghy; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; tFg;giwapy; khztu;fs; Mz;fs; ngz;fs; vd ,Ughyhuhk; fw;fpd;w nghOJ nraw;ghLfspy;
nraw;gLtjidAk;
fhzyhk;.
,t;thwhd
jho;Tr;rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Ffpdw;hu;fs;. 4.3.4. ghl cs;slf;fk; rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs;
re;ju;g;gq;fspy;
Kd;dwptw;w
khztu;fs;
,ay;ghfNt jkpo; nkhop fbdkhdJ vd rpq;fs khztu;fSk; rpq;fs nkhop fbdkhdJ vd jkpo; khztu;fSk;
vjpu;
kiwahd
kdg;ghq;fpidNa
nfhz;Ls;shu;fs;.
mJkl;Lkd;wp
rpy
re;ju;g;gq;fspy; ghl cs;slf;fq;fs; khztu;fsJ jpwDf;F Vw;w tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. my;yJ mtu;fs; vjpu;ghu;j;j tifapy; mikahJ Nghfyhk;. mt;thwhd re;ju;g;gq;fspy; jq;fshy; ghlj;ijr; rupahd Kiwapy; cs;thq;f KbahJs;sNj vd;w vjpu;kiwahd vz;zk; khztu;fisf; fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; gpd;dilar; nra;ayhk;. 4.3.4. fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; nkhop> mk;nkhop cupj;jhFk; r%fk;> mr;r%fj;jpd;
fyhrhuk;>
gz;ghL Nghd;wit njhlu;ghf Neu;kiw vz;zk; my;yJ kdg;ghq;F my;yhky; vjpu;kiw vz;zk; my;yJ kdg;ghq;F ,Uf;Fkhapd; mk;khztu;fshy; jhq;fs; fw;Wf;nfhs;s tpUk;gpa nkhopia vf;fhyj;jpYk; fw;Wf;nfhs;s KbahJ. 4.3.5. Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd kdg;ghq;F rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; ,d;W ,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs; jkpou;fNs. mNjNghy; rpq;fsk; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSs; ngUk;ghyhdtu;fs; rpq;fstu;fNs. MfNt Mrpupau; njhlu;ghd Neu;kiwahd kdg;ghq;F ,y;yhJ tplj;J khztu;fs; fw;ww; nraw;ghLfspy; rpf;fy;fis vjpu;Nehf;Fthu;fs;. 4.3.6. fw;gpj;jy; Kiw rhu;e;j rpf;fy;fs; ,d;W khztu;fs; etPd njhopy;El;gj;jpd;ghy; mjpf Mu;tk; nfhz;Ls;s fhyg;gFjp. MfNt khztu;fSk; fw;gpj;jypy; etPd KiwfisNa tpUk;Gfpd;whu;fs;. mJkl;Lkd;wp nraw;ghLrhu;e;j fw;gpj;jy; KiwapNyNa mjpf Mu;tj;Jld;
khztu;
kj;jpapy;
Neu;kiwahd
vz;zj;ij>
kdg;ghq;if
Vw;gLj;jptpLjy;
mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mJkl;Lkd;wp khztu;fsJ jha;nkhop> mk;nkhoprhu;e;j r%fk;> gz;ghL>
fyhrhuk;
Nghd;wit
njhlu;gpy;
Mrpupau;
Neu;kiwahd
vz;zj;ijAk;
kdg;ghq;ifAk;
nfhz;bUg;gijAk; khztu;fs; mwpar; nra;jy; mtrpakhFk;. khztu;fs; r%fj;jpy; nrd;W NgRfpd;w nghOJ Vw;gLfpd;w rpf;fy;fisj; jPu;g;gjw;F Kjypy; mtu;fSf;Ff; fw;gpf;Fk; Ngr;R tof;F epak tof;F my;yhkYk; gpuNjr tof;F my;yhkYk; ghu;j;Jf;nfhs;Sjy; mtrpahfpd;wJ. MfNt nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpj;jhy; nghUj;jkhdjhf mikAk;. mj;NjhL cstpay; uPjpapy; mk;khztu;fisf; fw;wy; nraw;ghLfSf;Fj; jahu;g;gLj;Jjy; Mrpupaupd; jiyaha filikahf cs;sJ. khztu;fs; Ngrg;NghtJ jha; nkhopay;y. ,uz;lhk; nkhop. Mjyhy; gpioahfg; NgRtJ gw;wp rpe;jpf;f Ntz;bajpy;iy. Muk;gj;jpy; gpioahfg; NgrpdhYk; fhyg;Nghf;fpy; gapw;rp ngw;W jtWfisj; jpUj;jpf;nfhs;syhk; vd mtu;fis Cf;fg;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.
myF 6 6.0.
r%f nkhopapaYk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jYk;
ghl mwpKfk; ,uz;lhk; nkhoj;Jiwapy;
cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsHr;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy;> eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; Nghd;w tplaq;fisAk; nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wpAk; mwpe;jpUj;jy; mtrpakhfpd;wJ. mj;NjhL Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;wnghOJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;Jf;Fupa Ngr;R tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidg; fw;gpg;gjh? my;yJ epak tof;iff; fw;gpg;gjh vd;gJ ngUk; rpf;fyhf mike;Js;sJ. ghlj;jpl;lk; tbtikg;gtu;fSf;Fk; fw;gpf;Fk; Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; ,J ngUk; rpf;fyhfNt mike;Js;sJ. MfNt ,t;tpaypy; Nkw; $wg;gl;Ls;s tplaq;fs; gw;wpa tpsf;fq;;fs; Kd; itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Nehf;fk; 1.
khzu;fSf;Fr; r%f nkhopapay; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; nkhop fw;gpj;jy; Mfpatw;Wf;fpilahyhd njhlu;ig njspTgLj;Jjy;.
2.
r%f nkhopapay; Jiwapy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngWk; nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply; Nghd;wit gw;wpa tpsf;fj;ijg; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jy;.
3.
nkhopapd; r%fg; gzpfs; gw;wp tpgupj;jy;.
4.
nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;ig mwpar; nra;jy;.
5.
Ngr;R tof;F nkhopapidf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba nghJ tof;F gw;wp njspTgLj;jjy;.
6.1.
nkhopf; nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;> nkhop tsu;r;rp> nkhopj; jpl;lkply;
kdpj ehfupfj;NjhL tsu;r;rp ngw;w tplakhf nkhop fUjg;gLfpd;wJ. mjdhy; nkhopAk; r%fKk; ,uz;luf; fye;jit vdf;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wd. nkhopapd; tsu;r;rpf;Fr; r%fKk; r%f tsu;r;rpf;F nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit vd;gij mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L r%f nkhopapay; ,aq;Ffpd;wJ. r%f nkhopapaYf;Fj; Njitahd mbg;gilj; juTfisj; jUgitahf mikg;G nkhopapaYk; tpsf;f nkhopapaYk; cs;sd. r%f nkhopapay;> nkhop NgRk; kf;fsJ r%fj;jpd; mikg;G> mr;r%fj;jpd; gpd;dzp> mr;r%fk; vt;thW ,aq;Ffpd;wJ Nghd;w tplaq;fisAk; juTfisAk; jUfpd;wJ. MfNt nkhopapay; kw;Wk; r%fk; rhu;e;j juTfisAk; tplaq;fisAk; Nfhl;ghLfisAk; xUq;fpizj;j nkhopapay; Ma;T my;yJ nkhopapay; fy;tp r%f nkhopapay; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf> xU r%f kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpid Ma;T> Kjyhtjhf gy;NtW Ma;thsu;fs; Ma;T nra;J Kd; itj;Js;s fpis nkhopapay; gw;wpa nfhs;iffisg; gad;gLj;jp Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. mjd; gpd;du; mr;r%ff; $WfisAk; gbepiy mikg;GfisAk; mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L Ngr;R tof;FfisAk; mjd; $WfisAk; ,dq;fz;L r%f nkhopapay; gw;wpa tpsf;fk; jug;gLfpd;wJ. ,jdhy; nkhopg; gad;ghlhdJ> r%f mikg;ghYk; r%ff; $WfshYk; #oy;fshYk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJ vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. kdpjdpd; gupzhk tsHr;rpNahL Njhw;wk; ngw;w nkhopahdJ> nky;y nky;y tsHr;rpg; ghijia Nehf;fp Kd;Ndw;wkile;jJ. nkhop tsHr;rp vd;gJ nkhop vt;thW tsHr;rp ngw;W te;Js;sJ vd;gjhFk;. nkhop tsHr;rpAld; neUq;fpa njhlHGilaJ r%f tsHr;rp. Vnddpy;; r%fk; tsHr;rp mila mila nkhopAk; tsHr;rp milAk;. r%f tsHr;rpahdJ jha;nkhop %yk; ,lk;ngWtNjhL mr;r%fk; rhHe;j gz;ghL> tpOkpak; vd;gdTk; tsHr;rp ngWk;. MfNt r%f tsHr;rpapd; mbg;gilapNyNa nkhop tsHr;rpAk; mlq;fpAs;sJ. nkhop tsHr;rpapy; Kjd;ikg; gq;F tfpg;gJ nkhopj; jpl;lkplyhFk;. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xU nkhopiar; r%fj; Njitf;F Vw;w tifapy; Kiwahf xOq;FgLj;JtjhFk;. njhlf;ff; fhyq;fspy; nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; gw;wpa vz;zq;fs; r%fj;jpy; ,Ue;j nghOJk; mit xU Kiwikahd tifg;gLj;jyhf mike;jpUf;ftpy;iy. Mdhy; ehsiltpy; gy;NtW ehLfspd; nkhopg; gad;ghLfs; kw;Wk; jpl;lkpLjy;fis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy; jpwikahfr; nray;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mt;thW nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpl;L tsHr;rp ngwr; nra;tjw;Fg; gy;NtW nfhs;iffs; cUthf;fg;gl;ld. mtw;wpd;
mbg;gilapNyNa
nkhopj;jpl;lkply;
midj;J
ehLfspYk;
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;lJ.
Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLfpd;wJ. nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; vd;gJ xUtifahd nkhopg; guhkupg;G my;yJ Kfhikj;Jtk; vd;W epê];Lgpdp (1968) Fwpg;gpLfpd;whu;. mtH fUj;Jg;gb nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjy; %d;W ngUk; gpupTfspy; mlq;Ffpd;wJ.
nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Fjy;
nkhop tsHr;rp
nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjiy eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy;
,g;gpupTfspd; mbg;gilapNyNa nkhopj;jpl;lkpLjy; nray;gLj;jg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. gy nkhopfs; Ngrg;gLk; ehLfspy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ me;ehl;by; thOk; midj;J kf;fspd; eyd;fisf; fUj;jpy; nfhs;sy; NjitahFk;. nrk;nkhopfs;> ngUk;ghd;ik kf;fshy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> rpWghd;ik kf;fshy; Ngrg;gLfpd;w nkhopfs;> goq;Fb ,dj;jtHfspd; nkhopfs; vd midj;J tifg;gl;l nkhopfisAk; tifg;gLj;jiy mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;nfhs;iffs; cUthf;fg;gly; Ntz;Lk;. nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,t;thNw nray;gLj;jg;gly; NjitahFk;. NkYk; ,f;fhy kf;fspd; mwptpay;> r%ftpay;> nghUshjhuk;> murpay; Nghd;w midj;Jj; NjitfisAk; epiwNtw;Wk; tifapy; nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopj; jpl;lkpLjYk; ,lk;ngwy; Ntz;Lk;. Njrpa nkhopfs;> Ml;rp nkhopfs;> caHfy;tp gapw;W nkhopfs;> kf;fs; fUj;Jg; gupkhw;w nkhopfs;>
ngUk;ghd;ik
nkhopfs;>
rpWghd;ik
nkhopfs;
vd;w
mbg;gilapy;
nkhopf;nfhs;iffis cUthf;FjYk; nkhopiaj; jpl;lkpLjYk; gd;nkhopr; r%fq;fis cila ehl;by; nkhop njhlHghd Kuz;ghLfs; Njhd;whjpUf;f toptFf;Fk;.
nkhop tsHr;rpg; gbKiwfs; nkhop tsHr;rpahdJ Kf;fpakhd %d;W gbKiwfisf; nfhz;lJ. mitahtd> m).
vOj;JUthf;fk;
M).
GJikahf;fk;
,).
epiyNgwhf;fk;
(m).
vOj;JUthf;fk;
vOj;JUthf;fk; vd;gJ r%fj; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;Fjy; MFk;. mjhtJ r%fk; kw;Wk; mjd; Njitfs; Nghd;wit ehSf;F ehs; khw;wk; mile;j tz;zKs;sd. mJ jtpu xU r%fk; gy;NtW r%fq;fSld; ,ilj;njhlHGfisAk; Vw;gLj;jpf;nfhs;fpwJ. ,J r%f khw;wkhFk;. cjhuzkhf ,yq;iftho; rpq;fs kf;fs; cyf ehLfSldhd ,ilj;njhlHghy; Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhw;fs; gytw;iw epj;jKk; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. cjhuzkhf>
Fanta, File, Form, Fathima, France Nghd;w nrhw;fisf;
Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,r;nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; F vd;w Mq;fpy nkhop vOj;Jf;F ,izahd rpq;fs vOj;J Njitg;gl;lJ. mjw;fika> F vd;w Mq;fpy vOj;jpw;;Fg; gjpyhf * vd;w rpq;fs vOj;ij cUthf;fpdhu;fs;. mjdhy; NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fs; ,d;W rpq;fs nkhopapy;>
Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xyp ngaHg;G
Fanta
*ekagd
ngd;l;lh
File
*hs,a
igy;
Form gbtk;
f*da¾ï
NghHk;
Fathima
*d;a;ssud
jkpo;; ghdk; Nfhg;G
ghj;jpkh
ghj;jpkh
vd toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thW r%fj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g vOj;Jfis cUthf;FjNy vOj;JUthf;fk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J Nghd;w vOj;JUthf;fk; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,Jtiu ,lk;ngwtpy;iy. Mdhy; ,t;thwhd vOj;Jfspd; Njit Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. Vnddpy; Fanta, France, Frank, Fathima, Cauliflower, German, Japan Nghd;w nrhw;fisj; jkpo;nkhopapy; vOJtjw;Ff; fbdkhf cs;sJ. Mjyhy; mtw;Wf;Fupa jkpo; vOj;Jfs; Njitahf cs;sd. (M).
GJikahf;fk;
ehSf;F ehs; tsHr;rpailAk; Gjpa njhopy;El;gq;fSf;Nfw;g xt;nthU JiwapYk; Gjpa Gjpa nrhw;fs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehSf;F ehs; gy;NtW Gjpa nrhw;fs;
cUthfpatz;zKs;sd.
mr;nrhw;fisg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;w
midj;J
ehLfSk;
mr;nrhw;fSf;Fupa Gjpa nrhw;fisj; jkJ jha;nkhopapy; cUthf;f Ntz;ba epiy Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. Mq;fpy nkhopiag; gad;gLj;Jk; midj;J ehLfSk; midj;Jj; JiwfSk; mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. mJNt fiyr; nrhy;yhf;fk; vdg;gLfpd;wJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhff; fzpdpj; Jiw rhHe;j Mq;fpyr;
nrhw;fSf;Fj;
rpq;fs
kw;Wk;
jkpo;nkhopfspy;;
fPo;tUk;
cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
fiyr;nrhw;fs;
Computer
mß.Klh
gupfzf;fa
Thchnology
;dËKkh
jhf;~za
Cell phone
cx.u ÿrl;Kh
[q;fk Juf;fj;jda
fzpdp njhopy;El;gk; miyNgrp
,t;thW Gjpa Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Fupa fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ftjd; %yk; Fwpg;gpl;l Jiwfs; tsHr;rpailfpd;wd. Gjpa
njhopy;El;g tsHr;rpf;F Vw;w tifapYk; mtw;wpd; mbg;gilapy;
Vw;gLk; NjitfSf;F Vw;gTk; fiyr;nrhw;fis cUthf;Ffpd;w nghOJ nkhop GJikahf;fk; ngWfpd;wJ. (,). epiyNgwhf;fk; epiyNgwhf;fk; vd;gJ nkhopapd; xt;nthU epiyiaAk; vspik> rPHik> gad;ghl;Lj; jpwik Kjypatw;wpd; mbg;gilapy; jug;gLj;JtjhFk;. nkhopia ,t;thW jug;gLj;Jfpd;w nghOJ mk;nkhop epiyNgwhf;fk; ngWfpd;wJ. epiyNgwhf;fj;jpw;nfdr; rpy nfhs;iffis tiuaWj;Jf; nfhz;L
mf;nfhs;iffspd;
mbg;gilapy;
nkhopj;jpl;lq;fisr;
nray;gLj;Jjy;
nkhopapd;
gad;ghl;Lf;Fr; nrk;ik gaf;Fk;. nkhopfspy; epiyNgw;Wj; jd;ik Vw;gLj;Jtjpy; fPo;f;fz;l %d;W Kjd;ikahd $Wfs; JizGupfpd;wd.
nkhopahw;wy; my;yJ nkhopj;jpwd;
nkhop tof;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk; nghJj;jd;ikfs;
nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; Njitahd mstpw;F Vw;gLk; tsHr;rp
NkYk; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;nfd epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjpy; gy gpupTfs; cs;sd. mitahtd: vOj;J tof;fpy; nkhopg; gad;ghl;bw;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. Ngr;R tof;fpy; rKjhaj;jpd; Njitf;Nfw;g epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fj;jpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. nrhw;fsQ;rpaq;fis cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;. fy;tpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfd ,yf;fzq;fs;> ghlg;Gj;jfq;fs;> mfuhjpfs; Kjypadtw;iw cUthf;Ftjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;. guty; nra;jpj; njhlHgpy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;nfdr; nrhw;fs;> ,yf;fzr; RUf;fq;fs;> vspjhd nrhw;nwhlH mikg;Gfs; Nghd;wtw;iw epiyNgwhf;ff; nfhs;ifapd; topahf cUthf;fy;. Ml;rpj;Jiwf;fhd nkhopg; gad;ghl;by; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;. ePjpj;Jiwapy; gad;gLj;jf; $ba Kiwapy; ehl;L nkhopfspy; Ntz;ba Gjpa nrhw;fs;> nkhopf;$Wfs; Nghd;wtw;wpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;.
tsUk; mwptpay; Jiwapd; Kd;Ndw;wj;jpw;F Vw;wthW GJg;GJr; nrhw;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw mikg;gjpy; epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;jy;.
,t;thW epiyNgwhf;fk; nra;tjd; %yk; xU nkhopia tsHr;rpg;
6.2.
ghijapy; ,l;Lr; nry;yyhk;.
nkhopapd; rKjhag; gzpfs;
6.2.1. rKjhak; gy cWg;gpdHfs; NrHe;jJ FLk;gk;;;;; gy FLk;gq;fs; NrHe;jJ r%fk;; gy r%fq;fspd; njhFg;G rKjhak;. xU r%fj;jpy; thOk; kdpj ,dk;> mt;tpdj;jpd; ehfupfk;> tsHr;rp> tuyhW> gz;ghL> fiy> fyhrhuk;> tho;tpay;> rKjhaepiy> nghUshjhuk;> fy;tp Nghd;w midj;ijAk; ntspg;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpaf; $W nkhopahFk;. NkYk; nkhop xU r%fj;jpw;Fs;Sk; gy r%fq;;fSf;Fs;Sk; njhlHGfis Vw;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. mjd; %yk; nkhopf;$WfSf;Fk; r%ff;; $WfSf;FkpilNa kpf neUf;fkhd njhlHGfs; Vw;gLfpd;wd.
me;jtifapy; ,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo; rpq;fs nkhopfs;
fPo;tUkhW ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa caHe;j rKjhag; gzpfis Nkw;nfhz;l tz;zKs;sd. (m).
fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wf; fUtp
nkhopapd; Kjd;ikahd gad;ghL fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wkhFk;. fUj;Jg; gupkhw;wk; vd;gJ Mq;fpyj;jpy; Communication vdf; Fwpg;gplg;gLfpwJ. ,r;nrhy; ,yj;jPd; nkhopr;nrhy;yhd Communis vd;gjpypUe;J Njhw;wk; ngw;wjhFk;. ,yj;jPd; nkhopapy; ,r;nrhy;Yf;Fg; nghJthf;F> gfpHe;Jnfhs;> nray;tpisT> gad;> nra;jpiag; gug;G vd;Dk; nghUs;fs; cs;sd. MfNt xUtUf;F> ,UtUf;F> gyUf;F ,ilNa my;yJ gy mikg;GfSf;fpilNa ,lk;ngWk; nra;jpg; gupkhw;wKk; mjdhy; Vw;gLk; GupjYk; fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; vdg;gLk;. xU nra;jpiaj; njuptpg;gtH jhd; $w tUk; fUj;;ij my;yJ nra;jpiaf; Nfl;NghH my;yJ ngWeUf;Fr; rpy FwpaPLfisg; gad;gLj;jpf; $WtNjhL Nfl;NghuJ fUj;JfisAk; ngw Kay;tjhFk;. nkhopapay; #oypy; nra;jpiaj; jUeUk; (Source) ngWeUk; (Receiver) kdpjHfshf mikfpd;wdH. ,yq;ifiag; nghWj;jstpy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfisj; jha;nkhopahff; nfhz;ltHfs; jq;fSf;Fs; fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wj;jpy;
nkhopfshff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;wdH. MfNt gy;ypd> gy;fyhrhur; rKjhaf; fl;likg;gpy; ,d xw;Wikf;F fUj;Jg;gupkhw;wk; kpfTk; Kf;fpakhFk;. mjw;F nkhop kpfTk; gad;ghLilajhf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; mg;gzpiar; nrt;tNd nra;aj; njhlq;fpAs;sikiaj; jw;fhyj;jpy; fhz Kbfpd;wJ. (M).
,U r%fq;fspd; tho;tpaiy ntspg;gLj;Jjy;
jkpo;nkhopahdJ ,yq;ifapy; thOk; jkpoHfspd; tho;tpaiyg; glk;gpbj;Jf; fhl;Ltjhf mike;Js;sJ. aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; kiyafj; jkpoHfshfl;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; tho;fpd;w Vida jkpoHfs; kl;Lk; K];ypk;fs;> mtHfsJ jdpj;jd;ik> fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL> kjk; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;F ,yq;ifapy; tof;fpYs;s jkpo;nkhop ngupJk; cjtpahf cs;sJ. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhop ,yq;ifapy; tho;fpd;w rpq;fs kf;fspd; tho;tpay;> gz;ghL> fyhrhuk;> kjk; Nghd;wtw;iw ntspg;gLj;Jtjhf mike;Js;sJ. (,). fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfs; ,uz;lhk; nkhopfshff; fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. Fwpg;ghfg; NghH Kbtile;jjd; gpd;dHj; jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo; nkhopiaAk; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gjpy; kpFe;j MHtk; fhl;b tUfpd;whHfs;. Vnddpy; ,q;F tho;fpd;w ,dq;fs; jq;fSf;fpilNa ciuahlhikahy; Vw;gl;l vjpHkiwahd Gupe;JzHNt Aj;jk; Vw;glf;
fhuzk;
vd;w
cz;ikia
czHe;J
nfhz;likahFk;.
me;jtifapy;
jkpo;nkhopiaj;
jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;fhd gzp epiwNtWtjhfTk; mk;nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpd; Njitia epiwNtw;WtjhfTk; cs;sJ. mjd; %yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;nkhop jkpo;r; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpq;fsr; r%fj;jpw;Fk; rpwe;j rKjhag; gzpia Mw;Wfpd;wikia mwpe;Jnfhs;s Kbfpd;wJ. NkYk; ntspehl;ltHfSf;Fj; jkpo;nkhop nkhop fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhaj;jpw;Nf gzp Mw;WtjhfTk; mike;Js;sJ. mNjNghy; rpq;fs nkhopiaj; jha;nkhopahff; fw;gpg;gjd; %yk; rpq;fsr; r%fk; ed;ik ngWfpd;wJ. mjidj; jkpoHfSf;F ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ jkpo;r; r%fk; gadilfpd;wJ. mk;nkhopia ntspehl;ltHfSf;Ff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ cyfr; rKjhak; gadilfpd;wJ. ,t;thW jkpoHfs; rpq;fs nkhopiaAk; rpq;fstHfs; jkpo;nkhopiaAk; fw;Wf;nfhs;tjd; %yk; Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fs; jq;fSf;Fs; njhlHghliy VwgLj;jpf; nfhz;L rpwe;j Gupe;JzHitAk; el;GzHitAk; tsHj;J ,d ey;ypzf;fj;jpid Nkk;gLj;jyhk;. mjd;%yk; ,yq;ifapy; jkpo;> rpq;fsr; r%fq;fs; ,d xw;WikNahLk; mikjpNahLk; jq;fsJ tho;f;ifiaj; njhlu KbAk;. mJ ,yq;ifapd; epiyahd rkhjhdj;jpw;F topNfhYtJ kl;Lkd;wpg; Gyk;ngaHe;J may;ehLfspy; mfjpfshfj; Jd;gq;fSf;fpilNa tho;e;J nfhz;bUf;Fk; jkpoHfSf;F kPz;Lk; ,yq;ifapy; te;J tho;tjw;F Xu; ce;Jjiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. me;jtifapy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nray;ghlhdJ
Kuz;gl;l ,U r%fq;fSf;fpilNa ey;ypzf;fj;ijAk; xw;WikiaAk; Vw;gLj;Jk; kpfg;ngupa rKjhag; gzpia Mw;wpf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. (<).
Áy;fisg; gilj;jy;
,yq;ifapy; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfspNy gy;NtW Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ,yf;fz Áy;fs;> Gyk;ngaH kf;fs; rhHe;j ,yf;fpaq;fs;> ehl;Lg;Gw ,yf;fpaq;fs;> fy;tpapay; rhHe;j Áy;fs;> etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; rhHe;j Áy;fs; Nghd;w gy;Jiw Áy;fs; gilf;fg;gl;l tz;zKs;sd. mjd;%yKk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfs; jq;fsJ r%fq;fSf;Fg; gad;ghLiladthf mike;Js;sd. (c).
nkhop ngaHg;G
gy;NtW rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; Mq;fpy Áy;fis jkpo; nkhopapy; nkhopngaHg;gjd; %yk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; r%fq;fSf;F kpfTk; gaDila xU nray;ghl;bid
mfuhjp
jkpo;> rpq;fs xUnkhop mfuhjpfs;
jkpo; - rpq;fs kw;Wk; rpq;fs - jkpo; ,Unkhop mfuhjpfs;
jkpo; - rpq;fsk; - Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; rpq;fsk; - jkpo; - Mq;fpyk; Kk;nkhop mfuhjpfs;
vd ,yq;ifapy; gy mfuhjpfs; fhye;NjhWk; Njhd;wpa tz;zKs;sd. Fwpg;ghfj; jw;fhyj;jpy; mbf;fb mfuhjpfs; ntspaplg;gLfpd;wd. Vnddpy; ,yq;if muR ghlrhiy khztu;fSk; mur mYtyfq;fspy; njhypy; GupAk; murhq;f Copau;fSk; jkpo;-rpq;fs nkhopfis ,uz;lhk;
nkhopfshff; fw;wypy; Nju;r;rp ngWjy; fl;lhakhFk; vd;w Gjpa nkhopf; nfhs;ifia eilKiwg;gLj;jpAs;sikahy; kf;fs; mk;nkhopfisf; fw;gjpy; mjpf MHtk; fhl;Lfpd;wdH. mjdhy; mk; nkhopr; nrhw;fspd; nghUz;ikia mwpe;Jnfhs;tjw;F mfuhjpfs; Njitahfpd;wd. jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs mfuhjpfspd; Njitia czHe;J muRrhH kw;Wk; muRrhuhg; gy;NtW epWtdq;fs; mfuhjpfis cUthf;fp ntspapl;l tz;zKs;sd. mtw;Ws; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $ba mfuhjpfshf> fy;tp mikr;R kw;Wk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Mfpait ,ize;J 2018 Mk; Mz;L ntspapl;Ls;s jkpo;-rpq;fs (,uz;lhk; nkhop) mfuhjpAk; murfUk nkhopfs; jpizf;fsj;jpdhy; ntspaplg;gl;Ls;s mfuhjpfSk; Fwpg;gpl;Lf; $wf; $baitahf tpsq;Ffpd;wd. tpsq;Ffpd;wd. mt;tfuhjpfs; gs;spf;$l khztHfs; Kjy; njhopy;GupgtHfs; tiu kpfTk; gaDiladthf mike;Js;sd. (C).
fiyr;nrhy;yhf;fk;
jw;fhyj;jpy; vq;Fk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vjpYk; etPdj; njhopy;El;gk; vd;w xU epiyg;ghL epyTfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xt;nthU kzpj;JspapYk; Gjpa Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; Njhd;wpatz;zKs;sd. Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ehs;NjhWk; Gjpa fiyr;nrhw;fs; cUthfpatz;zKs;sd. MfNt mtw;Wf;F ,izahd nrhw;fis me;eje;j nkhopapy; cUthf;f
Ntz;baJ fhyj;jpd; Njitahf cs;sJ.
cjhuzkhf fzpdpAld; njhlHGila Mq;fpyr; nrhw;fSf;Ff; fPo;tUk; fiyr;nrhw;fs; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd.
Mq;fpyk;
rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
internet
wka;¾cd,h
md;jH[hya
,izak;
úoahq;A ;eme,A
website
fjí wvúh
tpj;Aj; njg;ghy; ntg; mltpa
kpd;dQ;ry;
tisj;jsk;
Mq;fpy nkhopr;nrhy;Yf;F ,izahd jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fsr; nrhw;fisj;
jUfpd;wd
vd;w
tifapYk; mk;nkhopfs; rKjhaj;jpw;F cjTfpd;wd.
6.3. nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fkpilapyhd njhlu;G xU r%fj;jpy; fhyq;fhykhf ,Ue;J tUk; gof;f tof;fq;fs;> czT Kiwfs;> Nghd;wtw;wpd;
njhFg;G
gz;ghL
vdg;gLfpd;wJ.
,yFtpy;
fiyfs;> topghl;L Kiwfs; khw;wkilahj
gz;ghL
mr;r%fj;jpw;nfdr; rpwg;ghf mike;j $Wfisj; jd;dfj;Nj nfhz;bUf;Fk;. ,t;thwhd gz;ghl;Lf; $Wfis xd;wpizg;gJ nkhopahFk;. Mjyhy; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; nkhopf;Fk; ,ilNa neUq;fpa njhlHGz;L. gz;ghL vd;gJ gue;j nghUisf; nfhz;l xU nrhy; MFk;. Mq;fpy nkhopapy; Culture vdg;gLk; nrhy; gz;ghl;ilf; Fwpg;gjhf mike;Js;sJ. rpy mwpQHfs; culture vd;w nrhy; fyhrhuk; vd;gijf; Fwpg;gjhff; fUJtNjhL fyhrhuk; NtW> gz;ghL NtW vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLtH. NtW rpyH fyhrhuk;> gz;ghL Mfpa ,uz;LNk xd;Wjhd; vd typAWj;Jfpd;wdH. MapDk; xU r%fj;jpd; khw;wkilAk; $Wfs; fyhrhuk; vd;Wk; khw;wkilahj $Wfs; gz;ghL vd;Wk; kpf ,yFthff; fyhrhuj;ijAk; gz;ghl;ilAk; gpupj;jwpayhk;. MfNt khWtJ fyhrhuk;; khwhjJ gz;ghL. Xu; ,df;FOtpd; tuyhW> r%ff; fl;likg;Gfs;> kj topghLfs;> ek;gpf;iffs;> fiy> nkhop> njhopy;rhH njupTfs;> fUtpfs; vd midj;ijAk; cs;slf;fpaJ gz;ghL vdyhk;. ,J nghUs;rhH gz;ghL> FwpaPLrhH gz;ghL> mbg;gilg; gz;ghL> fyg;Gg; gz;ghL> gy; gz;ghL vdg; gy tifg;gLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; nkhopNahL gz;ghl;il ,izj;Jg; ghHg;gjw;F NkNy Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s gz;ghL vd;w nrhy;ypy; cs;slq;Fk; tplaq;fs; gad;jukhl;lh. nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; vd;fpd;w Nehf;fpy; gz;ghL vd;gJ xU kdpjd; jhd; rhHe;j rKjhar; nray;ghl;by; gq;Nfw;Fk; tifahd mwpT vdyhk;. mjhtJ jhd; thOk; r%fj;jpy; jd;Dld; thOk; kdpjHfshy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLk; xj;j elj;ij gw;wpa mwpTk; gpw kdpjuhy; Vw;Wf; nfhs;sg;glf; $ba r%fr; nray;ghLfs; gw;wpa mwpTkhFk;. ,j;jifa mwpT rKjhaj;jpy;> rKjhaj;jhy; ngwg;gl;l xd;whf ,Uf;Fk;. ,ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;Lf;Fk; ,ilapyhd cwit Muha;jy; Ntz;Lk;. xUtH NgRfpd;w nkhopapd; mikg;igg; nghWj;Nj mtH ghHf;Fk; cyfKk; mikAk;. mNjNghy; xU r%fj;jpd; gz;ghL> mtu;fs; gad;gLj;Jfpd;w
nkhopapy; ntspg;gLk;. me;jtifapy;
nkhopf;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;Fk; neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L. nkhopiag; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;Fg; gz;ghLk; gz;ghl;ilg; Gupe;Jnfhs;tjw;F nkhopAk; ,d;wpaikahjit. kdpjd; jd; nray;ghLfis nkhop %yNk ntspg;gLj;Jfpwhd;. nkhopapd; gad;ghbd;wp kdjdhy; cyfpy; tho KbahJ. me;jtifapy; kdpjdpd; fUj;Jfis cUthf;FtJk; vz;zq;fis cUthf;FtJk; nkhopNa. vz;zq;fis cUthf;FtJ vd;gJ jdpj;j xU nray;ghL md;W. mJ xU nkhopapd; ,yf;fzq;fspd; fl;likg;ghy; mikf;fg;gLtJ. mj;jifa ,yf;fzf; fl;likg;igf; nfhz;L kdpjd; cyfpYs;s nghUs;fisg; ghFgLj;Jfpwhd;. Mf nkhopapd; mikg;gpw;F Vw;gr; rpy jd;ikfis Vw;wpr; rKjhaj;jpy; toq;fp tug;gLfpd;wJ. me;jtifapy; nkhopapd; mikg;ghfNt gz;ghL fl;likf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. ,U NtWgl;l nkhop mikg;igf; nfhz;l r%fj;jpduJ cyfg;ghHit> ,U NtWgl;ljhfNt ,Uf;Fk;. ,U NtWgl;l nkhopr; r%fj;jpdupd; nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLk; nrhw;fs; xd;whf miktjpy;iy. xU nkhopapy; xd;iwg; gw;wp Vuhskhd nrhw;fSk; NtWnkhopapy; mj;jifa jd;ik ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;. xU nkhopapy; tpyq;Ffs; gw;wp my;yJ gwitfs; gw;wp cs;s nrhw;fs; NtW nkhopapy; ,y;yhkYk; ,Uf;fyhk;.
cjhuzk;: Mq;fpy nkhopapy; cs;s Bun (gd;)> Bread (g;nul;)> Burger (gHfH)> Pizza (gPl;rh)> Biscut (gp];fl;)> Fried Rice (gpiul; iu];) Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo;nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,r;nrhw;fs;
Mq;fpNyaHfspd;
czTld;
njhlHGgl;l
nrhw;fshFk;.
mNjNghy;
jkpo;
nkhopapYs;s $o;> Njhir> ,l;yp> rhk;ghH> Jitay;> nghq;fy; Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; rpq;fs nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,r;nrhw;fs; jkpoHfspd; gz;ghl;Lld; njhlHGgl;l nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; vyg;g> M];kp> Qhdfj;jh> vk;Gs; jpay;> fl;l rk;NghNy> YZ kpup]; Nghd;w nrhw;fSf;F ,izahd nrhw;fs; jkpo; nkhopapy; ,y;iy. ,it rpq;fs nkhop NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;Lld; njhlu;Ggl;l nrhw;fshFk;. ,NjNghy; nkhopapd; ,yf;fzf; $Wfshd jpiz> ghy;> vz;> ,lk; Nghd;wdTk; nkhopf;F nkhop khWgLtjidf; fhzyhk;. cjhuzkhf Mq;fpy nkhopapy; toq;fg;gLk;
you vd;w nrhy;
aho;g;ghzj; jkpoupd;
Ngr;R tof;fpy;
gpd;tUkhW
toq;fg;gLfpd;wJ. eP
-
Kd;dpiy xUik jd;idtpl tajpy; Fiwe;jtHfisAk; rk taJilatu;fisAk; ez;gHfisAk; tpspf;fg; gad;gLfpd;wJ.
ePH
-
Kd;dpiy xUik rk
taJilatu;fisAk;
MrpupaHfs;
khztHfisAk;
tpspg;gjw;Fk;
gad;gLfpd;wJ. ePq;fs;
-
Kd;dpiy kupahij xUik> gd;ik
jd;id tpl tajpy; ngupatHfisAk; (jha;> je;ijaH) gd;ikg; nghUspy; tpspg;gjw;Fk; gad;gLfpd;wJ. aho;g;ghzj; jkpoHfspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; ,t;thwhd ghFghLfs; ,Ug;gjw;Ff; fhuzk; gz;ghL MFk;. ez;giu tpspg;gJ Nghy; ngw;NwhiuAk; MrpupaiuAk; tpspj;jy; jkpoH gz;ghlhfhJ. mNjNghy; MrpupHfs; $l khztHfis kjpg;Gld; tpspf;f Ntz;Lk; vd;gjw;fhf ‘ePH’ vd;w nrhy;iyg; gad;gLj;JfpwhHfs;. goq;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;L kiwe;J Nghd ‘ePH’ vd;w nrhy;iyj; jw;fhyj;jpy; gad;gLj;Jk; Xu; ,dkhf aho;g;ghzj; jkpopdk; tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. MapDk; Mq;fpy nkhopapy; ,j;jifa xU gz;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;G ,d;ikahy; mtHfs; ,isa rNfhjud; Kjy; ngw;NwhH> MrpupaH> ez;gH> xUtu; vd midtiuAk; ePH vd tpspg;gjw;F ‘you’ vd;w nrhy;iyNa gad;gLj;Jfpd;whHfs;. mNjNghy; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhopfspNy tof;fpYs;s
cwTKiwr; nrhw;fs; mk;nkhopfs; NgRk; kf;fspd; gz;ghl;bid vLj;Jiug;gdthf mike;Js;sd. cjhuzk;: rpq;fsk;
xypngaHg;G
jkpo;
Mq;fpyk;
whshd
ma;ah
mz;zh
u,A,s
ky;yp
jk;gp
brother (elder)
wlald
mf;fh
mf;fh
sister (younger)
kx.s
eq;fp
jq;if
udud
khkh
khkh
kekaod
brother (younger)
sister (elder) uncle
nee;jh
khkp
aunty
,r;nrhw;fis Nehf;Ffpd;w nghOJ jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fk; Mq;fpy nkhop cwTKiwr; nrhw;fSf;Fkpilapyhd NtWghL njspthfj; njupfpd;wJ. mt;thwhd NtWghl;Lf;Ff; fhuzk; jkpo; kw;Wk; rpq;fs ,dj;jpd; gz;ghL MFk;. mg;gz;ghL nkhopapy; njupfpd;wikia Nky;tUk; nrhw;fs; njspthf vLj;J tpsf;Ffpd;wd. vdNt nkhopahdJ gz;ghl;il ntspf;fhl;Lk; xU fUtp vd;Wk; Fwpg;gplyhk;.
,jdbg;gilapy;
Nehf;Ffpd;w
nghOJ
xt;nthU rKjhaj;jpd; tho;f;if Kiwf;F Vw;g mr;rKjhak; gad;gLj;Jk; nkhopapy;> nrhw;fs; ,lk;ngw;wpUf;Fk;. tho;f;if Kiw vd;gJ gz;ghl;bd; xU Kf;fpaf; $W MFk;. ,jd; %yk; rKjhaj;jpw;Fk; gz;ghl;bw;FkpilNa neUq;fpa njhlHG cz;L vd;gJ njspthfpd;wJ. mjdhy; xU rKjhaj;jpy; nkhopAk; gz;ghLk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; ngw;witahff; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 6.5.
Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjw;Fg; gad;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;ba tof;F gw;wp njspTgLj;jjy;.
nghJthfg; Ngr;R tof;F nkhopiaf; fw;gpg;gjpy; gyu; gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;whu;fs;. mjw;Ff; fhuzk; fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;w Ngr;R tof;fhFk;. Fwpg;ghf ,yq;ifapy; jkpo; nkhopia ,uz;lhk; nkhopahff; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ ,r;rpf;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. cjhuzkhf
,d;W
,yq;ifapy;
jkpo;
nkhopahdJ
ehL
KOtJk;
,uz;lhk;
nkhopahff;
fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. mt;thW fw;gpf;fpd;w epWtdq;fs; Ngr;R tof;F jkpo; fw;gpg;gjw;fhf fw;wy;
rhjdq;fis
tbtikf;fpd;w
nghOJ
rpy
Fwpg;gpl;l
gpuNjr
Ngr;R
tof;fpidg;
gad;gLj;Jfpd;whu;fs;. gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;F vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l gpuNjrj;ijr; Nru;e;jtu;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; tof;fhf mike;jpUf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> aho;g;ghz gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;fpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;iua> vd;l
Nghd;w nrhw;fs; kiyafj;jpy; vd;l> VTl;L> vd;Dila vdg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. mJNt K];ypk; kf;fspd; Ngr;R tof;fpy; Vd;l vdg;gLfpd;wJ. ,JNghy; ,yq;ifapy; gpuNjrj;Jf;Fg; gpuNjrk; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;F NtWgLfpd;wJ. Mdhy; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;if fw;gpf;f cUthf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; ,t;thwhd gpuNjr tof;FfNs gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. Mdhy; fw;gpgtu; midj;Jg; gpuNjr Ngr;R tof;Ffs; gw;wpa mwpitg; ngw;wpUf;fhtpl;lhy; mtuhy; nrhw;fisr; rupahd Kiwapy; cr;rupj;J fw;gpf;f KbahJ. mJ kl;Lkd;wp Ngr;R tof;fpid fw;Wf;nfhs;Sk; khztu;fSf;Fk; mJ rpf;fiy Vw;gLj;Jk;. rpy fw;wy; rhjdq;fspy; vOj;J tof;Nf Ngr;R tof;fhff; fw;gpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ. khztu;fs; mt;thwhd vOj;J tof;fpid rKjhaj;jpy; jq;fsJ md;whlj; NjitfSf;fhfg; gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ gy rpf;fy;fis vjpu; Nehf;Ffpd;;whu;fs;. ,yq;ifapy; ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;g; Ngr;R tof;fpidf; fw;gpf;fpd;w nghOJ
midj;Jg;
gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; nghJthf cs;s Ngr;R tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. fw;gpg;gjw;Fk; ,yFthf ,Uf;Fk;. cjhuzkhf> vd;l> thq;f Nghd;w nrhw;fisg; gad;gLj;jpdhy; kpf ,yFthf fw;gpf;fyhk;> fw;fyhk;> gad;gLj;jyhk;. MfNt ,uz;lhk; nkhopahfj; jkpo;f; fw;gpg;gjw;F vy;yhg; gpuNjrq;fSf;Fk; gad;gLj;j Vw;wtifapy; nghJthd xU Ngr;R tof;fpidg; gad;gLj;Jjy; mtrpakhFk;.
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