Kowalska Et Al 2017. Whats New In Biopotential Of Fruit And Vegetable By-products Applied In The Food Processi.docx

Trends in Food Science & Technology 67 (2017) 150e159

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Review

What's new in biopotential of fruit and vegetable by-products applied in the food processing industry Hanna Kowalska*, Kinga Czajkowska, Joanna Cichowska, Andrzej Lenart Faculty of Food Sciences, Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, SGGW, 159c Nowoursynowska St., 02-776 Warsaw, Poland

article

info

abstract

Article history: Received 1 December 2016 Received in revised form 13 June 2017 Accepted 13 June 2017 Available online 21 June 2017

Background: According to the data on global fruit and vegetable production, the amount of residue with potential utilization after processing has been estimated in millions tons every year. This involves the use of various forms of energy, water and other factors. Of greatest importance is the by-product potential because of the content of biocomponents, which may be used for innovative food production. Appro-priate actions should be taken to transform by-products into valuable products because of their abundant natural compounds.

Keywords: Food residue Nutrients recovery Natural ingredients

Scope and approach: The aim of this work was to review current trends in solving the problem of waste produced by the processing of plant raw materials. Due to the high content of bioactive components, by-products (peel, pulp, seeds) constitute a natural raw material for the recovery of valuable nutrients, such as polyphenols or aromatic oil. The extracted substances may be used in the food production as func-tional ingredients and nutraceuticals or in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. It is possible to enrich food with health-promoting ingredients. Key findings and conclusions: Modern sustainable food processing technology should keep in mind the need to reduce byproducts and use their potential effectively. The impact of these actions is important for the current food economy, as well as the future state of the environment. Still, too few residues from the processing of fruit and vegetables are used appropriately in the food industry as new attractive with natural ingredients enriching food and in the pharmaceutical field, biofuel production and others. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Fruit and vegetable residues, mostly thrown away, cause not only environmental pollution but e.g. peels, seeds and unused flesh generated in the different steps of processing chains (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011) are a source of biocomponents. Kernels and their recovered oil are rich in various bioactive compounds such as tocochromanols, essential fatty acids, phytosterols and squalene (Gornas & Rudzinska, 2016) while apple pomace is a rich source of pectin, carbohydrate, crude fibre and minerals (Shalini & Gupta, 2010). Generally plant residue constitutes a good natural source of carbohydrates, polysaccharides and bioactive molecules, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals and antioxidants (Grigoras¸ , Destandau, Lazar, & Elfakir, 2012) and according to Ayala-Zavala and Gonzalez-Aguilar (2011) by-products could present very high content of

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Kowalska). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.06.016 0924-2244/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

bioactive compounds. Recovery of the high-added value com-pounds has the potential for their use as food additives and/or nutraceuticals. Current waste management practices are not only costly but also have adverse impact on the environment. There is a need to develop a method for the use of by-products potential for being converted into edible products in an environmentally friendly way, e.g. recover of valuable biomolecules by solid state (from vegetable by-products) fermentation using fungal strains (Dulf, Vodnar, & Socaciu, 2016). Sustainable economic development may be achieved by e.g. valorisation or creation of low value by-products. The use of agro-industrial residues to obtain bio-extracts from the by-product may be directed towards the devel-opment of new attractive products with bioactive properties and reducing the impact caused by accumulation in the environment (Reque et al., 2014). Natural ingredients of products used in daily life have greater acceptability for most people over their synthetic counterparts. Mirabella, Castellani, and Sala (2014) performed an extensive review of possible use of food residue coming from food manufacturing. The authors presented feasibility and constraints of

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applying industrial symbiosis in recovering by-products from food processing, mainly as transformation of food by-products as a resource for production of new products, applying industrial ecol-ogy and eco-innovative approaches. Therefore, valorisation of wastes and by-products from the food industry constitutes a beneficial solution as the use of waste or by-products and societal health, and also as contributes to a sustainable food chain from an environmental and economic point of view. The aim of this review was to collect existing knowledge and the latest scientific reports on bio-potential of selected fruit and veg-etables by-products and their application in the food industry. 2. Biopotential of fruit and vegetables by-products

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consumption of 100e133 g of bilberries or 5.4e7.2 g of dry bilberry byproduct is recommended as the daily intake of dietary fibre. The various fruit pomace/press cakes are a good source of fibre, especially the insoluble fraction (Amaya-Cruz et al., 2015; Parra, Ribotta, & Ferrero, 2015). Furthermore, the material consists sim-ple sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose) and is a rich source of car-bohydrate, pectin, crude fibre, proteins, vitamins and minerals (Mirabella et al., 2014). The addition of pectinolytic enzymes during e.g. juice manufacturing also affects the final composition of the apple pomace and pectin content (Rabetafika et al., 2014). The in-dividual fractions separated the phenolic compounds, including chlorogenic, caffeic and cinnamic acid, procyanidin B2, phlorizin and quercetin (Bai, Zhang, & Ren, 2013). Phlorizin, the most com-mon phenolic compound in the extract of apple pomace, is the basic structure in a new class of oral anti-diabetic drugs (Kammerer, Kammerer, Valet, & Carle, 2014).

2.1. By-products as a source of biomolecules Processing of fruit and vegetables produces various types of by-products such as solid residue of peel/skin, seeds, stones, stem and pulp. The beverage processing industries produce about 20e60% of raw material as a by-product (Amaya-Cruz et al., 2015). From the environmental protection point of view safe disposal of residue from processing is highly important in order to limit its quantity, e.g. by integrated approaches for complete utilization of the byproduct in recovering valuable by-products and/or ingredients (Goula & Lazarides, 2015). The application of apple pomace (Sharma, Gupta, & Issar, 2016) for the preparation of products not only brings additional income but also reduces environmental pollution, which is very important, mainly for a new enterprise dealing with the food processing in-dustry. Dried mango by-products contain significant amounts of pectin, other carbohydrates and protein and have low fat content, and therefore can be used as a substrate for the production of pectinase from microorganisms, e.g. Fusarium spp. (Reddy & Saritha, 2015).

Although apple seeds for example contain proteins (~50%) and oils (~24%), unfortunately, some seeds contain a cyanogenic glycoside, amygdalin, the degradation of which can lead to the formation of cyanide causing human severe toxicity therefore, these compounds or whole seeds must be separated (Rabetafika, Bchir, Bleckerb, & Richel, 2014). Both the fruit peel and flesh were characterised by a high con-tent of dietary fibre (soluble and insoluble fraction). The insoluble fibre represents the major dietary fibre in pomace of most fruit and vegetable. Significantly higher values were recorded in the case of pulp (almost 78%), as compared to peels (approximately 53%). Those products may be used in the production of nutraceuticals and products fortified with the fractions of fibre (Russo et al., 2014). Cellulose and hemicelluloses are the most important fractions, constituting respectively 43% and 20e32% of apple pomace (Rabetafika et al., 2014). Apple by-products are also a source of phenolic compounds which are concentrated in the seed and peel mainly as chlorogenic acid and phloridzin. Their profile contains flavanols (epicatechin and catechin) and anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-galactosides) (Rabetafika et al., 2014).

Moreover, dietary fibre obtained from agro-industrial by-prod-ucts plays an important role as a cholesterol-lowering agent due to its water-holding and swelling capacity. It also affects viscosity increasing or gel formation binding of bile acids in the intestine (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011; Johnson, 2012). The fibre extracted from dried apple pomace may be successfully used for preparation of fibre and enriched products like acidophilus yoghurt or fruit beverage (Sharma et al., 2016). Aura et al. (2015) demonstrated that insoluble and non-carbohydrate dietary bilberry fibre is quite different from that in grains or vegetables and may have distinct physiological effects on health. The study also showed that

The study of Orzua et al. (2009) were conducted on the use of ten different agro-industrial by-products to assess their suitability as a fungus immobilization carrier for solid-state fermentation (SSF). The SSF consists of the microbial growth and product for-mation on solid particles in very low water content of substrate. Mussatto, Ballesteros, Martins, and Teixeira (2012) pointed out the technique is very important for environmental control such as production of compost, ensiling and animal feed from solid wastes, bioremediation and biodegradation of hazardous compounds, and biological detoxification of agro-industrial wastes. The SSF also may be utilized to obtain value-added compounds such as enzymes, mushrooms, amino acids, biopesticides, biofuels, biosurfactants, organic acids, flavours, colorants, aromatic compounds, biologically active secondary metabolites, and other substances of interest to the food industry. Yazid, Barrena, Komilis, and Sanchez (2017) emphasized that the use of SSF in various biotechnological pro-cesses and in the production of value-added bio-products seems very appealing and promising. Orzua et al. (2009) showed that apple pomace, coconut husk, lemon and orange peels were mate-rials of high potential for SSF, because of the high water absorption capacity and making it possible for good microorganism growth. Research on berry by-products from the production of fermented beverages was also conducted (Goldmeyer, Pena, Melo, & da Rosa, 2014). Grape pomace from wine and juice production has been used for the production of xylanase and pectinase enzyme pro-duction (Botella, Diaz, Ory, Webb, & Blandino, 2007). Potato peel consider as zero valued waste and pomace generated after juice extraction from sweet lime pulp, Borah, Das, and Badwaik (2017) utilized for the development of biodegradable packaging film to overcome environmental issues. The film was successful in lowering the weight loss, reducing the hardness and inhibition of surface microbial load from bread sample. Choi et al. (2016) showed that partially substituting pork fat for 1 and 2% of apple pomace fibre reduces the pork fat level from 30 to 25% and also 20% in chicken sausages.

Among many vegetables there noteworthy by-products. Pro-cessing of tomatoes causes huge amounts of by-products in the form of skins, seeds or pulp. Protein isolate obtained from tomato seed contains all the essential amino acids (including lysine) and meets the minimum requirements of the reference protein for children aged from 1 to 2 years old (Sarkar & Kaul, 2014). Therefore the flour from tomato seeds (because of the high quality protein) may be used as an ingredient in various preparations of food. By-products obtained in the production of olive oil create a large contamination threat for the environment, particularly in Medi-terranean countries. The by-products are specific and generate significant amounts of residue. Those products are characterised by high antioxidant activity and a characteristic profile of fatty acids amino acids, and also mineral ions, e.g. sodium, potassium, calcium

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and magnesium (Rodrigues, Pimentel, & Oliveira, 2015). They have the potential to be used in skincare products and cosmetics, mainly as a natural moisturizing factor. 2.2. By-products as a source of unconventional oil One of the possibilities to use the potential of by-products is to recover oil containing biologically active compounds. Simulta-neously, the fruit processing industry generates an increasing amount of by-products in the form of seeds and kernels. It may be otherwise utilized as an unconventional source of valuable oil. Gornas and Rudzinska (2016) carried out experiments on oil recovered from the seeds of nine industrial fruit by-products. In the fruit seeds oil yield was within the range of 11.8e28.5%. Each seed oil had a unique composition and concentration of fatty acids, phytosterols and squalene. The pomegranate seed oil was mainly rich in punicic acid (86.2%). In turn Japanese quince seed oil accounted for the highest potential value for biodiesel production, but the profile of bioactive compounds recorded in pomegranate seed oil indicated great potential for utilization in cosmetic or pharmaceutical industries (Gornas & Rudzinska, 2016). Orange skin with pyrolysis may be used as the raw material for the production of solid biofuel filter and heavy metals biosorbent, especially for Pb; in particular it increased with an increase in the pyrolysis tem-perature (Santos, Dweck, Viotto, Rosa, & de Morais, 2015). It was justified by the chemical composition and other parameters char-acterised the orange by-product, such as activation energy, calorific value and a large biosorption capacity.

Oil separated from apple seeds exhibited high stability and may be widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries (Walia, Rawat, Bhushan, Padwad, & Singh, 2014). The seed oil included oleic and linoleic acid, minerals and also iodine. It was demon-strated to be an excellent source of natural antioxidants. Very important in the seed oil was cytotoxic activity in vitro against a specific cell line (CHOK1 (Chinese hamster), A549 (human lung carcinoma) and SiHa (human cervical cancer cell)), therefore, it has potential as an anticancer agent. da Silva and Jorge (2014) carried out research to assess oil extracted from the seeds of grape, guava, melon, passion fruit, pumpkin, soursop and tomato. The oil contains mainly fatty acids with a high content of linoleic acid (38.8e79.4%), and substantial amounts of vitamin E, phytosterols and phenolic compounds. The oils from tomato seeds and guava showed better antioxidant ca-pacity, and furthermore the pumpkin oil was characterised by a long induction period of the oxidative stability test. The grape seed oil was rich in unsaturated fatty acids (especially linoleic acid) and phenolic compounds and is produced in all of Europe (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Due to the substantial content of hypocholesterolemic-activity phytosterols, phenolic compounds, carotenoids and to-copherols of high antioxidant capacity and helping protect the oil against damage caused by lipid oxidation oil of this type may be used in food, e.g. as an additive enriched component. Regarding the research of Petkova and Antova (2015) concerning oil obtained from three varieties of melon seeds it also indicates the possibility of using the oil in the pharmaceutical or cosmetic industry.

Dulf (2012) showed that different sea buckthorn berry fruit pulp/peel exhibited high oil content such as mainly oleic acid and slightly lower amounts of linoleic and a-linolenic acids. Moreover the lipid classes presented the highest PUFA/SFA (polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids) ratios between the analyzed pulp/ peel lipid fractions (from 0.67 to 1.36), values which were close to the recommended PUFA/SFA intake of nutrition scientists (1e1.5). Dulf, Oroian, Vodnar, Socaciu, and Pintea (2013) demonstrated that Sambucus berry seeds are also rich sources of oil (more than 22 g oil/100 g seeds). The chemical and nutritional properties of

Sambucus seed oils have potential for human consumption and can be an alternative to conventional vegetable oils. Goula and Lazarides (2015) showed that an encapsulation pro-cess using spray drying techniques may be used in support of ul-trasound to perform extraction of oil and phenolic compounds from pomegranate seeds and skins. Gornas, Rudzinska, Raczyk, and Soliven (2016) demonstrated that the bran of different grains af-fects the oil yield and also composition and concentration of lipo-philic compounds, e.g. while the wheat germs had high oil content and concentration of bioactive compounds, the bran of oat, corn and rice, despite higher oil yield contained lower levels of phy-tosterols and tocochromanols, compared to buckwheat, rye, spelt and wheat bran. They also pointed out that only rye, wheat and spelt bran oil can be considered as a rich source of tocotrienols. As a result, the oil yield of cereal industry by-products is too low for economic benefits, but in terms of human health bioactive com-pounds side it may be interesting.

2.3. By-products as a source of antioxidant and antimicrobial activity

Fruit peels (skins) are rich in nutrients and contain many phy-tochemicals that may be efficiently used as drugs or as food sup-plements (Chacko & Estherlydia, 2014). Antioxidants are good compounds as additives in food products in order to increase their nutritional value or in production of fruit purees (Bobinaite et al., 2016) and also their sensory properties and as a raw material for the production of food dyes. Very important is the possibility of preserved and enhanced quality as a result of avoiding food oxidation (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). The potential antioxidative status and bioavailability of by-products from production of nectar of the pomegranate fruit were examined by Surek and Nilufer-Erdil (2016). Pomegranate seeds and the precipitate obtained by sedimentation of nectar constitute a good source of anthocyanins. Peel, filter cake and sediment contained more phenolic compounds and were characterised by higher antioxidant activity than those obtained from the pomegranate nectar. In the study of Sarkar and Kaul (2014) the antioxidant activity and total content of polyphenols of tomato skin were found to be 38.2 and 66.5% higher, respectively, as compared with the seeds of tomatoes.

In recent years, extracts of grape seed have been gaining interest from researchers, dieticians and consumers due to health benefits. The seeds constitute a good source of polyphenol, especially phenolic acids, ellagitannin, flavones, flavan-3-ols, such as cate-chist, anthocyanins, proantioxidants, stilbenes and resveratrol (Nowshehri, Bhat, & Shah, 2015). They are characterised by anti-oxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, anti-aging, antitoxic for liver and anti-inflammatory functions. The extracts have potential as medical treatments and dietary supplements (Nowshehri et al., 2015). The grape skins contain anthocyanins and may be used for manufacturing dyes (Kammerer et al., 2014). Vanillin and geraniol treatments as beneficial effects of natural preservatives of the fibre-enriched strawberry juices evaluated throughout two weeks of storage at 5 C had a marked effect in reducing native microflora counts (4e6 log cycles reductions) in comparison to untreated samples (Cassani, Tomadoni, Viacava, Ponce, & Moreira, 2016).

Albuquerque et al. (2016) carried out study concerning tropical fruit pulp and by-products of four cultivars of Annona cherimola Mill. (Funchal, Madeira, Mateus II and Perry Vidal). The Madeira peel showed the highest antioxidant capacity, (EC50 e about 0.97 mg/ml), and total flavonoids (44.7 epicatechin equivalents/ 100 g). Lutein was main kind of carotenoids (129 232 mg/100 g) while in the peel of the Perry Vidal cultivar the highest Lascorbic acid content was found (4.41 mg/100 g). In this way, the authors

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showed the great antioxidant potential of the fruit and especially its byproducts; therefore it might find application in cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food processing industries, as a value-added of natural extracts, and also to promote sustainable development. The residue of olive leaves could also become a complementary raw product in fruit processing. There are a few scientific reports concerning the bio-component profile of leaves, which may enhance the health-promoting nature of food but it may also improve and enrich its taste. Oszmianski, Wojdyło, Lachowicz, Gorzelany, and Matłok (2016) compared fruit and fruit-based products (juice and pomace) of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon L.) with leaves as potential sources of health-promoting com-pounds. They presented leaves and ripe fruit of three cranberry cultivars Stevens, Ben Lear and Pilgrim. The authors found that depending on the cultivar the leaves and pomace contained more polyphenolic compounds and exhibited higher antioxidant activity than fruit and juices. Also sugarcane bagasse can be used as a po-tential source of bioactive phenolics (Zheng et al., 2017). This research underlines the high total phenolic content and antioxi-dant/antihyperglycemic activities of different fractions isolated from sugarcane bagasse.

Recent studies have shown that natural extracts have high antimicrobial potential. Furthermore, it has to be taken into ac-count that the fruit and vegetables by-product may serve as po-tential natural antimicrobial agents. Mainly due to the antioxidant and radical scavenging activities which can delay or inhibit the oxidation of DNA and also proteins and lipids, the compounds have shown effects and simultaneously playing an important role in food protection against pathogenic agents (Ayala-Zavala & GonzalezAguilar, 2011; Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Bobinaite, Viskelis, and Buskiene (2010) showed that by-product extracts of raspberry exhibited antibacterial activity against various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Chacko and Estherlydia (2014) carried out an investigation with the objective of preparing jams from fruits peels such as orange, pineapple, pomegranate and banana to assess the antimicrobial properties. Pomegranate peel jam was charac-terised by the highest activity against Shigella. The possibility of using major Romanian agro-industrial wastes (apple peels, carrot pulp, white- and red-grape peels, red-beet peels and pulp) as antimutagenic and antimicrobial activities was investigated by Vodnar et al. (2017). The carrot extracts had no antimicrobial effects, while the thermally processed (10 min, 80 C) red-grape waste has the highest antimicrobial effect against the two type of strains (S. typhimurium TA98 and TA100). Avocado fruit seeds are rich not only in fibre but also antioxidants, antimicrobials, colorants, fla-vorings, and thickener agents (Barbosa-Martín, Chel-Guerrero, Gonzalez-Mondragon, & Betancur-Ancona, 2016). Their seeds contain various components such assaponin, phytosterols, tri-terpenes, fatty acids, furanoic acids, flavonoldimers and proantho-cyanidins. Some of them are related to antimicrobial, antifungal activities and larvicidal effects (BarbosaMartín et al., 2016;

Rodríguez-Carpena, Morcuende, Andrade, Kylli, & Estevez, 2011). Oliveira, Carraro, Auler, and Khalilc (2015) showed that quercetin and rutin effect antifungal against Cryptococcus spp. Probably due to the polyphenolic profile cauliflower and mandarin by-products infusion of vegetable products, especially in combination with pasteurization by high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) technology, has shown a strong antimicrobial effect against S. Typhimurium (SanzPuig, Moreno, Pina-Perez, Rodrigo, & Martínez, 2017). Therefore, these techniques could be used as an additional control measure to guarantee the food safety.

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are widely used in the seasoning of various dishes and many fla-vours are used by traditional medicine, e.g. essential oils (rich in terpene compounds) are recognized for assisting in the treatment of various health problems. Application of some of them leads to antiinflammatory, anticancer, antimutagenic, antibacterial, anti-fungal, antiviral, and vermicide activities (Felipe, de Oliveira, & Bicas, 2017; Raut & Karuppayil, 2014). Nowadays flavour com-panies are interested in microscopically encapsulated aromas, which do not escape directly but under precisely defined circum-stances, for example under mechanical stress such as when chewing gum or at a certain temperature when baking cake mix-tures (Arvanitoyannis & Varzakas, 2008).

Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavour extracts (Mantzouridou, Paraskevopoulou, & Laloustudy, 2015), most com-mercial flavourings are “nature-identical”, which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors, but chemically syn-thesized and not extracted from source materials. Compared to natural extraction and chemical synthesis, the introduction of enzymatic and whole-cell biocatalysis has been increasingly attractive as an alternative approach for production of various esters (Zhuang et al., 2015). The enzymes isolated from organisms provide several benefits, such as simpler reaction apparatus, higher productivity owing to higher catalyst concentration, and simpler product purification.

Felipe et al. (2017) described three main methods using in aroma compounds production, i.e. chemical synthesis, extraction from nature, and biotechnological processing (bioaromas). Among these, the biotechnological methods present numerous advantages. This approach is important because the products obtained by biotechnological processes can be considered as natural. Further-more, such a way of bioaroma processing is related to the concept of sustainable development in environment preservation. Felipe et al. (2017) demonstrated that bioaroma production consists of renewable processes employing mild conditions of operation, which do not generate toxic waste, use biodiversity rationally, and may also avail agro-industrial residues. The benefit alternative is a by-product or food waste which is a potential flavour source. There are two main biotechnological ap-proaches, microbiological and enzymatic methods in flavor pro-duction. Bioflavorsynthesis based on microbial biosynthesis or bioconversion base on food waste, has a growing interest to pro-duce a wide range of flavors and allows avoiding the use of expensive chemical components in the media formulation and makes possible the achievement of more economical fermentation processes (Akacha & Gargouri, 2015). Apple pomace using in productions of volatile compounds (hexanal and 2,4-decadienal) obtained from polyunsaturated fatty acids by the apple byproduct enzyme system for quantitatively improved by increasing substrate and enzyme concentrations in the reaction medium were studied (Almosnino, Bensoussad, & Belid, 1996). Madrera, Bedrinana, and Valles (2015) applied apple pomace solid-state fermentation (SSF) with 4 yeast strains using 3 strains of indigenous cider yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Han-seniaspora valbyensis and Hanseniaspora uvarum) and also a com-mercial S. cerevisiae combined with an enzymatic preparation as inocula. The authors identificated 132 volatile compounds belonging to different chemical families. Quantitatively, the pro-duction of aromas was strongly strain-dependent. The apple pomace inoculated with Saccharomyces strains accumulated higher levels of fatty acids and their corresponding ethyl esters. On the other hand, the volatile profiles from experimental units fermented with Hanseniaspora genus yeasts were characterised by higher levels of acetic acid esters.

2.4. By-products as a source of flavourings As for the potential of flavourings, their use is very large. They

As natural vanillin refers to the main organic compound extracted from the vanilla bean, biovanillin is produced biologically

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by microorganisms from a natural precursor such as ferulic acid (Zamzuri & Abd-Aziz, 2013). The alternative production approach for biovanillin is important due to the high cost of natural vanillin as well as the limited availability of vanilla pods in the market. Converti, Aliakbarian, Domínguez, Vazquez, and Perego (2010) described biotechnological biotransformations of caffeic acid, veratraldehyde and mainly ferulic acid method for vanillin pro-duction in which the ferulic acid was obtained from common agricultural residues, grains and beet pulp. According to European Council Regulation (EC, 2008) natural flavours include flavouring substances obtained by physical, enzymatic or microbiological processes from plant material after processing for human consumption or other than food. Various microorganisms were shown to transform successfully the byproducts of the food industry to complex and highly interesting natural flavor mixtures. Christen, Meza, and Revah (1997) have demonstrated that the substrate, e.g. sugar cane bagasse with a synthetic medium containing glucose, had a direct influence on the nature of the volatile compounds produced (fruity aroma) by the fungus; while the use of leucine or valinecontaining medium gave a banana aroma. Similarly Martínez, Sanchez, Font, and Barrena (2017) studied the production of fruit-like compounds via SSF of a mixture of sugarcane bagasse/ sugar beet molasses employing Kluyveromyces marxianus. They reported that using organic residues as nutrient source for SSF is a good perspectives for the development of aroma compounds biosynthesis in large-scale processes applying the principle of “from residue to product”. Bosse, Fraatz, and Zorn (2013) have used various agricultural by-products as substrates for the synthesis of complex flavor mixtures by basidiomycetes. Authors have demonstrated that apple pomace caused the most potent biotransformation products (3-phenylpropanal, 3-phenyl-1-propanol and benzyl alcohol) gener-ated by Tyromyces chioneus. The results of Mantzouridou et al., (2015) point out the feasi-bility of solid state fermentation (SSF) of orange peel waste for the production of yeast volatile esters with “fruity-like” character and of high industrial importance. They noticed high activity of orange waste which is mainly due to its high level of fermentable car-bohydrates, i.e. coming from naturally occurring simple sugars (glucose, fructose) and polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin) after being hydrolysed, along with amino nitrogen. Soares, Christen, Pandey, and Soccol (2000) have reported that the production of strong pineapple aroma when SSF was carried out us-ing coffee husk as a substrate for Ceratocystis fimbriata. Rossi et al. (2009) focused on the utilization of citric pulp for the production of aroma volatiles by Ceratocystis fimbriata in solid-state cultures. According to their results, citric pulp sup-plemented with soya bran, sugarcane molasses and mineral saline solution produced a strong fruity aroma. In biotechnological processing of some flavours (fruity/flowery flavours) the variety of vegetable residues as substrates could have an additional role. By using co-cultures of microorganisms, called commensalism it is possible to degrade cellulose and even cellulose-enriched rice hulls, orange peel or sugar beet pulp could be metabolized (Duerre, 1998). It is possible to use a co-culture of Aspergillus niger and Pycnoporus cinnabarinus to transform ferulic acid from sugar beet pulp via vanillic acid into vanillin (Arvanitoyannis & Varzakas, 2008). Farcas¸ et al. (2015) pointed out brewers' spent grain, insoluble residue generated from the production of wort in the brewing industry, contain not only significant amounts of valuable components, such as fatty acids, polyphenols, flavonoids, antioxidant capacity, and also its volatile fingerprint.

2.5. Ways to recover valuable biomolecules Due to their high value, recovery of waste substances is a worthwhile technology. The residual matter can be converted into commercial products either as raw material for secondary pro-cesses, as operating supplies or as ingredients of new products (Arvanitoyannis & Varzakas, 2008). Direct drying is the most common industrial operation because of the economical approach and quite often, extraction and fractionation of fibre generating a valuable fraction from the fruit pomace is also used (Rabetafika et al., 2014). Two main processes, aqueous desugaring and alco-holic extraction have been applied to isolate the dietary fibre. In the study of Medouni-Adrara et al. (2015) on grape seeds and skin as by-products of wine or juice making operations, the total phenolic content seeds and skin were optimized by conventional solvent extraction and microwave-assisted extraction. The total phenolic content of seeds extract obtained with microwave-assisted extraction was 24% lower than that of the conventional extract. The antioxidant activity of the conventional extract was also better. The phenolic content of skin extract obtained with a microwave-assisted method was 28% higher than that of the conventional extract and the antioxidant capacity was also significantly higher.

Nowadays among the several processes being used in treatment of plant waste are thermal processes, evaporation processes, membrane processes, anaerobic digestion, anaerobic co-digestion, biodiesel spraying, combustion, transesterification, coagulation and composting (Arvanitoyannis & Varzakas, 2008). Controlled agitation at different temperatures and times (Hernandez-Carranza et al., 2016) or extraction methods such as pressurized liquid extraction, maceration, ultrasound assisted extraction or also microwave assisted extraction with different solvents (Grigoras¸ et al., 2012) are a good way to extract the bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity from by-products. In the study of Dulf et al. (2016) plum by-products were applied for phenolic antioxidants enrichment during solid-state fermen-tation (SSF) of plum pomaces and brandy distillery residue with Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus oligosporus. The total phenolic con-tent increased by 21e30% for the SSF with Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus oligosporus, respectively. Furthermore the authors demonstrated that the SSF helped in higher oil recovery from plum kernels with good quality attributes, such as high sterol ester and n-3 PUFA-rich polar lipid contents. Simultaneously in skins and industrial plum pomace extracts Sojka et al. (2015) recovered rutin as the main kind of flavonol while among the hydroxycinnamic acids neochlorogenic and chlorogenic acids dominated. According to Lin et al. (2014) the result might be explained by the ability of the filamentous fungi from the genus Aspergillus to produce a-rham-nosidase. It is possible that a part of the rutin accumulated during the SSF processes was hydrolysed by the a-rhamnosidase enzyme, known for its capability of a-rhamnose to transform to isoquercitrin and causing concentration of this flavonol increase in the samples (Dulf et al., 2016; You, Ahn, & Ji, 2010). In the previous study of Murakami, Yamaguchi, Takamura, and Matoba (2004) they showed that chlorogenic acid can protect rutin from decomposition by heating, probably as a result of its esterification of heat-labile structure.

Meneses, Caputo, Scognamiglio, Reverchon, and Adami (2015) demonstrated supercritical antisolvent extraction (SAE) which can be used in the recovery of antioxidant compounds from mango by-products. The process was effective for the recovery of valuable compounds from mango juice factory by-products. The supercriti-cal antisolvent extraction eliminated organic solvent from mango ethanolic extract with no loss of polyphenols and the related antioxidant activity. They obtained a product as a dry powder formed by nanoparticles containing about 90% of the total phenolic

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compounds present in the ethanolic extract of the mango by-product, concentrated to 37% more with respect to the initial solution. Non-conventional technologies are used by different food technologists and industry to recover nutritionally valuable com-pounds from different wastes and by-products generated e.g. dur-ing olive oil production (RoselloSoto et al., 2015). The most important are: ultrasounds and microwaves, electrotechnologies (pulsed electric fields or high voltages electrical discharges), sub-and supercritical fluid extraction and mechanical technologies (pressurized liquid extraction). These technologies are very signif-icant and have been referred to as greener and relatively cheaper techniques for the recovery of some specific valuable compounds compared to conventional extraction methodologies (Galanakis, Barba, & Prasad, 2015). The idea assumes use of renewable plant resources and green alternative solvents, reduction of energy con-sumption, unit operations and production of extracts with high quality and purity. Other non-conventional technologies, e.g. high pressure homogenization and high pressure processing, also have the potential as they can reduce the microbial load and also improve the recovery of high-added-value compounds (Rosello-Soto et al., 2015). The authors also mentioned another promising technology that is assisted mechanical expression of gas for oil extraction from vegetable matrices. This process combines both mechanical pressing and supercritical CO2 extraction and may be useful for the recovery of compounds from olive by-products.

The use of combination of enzymatic treatment with ultrasound as well as cheap natural surfactants may be achieved by means of tomato pomace microemulsion having a high concentration of lycopene (Amiri-Rigi & Abbasi, 2016). This strong antioxidant may also be acquired from other natural sources of vegetables origin, such as watermelon, guavas, pink grapefruit, and papaya; but extraction is usually carried out using of harmful organic solvents, such as n-hexane, ethanol, acetone, and ethyl acetate, having different disadvantages, such as toxicity, the high operating tem-peratures or traces of solvents in the final product (Naviglio, Pizzolongo, Ferrara, Aragon, & Santini, 2008). Vodnar et al. (2017) proposed thermally processed (10 min at 80 C) food industry bio-waste. The antioxidant activity mostly of waste was enhanced by the processing red-grape waste extract exhibiting the highest scavenging activity, with a significant in-crease of 58% in radical inhibition capacity after thermal processing. The fatty acid content was significantly different between fresh and thermally processed samples. Linoleic acid had the highest value in all analyzed samples, but its content decreases during thermal processing. Various agro-wastes are specific and sometime known strate-gies attractive from the economic and environmental point of view but cannot be applied for all waste. Due to the high cost of natural vanilla Baqueiro-Pena and Guerrero-Beltran (2017) reported that various strategies have been implemented for obtaining vanillin. The methodology for recovery and generation aromas of vanillin from vanilla waste can be obtained through various chemical and biotechnological processes using microbial cultures.

2.6. By-products as a component of innovated food Innovative food means not only new, attractive, high quality food (colour, flavor, taste, texture). From the viewpoint of fruit and vegetable processing their environmental impact is very important. Thus the high value of plant waste and its recovery represent a novelty way and should be introduced more widely in sustainable food production and management. Various berry fruits constitute an elementary part of the rec-ommended Nordic healthy diet and could be consumed in higher

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amounts (Aura et al., 2015). The raspberry marc extract addition (2%) for mix fruit purees resulted in a 2e3-fold increase in total phenolic content, therefore improving functional properties of the products (Bobinaite et al., 2016). They showed that the phenolic of the raspberry marc extract was well retained during puree pro-duction. Bitter, astringent tastes and aftertastes increased with increasing marc extract concentration in puree, but the concen-tration of raspberry marc in puree of up to 1.6% may be recommended. The by-product from the processing of pumpkin varieties of Muscovy constitutes a source of bioactive compounds which are antioxidant, pro-health and anti-microbial (Saavedra et al., 2015). The addition of prebiotic fibre (inulin, oligofructose and apple fibre) led to a significant increase of antioxidant capacity and successful maintenance of sensory quality of strawberry juice (Cassani et al., 2016). The use of fruit pomace in functional food preparation, partic-ularly in bakery products may contribute effectively to health beneficial properties against several life style disorders such as diabetes, cancer, ulcer, and atherosclerosis (Sudha et al., 2016). Addition of apple pomace potentially enhanced the bioactivity of the products evaluated by Sudha et al. (2016). Blueberry bagasse flour may be used in fermented beverages production (Goldmeyer et al., 2014). The residues were prepared by 36-h dehydration in an oven at a temperature of 60 C and ground in a micro mill refrig-erated at 4 C. This flour has shown microbiological stability during storage and very good technological characteristics (moisture, protein, lipid and ash content, pH and soluble solids), which in-dicates the possibility of its use for creating new products. In a similar study Reque et al. (2014) showed that blueberry was char-acterised by a higher antioxidant capacity than other fruit and juices; the pomace also exhibited high antioxidant activity, while the dried blueberries (prepared by convective dehydration) and the flour (produced by convection drying of pomace and grinding the dried pomace) lost 46 and 66% of the antioxidant capacity of their raw materials, respectively. Flour obtained from guava by-product may be useful in production of cakes with high concentration of biocomponents. A cake recipe with various proportions of flour (30, 50 and 70%) obtained from the guava skin was developed (Bertagnolli, Silveira, Fogaca, Umann, & Penna, 2014). The sensory analysis showed the highest acceptance of aroma, taste and texture of cakes containing guava skin with 30% of flour. They also showed that addition of flour was characterised by a high content of fibre, minerals, polyphenols and betacarotene. Moreover, the obtained cakes were characterised by low content of lipids and carbohydrates.

Therefore guava skins flour may be applied to partial replace-ment of wheat flour for the production of cakes in order to improve the nutritional value, without affecting the sensory quality of the product. The research of Ferreira et al. (2015) was conducted to develop food products on the basis of the residues from the production of the isotonic drinks. The following raw materials were used: orange, passion fruit, watermelon, lettuce, courgette, carrot, spinach, mint, taro, cucumber and rocket. The plant residues were processed into flour which was characterised by a high capacity of water retention, and high levels of carbohydrates (53%) and fibre (21.5%). The replacement of traditional flour by plant residue flour (20e35%) was used for the production of biscuits and cereal bars. Biscuits with 35% flour from the by-products had significantly higher con-tent of fibre (57e118%) and mineral compounds (25e37%), in comparison with biscuits enriched by 20% by-product flour. Cereal bars contained about 75% cellulose and variable mineral contents between 14 and 37% (Ferreira et al., 2015). The incorporation of flour not only did not change the fat content but also did not impair

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consumer acceptance. However Pop, Muste, Man, and Muresan (2013) reported that incorporation of goji berry in refined flour products resulted in negative impact on quality of the final products. For many people in the world, especially for diabetic patients, low glycemic index (GI) and high-dietary foods are recommended. Waghmare and Arya (2014) studied the effect of various levels of powdered fruit byproducts (apple pomace, papaya peels and watermelon rinds) on GI value of thepla (Indian unleavened vegetable flat bread). They reported that high water absorption of powdered fruit by-products resulted in increased of dough sticki-ness and improvement in the texture of vegetable flatbread. The highest sensory overall acceptability score was obtained for thepla incorporated with powdered apple pomace (9%), powdered papaya peels (9%) and powdered watermelon rinds (3%). The powdered fruit in the bread resulted in a decreased glycemic index (GI) from 68 (for the control thepla) to 55, depending on fruit powder addition.

The effect of freeze-dried pineapple by-product in common with canola oil as fat replacers on the oxidative stability, cholesterol content and fatty acid profile of low-fat beef burgers was evaluated by Selani et al. (2016). Among fruit and vegetable waste, salad waste exhibited high water content. However, different waste management strategies could be efficaciously applied. Plazzotta, Manzocco, and Nicoli (2017) proposed salad waste as a source of both value-added compounds, such as polyphenols and fibre, and water. To reduce the salad waste, traditional strategies such as anaerobic digestion and composting could be combined with novel sustainable tech-nologies, including those based on supercritical fluids, ultrasound and pressure. Apple by-products are considered to be one of the most prac-ticable solutions for pectin production. It is possible to use the apple pomace for producing gluten-free formulations (Parra et al., 2015). Also it is a good source of fibre, especially insoluble fraction. Apple fibre may be used for preparing low calorie products because of the good ability of all polysaccharides to bind water (Sharma et al., 2016).

2.7. By-products in the production of animal feed Despite the disease control concerns, interest in the potential diversion of food waste for animal feed is growing. As discussed in the paper of Salemdeeb, zu Ermgassen, Kim, Balmford, and Al-Tabba (2017) there are a number of East Asian states offering working examples of safe food waste recycling based on tight regulation and rendering food waste safe through heat treatment. San Martin, Ramos, and Zufía (2016) concluded that it is feasible to use vegetable by-products as raw materials for animal feed provided that they are present below the maximum permitted limit of nitrite level. Because these authors found high nitrite level in coffee and wine byproducts, thus in these by-products the substance levels must be monitored. The most widely used and simplest method used in the management of byproducts from the fruit and vegetables industry is the use for feeding farm animals (Kasapidou, Sossidou, & Mitlianga, 2015). Because in general, water content of plant waste is too high for inclusion in feed formulations without prior treatment, therefore a drying methods (pulse combustion drying, oven and microwave) for making vegetable waste suitable for use in the animal feed market may be used (San Martin et al., 2016). Fodder may also be enriched with functional components, such as those recovered from fruit pomace. It is important to investigate the chemical composition of the byproduct before using it in the diet of the animals because various by-product parts, originating from the same raw material, may represent a diverse

chemical composition. Plant residues used in the feeding of live-stock include important components, such as polyphenols (e.g. skin of apples, skin and seeds of grapes, skin from potatoes, red beet), hesperidin (orange peel), carotenoids (peel carrot), fatty acids (to-mato seeds), lycopene (tomato peel), and phytosterols (sunflower and soybean seeds). The inclusion of by-products for animal diets should not adversely affect the performance of production, even if that means raising the quality of the product (Kasapidou et al., 2015). That relationship was found in the case of dairy cows, with a diet that was enriched with tomato seeds, and in the case of chickens fed with extracts from grapes. Therefore commercial use of by-products of the fruit and vegetables requires detailed knowledge of the dietary factors that may adversely affect the performance of the animal production. In the course of processing mango the by-product is usually thrown onto the open field and is used as feed for cattle, fuel wood or stored (Reddy & Saritha, 2015).

Guil-Guerrero et al. (2016) proved that providing plant by-products (cottonseed meal, green tea, apple- and red-wine pomace) as feed complements, which contain suitable concentra-tions of antimicrobial and health-promoting agents (natural alter-natives), makes it possible to reduce the use of antibiotics. The by-products reviewed influenced microbiological changes, reducing ileal coliform counts and improving small-intestinal indicator mi-crobes, as well as having positive effects on farm-animal immunology. Najafpour (2007) described single-cell protein (SCP) production as protein derived from cells of microorganisms such as yeast, fungi, algae and bacteria for which various carbon sources for synthesis are used. The protein is a source for human food sup-plements and animal feeds. Agricultural waste sources of carbon (relatively customary and cheap) are used as energy sources for microorganisms growing and producing SCP. SCP technology is a suitable process for converting waste materials to useful biomass containing protein. The author indicated some technical and eco-nomic problems related to the production SCP processes. He also underlined that this source of protein is very promising, with po-tential to satisfy the world shortage of food; thus large-scale application is possible.

In the study of Surendra, Olivier, Tomberlin, Jha, and Khanal (2016) black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae was grown on food wastes to produce fat and protein-rich prepupae as a novel strategy for efficient organic waste management. Whole black soldier fly prepupae, pressed cake, and meal were analyzed for important animal feed characteristics. The insect prepupae derived oil has a good fatty acids profile; thus there is possibility to produce a high quality biodiesel. Additionally, the prepupae, pressed cake, and meal have feed value comparable to commercial feed ingredients.

Gerasopoulos et al. (2015) with great success demonstrated the ability to use supplementation of feed with polyphenolic by a product from olive mill wastewater processing to improve the redox status in blood and tissues of piglets. 3. Conclusions Production of fresh and processed fruit and vegetable is becoming more important for agriculture and the food industry. During the plant processing a large amount of by-products is generated. This is a serious problem for plant processing companies or crops, mainly because of microbial growth. Fruit and vegetable by-products have the potential to be converted into edible products and should be regarded as a raw material that may be developed for the recovery of valuable components. They can be found in the food industry as antioxidants to avoid browning and lipid oxidation or as functional food ingredients. Very important is the antimicrobial

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role and also for flavouring or colorants and texturizer additives. Substances obtained from by-products may also be used as a source of food additives or dietary supplements. For example, berry by-products, due to the presence of anthocyanin compounds, are used as a raw material for the production of food dyes. The recovered compounds are also used in medicine, in molecular imaging in cancer therapy or in the production of antidiabetic agents (phloridzin from apple). Seed oil depending on its origin has a unique composition and concentration of fatty acids, phytosterols or squalene. A good and simple method used in the management of by-products from the fruit and vegetables industry, which may also be enriched in functional components, e.g. recovered from fruit pomace, is the use for feeding farm animals. In accordance with the objectives of environmental protection is the need for sustainable use of raw materials, including available sources of energy. Both the food and cosmetic industries are increasingly interested in using biocompounds contained in fruit by-products. Being a rich source of carbohydrates, pectin, crude fibre, minerals, and having high antioxidant activity, they are a good source of nutrients and func-tional components. Therefore, the use of such fruit and vegetables by-products, both in order to reduce the impact caused by their accumulation in the environment and for the development of new products with beneficial health properties, should be studied and more widely used in industry.

Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflict of interest. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by SUSFOOD ERA-Net/ NCBiR (National Centre for Research and Development); project no 5/SH/SUSFOOD1/2014. Implementation period: 2014e2016, Poland. The work was also co-financed by a statutory activity subsidy from the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education for the Faculty of Food Sciences of Warsaw University of Life Sciences.

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