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INTEGRATED TERM PROJECT (I.T.P.) SUBJECTS SUMMARY OF THE 1st SEMESTER FOUNDATION PROGRAM UG TECH-II DOCUMENT- I

Compiled by:Rahul Ranjan Sunil Kumar

FACULTY: Mr. Anand Prakash Dr. Sehagal Ms. Shilpika

1

GENERAL SCIENCE UNITS AND MEASUREMENT Fundamental units:

cannot be obtained from one another and all other physical

quantities can be derived from them. E.g. length, mass, and time. Derived units: The units of measurement of all other physical quantities, which can be obtained from fundamental units. SYSTEM OF UNITS: CGS: It is the Cartesian System of Units which uses centimeter, gram and second as the three basic units for length, mass and time respectively. MKS: It is based on metre, kilogram, and second as the fundamental units of length, mass and time respectively.

Basic Physical Quantity

Fundamental Units

Symbol used

Mass

Kilogram

Kg

Length

Metre

m

Time

Second

s

Temperature

Kelvin

K

Electric current

Ampere

A

Luminous Intensity

Candela

Cd

Quantity Of Matter

Mole

mol

Supplementary Physical Quantity

Supplementary unit

Symbol used

Plane Angle

Radian

rad

Solid Angle

sr

Assignment: Simple problems on conversions of units. Learning Outcome

•

The seven basic physical quantities and the two supplementary quantities.

•

The various prefixes used in micro and macro measurements.

•

The various practical units were listed which come frequently in the practical usage in our daily life.

•

The various physical constants, which are required to be kept in mind to simplify calculations.

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SCALARS AND VECTORS Vector:

has a magnitude as well as a direction, and follows certain rules of

combination. E.g. are displacement, velocity and acceleration. Scalar: Have only magnitude and follow simple algebraic rules of combination. E.gs is pressure, energy, mass and time etc. Unit vector: A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1 and points in a particular direction. It lacks both dimension and unit. The unit vectors are designated as I, j and k. Equal vectors: equal magnitude and same direction. Addition of vectors:

R = (A^2 + B^2 + 2ABcoso) ^1/2

Let the angle that the resultant makes with A vector be ‘q’ then the value tanq is given by Bsino/ (A + Bcoso). Scalar product of two vectors: is given by ABcoso. i.e. A.B = Abcoso. In the Cartesian coordinates A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz Vector or cross product of two vectors: is given by Absino C I.e. A*B = Absino C where C is a unit vector in the direction of C vector and the direction of C vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the A and B vector and points in the direction as given by right hand thumb rule. Cross product in Cartesian coordinates is given byA*B = I

j

k

Ax

Ay

AZ

Bx

By

Bz

Assignments: On components of vectors. On addition of vectors. Learning outcome:

•

The various forces working in nature and their components resulting in some action in the environment in which it is working.

•

The addition of various forces acting on a system through the laws of combination for vectors.

•

Calculation of some derived physical quantities, which are based on the dot and cross product of vectors. 3

MOTION Speed: distance traveled / time taken. The unit of speed is metre per second in mks system. Velocity: It is given by the ratio of displacement to time interval. Instantaneous velocity: It is given by limit of delta t tends to zero ds by dt. Acceleration: Its unit is metre per second square in S.I.It is given by change in velocity by time taken. Instantaneous acceleration: it is given by limit of delta t tends to zero dv by dt or by double derivation of ds by dt. Motion with constant acceleration in one direction: v = u + at x = ut + ½ at^2 V^2 = u^2 + 2as Projectile motion: When a body is thrown vertically with a constant velocity then it is in uniform velocity in horizontal direction and is in uniform acceleration due to gravity in vertically downward direction. Such motion is called projectile motion. Vertical motion: Y = usinot – ½ * gt^2 Vy = usino – gt Vy^2 = (usino) ^2 – 2gy Horizontal motion: X = ucoso*t Total time of flight = 2usino/g Horizontal range = u^2sin2o/g UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION: ANGULAR VELOCITY = do/dt ANGULAR ACCELERATION = d^2o/dt^2 TANGENTIAL ACCELERATION = at = dv/dt= r*alpha CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION = v^2/r CENTRIPETAL FORCE: acts on a particle moving in a circle. It is directed towards the center of the circle. It is given by mv^2/r. Assignments: Home assignment based on motion along a straight line, projectile motion, circular motion etc. 4

Learning outcome:

•

Illustration of various kinds of motions through graphs.

•

The principles of projectile and circular motion.

NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION First law: A body continues to remain in state of rest or uniform motion in the same direction in a straight line unless acted upon by some external forces. Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the implied force and takes place in the direction of the force. F=ma Third law: To every action there is equal and opposite reaction. F1 = -F2 Apparent change in the weight of a body in a lift Lift at rest or moving with a uniform velocity: In such case apparent weight is same as the actual weight (W = mg) Lift is moving with an upward acceleration ‘a’: Apparent weight = m (g + a) Lift is moving downward with acceleration ‘a’: Apparent Weight = m (g - a) Lift is falling freely with acceleration a = g: Apparent weight = zero Learning outcome: •

Various forces interacting in nature.

•

How the various physical movements take place in nature under the effect of these forces.

•

How our weight varies in lift.

FRICTION An effect that opposes the motion of one surface on another. Sliding friction: One surface slides over another. 5

Rolling friction: One surface rolls over another. Static friction: It is the force of friction that acts on a static body when it is in rest position inspite of the fact that some force is applied on it. Dynamic or Kinetic friction: comes into play when a body is in a state of steady motion on the surface of another body. It is proportional to the normal reaction and is less than static friction. Limiting friction: comes into play when a body just slides over another. F is proportional to R when the body starts to move F = mu R

where mu is the coefficient of friction.

It is independent of the size and shape of the object. Coefficient friction: mu = f/R

f = sliding f ,R = Normal reaction

Also mu = tano where ‘o’ is the angle of friction Angle of friction: It is the angle that the resultant of the limiting friction and normal reaction makes with the normal reaction. Learning outcome: Various kinds of frictions.

WORK ENERGY AND POWER Weight: It pulls you down, or more exactly towards the center of the earth and it is proportional to your mass. Torque: is a twisting or turning action on a body about a rotation axis due to a force F. The SI unit of torque is Nm. A torque is positive if it tends to rotate a body at rest counterclockwise and negative if it tends to rotate the body in the clockwise direction. 1 lb inch = 0.113 Nm Work: It is the energy transferred to or from an object by means of force acting on the object. W = Fx.d Fx = Fdcosθ Where ‘θ’ is the angle between ’F’ and the distance‘d’ moved by the object.

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WORK KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM: work done is equal to change in kinetic energy. Power: The time rate at which work I done by a force is said to be the power due to the force. The SI unit of power is Joule per second, which is given a special name watt. Often the horsepower is used. 1 horsepower = 550 ft.lb/s = 746 watt 1 kilowatt-hour = 3.6*10^6 J Energy: It is the measure of how long we can sustain the output of power, or how much work we can do. One common unit of energy is kilowatt hour (KWh). Potential energy

PE = Force * distance PE = mgh

Kinetic energy: For an object of mass m whose speed is v its kinetic energy is given by ½mv^2 Conservation of energy: The total energy E of a system can change only by amounts of energy that are transferred to or from the system. The total energy of an isolated system cannot change. Conservative force: The network done by a conservative force on a particle moving around every closed path is zero.e.g. Gravitational energy, elastic energy Non conservative forces: A force that is not conservative is non conservative force. E.g. Frictional force. Learning outcome:

•

The concept of conservation of energy in a system.

•

Physical work is not always the same as what we call work in our daily affairs.

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MOMENT OF INERTIA It’s a parameter, which tells us how the mass of the rotating body is distributed about its axis of rotation. Radius of gyration: It describes the way in which the area of a cross section is distributed around its centroidal axis. If the area is concentrated far from the centroidal axis it will have greater value of r and a greater resistance to buckling. The radius of gyration is defined as R = sqrt (I/A) Where,

R = radius of gyration, I = moment of inertia, A = area of cross section

Learning outcome:

•

What should be the point of application of the force in a rotating action so that less force is applied. FLUID MECHANICS

Fluids are the substances that can flow. Pressure:

= F/A

The SI unit for pressure is Newton per square metre, which is given a special name pascal. 1 atm = 1.01 * 10^5 Pascal = 760 torr P = Po +vgh where v is the density of the fluid, P is the pressure at a certain depth h and Po is the pressure at the surface. Pascal’s Principle: It states that a change in the pressure applied to an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to the walls of its container. Archimedes Principle: It states- when a body is fully or partially submerged in a fluid, A buoyant force Fb from the surrounding fluid acts on the body. The force is directed upward and has a magnitude equal to the weight mg of the fluid that has been displaced by the body. The Equation of Continuity: It states that the volume rate of flow of a liquid in a tube is constant irrespective of the varying width of the tube. A1v1 = A2v2

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Bernoulli’s equation: It states that total energy is conserved when a fluid is under flow. Learning outcome:

•

The principle behind hydraulic lever.

•

Why the heavier objects sink and lighter objects float.

THERMODYNAMICS Thermodynamic system: it’s a specified collection of matter that can exchange energies by the thermodynamic processes. Types of systems – Open system: does exchange mass with environment. Closed system: does not exchange mass with environment. A Thermodynamic process is the path between 2 points in state space during transformation from one to another. ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a body C then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: dq=du+dw Where, u = internal energy of the system, q = the energy exchanged as heat w = work done by the system. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of the system increases for irreversible. Work done on / by a gas: W = p (V2 – V1) Internal energy of an ideal gas: U = ½ mc^2 =3/2 nRT Where, U = internal energy of ideal gas, m = mass of the gas, c^2 = mean squared speed, n = no. of moles of gas, R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature Isothermal processes: The temperature is constant. Adiabatic processes: No heat enters or leaves the system in an adiabatic expansion. Adiabats are steeper than isotherms in PV curve. Isobaric: This process occurs at constant pressure. Isochoric: This process takes place at a constant volume. Learning outcome:

The laws of thermodynamics &efficiencies of various

thermodynamic devices.

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CHEMISTRY FIBRE: -Anything with length at least 100 times than its width. They can be spun or weaved can only be used as fiber. It should have following properties1. Readily available. 2. Sufficient strength, elasticity and spinning power. 3. Affinity for dyes. STAPLE FIBRE: - It has 1-4 inch length. It can be spun, weaved, or knitted e.g. cotton CONTINOUS FIBRE: - When fibre is very long. Sizing: - To provide temporary strength to yarn a substance (size) is impregnated on the thread and this substance must also be easily removed. E.g. starch or dextrin (natural fibre). Polyvinyl alcohol or polyacrylic acid (synthetic fibre)

Stereochemistry of fibres:Name

Arrangement

isotactic

syndiotactic

atactic

Swelling: - When immersed in water there is an alteration in the dimensions of fibre almost entirely in diameter.

Classification on the basis of origin:10

1. Natural fibre of plant origin: - cotton, jute, linen etc. 2. Natural fibre of animal origin: - silk, wool. 3. Regenerated man made fibre:- rayon, viscose 4. Synthetic fibre: - nylon, terylene. 5. Mineral fibre: - asbestos etc. Cotton 1. Unicellular fibre 2. More length of fibre, good quality cotton. Main component:-cellulose. Action of alkali on cellulose. - No effect on cellulose. Mercerized cotton: - 20%NaOH neutralize with acid, wash with water. (Treating cotton fibre) Linen 1. Multicellular unlike cotton. 2. Extracted from bark of tree lineum. 3. More strength& shine due to lignin wax. Wool 1. Natural fibre from animal. 2. Hair like growth from epidermal skin. 3. The first shearing gives the best wool. 4. Composition: - It has keratin (protein) which has high sulphur content. Silk Its source is animal secretion. It consists of solidified viscose fluid excreted from special glands of the silkworm (Bombyx mori) Sericulture: - It is the cultivation of silkworm for the production of silk. Major components:-Sericin, fibroin. Both sericin, fibroin contains amino acids.

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Wild Silk Silk produced by worms other than Bombyx mori fed on leaves is called wild silk or Tussur silk. Regenerated man made fibre Rayon/Nitrocellulose:- The product is mixed with solvent and its viscosity increases. Viscose rayon (xanthic acid):-Sodium salt of cellulose. Synthetic fibres •

Nylon 6,6

•

Nylon 6/perlon

•

Nylon 11

•

Nylon 610

•

Dacron

•

Poly acrylonitrile DYES

Dyes give colour to material onto which they have been anchored. Dyes are organic compounds while pigments are inorganic minerals. Types of dyes:•

Basic dyes(malachite green)

•

Acidic dyes(orange-II)

•

Direct dyes (direct brown)

•

Mordant dyes(alizarin) WATER

•

Rain water

•

Surface water

•

Subsoil water

•

Deep well water

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Effluents The wastes discarded by an industry in water form are known as effluents. Degree of measurements is measured by:•

Permanganate level(C.O.D)

•

B.O.D(biological oxygen demand)

•

Amount of insoluble suspended solid.

•

The pH value. Fats

Carbon chain is fully saturated e.g. desi ghee. Oils Carbon chain is having unsaturation.e.g.Soyabean oil. Waxes Waxes are compound formed by esterification of fatty acids and monohydric alcohols. Example:-Cetyl alcohol,mesityl alcohol. Criteria for selection of soap •

Fatty acid of higher molecular wt. makes better soap.

•

No unreacted soap or alkali should left behind.

•

Use of salt such as NaCl should be limited to small value.

•

The soap must have a low titer value. Fluorescent brightening agent

Certain organic compound posses the property of fluorescence that is they absorb radiation of shorter wavelength. These substances when used on fabrics make them appear brilliantly white. Example: - P-methyl umbelliferone CERAMICS Ceramics include all the articles which are made of clay i.e. mainly compound of silicates. •

Structural material in construction.

•

As a covering material for various objects and buildings.

•

As refractory material in furnaces.

•

For making decorative pieces and sanitary wares.

•

Special ceramics are used in various

scientific

instruments, radio

transmitters, in aviation industry. •

In insulation.

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Tanning of leather Raw animal skin consists of various complex proteins which get affected by substances such as enzymes, bacteria, acids/alkalis, oils/fats & salts. Steps involved in manufacturing:•

Raw skin is soaked in water to make it soft& hydrated.

•

It is then treated with lime solution for the removal of epidermis.

•

The animal hair is removed using machines.

•

The skin is then treated with enzymes.

•

Tanning is carried out.

Tanning is of two types:•

Vegetable tanning: - it is used for shoes and belts. Raw material is obtained from bark of tree such as eucalyptus tree hence named as Vegetable tanning. The bark is rich in compound called tannins.

•

Chrome tanning: - Most of leather all over the world is subjected to chrome tanning, which is a single step process and generates softer leather with high protein content. In this chromium salts are combined with proteins of raw skin.

Basic chromium sulphate combines with proteins of raw skin.

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FACULTY: Ms. Archana Gandhi Mrs. Bhavana K. Verma

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Overview of fashion industry Fashion: An introduction Fashion deals with the definition of fashion from different aspects, fashion cycle, and consumer acceptance of fashion. The session deals with the dimension of fashion, identify the phases and lengths of fashion cycles, and comprehend the fashion adoption theories in relation to consumer acceptance. Definition of fashions •

From layman point of view, fashion implies a mysterious force that makes a particular style of dress or behavior acceptable for one-year but quite reverse in another.

•

The prevailing or accepted style in dress or personal decoration established or adopted during a particular time or season.

•

To the ‘sociologists’, it represents an expression of social interaction and of status seeking.

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To the ‘economists’, it creates need to make people buy things they don’t need.

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To the ‘psychiatrists’ it is indication of sex impulses in pattern of dress.

Fashion Cycle •

Consumers are exposed each season to a multitude of new styles created by designers. Some are accepted for a time. The way in which fashion changes is usually described as fashion cycle. It is described as bell-shaped curve with five main steps:

•

Peak of popularity

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Increase in popularity

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Rejection of a style or obsolescence

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Decline in popularity

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Introduction of a style B C A

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A = rise B = peak C = decline •

Consumers can be identified as fashion followers, leaders, victims based on stages and their roles.

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Classic is a style or a fashion i.e. long lasting E.g. jeans

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FADS are short-lived fashion Adoption of fashion

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It is important to understand how new fashion ideas are disseminated or spread, and how they are adapted to the tastes life-styles and budgets of various consumers.

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In Trickle up theory, fashion begins with consumer.

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In Trickle across theory, peer groups influence the fashion decision of a lot of people what is accepted on a group is worn by the majority member.

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Fashion flows from upper class to lower class, as most of the new fashion is expensive and affordable to few people. It is known as Trickle down theory.

History and Evolution of Fashion We were shown a film based on history and evolution of fashion. The film traces the development of fashion industry in Europe and America from the 17th century to the present, emphasizing last 10 decades. The film briefly discusses how the fashion innovators together with society, technology, economics,and politics change fashion. Important innovators are as follows: •

Coco Chanel who is known for the boyish look and for using Jersey (1916-21)

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Rose Bertin: dress maker to Marie Antoinette (1774-93)

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Charles Worth: Father of modern couture for women (1860s)

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Christian Dior with new look i.e. longer fuller skirts, smooth, rounded sloping shoulders, tiny fitted waists made an impact. (1947-51)

•

Giorgio Armani, of Milan, Italy tailored look perfectly suited for the career women (1980s)

•

Karl Lagerfeld brought five major collections: Chanel, Lagerfeld, Chloe, Fendi, and KL

Film made us realize that Paris, New York, and Milan are the fashion capitals of the world.

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Fashion Trends and Factors This session tells us how the trends in fashion are influenced and how they effect they consumer and the manufacturer. Factors that influenced fashion trends might be social, economical, cultural, technological advancements, political scenario, religious views, film, media etc. Even the consumer’s demographic and psychographics profile also influences the trends. Happening in society and politics also influences the fashion. Status of women to be free has changed the way of how they dress. The economic condition of consumers also affects the trends. Even Communication with consumers like Television, telephone, Internet, E-commerce has brought different cultures into contact, making people more aware of other lifestyles and modes of dress.

Global & Indian industry Overview It deals with the evolution of industry, migration of manufacturing units and the major markets of the apparel and lifestyle products. History: Global

• The textile industry has been considered as the “take off” industry as it was earliest to be established since it satisfied a basic human need. •

The history is marked by the growth of textile industry, which played an important role for the British economic growth.

•

The growth was marked along the modern technological town, Lancashire

•

By Mid-19th century cotton industry emerged as complex of highly specialized firm.

Evolution: Global A study of development of national textile industries (walter, 1984) identified six stages of development. They are •

Embryonic stage

•

Exports of Native Apparel

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Rising apparel exports and increase in fabric production (India, Mexico, Bangladesh, Tunisia, Poland, Dominican Republic, Philippines)

•

The Golden stage-Higher trade surpluses and sophistication (china)

•

Full maturity (S.Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong)

•

Decline (Japan)

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Indian Textile Industry •

It is considered as the oldest organized industry. It started with Bowria cotton Mills Company in 1818 near Kolkatta.

•

The first cotton mill in Ahmedabad was set up in 1861 by the Rao Bahadur Ranchodlal, who is better known as the founder of Ahmedabad’s Textiles industry also referred to as “Manchester in India”.

•

The scenario of machinery requirement from England and American civil war affected the situation.

•

After independence, expansion of industry took place rapidly. Policies related to textiles were introduced to promote smaller enterprises.

Sectors of the Fashion Industry In this chapter we learnt about the different sectors of the fashion industry i.e. how they are co-related, how they works right from the fiber production to the yarn and then yarn to the fabric production and then garment manufacturing and exporting and marketing. The supportive and the core sectors of the Indian fashion industry are as follows: 1. Fiber Production Sector 2. Yarn Production 3. Yarn Processing 4. Fabric Making and Processing •

Composites mills sector

•

Power looms sector

•

Handlooms sector

•

Knitwear sector

•

Processing sector

5. Knitting/Knitwear sector 6. Fabric Processing sector 7. Garment Manufacturing sector 8. Made-ups and Furnishing sector 9. Supportive sector-Textile Machinery industry 10. Research and Development

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Focusing on the garment sector, export and the domestic are the two wings with •

Manufacturer exporter-It has its own manufacturing facility although all of its merchandise may not be produced in own factories.

•

Merchant Exporter-It has no manufacturing set up but get its merchandise produced by fabricators. It exports.

•

Fabricators-They are sub- contractors, job workers or sources. They don’t export. They are responsible for sewing operations. They receive cut fabrics from principals to sew and return back for finishing.

With regard to the regional character in garment sector, it has been found that Each one has its own specialization such as Delhi, Jaipur (handwork on apparels), Ludhiana (woolen and knitted clothes) Tirupur (cotton knits) western region having the advantage of mills.

SWOT Analysis It deals with the Strength, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats of the garment industry. We also came to know about the future direction of the apparel and fashion trade. SWOT is as follows: Strengths •

Raw material especially cotton advantage

•

Labor cost advantage

•

Flexibility and ability to supply small quantities being under SSI

•

Product development expertise

Weaknesses

• Lower utilization of capacity and less productivity • Lack of trained labor • Dependence on power loom sector for fabric requirements • Infrastructure problems • Obsolete technology in weaving processing and garmenting Opportunities •

Opportunities for increasing synthetic garment export s

•

India’s domestic market leverage for export efforts

Threats •

Striking a balance between ‘big’ and ‘ small’ in garment export production and thus between ‘basic’ and ‘fashion’ garments. 20

•

Unbalanced growth of up-stream, mid-stream, and down-stream sectors.

•

Competition from south and S.E. Asian countries.

Overview Of Fashion supply chain This chapter made us understands about the network of apparel supply, how it has been formed as well as about the functioning of virtual supply chain. In supply chain, members of supply chain works as integrated unit and products are based on consumer preferences. Apparel Supply Chain: It is the network of fiber, textile, findings suppliers, manufacturers, contractors and all channels of apparel distribution that work together to bring apparel products to ultimate consumer. It also includes auxiliary businesses such as advertising agencies, etc. Virtual Supply Chain: interactive network of manufacturing specialists that integrate complementary resources to support a particular product effort for as long as it is economically justifiable to do so. It relies on synergy of computer networking and telecommunication technologies to deliver products at Internet speed.

LEARNING OUTCOME The introduction to fashion dealt with different forms of definitions given by different persons like economists, sociologists, Psychiatrists, layman, etc. It mainly says what a fashion is and what it means to different people. It helps to understand the dimension of fashion as well as the fashion cycles and their lengths. The theme about history of fashion tells about the development of fashion emphasize on the development of fashion in Europe and Asia. The global history of textile industry deals with the evolution of industry, migration of manufacturing units and the major markets of the apparel and lifestyle products. It is important to understand how new fashion ideas are disseminated or spread, and how they are adapted to the tastes life-styles and budgets of various consumers. The concept of different kinds of materials i.e. fabrics, yarn, used in apparel was learnt. The information regarding the processing units, dyeing units, etc. as well as other sectors of the industry were learnt. The brief analysis of SWOT i.e. strength. Weakness, threat, and opportunities of the fashion industry were also learnt. Overall, it was really the overview of the fashion industry.

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FACULTY: Mr. BALA SIDHDHAARTH Mr.BALBIR SINGH

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Material science Materials have vital role to play in human life. The connections between materials and human race have tremendously increased over time. They are interdependent. Furthermore, improvements in materials affect the lifestyle of humans and have improved the quality of the products used by them. For instance: the earliest rail was simply soft wrought iron nailed to planks as there was no economical metal alternative with better performance. The revolution came only after the improvement made in material and steel was being manufactured. Another example of a revolutionary material being silicon, which gave rise to the development of microchips and changed the face of computers forever. Processing = Structure = Property = Performance These qualities of a material are interrelated. The structure of a material depends on the fact that how it is processed. The internal structure in turn determines the properties that the material is going to exhibit. Properties affect the long term performance of the material itself. So, one must take care of all the four factors while using a material.

Material science and engineering The performance or a material is largely affected by external factors as well as its own internal properties. Every technologist or engineer faces some problems while using materials. These problems may be selecting a right material or deterioration of material properties or a search for an economical alternative. These problems are overcome by material science and engineering. The role of material science and engineering can’t be overlooked in our day-to-day life. Even the slightest improvement in material or its quality may affect the human race immensely. The processing –structure – performance – property are all linearly related to each other and affect each other. Also material science and engineering helps select and use proper material for better outcome and performance of the final product.

Classification of Material There have been three basic classifications of solid materials: ceramics, metals, and polymers. The chemical set up of the material and its atomic structure decides this classification. Some other groups of engineered materials are composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials. 23

Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity. Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility. Some metals, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel are magnetic. Metal Alloys contain more than one metallic element. Changing the elements present in the alloy can change their properties. Metallic materials or alloys are a combination of metallic elements that have number of delocalized electrons. In metals, the outer valence electrons are shared among all atoms, and are free to travel everywhere. Since electrons conduct heat and electricity, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires. Many properties of these metals are due to the electrons only. Ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material. Ceramics are compounds between metals and non-metals. They are mostly oxides, nitrides, and carbides. E.g. Porcelain, glass etc. Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, and hardness; wear resistance, and corrosion resistance. Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators. Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials; some are piezoelectric materials; and a few special ceramics are superconductors at very low temperatures. Polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on a carbon backbone. The repeating

structure

results

in

large

chainlike

molecules.

Polymers

are

macromolecules that consist of a monomeric unit repeated all over repeatedly. Polymers are useful because they are lightweight, are corrosion resistant, are easy to process at low temperatures, and are generally inexpensive. Some important characteristics of polymers include their size (or molecular weight), softening and melting points, crystallinity, and structure. The mechanical properties of polymers generally include low strength and high toughness. Their strength is often improved using reinforced composite structures. Composites are engineered materials that consist of more than one type of material. E.g. Glass fibers. The constituent elements exhibit their properties in the mixture also. Semiconductors are materials having electrical properties lying between conductors and insulators. Adding small amounts of impurity can vary their properties. These materials have revolutionized the electronics and computer industry in the past few decades. 24

Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body as a replacement for damaged and deceased body parts. These are non-toxic and compatible with body tissues. Advanced materials: The materials used for hi-tech applications are referred to as advanced materials. These advanced materials are typically either traditional material whose properties have been enhanced or newly developed, high-performance materials. They may be of all material-types and are normally relatively expensive. They have a number of applications. E.g.: for lasers integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays, fiber optics and the thermal protection system for the Space Shuttle Orbiter. Materials of the future: Smart materials: smart or intelligent materials are a group of new materials that are now being developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. These materials are able to sense changes in their environments and respond accordingly. They show traits that are found in living organisms. Their components include some sensors and an actuator (that may change shape, position, natural frequency or mechanical characteristics in response to changes in temperature, electric fields or magnetic fields). Piezoelectric ceramics expand and contract in response to an applied electric field or voltage. Conversely they also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered. Materials used as sensors include optical fibers and some polymers. Nanotechnology: Until very recent times scientists studied the chemistry and physics of materials by studying large and complex structures and then investigating the fundamental building blocks of these structures that are smaller and simpler. With the advent of scanning probe microscopes, which permits observation of individual atoms and molecules, it has been possible to manipulate and move atoms and molecules to form new structures. This ability to arrange atoms provides an opportunity to develop mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other properties that are not otherwise possible naturally. Modern material needs: Despite tremendous progress being made in the discipline of material; science and engineering in past few years there still remains challenges including the 25

development of even more sophisticated and specialized materials keeping in mind their environmental impacts. Though nuclear energy shows prospects that can solve the problem but yet it exhibits some environmental hazards due to radiations. Furthermore, there is a recognized need to find new economical sources of energy and to use present sources more efficiently. Materials will undoubtedly play a significant role in these developments. Learning outcome •

The characteristics and properties of materials and substances at the micro level.

•

How and why the chemical and physical substances vary,

•

How electrons are filled in the various orbits,

•

How the designation of electrons is done.

Microstructures A microstructure is a geometric arrangement of grains and phases in a material with structural variables like shape size orientation amount and distribution. Their sizes range from nanometer to micrometer. A homogeneous section of a system which has uniform physical & chemical properties is called a phase. A large number of materials are single phase. An individual crystal in a poly crystalline metal or ceramic is called a grain. The interface separating one grain from other is called grain boundary. Changing the size shape and orientation of the grain, grain size & orientation of the grains can vary the microstructure of a single-phase material. Grain size changes by grain growth, whereas grain shape depends upon the orientation of grain during the grain growth. Grain size is inversely proportional to the grain boundary area. N = 2n-1 (0.0645) Where, N= no. of grains in area 0.0645 sq mt n= grain size no. With rise of temperature atomic movements start. These movements are from the boundary of grain with convex surface to that having a concave surface. All crystalline materials show grain growth. The microstructure with two or more phases posses a variety of geometrics that are not found in a single-phase materials. There is a relation between microstructures & mechanical properties and development of microstructure is related to its phase diagrams. In phase diagram, components are 26

pure metals or compounds of which an alloy is made. A system is a specific body of a material under consideration. A solid solution consists of atoms of two different types; the solute occupies the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice. Also the term phase equilibrium refers to the equilibrium where two or more phases are involved in a system. In some solids equilibrium is never attained and the system is said to be in non-equilibrium or a metastable state. Phase distribution (Eutectoid composition): Eutectoid reactions are those reactions in which two new phases are formed during cooling simultaneously. Austenite is an FCC polymorph of iron and steel which gives ferrite (BCC polymorph of iron and steel) and carbide(harder than ferrite and austenite) on cooling. Pearlite is a lamellar mixture of ferrite and carbide that are formed during eutectic reaction of austenite. Bainite consists of ferrite and cementite phases. Microstructures can be changed according to the needs by altering the internal structure. Spheroidite microstructure is formed when Pearlite or bainite is heated and is left at temperature below eutectoid for sufficiently long time. In this sphere-like particles are embedded in the alpha ferrite matrix. Another form of changed microstructure is martensite.

X-ray diffraction and determination of crystal structure X-ray diffraction is very helpful in studying the crystal structure. X-rays are electromagnetic waves that have very high energy & short wavelength of the order of atomic spacing of solid. For diffraction, nλ= 2dsinθ Where, λ = wavelength of x-ray d = spacing between two atomic layers n = order of reflection θ = angle of incidence This is Bragg’s law. LEARNING OUTCOME •

Various processes carried out in a steel industry, which included hardening and softening.

•

Steel, in its crude form, cannot be used for industrial applications and thus it needs various treatments before being used.

•

The processes and the intermediates in the treatment of steel.

27

Crystal systems Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal, Rhombohedral SYSTEM

AXES

AXIAL ANGLE

CUBIC

a=b=c

A=B=C=90'

TETRAGONAL

a=b<>c

A=B=C=90'

ORTHORHOMBIC

a<>b<>c

A=B=C=90'

MONOCLINIC

a<>b<>c

A=C=90'<>B

TRICLINIC

a<>b<>c

A<>B<>C<>90'

HEXAGONAL

a=b<>c

A=B=90',C=120'

RHOMBOHEDRAL

a=b=c

A=B=C<>90'

Ceramics and crystal structure Ceramics are substances that comprise of two or more elements with crystal structures more complex than the base metal. The bonding pattern varies from purely ionic to purely covalent. In ceramics having ionic bonding, the magnitude of charge on ions and the relative size of the cation and anion (radius ratio) affects the crystal structure. It is also seen that the crystal is more stable where the anion is in contact with the cation. Some common ceramic materials have equal numbers of cations and anions and are called AX type. ANION STRUCTURE

TYPE

PACKING

CATION

ANION

EXAMPLE

Rock Salt (Nacl)

AX

FCC

6

6

Nacl, MgO, FeO

Cesium Chloride

AX

Simple cubic

8

8

Cscl

(sphalerite)

AX

FCC

4

4

ZnS, SiC

Fluorite

AX2

Simple cubic

8

4

CaF2, ThO2

Perovskite

ABX3

FCC

12(A), 6(B)

6

BaTiO3, SrZrO3

Zinc Blende

MgAl2O4, Spinel

AB2X4

FCC

4(A), 6(B)

4

FeAl2O4

If the charge on cation and anion are not the same AmXp type ceramic structure is formed. See the table above. Sometimes two types of cations are also present in the ceramic structure. These are called AmBnXp type. See table above. Silicates These are primarily made of silicon and oxygen. In SiO44- unit each silicon is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, silicon being at the center of each tetrahedron. Silica is the 28

simplest silicate material. Chemically it is called silicon dioxide or SiO2. In SiO2, every corner oxygen atom(s) of a tetrahedron is shared by the adjacent tetrahedron. Silicates can also occur in 2D-layers and are called layered silicates. The layered silicates are formed when three oxygen ions are shared in each tetrahedron. For this structure the repeating structure is (Si2O5)2-. Kaolinite has a sheet-like structure. Carbon and its polymorphs Carbon and its family of polymorphs cannot be included in the family of metals, ceramics, polymers, etc. as such. However, graphite is sometimes referred to as a ceramic. It has layers of hexagonal carbon atoms. Each carbon is bonded to three other coplanar carbons by strong covalent bonds. Weak Vander Waal’s force acts between two adjacent layers of carbon atoms. As a result two layers can easily slip over each other and hence graphite is a good lubricant. Graphite has high electrical conductivity. It has high resistance to thermal shock; high adsorption to gases, high machinability, etc. Diamond is a metastable polymorph of carbon at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Its crystal is a variant of zinc blende. All the bonds are covalent only. It is the hardest natural substance known. It has been used in tools and weapons for this reason. LEARNING OUTCOME •

Crystal structures of various substances.

•

The various kinds of crystal geometry possible in the various known substances

•

How the density of various materials varies and how it can be calculated. Characteristics and properties of silica and silicate materials

•

The various parameters that determine the characteristic of a crystal lattice like coordination no., packing fraction etc.

Polymers Polymers are macromolecules that are made up of repeating monomeric units called “mers”. They are organic in origin. They may be natural or synthetic in origin. Some natural polymers are cotton, wool, and rubber, silk. Some synthetic polymers are nylon, PVC, Bakelite. Also some polymers are biologically important like enzymes, starches, and carbohydrates. The bonding in polymers is covalent in nature. The polymerization reaction is started by the reaction between the reacting species and the initiator when active mer is produced. These mer units repeat themselves repeatedly to produce the polymer. When the repeating units along the chain are the 29

same, a homopolymer is formed. E.g.: polyethylene, PTFE. Nylon (6,6) is a polyamide, polyethylene is polyester. Molecular shapes: polymers are not straight molecules and have a zigzag arrangement of atoms.

A chain of polymer The physical properties of polymers depend on three factors: •

Shape

•

Size or molecular weight

•

Difference in structure of molecular chains

Linear polymers are those in which the mer units are joined end to end in single chains. Eg: PTFE, nylon, PMMA. While synthesizing a polymer, some side-reaction may occur resulting in the formation of branches or secondary chains. These are called branched polymers. E.g.: vulcanized rubber, in which several cross-links are formed between two straight chains.

Cross-links

Cross links in vulcanized rubber

30

Isomerism The phenomenon in which a molecule has same molecular formula but different structural formula is called isomerism. Stereoisomerisms: in this type of isomerism the groups have different spatial arrangement. There are three types of stereomerism: Isotactic configuration: a group occurs on the same side of the chain and at same intervals Syndiotactic configuration: a group occurs on the alternate side of the chain. Atactic configuration: a group has a random positioning along the chain length. Geometrical isomerism is shown when different side chains are present on a symmetrical molecule. Two different molecular forms called cis and trans are formed due to the different arrangement of the side chains. LEARNING OUTCOME •

Properties of various types of polymers.

•

The crystallinity in polymers.

PLASTICS Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic: Thermoplastics soften on heating and harden on cooling and the process is reversible. It is because on application of heat all the secondary bonds are broken and the plastic softens. On the other hand, thermosetting plastics once hardened on heating never softened on further heating. This is because during initial heating primary covalent bonds are formed between adjacent molecular chains, which anchor the molecule chains together. Copolymers: these are a new class of polymer that can be easily and economically synthesized and have two different mer units. They have improved properties than homopolymers. The different kinds of copolymers are •

Random copolymer

•

Alternate copolymer

•

Book copolymer

•

Graft copolymer

Polymer crystallinity Yes they are. But the polymers are made up of molecules rather than atoms as in metals or ceramics. So they have a more complex crystal structure than metals or

31

ceramics. The degree of crystallinity varies from purely amorphous to purely crystalline. Random or graft polymers are generally crystalline.

Interatomic bonding The force that holds two or more atoms together in a molecule is called a chemical bond. There are two types of chemical bonds: primary and secondary bonds. Primary bonds may be ionic, covalent, metallic bond, or coordinate bond. Whereas secondary bonds are physical forces like Van der Waal’s bond, etc. Ionic bond: Atoms like to have a filled outer shell of electrons. Sometimes, by transferring electrons from one atom to another, electron shells are filled. The donor atom will take a positive charge, and the acceptor will have a negative charge. The charged atoms or ions will be attracted to each other, and form bonds. E.g.: Nacl Covalent bond: Some atoms like to share electrons to complete their outer shells. Each pair of shared atoms is called a covalent bond. Covalent bonds are called directional because the atoms tend to remain in fixed positions with respect to each other. Covalent bonds are also very strong. E.g.: HCl Coordinate bond: The bond formed by donation of two electrons by a single atom is called coordinate bond. E.g.: K4 [Fe (CN) 6] Metallic bond: In a metal, the outer electrons are shared among all the atoms in the solid. Each atom gives up its outer electrons and becomes slightly positively charged. The negatively charged electrons hold the metal atoms together. Since the electrons are free to move, they lead to good thermal and electrical conductivity. Hydrogen Bonds: Hydrogen bonds are common in covalently bonded molecules, which contain hydrogen, such as water (H2O). Since the bonds are primarily covalent, the electrons are shared between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. However, the electrons tend to spend more time around the oxygen atom. This leads to a small positive charge around the hydrogen atoms, and a negative charge around the oxygen atom. When other molecules with this type of charge transfer are nearby, the negatively charged end of one molecule will be weakly attracted to the positively charged end of the other molecule. The attraction is weak because the charge transfer is small.

32

Van der Waals Bonds: Van der Waals bonds are very weak compared to other types of bonds. These bonds are especially important in noble gases, which are cooled to very low temperatures. The electrons surrounding an atom are always moving. At any given point in time, the electrons may be slightly shifted to one side of an atom, giving that side a very small negative charge. This may cause an attraction to a slightly positively charged atom nearby, creating a very weak bond. At most temperatures, thermal energy overwhelms the effects of Van der Waals bonds. Secondary bonds like Hydrogen bond, Van der Waal’s bond, and induced dipole bonds are weaker than primary bonds. Learning outcome •

The bond formation in the molecules and atoms.

•

The various types of bonds that exist in nature

•

What are the criteria for various bond formations.

•

Why a particular bond formation takes place between two atoms or two molecules.

Semiconductors Semiconductors are materials, which have conductivity between conductors (generally metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as most ceramics). Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. In a process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure semiconductors causing large changes in the conductivity of the material. Several elements are semiconductors, the most important being silicon. Semiconductors have special electronic properties, which allow them to be insulating or conducting depending on their composition. Semiconductors also have special optical properties when exposed to electricity or light.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER STRESS – It is the ratio of applied load to the cross sectional area of an element in tension and is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Stress = L/A COMPRESSIVE STRESS – It is the stress state when the material tends to compact. TENSILE STRESS – It is a loading that tends to produce stretching on a material by the application of axially directed pulling force. 33

SHEAR STRESS – It is caused when a force is applied to produce a sliding failure of a material along a plane that is parallel to the direction of the applied force. STRAIN – it is a measure of the deformation of the material that is dimensionless Strain = change in length/original length

YOUNGS MODULUS OF ELASTICITY – E = stress / strain TENSILE STRENGTH – It is the maximum stress that a material withstands when subjected to an applied load. Ts = ultimate load / cross sectional area ELASTICITY – It is the linear response of materials in terms of stress as described by Hooks’ law. Elasticity describes the state where the work offered by the application of external agents, is stored in the material in the form of the elastic energy and it is recovered in form of displacement when external agents are removed. PLASTICITY – It is the non-linear response of materials in terms of stress. When the agents are removed, permanent deformation remains. ELASTIC LIMIT – It is the point in the stress strain curve beyond which the material permanently deforms after removing the load. YIELD STRENGTH – It is the point where material exceeds the elastic limit and will not return to its original shape or length if the stress is removed. BENDING STRESS- When bending a piece of metal, one surface of the material stretches in tension while the opposite surface compresses. It follows that there is a line or region of zero stress between the two surfaces called the neutral axis. YIELDING – It occurs when the design strength exceeds the material yield strength. Design stress is maximum surface stress. FRACTURE – It is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an imposed stress that is static. •

Ductile fracture –Exhibits plastic deformation with high-energy absorption before fracture.

•

Brittle fracture – Exhibits little or no plastic deformation.

FATIGUE – It is a form of failure, normally occurs after a lengthy period of repeated stress. DUCTILITY – It is the measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. 34

RESILIENCE – It is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. TOUGHNESS – It is the measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy upto fracture. HARDNESS – it is the measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation.

THERMAL PROPERTIES THERMAL SHOCK – Rapid cooling of a body after it is heated leads to propagation of cracks and flaws on the surface. THERMAL STRESS – It is the stress induced in the body as a result of the change in temperature. PHONON – It is a single quantum of vibrational energy. LEARNING OUTCOME •

Properties of various materials so as to sort out the applications of the materials in the various fields.

•

How substances respond to the stress and strain and how the plasticity of materials vary.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES A FERRIMAGNETIC material is one in which the magnetic moment of the atoms on different sublattices oppose as in antiferromagnet but the opposing momentum are unequal and a spontaneous magnetization remains. FERROMAGNETISM is a phenomenon by which a material can exhibit a spontaneous magnetization, and is one of the strongest forms of magnetism. It is responsible for most of the magnetic behaiviour encountered in our daily life, and is the basis for all permanent magnets. Learning outcome •

How semiconductors and superconductors conduct electricity and under what conditions.

•

How does the magnetic behaiviour of substances varies with atomic configurations.

35

FACULTY: Mr. Abid Bilal

36

Geometry Geometry, more a subject for engineers, is also a part of our 1st semester syllabus. In this, we learnt the application of different types of geometrical shapes and their construction. Today, almost all the printed shirts, T-shirts have geometric pattern in the form of checks, Parallel lines, dots, etc. Therefore, geometry and fashion are closely linked. We learnt the different ways by which we can draw parallel lines, dividing lines , making angles, etc. so that we can use them efficiently in design, pattern making etc.

Drawing Parallel Lines

Dividing Lines

Making Angles

30o

1050

600

1200

900

1800

37

Knowing the importance of parallel lines in the pattern making as well as in design and other equipments, it is important for us to have a command in making parallel lines using optical view.

Drawing Parallel Lines with visual spacing

Drawing Parallel Lines at an angle with visual spacing

Sheet Format The standard pattern of sheet used in NIFT to have uniformity among students.

This session deals with Arcs and Lines how to draw using compass and optical view. The main purpose is to become familiar with engineering instruments and tools.

Drawing of Ellipse Ellipse is a curve generated by a point moving so that any position the sum of its distances from two fixed points (foci) is a constant (equal to the major diameter). It is encountered very frequently in drawing when holes and circular forms are viewed obliquely. a) Loop Thread Method – Attach a string to two pins, click them to the board at two points and make curve using full stretched string to get an ellipse.

38

b)Trammel Method -

Make major axis and minor axis, make trammel of ½ 0f

major axis with marking minor axis from one end, keeping this trammel as X/Y axis, make the other end of the trammel as E, make several points, join them, the curve is the Ellipse.

c)Parallelogram Method: Make a parallelogram ABCD, join the mid points of AB & CD and similarly of AD & BC, divide DA,CB,NO into 8 parts,in LS,LT & TU, join M to W ,similarly MX,MY, join L,W,X,Y,O with free hand , similarly complete the other parts to get the ellipse. d)Rectangle Method: Same as parallelogram method.

e) Circle Method: Make two concentric circles and draw a radius to outer circle OA, draw a perpendicular from A to OM, join S to P, similarly make other points by drawing radius and dropping perpendiculars, join the points to get the ellipse.

39

f) Rhombus Method: Make a rhombus ADBC, bisect its side at M and M’ join BM’ and CM taking O’M’ as radius make arc M’M, similarly arc ML is made, using OM as the radius make arc LM’ taking BM’ as radius and D as center, similarly make arc MM’ using CM as radius and C as center, now LM’NM is the ellipse

Making polygons a) a triangle

b) a square

c) Pentagon and onwards: make a semicircle with A as center and AB as radius, cut it at 5,6,7… points to make a pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, Respectively. Join these points from A, cut the arc from B with length equal to AB, now join ABCEF to get a pentagon, repeat to get other polygons

Pentagon

Hexagon

Octagon

d) universal method: make line AB, make perpendicular bisector CN, make circle at B with AB radius, line BD made equal to AB, let AD meet CN at B4, and arc of 40

circle at B6, taking B4 as center make circle of radius B4A, cut the circle with compass length of AB, join A,B,D,S and get a square, taking B6 as center and B6A as radius construct a circle, cut this circle with AB as length of compass and construct a pentagon, similarly taking B7,B8,B9 as center we get hexagon, heptagon, octagon ….

Proportions The proportions are used in different architectural structure.

For example, the

golden ratio is used in the ancient structure of Egypt. There are certain proportions which are of utmost importance and which can be useful in interiors. √2 proportionate square: a) Make square OABC, taking OB as radius make arc to cut F and D,E, ODEF is the new square, similarly make other root two proportionate squares b) make square ABCD, taking DC as radius and C as center make arc, elongate CD and DF to the circle at FE, DEBF is the new square, similarly make other squares Proportionate rectangle: Make square of side AB, make other square adjacent to it, join diagonal AE, make arc with A as center and AE as radius, make perpendicular on GE to make other figures AGMD. Golden Ratio, {√ 5+1} /2 construction: Construct a square ABCD, make other square BHGD, make arc with A as center and AG as radius, join NO to make other square of side NIOJ, bisect AJ at E Golden Ratio: make rectangle ABEC, make square of side AC, ABDC, make arc DM of radius DE to make other square DENO, similarly make square, this is the golden ratio rule √ 3 proportion: make a circle center 1, make circle of radius 12 and center 2, join 3, 2 and A, cut arc from 6 at N,O, and from 7 at Q,P, NOPQ has sides in ratio 1: √3 1:√3; √3:2√3;…..: make two circles at 1 and 2, make two more circles with radius 36 and centers 3,4, similarly make two more circles at 6 & 5 with 56 as radius. This method is VESICA PISCES in which 1,2:3,4 is 1:√3 , similarly 5,6:9,10 is √3:2√3. Proportional Pentagon: Make a square ABCD and other square DCEF, draw diagonal and mark G, make arc AF with GF as radius and G as center, make circle

41

with G as center and GF as radius, make arc with F as center and FN as radius to meet other circle at H, FH is the side of a pentagon, make other sides of pentagon TSFIH. Make continuous diminishing Pentagon : Make a square on top of another square ABCD, make circle with D as center and DF as radius, make arc at G, radius GF to meet DG produced at H, make arc at F with FH radius to cut circle AI and J taking same compass length in circle, to cut circle to form a pentagon, make all diagonals of the pentagon as MN, produce MN to meet FJ produced at O, join IJ to meet FL at P, join and produce PN to meet KL produced at Q, figure NJOQK is the next pentagon, similarly other pentagons can be constructed following the above process, Other pentagons are OSTQ, SOUTW, UXYVH, XZC’YI’.

Tessellations The word "tessellate" is derived from the Ionic version of the Greek word "tesseres," which in English means "four." The first tilings were made from square tiles. Another theory says that, it comes to us from the Latin tessela, which was the small, square stone, or tile used in ancient Roman mosaics. Tessellation – a design that completely covers a surface with a pattern of figures with no gaps and no overlapping. Tilings and mosaics are common synonyms for tessellations. Much like a Roman mosaic, a plane tessellation is a pattern made up of one or more figures, completely covering a surface without any gaps or overlaps. Both two-dimensional and three-dimensional figures will tessellate. Two-dimensional figures may tessellate a plane surface, while three-dimensional figures may tessellate space. A regular polygon has 3 or 4 or 5 or more sides and angles, all equal. A regular tessellation means a tessellation made up of congruent regular polygons. [Remember: Regular means that the sides of the polygon are all the same length. Congruent means that the polygons that you put together are all the same size and shape.] Only three regular polygons tessellate in the Euclidean plane: triangles, squares or hexagons

A tessellation of triangles

42

A tessellation of squares

A tessellation of hexagons

When you look at these three samples you can easily notice that the squares are lined up with each other while the triangles and hexagons are not. Also, if you look at 6 triangles at a time, they form a hexagon, so the tiling of triangles and the tiling of hexagons are similar and they cannot be formed by directly lining shapes up under each other - a slide (or a glide!) is involved. Since the regular polygons in a tessellation must fill the plane at each vertex, the interior angle must be an exact divisor of 360 degrees. This works for the triangle, square, and hexagon, and you can show working tessellations for these figures. For all the others, the interior angles are not exact divisors of 360 degrees, and therefore those figures cannot tile the plane. Tessellations by Translation 1)

Make a square. Sketch a figure extending into the square from one side. Cut

out that figure from the one side of the square and slide it across to the other side. Trace it as shown. 2)

Sketch a figure extending into the square from the top. Cut out that figure

from the top of the square and slide it down to the bottom. Trace it as shown. 3)

Cut out the other side and the bottom of the square along the figures traced.

This is the pattern which can tessellate. 4)

Trace the pattern repeatedly, translating it as shown to form a tessellation.

43

Tessellations by Rotation 1)

Make a square. Sketch a figure extending into the square from one side. Cut

out that figure from the one side of the square and rotate it across to the other side. Trace it as shown. 2)

Cut out the figure traced and the other sides of the square. This is the pattern

which can tessellate. 3)

Trace the pattern repeatedly, translating it as shown to form a tessellation.

44

Learning outcomes The basic purpose of learning all these geometric constructions is to develop a designer’s attitude as well as to become familiar with different kind of geometrical shapes

all

around.

45

FACULTY: Mrs. BHAVANA K. VERMA

46

Business Communication What actually is business communication? Process by which information is transmitted between individuals or organizations or Exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions by 2 or more persons. Generally, people retain – 10% of what they read , 20 % of what they hear , 30% of what they see, 50% of what they see and hear, 70% of what they say, 90% of what they say and do. Importance of Good Communication Skills Enables you to interact effectively with others and get work done efficiently;Advance you socially (Useful Contacts); Builds Self Confidence, Enables you to help and lead others;Form a link in the organization’s information chain Ability to receive, evaluate, use and pass on information gathered from inside and outside the organization effects your company’s effectiveness. Basic forms of Communication There are two basic forms of communication : Non Verbal Communication and Verbal Communication .

Non Verbal includes : gestures, expressions, vocal

qualities, spatial relationships, attitude towards time that allows coomunication without words. Verbal includes : speaking , writing, listening. Nonverbal Communication Less structured which makes it difficult to study, Vocabulary and gestures cannot be mastered, happen unconsciously sometimes. Eg: gestures.Important for conveying feelings, body language, facial expressions and vocal characteristics are not easy to control, nonverbal sign is often used to detect or affirm a speakers honesty, efficient from both sender’s and receiver’s standpoint Verbal Communication Words arranged in meaningful patterns according to the rules of Grammar Message composed is transmitted in Speaking and Writing, Listening

47

Business Communication Process Sender

Message Channels

(encoder)

(Verbal & Nonverbal)

Receiver (decoder)

Feedback Verbal & Non Verbal Sender : Starts the communication and encodes the message. Message: Information being transmitted. Includes both verbal and nonverbal data Channel: Means used to convey the message, Verbal , Nonverbal Communication Channels Organization External

Internal Formal

Downward

Informal

Upward Vertical Horizontal Grapevine

Single Gossip Random Cluster

Internal Communication: Communication within the Organization between Managers, employees and others Formal Communication: Communication Flows through formally established channel, Downward, Upward Vertical and Horizontal Communication Downward Communication: Communication flow from Superior to Subordinate. To provide job Direction. Explain Policies and Procedures. Performance appraisal. Delay, Loss of Information, Over Communication, Distortion. Upward Communication: Communication following Lower to Higher Officials, To provide feedback and release emotions of subordinate staff, Provide superior with 48

useful suggestions . Promotes harmony, Employee don’t express due to Fear. Superior feel insulted. Distortion. Vertical Communication: Communication in both Upward and Downward directions, Free flow of thoughts and ideas, Establish a good relationship in the organization, Eradicate fear factor. Horizontal Communication: Known as Lateral Communication, Communication between Departments or People on the same level of managerial hierarchy Informal Communication: Also known as Grapevine Communication, Primarily a channel of Horizontal Communication, but it can flow Vertically and Diagonally Types : Single Strand -flows like a chain ,Gossip- a person talks to the rest, Probabilitytalk from anybody to anybody, Cluster- moves through selected groups How to use it effectively? check the rumor mongers, use it for feedback. Contradict rumor properly. External

Communication:

Communication

with

external

Agencies

both

Government and Private. Essential feature of all modern business Receiver: Individual to whom the message is directed. His knowledge, receptivity etc. decides his understanding of the message. Feedback: Receiver’s response to a message, Can take verbal and nonverbal forms, Designed to obtain more information. Business Communication Goals: Receiver Understanding, response, favorable Relationship, Organizational Goodwill Communication Barriers: Problems caused by the sender, in message transmission, in reception, receiver’s comprehension & perception Problems caused by the sender: Lack of the amount of information about the subject of the message, over explaining the message, Indecision in selection of information, improper presentation. Problems in Message Transmission: Number of people involved, transmission of unclear messages Problems in Reception: Physical, Physiological, Psychological noise Problems in Receivers Comprehension: May not understand some of the words being used, Usage of technical terms, Involvement of personal interests Dealing with Communication Barriers: Know your subject and audience, Focus on the purpose, Be organized 49

Principles of Human Communication It deals with study and practice of 1.

Interpersonal skills

2.

Presentation Skills

3.

Group communication

Learning outcomes and information from this chapter are listed below: Interpersonal skills •

It is often referred to as people skills, which determines the quality of a

person’s relationship. •

Interpersonal skills includes the techniques of how to build positive

relationship, how to praise other, how to deal with criticism and conflicts. •

Managing and resolving conflicts, taking constructive criticism, giving praise

are all skills, which can help the business to grow better. Presentation Skills •

Presentations or speeches, at formal occasions and in meetings of a group of

people come in four types: read, memorized, extemporaneous and impromptu. All require due preparation . •

There are four parts of presentation-introduction, body, conclusion, and

questions. •

There are ten common mistakes that should be avoided during a

presentation. They are as follows: #1 Accepting an inappropriate invitation #2 Neglecting to research the audience #3 Procrastinating, then punting #4 Getting a late start #5 Assuming all the projectors are the same #6 Failing to heed Murphy’s law #7 Backing up to the wrong media #8 Telling Tasteless or offensive jokes #9 Relying on the World Wide Web live web connection #10 Having too little say

50

• PowerPoint presentation should be given with extra care. Certain tips are as follows: #1

Always

use

a

title

slide

.Put

it

up

about

5

minutes

before

the

presentation begins #2 Look of slide should be consistent #3 Background and text should have high contrast #4 Complimentary colours should be used together #5 Red colour should be used judiciously #6 Text shouldn’t be in more than two colours #7 Limit the bullets to three or four items. #8 Slide shouldn’t have more than 24 words on any one slide #9 Abbreviations, acronyms and special phrases should be explained quickly to gain audience #10 Don’t use more than two or three fonts per slide Techniques of Cross-cultural Communication Why is communicating across cultures important to business? business has become more global, Understanding customers’ needs, improves productivity and creates a comfortable workplace, enriches your personal life. Problems of Cultural Differences: Body positions and movement, practices related to human relationships, different business communication techniques Body Positions and Movement: Body Parts, Gestures, Eye Contact, Touching and Handshaking Attitudes Toward Factors of

Time

Human Relationships: Space, Odors,

Frankness, Intimacy of Relationships, Values, Expression of Emotions Problems of Language: Lack of language equivalency, Difficulties in using English, Multiple meanings of words, no need for the word, no equivalent grammatical form, avoid Culturally Derived Words Suggestions for Communicating Across Cultures Successfully: Talk or write simple, question carefully, Avoid double, yes/no, negative questions, use continuous confirmation, use back translating, use technology

Oral Expression 51

Informal Talking, conducting and Participating in Meetings, dictating Letters and Reports, Listening, Nonverbal Communication Elements of Good Talking: Voice Quality, talking style, word choice and vocabulary, central role of adaptation Voice Quality: It is pitch and resonance of vocal sounds Talking Style: It is the blending of pitch, speed, and volume. Word Choice: Choose words in your listener’s vocabulary. Simplifying with short and familiar words, appropriate use of technical words and acronyms Adaptation: The preceding suggestion applied to the whole message. Courtesy in Talking: Don’t dominate others. Techniques for Conducting Meetings: Plan the meeting, follow the plan, move discussion along, control those who talk too much, encourage participation from those who talk too little, control time, summarize at appropriate places Techniques for Participating in Meetings: Follow the agenda, Participate, Do not talk too much, Cooperate, Be courteous Using the Telephone: Many of us have bad techniques. Bad voice quality, inconsiderate Techniques of Telephone Courtesy: When calling: introduce yourself and ask for person you want, explain purpose of call if unsure of person to contact When answering: identify company/office and offer to help, answer thoughtfully Effective Voice Mail Techniques: Speak clearly and distinctly, Identify yourself by name and affiliation, Give overview of message, Continue with details, Speak slowly with callback information Techniques of Dictating: Gather facts, Plan message, Give preliminary information and instructions, Make the words flow, Speak in a strong, clear voice, Give paragraphing and other mechanics as needed, Avoid asides, Read back intelligently Listening: The receiving end of communication. Causes more problems than sending end. It involves Sensing, Filtering, Remembering The Ten Commandments of Listening: Stop talking, Put talker at ease, Show talker you want to listen, Remove distractions, Empathize with talker, Be patient, Hold your temper, Ask questions, Stop talking, Go easy on argument and criticism.

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Group Communication Groups form to accomplish some objective, may be complete some task or to strengthen interpersonal relationships between the group members, Types: Social and Work groups Roles People Play in Groups Self-oriented roles: Controlling, Withdrawing, Attention Seeking, Diverting Group Maintenance roles: Encouraging, Harmonizing, Compromising Task-Facilitating roles: Initiating, Information giving, Coordinating, Procedure setting Factors in Group Communication: Size, Longevity, Leadership, Perception and Self-concept, Status Group Decision Making: There are four stages in group problem solving: The Orientation , The Conflict, The Emergence, The Reinforcement Stage Group Decision Making - Approaches Reflective Thinking :Problem Identification, Problem Analysis, Criteria Selection, Solution Generation, Solution Evaluation and Selection, Solution Implementation Brainstorming: used to arrive at decision, Members are encouraged to generate as many ideas about a topic as they can, Every idea is recorded and no idea is rejected in the initial stage, The group then returns to the ideas and adopts those that seem most feasible or most useful Nominal Group Technique: Used when the group must rank a set of options, Members individually list all options that can be considered, Facilitator then asks each member to rank all the options from the lowest to the highest priority The Final Decision: consensus, Compromise, Majority Vote, Decision by Leader, Arbitration (decision made by an external body) Effective Meetings The Planning Process:Why meeting? What type of meeting? Who is to participate? Where and when should the meeting be held? Notice: Be issued by a proper authority, Observe a minimum period of notice, State where and when the meeting is to be held, Be accompanied by an agenda, Be sent to all individuals entitled to receive it Agenda: Notice should be accompanied by the Agenda, It is the list of topics to be covered, Topics should not be vague but specific, List of topics should not be long Formal meeting Agenda includes the following: 53

Welcome/Introduction, Apologies for absence, Minutes of the last meeting, Matters arising from the minutes, First Main Item, Second Main Item, any other Business, date of next meeting Minutes: Is a brief of the business transacted in the pervious meeting circulated with the agenda. Checklist for Meetings Preparation: Determine the meeting’s objectives, Work out on Agenda that will achieve your objectives, Select participants, Determine location and reserve a room, Arrange for refreshments, if appropriate, Determine whether lighting, ventilation, acoustics, and temperature of the room are adequate, Determine seating needs: chairs only or table and chairs Conduct: Begin and end the meeting on time, Control the meeting by following the announced agenda, Encourage full participation, and either confront or ignore those who seem to be working at cross purposes with the group, Sum up the decisions, actions, and recommendations as you move through the agenda, and restate the main points at the end. Follow-Up: Distribute the meeting’s notes or minutes on a timely basis Take the follow-up action agreed to Speech Purpose - General To inform, To persuade, To entertain Informative: Increase receiver’s knowledge and understanding of subject, Use of amusing or dramatic illustrations to entertain the audience thus holding their attention Persuasive: Induce the audience to think, feel or act in a manner selected by the speaker Entertainment: Presenter wants people to have an enjoyable time, Speaker is not concerned with ensuring that the audience learn a great deal or they change their mind from one direction to another Specific: Describes the exact nature of response you want from your audience It should contain only one central idea, be clear and concise Methods of Speaking: There are four fundamental ways of presenting a speech:

54

Reading from a manuscript, Speaking from Memory, Impromptu Delivery, Extemporaneous Delivery Analyzing the Audience: The age, sex, occupation, intelligence of your listeners, The social, professional and religious groups your listener belongs to, The influence of geographical experiences Nonverbal Communication It is the communication that occurs without words, used to reinforce our words. Types of nonverbal communication: Body language: gesture, posture, eye movements, clothes Space: Intimate (contact to 18 inches), Personal (18 inches to 4 feet), Social (4 to 12 feet), Public (12 feet to range of sight) Time: Punctuality, orderly activities vary in importance by culture. Paralanguage: It is how the words are delivered. It is the speed, pitch, emphasis, volume, and such that we give the words. Learning outcome: Communication is one of the best tools that one has to make connection with others. Of course this helps him in his business too. One can really excel if he knows the elements of communication as he can understand his employees, customers or his superiors well. It also reduces the time span of his job. Work qua;ity betters. This subject feeds us with all the important and required-atworkplace techniques that are very essential to become a skilled professional. More so, one also enriches his life and knowledge by effective communication. Thus business communication is one of the vital organs of the global business today that adds more and more competitiveness in it.

55

FACULTY: Mr. SUHAIL ANWAR

56

Computer Applications Computer: It is an electronic device. It performs calculations and many other operations at very high speed. It processes raw data to convert it into relevant and useful information. Characteristics of a computer: ™ Speed and accuracy ™ Reliability and versatility ™ Low maintenance cost However there are some drawbacks of using a computer as well ™ It is not intelligent and requires manual programming ™ Improper functioning due to any small error in programming ™ Viruses ™ hackers Different types of computer systems are available nowadays in the market to suit the varying needs of people and businesses. On the basis of their working computers may be classified into two categories. ™ Analog computers ™ Digital computers On the basis of their use and scale of operation they may be classified into the following categories: ™ PC - The personal computer o Desktop o Laptop ™ Palmtop ™ Workstation ™ Server ™ Mainframe ™ Minicomputer ™ Supercomputer ™ Wearable

57

Hardware:

NETWORK INPUT

CPU

OUTPUT

MEMORY

Input devices Input devices function to enter commands or data into the computer. E.g. keyboard, mouse, joysticks and trackballs various sensors that enable monitoring of pressure, temperature, or gas concentration. PDAs and handheld computers also use touchscreens and stylus pens. CPU: At the heart of the modern computer is the microprocessor. A microprocessor is built onto a single tiny piece of silicon and fitted into a plastic package as small as two square centimeters. The most important part of a microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU), which consists of a number of electrical circuits. The CPU coordinates all of the computer's activities Directly attached to the CPU is the computer's main memory. The memory is the computer's method of storing data. The computer memory is divided into two categories: random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM). A coprocessor is a piece of hardware that can be added to a computer to speed up its functions. Output Devices Output devices convey information from the computer to the user. These devices include the familiar video display terminal (also called a cathode ray tube or CRT), plotter, and printer. Software: It is the set of instructions and commands given by the user and programmer according to which the computer operates and the data is manipulated. Software is classified based on the job it does.

58

System software is the software that readies a computer system for use and is the platform on which all other software and programs are executed. It consists of the operating system and utilities. ™ Operating system is the software through which the user controls the computer and on which all other applications are installed. It forms an interface between the computer and the user. These are of two types: o

Character user interface includes DOS and UNIX.

o Graphic user interface includes Windows and Linux. ™ Utilities are the components of the operating system or other software which ensure the proper working of the computer, help in securing the system against viruses, assist in system maintenance tasks and provide a basic level of functionality. These include the antivirus and disk maintenance packages. Application software consists of the programs which the user needs for his specific tasks and requirements. These are different packages which cater to the needs of different users like animation, designing, architecture, accounting etc. It includes recreational software like games and media players. Windows operating system It is a graphic user interface operating system that includes a cui DOS interface too. It consists of windows desktop, windows, start menu, taskbar, Recycle Bin, Windows explorer, Accessories, notepad, wordpad, Paint, System tools, Control Panel. Control Panel is full of specialized tools that are used to change the way Windows looks and behaves like display properties, add – remove hardware, add – remove programs, regional settings, Modem, Printer, Multimedia etc. Sharing of resources and peripherals and data is also possible over a windows network. Basic utilities are the programs that are required to maintain a basic level of functionality on any computer system and are sometimes a prerequisite for other programs to run successfully. Burning or writing of CDs is done through the writer which is programmed through software like the Adaptec easy cd writer and the Nero cd burning rom.

59

WinZip enables files to be compressed to a fraction of their original size and then be extracted back. It also protects the zipped file if the password option is enabled. Internet is a worldwide network of computers. If one has access to the Internet, he can retrieve information from millions of sources, including schools, governments, businesses, and individuals. World Wide Web is a system for exploring the Internet by using hyperlinks. When we use a Web browser, the Web appears as a collection of text, pictures, sounds, and digital movies. Browser is a software that interprets the markup of files in HTML, formats them into Web pages, and displays them to the end user. Some browsers also permit end users to send and receive e-mail, read newsgroups, and play sound or video files embedded in Web documents. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a member of the TCP/IP suite of protocols, used to copy files between two computers on the Internet. Both computers must support their respective FTP roles: one must be an FTP client and the other an FTP server. Remote access is a part of the integrated Routing and Remote Access service that provides remote networking for telecommuters, mobile workers, and system administrators who monitor and manage servers at multiple branch offices. Users with a computer running Windows and Network Connections can dial in to remotely access their networks for services such as file and printer sharing, electronic mail, scheduling, and SQL database access. Email is a free or paid service provided by some websites that allows users to send text messages and files to other users over the internet which is accessed by the latter whenever they login, although the messages are delivered instantly. Search engines are websites which operate a service that allows users to enter a word or a string and returns the names and brief description of the websites which are relevant to the user. Some search engines today also allow the user to search for files over the internet. Online shopping is a service offered by some websites through which the user can purchase the things and services he requires over the internet and the products are subsequently delivered to his residence. The payment is generally made through credit cards or online bank transfers. The transaction data is encrypted before sending in order to protect it.

60

MS OFFICE MS WORD: It is the word processing software which is a part of the MS office package. It allows creation and modification of documents and other advanced features like mail merge, embedding, hyperlinking etc. It is based on an easy to use windowed interface. The files created may be merged with other office documents too. MS Word environment ™ The easiest way to create and modify documents is through the different wizards that are available ™ The document may be viewed in different forms depending on the choice of the user. ™ Search and replace option finds the specified text in the document and replaces it with the given text. ™ Borders and shading: Borders, shading, and graphic fills can add interest and emphasis to various parts of the document. One can add borders to pages, text, tables and table cells, graphic objects, pictures, and Web frames. ™ Style: A style is a set of formatting characteristics that the user can apply to text, tables, and lists in the document. ™ Columns: The user can lay out text or a story in newsletters, brochures, and flyers by creating newsletter-style columns or linked text boxes. ™ The user can check spelling and grammar automatically as he types or all at once. He can also use the thesaurus to check synonyms. ™ Word also allows the user to create tables in the document which facilitate presentation of data. ™ The user can also enhance the visual appeal of the document by adding pictures, images, diagrams, clipart etc. ™ The mail merge is a powerful feature which allows the user to merge the given specific letter or mail with different addresses from the address book. It is also used to generate envelopes.

61

MS EXCEL: It is a part of MS Office which allows the users to create and work on spreadsheets. It is used for tasks like technical calculations, payroll, statistics, data analysis etc. it also has features that allow the user to create graphical representation of data. The three main components of excel are the spreadsheet component, database component and the chart component. ™ A worksheet is a highly interactive program that consists of a collection of rows and columns. The intersection of a row and a column is called a cell. A cell may hold a number, a text string or a formula. These formulas recalculate their results if any change is made to the contents of the related cells. ™ A collection of spreadsheets is called a workbook. ™ The users can navigate through the worksheet using Lotus keystrokes. ™ Wizards offer the easiest ways of creating charts, functions and other functions. ™ The fill handle allows data to be entered in a series. ™ After entering data the formatting feature allows the data to fit together. The formatting features make the workbook visually aesthetic and allow for faster interpretation of data. ™ It is also possible to add graphics to a workbook. ™ It is possible to print the whole workbook as well as a particular range to be printed. ™ The paste special allows objects to be pasted onto the workbook in different formats. ™ Worksheets also allow different functions like hiding of rows, columns or cells and freezing. ™ Like the cells, worksheets too may be pasted or copied. ™ Formulas are an important part of excel and are defined using absolute, relative or mixed referencing. ™ Excel offers a number of mathematical, logical, financial and statistical functions and also the option for the user to create his own functions. ™ It also offers a wide variety of charts and graphs. ™ Like word excel also allows the embedding and linking of other files.

62

MS PowerPoint: It is the software part of MS Office which enables the user to create presentations using audio, visuals and graphic animation as well and then convey the presentation effectively. The three components of a presentation that the program handles are the slides, speaker’s notes, and the handouts. ™ Powerpoint allows the user the ease of creating his presentation by just entering data and using the templates that it already offers. ™ It also allows the user to add to the already existing templates by saving the templates of his own presentation. ™ It also allows the user multiple views of the presentation which have different features. ™ Clipart and other pictures may also be inserted into the slides for increasing the effect that the presentation has on the audience. ™ Sounds and audio effects can also be made to accompany the slides for the same purpose. ™ The autoshapes feature allows easy drawing of figures on the slides of the presentation. ™ Another very effective and useful feature is the program’s ability to import charts and graphs from MS Excel. This adds to the visual element of the presentation and when combined with a good speaker’s arguments has a lot of influence on the audience. ™ The software also allows the user to rehearse and time the shows and add animation and transitional effects to make the presentation more lively.

CorelDRAW: CorelDRAW is a comprehensive vector-based drawing program that makes it easy to create professional artwork from simple logos to intricate technical illustrations. CorelDRAW provides tolls and effects that you work efficiently to produce highquality graphics. 63

™ Basic objects can be drawn using the rectangle, ellipse etc tools. ™ Dimensions of a object can be altered using the status bar. ™ Artistic media tool is a powerful tool to apply different effects to a line some of its modes are: object sprayer, calligraphic etc ™ The grid tools lets you draw a grid pattern with which you can align all the objects to the grid. ™ With CorelDraw you can also arrange and organize objects using tools like grouping, combining and copying objects. ™ Tools like rotate, size, skew, and mirror helps you transform an object or group. ™ An objects fill and outline can also be changed using the Fill and Outline flyout tools.

Learning outcome: In this subject we learnt about the fundamentals of computer, hardware, software, component, etc. Also MSWord, MSExcel and MSPowerpoint, that are very helpful to us, have been taught. Needless to say that computers have entered almost all the sectors of human business and activities. The field of fashion is no exception. The application type varies from individual to individual. One with a basic knowledge of computers can serve his business in a better way and can also acquire a bulk of knowledge for himself.

64

FACULTY: Mr.BALBIR SINGH

65

Elements of Design The elements are: ™

Point

™

Line

™

Form, shape and space

™

Movement

™

Color

™

Pattern

™

Texture

Point if there is only one point, one mark on a blank page there is something built into the brain that wills meaning for it, and seeks some kind of relationship or order, if only to use it as a point of orientation in relation to the outline of the page. If there are two points, immediately the eye will make a connection and "see" a line. If there are three points, it is unavoidable to interpret them as a triangle; the mind supplies the connections. This compulsion to connect parts is described as grouping, or gestalt.

Gestalt is the fundamental tool the designer or artist uses to build a coherent composition. The example of a student self-portrait seen on the left demonstrates how images may be built from points, with the variations in density producing the illusion of form.

The involuntary

will-to-order that we impose on a collection of points

can be clearly

seen when we examine the series of faces

presented

on

the right (to see the distortions properly, you will

need to click on

this small image to bring up the larger version). At

what stage do the apparently random points of value become identifiable as a face? At what point do they become a specific face?

66

LINE A line is a form with width and length, but no depth. Artists use lines to create edges, the outlines of objects. A line is created by the movement of the artist's pen.

Line Direction The direction of a line can convey mood. Horizontal lines are calm and quiet Vertical lines suggest more of a potential for movement,

While diagonal lines strongly suggest movement and give more of a feeling of vitality

to a picture Line as Value Lines or crosshatching can also be used to create areas of grey inside a drawing.

67

These areas of darker shading inside a figure, called areas of value, can give a more three-dimensional feeling to an object. SHAPE A shape is an enclosed object. Shapes can be created by line, or by color and value changes which define their edges. Volume and Mass Shape is considered to be a two-dimensional element, while three-dimensional elements have volume or mass. Therefore, a painting has shapes, while a sculpture has volume and mass. Positive/Negative shapes In a picture, the shapes that the artist has placed are considered the positive shapes. The spaces around the shapes are the negative spaces. It is just as important to consider the negative space in a picture as the positive shapes. Sometimes artists create pieces that have no distinction between positive and negative spaces. M. C. Escher was a master at creating drawings where there was no distinction between positive and negative space. SPACE Illusion of Space and Depth We live in a three-dimensional world of depth. When we look around us, some things seem closer, some further away. The artist can also show the illusion of depth by using the following means: •

Size & Vertical Location

•

Overlapping

•

Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective)

•

Linear Perspective

Size & Vertical Location Since objects in our environment look smaller when they are farther away, the easiest way to show depth is to vary the size, with closer objects being larger and more distant objects being smaller. As well, we perceive objects that are higher on the page and smaller as being further away than objects which are in the forefront

68

.Overlapping When objects are partially obscured by other objects in front of them, we perceive them

as

further

back

than

the

covering

objects.

We do not see them as incomplete forms, just further back. Detail (Aerial or Atmospheric Perspective) Atmospheric perspective uses color and value contrasts to show depth. Objects which are further away generally have less distinct contrast - they may fade into the background or become indistinct dark areas. The foreground objects will be clear with sharper contrast.

69

Linear Perspective (Converging Lines) Linear perspective is based on the idea that all lines will converge on a common point on the horizon called the vanishing point. We have observed linear perspective when we notice that the lines on the highway appear to meet at a point in the distance. Artists use linear perspective to create a focal point for a picture. Any walls, ceilings, floors or other objects with lines will appear to come together at the horizon line. These lines converging lead our eyes towards that point. Often, the most important object or person in the picture will be located at that point. One can see in the drawing below how all the lines in the drawing seem to lead our eye toward the church in the center back of the drawing. Other types of perspective, such as two-point or multipoint perspective are also used. Architects to show a more three-dimensional view of a building often use two-

point perspective, which occurs when we display a building from a corner view, as opposed to a front view. TEXTURE Texture is the surface quality of an object. We experience texture when we touch objects and feel their roughness, smoothness or patterns. Texture is the artist's way of mapping these tactile impressions on to the two-dimensional picture. Texture is created by varying the pattern of light and dark areas on an object. The areas of light and dark give the impression of depth to the image below.

70

MOVEMENT Optical Movement In optical movement, the eye is forced to move around the picture dynamically in order to see all the different elements. Optical movement can be enhanced by curved forms that keep our eyes moving in a circular pattern throughout the picture.

Optical Illusions Certain optical illusions based on the repetition of geometric forms will cause your eye to produce motion where none is present. This picture really seems to move.

Rhythm and Movement Rhythm refers to the way your eye moves throughout a picture. Some pictures move you throughout in a connected, flowing way much like a slow, stately rhythm in music. Other pictures move you from one place to another in an abrupt, dynamic way much like a fast, staccato rhythm in music will give you the impression of movement. Rhythm in art is created by the repetition of elements. Similarity of elements, or flowing, circular elements will give a more connected flowing rhythm to a picture, while jagged, or unrelated elements will create a more unsettling, dynamic picture. 71

COLOR AND VALUE Value Value refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a certain area. Value can be used for emphasis. Variations in value are used to create a focal point for the design of a picture. A light figure on a dark background will be immediately recognized as the center of attention, similarly for a dark figure on a mostly white background. Gradations of value are also used to create the illusion of depth. Areas of light and dark can give a three-dimensional impression, such as when shading areas of a person's face.

Color Color occurs when light in different wavelengths strikes our eyes. Objects have no color of their own, only the ability to reflect a certain wavelength of light back to our eyes. As we know, color can vary in differing circumstances. For example, grass can appear gray in the morning or evening or bright green at noon. Colors appear different depending on whether they are viewed under incandescent, florescent or natural sunlight. Colors also change according to their surroundings. This is easily seen by looking at the color squares below - the reddish outline box is the same color in all the examples.

72

Properties of Color Hue Hue refers to the color itself. Each different hue is a different reflected wavelength of light. White light broken in a prism has seven hues: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. White light occurs when all the wavelengths are reflected back to your eye, and black light occurs when no light is reflected to your eye. This is the physics of light.

When it comes to using color in art, things get quite messy. Looking at the color wheel above, when using color pigments, the three primary colors used are yellow, blue and red. These three colors are blended together to produce other colors, called secondary colors, such as green, orange and purple. Mix enough colors together, and you get black. Color Value Color value refers to the lightness or darkness of the hue. Adding white to a hue produces a high-value color, often called a tint. Adding black to a hue produces a low-value color, often called a shade.

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Intensity Intensity, also called chroma or saturation, refers to the brightness of a color. A color is at full intensity when not mixed with black or white - a pure hue. You can change the intensity of a color, making it duller or more neutral by adding gray to the color. You can also change the intensity of a color by adding its complement (this is the color found directly opposite on the traditional color wheel). When changing colors this way, the color produced is called a tone. When you mix complementary colors together, you produce a dull tone. However, when you put complementary colors side by side, you increase their intensity. This effect is called simultaneous contrast - each color simultaneously intensifies the visual brightness of the other color. Color and Space Certain colors have an advancing or receding quality, based on how our eye has to adjust to see them. Warm colors such as red, orange or yellow seem to come forward while cool colors such as blue and green seem to recede slightly. In the atmosphere, distant objects appear bluish and the further away an object appears, the less colorful and distinct it becomes. Artists use this to give an illusion of depth, by using more neutral and grayish colors in the background. Color Schemes Monochromatic This color scheme involves the use of only one hue. The hue can vary in value, and black or white may be added to create various shades or tints.

Analogous This color scheme involves the use of colors that are located adjacent on the color wheel. The hues may vary in value.

Complementary 74

This color scheme involves the use of colors that are located opposite on the color wheel such as red and green, yellow and purple, or orange and blue. Complementary colors produce a very exciting, dynamic pattern.

Triadic This color scheme involves the use of colors that are equally spaced on the color wheel. The primary colors of yellow, red and green could be used together in a color scheme to produce a lively result.

Color Discord While monochromatic, analogous, complementary or triadic color schemes are considered to be harmonious, there are some color schemes considered dissonant. Discordant colors are visually disturbing - we say they clash. Colors that are widely separated on the color wheel (but not complementary or triadic) are considered to be discordant. Discordant colors can be eye-catching and are often used for attentiongetting devices in advertising.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN FIGURE/GROUND SHAPE Shape, like the other design elements, is one of the visual tools used by designers. You will investigate the design elements during the second half of the semester. For now a shape is an area that is separate from other areas and/or its background. The 75

separation can be by a boundary line or a change in value/color, texture or any other difference that lets you see that the shape is different. The boundary can be an outline or a distinct edge like cut paper, a rough edge like torn paper or a soft edge like a smear of charcoal. FIGURE The part of a composition that we pay attention to is called figure. The figure is also called a positive shape. In a simple composition there may be only one figure. In a complex composition there will be several things to notice. As we look from one to another they each become figure in turn. Recognizable objects (subject matter) are easy to see as figure. In compositions without recognizable subject matter what we see as figure will depend on the abstract relationship between the visual elements. The most interesting at any moment is the figure. GROUND Everything that is not figure is ground. As attention shifts from figure to figure the ground also shifts so that an object can go from figure to ground and back. Ground is sometimes thought of as background but this is not always true. In a flat composition there is nothing behind the figure (if there was there would be the illusion of depth). The shapes are side by side. FORMAT The area that a composition takes place in is called the format. The format is defined by it's size and shape. The format's edges are generally indicated by a border or the edge of the background color. FIGURE/GROUND RELATIONSHIP The figure always defines the ground and the ground defines the figure. They are inseparable -- you can not have one without the other. If you draw the figure in a composition, you are drawing the ground at the same time

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OBVIOUS FIGURE/GROUND Design an alphabet letter that fits in a rectangular format so that it touches all four sides.

The

letter must be easily

recognized

and occupy 50% of

the space in

the format.

Only

two

colors may be used:

the

figure and one for

one

for

the ground. Any style of upper or lower case letter may be used. NEGATIVE SHAPES

One of the points of this assignment is to point out that planning the ground shapes will help make the figure shapes more interesting. The more negative shapes, the better -- up to a point. Have the parts of the letter touch or overlap each other to make more shapes. Adding or exaggerating the serifs on the letter can be an effective way to do this. SIMILARITY AND PROXIMITY Similarity and proximity are two of the four grouping concepts in classic gestalt theory (the other two are closure and simplicity). Similarity refers to what items look like and how that effects grouping. Proximity refers to where items are and how that effects grouping.

SIMILARITY Similarity is a powerful grouping concept and as such can contribute significantly towards achieving unity. The more alike the items are, the more likely they are to form groups. By the same token, if items are dissimilar, they will resist grouping and tend to show more variety. It is important to understand that all of the gestalt concepts can be used both ways -- to group and to ungroup

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SIZE VALUE/COLOR SHAPE PROXIMITY Where items are placed in relation to each other is another important gestalt consideration. Proximity relationships will generally dominate over similarity relationships. The strongest control is available when the two are used together. There are four specific types of proximity relationships CLOSE EDGE

Touch

Overlap

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Combine In the example below the letters are all combined on the green background.

SIMILARITY/PROXIMITY COLLAGE A collage that consists of a simple phrase of four or more words and a picture that illustrates the phrase. The words will be made using all different sizes, colors and shapes of letters cut from magazines. The letters will be chosen for maximum variety and no duplicate styles are allowed unless there are more than twenty letters in the phrase. There will be at least one word using each of the four proximity techniques to organize all of that word's letters into the word. BALANCE Balance is a skill that everyone uses almost all of their waking hours. It is balance that allows us to stand up and walk around. balance our checkbook and hopefully find a balance between our academic and social life. Balance in design is similar to these kinds of balance. we already had to balance between unity and variety. our physical sense of balance will play a part in your ability to balance the visual information in a composition. There are two systems for achieving balance: symmetry and asymmetry.

SYMMETRY Symmetry

means

a

mirror

image -- one side is the mirror

image of the other. Symmetry

can occur in any orientation as

long as the image is the same

on either side of the central axis.

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SYMMETRICAL BALANCE Symmetrical balance is also called formal balance because a form (formula) is used -

a mirror image about a vertical axis.

The results look formal, organized and orderly. There is a strong emphasis on the center axis in symmetry since all of the information is reflected from there. ALIGNMENT There are two major types of alignment: edge and center. EDGE ALIGNMENT Any object with flat edge(s) can be used for edge alignment. Rectangles are especially well suited for this since they have four flat edges to align. Their right angels also give a sense of order to a composition using them (similarity).

CENTER ALIGNMENT Any shaped items can be organized using center alignment. Simple shapes work best because it is easier to judge their centers so the alignment is easier to

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notice.Center alignment will work to some extent on any axis but it works best with a vertical axis (see the example to the left). This is because the vertical axis relates best to our sense of balance and symmetry . Centering in a negative space is a kind of alignment. This works best when there is some other alignment to back up the centering. One positive side effect of this technique is that there is a uniform space around the centered item. Narrow strips of background between pictures and text blocks are called gutters. PERSPECTIVE Perspective allows an artist to control the illusion of depth in an image with space ranging from a few inches to many miles. Linear and atmospheric perspective must be used together to make the illusion effectively. SURREALISM In these type of paintings there is no logical comphrehension. Learning outcome: In this subject we come to learn all the vital components of design i.e. its elements and principles. The eye to appreciate an artwork or design is developed and we are lessoned to find out the balance, rhythm, harmony and symmetry in a work. This also tells that an object can be fashioned simply by using fundamental geometric shapes, say circles. Even the smallest dots can be made to convey a feeling when used appropriately. One must also take care of the

proper

foreground

and

background

combination

accordingly as needed. This subject cannot be mastered but can only be acquired continuously by practice and learning.

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Our works in E.O.D. Product design ... We had supposed to design the exterior of a Scorpio or Maruti 800. The designing of the same was a process of finding solution to the problems. It gave us a great deal of experience and prepared us to perform creativity with functionality in professional manner.

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