Industrial-production-of-iodized-salt-from-seawater.docx

Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

A Plant Design Report Submitted to the Faculty of the College of Engineering Cagayan State University – Carig Campus

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering

Crissalie Mariez M. De Vera Miriam A. Gammad Jinky B. Mammattong Rizza P. Pingad

May 2017

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL May 2017

ENGR. CAESAR POBRE LLAPITAN Instructor Chemical Engineering Department Cagayan State University

Dear Engr. Llapitan: We are herewith submitting our report entitled “Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater” in partial fulfillment for the requirement of Plant Design course. The main objective of this report is to present a complete design for the production of iodized salt from seawater.

The design report includes process flow diagrams, material and energy balances, pipes and instrumentation and control diagrams which are drawn and presented using Edraw, detailed design calculations and specifications of main process equipment and its auxiliary parts and estimation of costs which include equipment cost, fixed costs, operating costs and others due to its importance in the market study of the said report.

We hope that this report will merit your favorable approval.

Very truly yours, Crissallie Mariez M. De Vera Miriam A. Gammad Jinky B. Mammattong Rizza P. Pingad

CERTIFICATION

This Project Design hereto entitled “Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater”, prepared and submitted by Crissallie Mariez M. De Vera, Miriam A. Gammad, Jinky B. Mammattong, & Rizza P. Pingad in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course Plant Design, has been examined and is recommended for acceptance and approval.

ENGR. CAESAR P. LLAPITAN Instructor

APPROVAL

This Project Design is hereby approved and accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the course Plant Design.

ENGR. MONICO B. TENEDOR Department Chairman

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT With deepest gratitude and appreciation, we humbly extend our thank you to the people who, with all they can, helped and supported us in making this project design possible. To Engr. Caesar Pobre Llapitan, for sharing us his wisdom and expertise during the course of this design project, for his constant guidance and for his necessary corrections and suggestion for the improvement of this report. To our lovely parents, for their endless words of encouragement that keeps us from going on, for their unconditional love and support that they have been giving us all throughout. To our dearest friends and classmates, in whom we conceive our frustrations regarding this project design wherein at the same way, together we muster our courage to continue and finish this project design, for the rush hours, the brainstorming and nerve-wracking days and for the bitter and sweet memories that is somewhat worth it. Above all, to our Almighty God who always guides, protects and lights our way in everything that we do and He who never fails to boost our self-esteem when everything seems to be falling apart. For the provision and wisdom, he has bestowed upon us that keeps us in performing whatever task assigned to each one of us and for keeping our love ones safe. And we are thankful and glad and feel completely secure. Without Him we are nothing.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Salt is a basic commodity in human existence, it has a wide application for household and industries. Addition of iodized salts in human and animal consumption has an advantage in combatting iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) which is one of the world’s most important nutritional deficiencies, and produces a spectrum of disorders. The industry aims to produce 100,000 kg iodized salt/day that will operate 6 days a week for 7 months. The modified process includes the use of a solar saline pond to produce the solar salt, which is re-crystallized in a vacuum plant using vacuum-evaporation crystallization. The most appropriate area is in Dasol Bay, Pangasinan which occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and on its west is the South China Sea. The total capital investment for this report is 42,364,748.7 PHP and it takes 1 year and 2 months to recover the cost of investment. The economic viability of the plant This was based on the assessment of the capacity and condition of the plant section. A careful design decision for the calculation of the material and energy balance and process equipment specifications were made based on the on rule-of-thumb from different studies and authors. From carrying out sufficient engineering principles and calculations, logical and effective costs were established. The produced iodized salt will be sold in 40 kg distributed as 70% in wholesale (770.00 PHP per sack) and 30% in retail (19.75 PHP per kg). Since a complete environmental assessment of the plant in compliance with the standards set by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The waste generated is a sludge that is minimal and have no adverse effects on the environment. Hence, the design is profitable, will help in contributing taxes set by the government and does not degrade the environment which is a major concern in a plant.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Content

Page

Front Page Letter of Transmittal Certification Approval Acknowledgement

i

Executive Summary

ii

Table of Contents

iii

List of Tables

viii

List of Figures

x

Chapter I Introduction

1

A. Product Information

1

B. Properties of Product

2

1. Raw Salt

2

2. Iodized Salt

2

C. Process Selection

2

1. Survey of Methods used in the Industrial Production of Salts

2

a) Mining of Rock Salt from Underground and Surface Deposits

2

b) Vacuum Salt

3

(1) Multiple-effect Process

4

(2) Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) Process

4

(3) Re-crystallization Process

5

2. Modification of Process for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater D. Site Selection

6 9

1. Development of Possible Location Cases

iii

9

a) Pangasinan

9

(1) Comparative Factors

11

(a) Raw Material Supply

11

(b) Availability of Labor

11

(c) Transport

12

(d) Utilities

12

(e) Telecommunication

12

E. Site Layout

13

F. Plant Layout

16

Chapter II Market Study

17

A. Demand

17

1. Local Demand

17

a) Type of Consumers and Type of Market 2. World Salt Demand

19 20

B. Supply

21

1. Total Salt Importation

22

C. Price

23

1. Tariff Protection and Tax

24

2. Projected Price

27

D. Marketing Program

27

1. Marketing Program and Practices of Competitors

27

2. Proposed Marketing Program

28

a) Product

28

b) Price

28

c) Place

28

d) Promotions

28

iv

3. Channels of Distribution

29

E. Projected Sales Quantity

39

Chapter III Technical Study

31

A. Process Description and Detailed Flowsheets

31

1. Process Description

31

2. Block Flow Diagram

35

3. Input-Output Structure Flow Diagram

37

4. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram

39

5. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram

41

6. Process Flow Diagram

42

B. Material and Energy Balance

44

1. Material Balance

44

2. Energy Balance

46

C. Process Equipment

47

1. Mixer (M-101)

50

2. Clarifier (R-101)

52

3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103& EC-104)

53

4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104)

55

5. Condenser (C-101)

56

6. Boiler (B-101)

57

7. Centrifuge (FC-101 &FC-102)

58

8. Dryer (D-101)

59

9. Air Heater (H-105)

61

10. Blower (F-101)

62

11. Tanks

63

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

63

v

b) Salt Holding Tank (T-102)

64

c) Ionization Tank (T-103)

65

D. Piping and Instrumentation

66

1. The P and I Diagram

67

2. Valve Selection

69

3. Pumps

70

a) Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103

70

b) Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107

72

c) Pump-108

74

d) Pump-109

76

e) Pump-110

76

4. Pipe Size Selection

78

5. Control and Instrumentation

79

a) Design Objectives

79

b) Selection of Appropriate Control Strategy

79

c) Individual Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Equipment

83

(1) Mixer

83

(2) Clarifier and Pure Brine Tank

84

(3) Boiler

85

(4) Evaporative Crystallizer

86

(5) Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

87

(6) Dryer

89

Chapter IV Costing and Project Evaluation

90

A. Estimation of Equipment Cost

90

1. Forced Circulation Evaporator Cost

90

B. Estimation of Capital Investment

95

vi

C. Estimation of Total Product Cost

99

D. Feasibility Study

104

1. Profit and Loss Statement

104

E. Test of Profitability and Capital Investment Chapter V Safety, Health and Environment

104 106

A. Safety and Loss Prevention

106

1. Company Policy

106

a) Responsibilities of Employer

106

b) Responsibilities of Supervisors

106

c) Responsibilities of Workers

107

2. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Evaluation of Storage Tanks

108

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

109

b) Salt Slurry Tank (T-102)

111

c) Uniodized Wet Salt Tank

113

B. Environmental Constraints and Analysis

115

C. Material and Safety Data Sheet

117

D. Waste Disposal

120

References

122

Appendix A Material Balance Calculations

127

Appendix B Energy Balance Calculations

139

Appendix C Equipment Design Calculations

149

Appendix D Organizational Chart

183

vii

LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1. Population Census of Pangasinan

11

Table 1.2. Trade and Investment

12

Table 1.3. Road Network

12

Table 1.4. Power

12

Table 1.5. Water Supply

12

Table 1.6. Telecommunication Facilities

12

Table 2.1. Estimated per capita sodium intakes based on National Surveys-Philippines

18

Table 2.2. Total Salt Importation

23

Table 2.3. Price of Local Iodized Salt

24

Table 2.4. Price of Imported Iodized Salt

24

Table 2.5. Purity requirements

25

Table 2.6. Iodine levels

26

Table 3.1. Summary of Material Balance

44

Table 3.2. Summary of Energy Balance

46

Table 3.3. Process Equipment Summary

47

Table 3.4. Operating Conditions for Mixer

50

Table 3.5. Operating Conditions for Quadruple system

53

Table 3.6. Operating Parameters for Dryer Design

59

Table 3.7. Valve used in the Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

69

Table 3.8. Classification of process variable in each equipment in the production of

80

iodized salt from seawater Table 4.1. Summary of Equipment Costs

94

Table 4.2. Direct Cost

95

Table 4.3. Indirect Cost

96

Table 4.4. Summary of Fixed Capital Costs

97

viii

Table 4.5. Annual Value of Products

99

Table 4.6. Estimation of raw material cost annually

99

Table 4.7. Summary of the Wages of Employees

100

Table 4.8. Annual operating labor cost

101

Table 4.9. Utility Cost

101

Table 4.10. Annual Depreciation using MACRS

102

Table 4.11. Summary of Total Product Cost

103

Table 4.12. Profit and Loss Statement

104

Table 4.13. Summary of Capital Investment and Profitability Analysis

105

Table 5.1. HAZOP evaluation of pure brine tank

109

Table 5.2. HAZOP evaluation of salt slurry tank

111

Table 5.3. HAZOP evaluation of wet salts (uniodized) tank

113

Table 5.4. Environmental Laws and Policies

115

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1. Processes for Salt Production from Seawater

7

Figure 1.2. Vacuum Salt Refinery System

8

Figure 1.2. Plant Layout of Industrial Production of Iodized Salt

16

Figure 2.1. Philippines-Consumption of Iodized Salt in % households

18

Figure 2.2. Sources of Salt in 1990 with an Annual Requirement of 338,000 MT of Salts

19

Figure 2.3. Sources of Salt in 2009 with an Annual Requirement of 590,000 MT of Salts

19

Figure 2.4. Major Countries in Salt Production Worldwide from 2011 to 2016

22

(in 1,000 metric tons) Figure 2.5. Local vs. Imported Salt

23

Figure 2.7. Channels of Distribution of Iodized Salt

29

Figure 3.1. Feed Preparation Block Diagram

31

Figure 3.2. Brine Composition as function of density. Value for CaSO4 concentration

32

are multiplied by factor of ten Figure 3.3. Reactor Block Diagram

32

Figure 3.4. Separator Feed Preparation Block Diagram

33

Figure 3.5. Separator Block Diagram

34

Figure 3.6. Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

36

Figure 3.7. Input-Output Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized salt

38

from Seawater Figure 3.8. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt

40

from Seawater Figure 3.9. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt

41

from Seawater

Figure 3.10. Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from

x

43

Seawater Figure 3.11. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt

67

from Seawater Figure 3.12. Process Legend for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

68

Figure 3.13. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Mixer

83

Figure 3.14. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Clarifier and Pure brine tank

84

Figure 3.15. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Boiler

85

Figure 3.16. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Evaporative Crystallizer

86

Figure 3.17. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

87

Figure 3.18. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Dryer

89

Figure 5.1. Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

108

Figure 5.2. Salt Slurry Tank (T-102)

108

Figure 5.3. Uniodized Wet Salt Tank

108

Figure 5.4. Product and Waste Generated

121

xi

Chapter I Introduction A. Product Information Salt is basic to daily human existence. The actual consumption for human food is about 15 million tons per year. Salt for food is the most ‘taken for granted’ commodity. It is available from many sources in many qualities as table, cooking, and industrial salt for food production and is also one of the most essential basic materials of modern industries. More than 90% of the 200 million tons of NaCl consumed per year all over the world are for industrial use. Furthermore, salt enjoys unique advantages as a vehicle for micronutrient fortification in most parts of the world in terms of universal access, uniformity of consumption, and low cost of fortification. Thus, eliminating iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) is now considered "within grasp”. Iodine deficiency is one of the world’s most important nutritional deficiencies, and produces a spectrum of disorders—impaired cognitive development and function, hypothyroidism, congenital abnormalities, cretinism, and endemic goiter—known as IDD. The prevention of IDD is possible with the addition of iodine to the diet. Of the various methods used to add iodine to the diet, fortification of salt with iodine for human and animal consumption has been recommended and is implemented worldwide. Iodine may be added to salt as iodides or iodate. Salt is dissolved in the oceans with 3 percent by weight amounting to a quantity of 4.1016 tons only, thus being an inexhaustible source. Additionally, enormous common salt deposits emerged from the evaporation of sea water millions of years ago. Common salt supply is affected by mining or leaching these deposits or, at climatically favorable points, by recovery of salt from sea water by means of solar evaporation. Quality of salt produced in that way does however no longer meet today’s demands. Purity, whiteness, crystal habit, crystal size distribution and free flowing behavior are quality criterions for the different usages of salt. Such qualities can be met only by processing the crude salt in mechanical or thermal refining plants.

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B. Properties of the Product 1. Raw Salt Sodium chloride, NaCl, having a molecular weight of 58.443, is a colorless salt with good solubility in water. Chemically pure NaCl crystallizes from aqueous solutions in well-formed cubes, which under the influence of surface tension often grow together into funnel-shaped, hollow, square-based pyramids. In the presence of impurities, octahedral or dodecahedra are sometimes formed. 2. Iodized Salt Iodine is an element or substance needed by the body to function properly. The recommended minimum daily requirement is 150 µg. An iodine particle the size of a pinhead is enough to satisfy a person’s nutritional requirement for one month. The chemicals commonly used for salt iodination are potassium iodate and potassium iodide. Potassium iodate (KIO3) is recommended for use in countries where salt is often moist. Potassium iodide (KI) was introduced in countries where the salt is pure and the climate is temperate. C. Process Selection 1. Survey of Methods used in the Industrial Production of Salts a) Mining of Rock Salt from Underground and Surface Deposits According to Westphal et. al., (2012), rock salt has been mined in Europe for 3000 years. A salt deposit near ground level in the Eastern Alps was developed by tunneling and worked by excavation around 1000 B.C. Salt-bearing regions are revealed by the presence of surface springs of saline water, and these were the areas where the possibility of mining was always investigated by sinking shafts. The main precondition for success is the presence of dry overlying rock, and it was this circumstance that enabled the first German salt mine to be opened in 1825 near Schwäbisch Hall. In other parts of Europe, salt was mined long before this e.g., in Poland before 1000 A.D. and in England since the 1600s.

2

The purity of the salt mined from rock salt deposits is between 90 and 99% NaCl, and sometimes higher. The other minerals present in the rock salt are mainly clay and anhydrite, often intimately intergrown. Rock salt and potassium chloride have the same marine origin, often occurring together in a single deposit, and have essentially the same mechanical strength properties. Hence, the development and mining of rock salt deposits is similar to that of potash mineral deposits. The most widely used and most economic process today is solution mining. A combination of dry and wet mining for production of brine is employed in alpine salt deposits. In a few cases, subsurface solution mining is also carried out at depths of 100-140 m. The work-face dissolution process, in which dissolution is carried out in chamber like tunnel sections, is no longer used. The rock salt, which may be present in a pure state (e.g., geologically undisturbed crystalline salt deposits) or in a mixed mineral in finely divided form (e.g., in alpine salt deposits), is dissolved by the action of fresh water on the rock formation and converted to a concentrated salt solution (brine with an NaCl content of 312 g/L or 27%). In all mining processes, the brine is produced in underground excavations made by conventional mining or solution mining. The extraction processes result information of chambers. Between the chambers in which the brine is produced and extracted, pillars of considerable size are left behind to maintain stability of the rock. b) Vacuum Salt The term ‘‘vacuum salt’’ is used for crystalline salt that is obtained from saturated brine in evaporative crystallizers. Synonyms for vacuum salt are ‘‘evaporated salt’’ and ‘‘vacuum pan salt’’. The feed for salt crystallization plants can be saturated brine or rock salt and solar salt Vacuum salt is normally produced in closed evaporators by dehydrating brine with heat alone or in combination with a vacuum, with recovery of most of the energy. In spite of the term ‘‘vacuum salt’’, neither ‘‘vacuum’’ nor ‘‘pressure’’ is a characteristic factor for salt crystallization. The basic processes for vacuum salt production are brine purification, evaporation, and crystallization. Three

3

salt crystallization processes are in use: Multiple-effect process, Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) process and Re-crystallization process. (1) Multiple-effect Process The multiple-effect evaporation process is classical process for the production of vacuum salt. Several evaporators are connected in series. The boiling point of the brine is reduced in each evaporator stage by ca. 12-20°C by decreasing the pressure above the brine from unit to unit with the aid of a vacuum pump. The first effect is heated by live steam, and the following stages are heated by the vapors of the upstream unit. The vapor of the last stage enters a cooling water system (loss stage). The brine feed is preheated with condensate from the evaporators. The consumption of live steam can be reduced by decreasing the number of effects. In salt plants the number of effects used varies between two and six. Today, four- or five-stage evaporator installations with production capacities of up to 150 t/h of vacuum salt are usual. The largest evaporator lines, which use the multiple-effect principle, can be found in The Netherlands. The salt factory at Harlingen has a design capacity of 1.2x106 t/a of vacuum salt (Krenn, 1998). (2) Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR) Process An MVR plant works like an open heat pump (Carnot process) in which the vapors are recompressed up to the pressure level of the heating steam. Vapor-recompression forcedcirculation evaporators consist of a crystallizer with one or several heating loops, a compressor, a vapor scrubber, and a preheating system. Feed brine enters the crystallizer vessel where salt is precipitated. Vapor is withdrawn, scrubbed, and compressed for reuse in the heater. Crystallized salt is removed from the elutriation leg as slurry. Recompression evaporators are more energy-efficient than multiple-effect evaporators but require more expensive electrical power for energy input. The compressor can be a radial turbo type compressor or industrial blowers connected in series. The development of single- stage compressors has significantly reduced cost (Winkler, 2006).

4

The recompression system is widely used where cheap electrical energy is available. A thermocompression plant with a steam ejector instead of a mechanical thermo-compressor involves less capital expense but higher energy costs. The heat pump in salt works is one of the oldest applications of heat recovery. In Austria, Bavaria, Slovakia, and Switzerland the entire salt production is based on MVR technology. The world’s largest two single-stage sodium chloride MVR crystallizers each with an annual salt capacity of 820 000 t are installed in Plaquemine, Louisiana at the Shintech chlor-alkali electrolysis plant (HPD Selected to Supply the Second Salt Production and Caustic Facility for Shintech Inc. on U.S. Gulf Coast, 2009). Hybrid systems are also used with multistage and vapor-recompression evaporators. 75,76In combined methods high-pressure steam is passed through backpressure turbines, and the exhaust steam heats a multistage evaporation plant. The mechanical power is available for compressing the vapors. A large hybrid plant at Varangeville/France consists of a first, single unit operated by compression while a second unit operates in five-stage evaporation (Guibert & Viard, 1978). This plant has a yield of 600 000 t/a, with the following brine boiling temperatures: MVR 116, 1st stage 124, 2nd stage 105, 3rd stage 86, 4th stage 69, 5th stage 49°C. (3) Re-crystallization process The re-crystallization process was first introduced in the salt industry in 1951 by International Sal as the Richards process and by Salins du Midi as the Pompe a Sel process (International Salt Company, 1951). It starts with rock or solar salt as feed input and ends up with vacuum salt. In principle cold and hot dissolution of the solid salt is possible. The re-crystallization process is similar to flash-evaporation desalination of seawater or a multi-flash evaporation plant. In the preferred hot-dissolution process the undersaturated recirculation brine becomes saturated with solid salt at about 108°C and is fed downstream to several flash crystallizers working at different pressures. Supersaturation is achieved in the vacuum crystallizers by simultaneous evaporation of water and adiabatic cooling of the brine feed, and consequently crystallization of salt starts. The purge from the last crystallizer is pumped to preheater columns, where the cold

5

saturated brine is mixed with the hot vapors coming from the evaporators. Finally, the output from the columns is undersaturated brine at nearly 100 °C which goes back to the saturators. Process heat losses are compensated by means of booster heaters built into the hot brine recirculation pipeline. The heat content of the vapor from the last evaporator is lost. Another thermal concept uses the vapors from the last evaporator by mechanical vapor recompression up to the pressure of the heating system. The re-crystallization process is well proven to convert low-quality rock and solar salts to ultrapure vacuum salt, even for use in manufacturing pharmaceuticals. This technology is used in Algeria, Bangladesh, Germany, Greece, Iran, and Turkey. The capacities reach up to maximum 260 000 t/a, whereby the number of flash evaporators is between three and seven. 2. Modification of Process for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater Modification of process involves vacuum salt (discussed in section 1.3.1 of this chapter) based on seawater as raw material. Philippines is a solar salt producer because of its climate and topography, the process includes the use of a solar saline pond to produce the solar salt, which is re-crystallized in a vacuum plant using vacuum-evaporation crystallization. Modification of the process was also based from Figure 1.1 Processes for salt production from seawater (Westphal, G., et. al., 2012) and Figure 1.2. Vacuum Refinery System. See Chapter III for process description of the modified process.

6

Seawater

Solar Evaporation

Concentrated Seawater

Saturated Brine

Crude Salt

Multi-Stage Flash (MSF)

Drinking

Electrolysis

Reverse Osmosis

Brine (15-20 % NaCl)

Brine (9 % NaCl)

Concentrated seawater Washing Plant

Sea

Re-crystallizer

Evaporated Salt

Evaporation/ crystallization (MVR, multiple-effect)

Brine

Falling Film Evaporator

Evaporated Salt

Salt Figure 1.1. Processes for Salt Production from Seawater (Westphal et. al., 2012)

7

Crude Salt

Addition of water/seawater

Saturated Brine

Chemical Treatment

Filter

Evaporative Crystallizer

Thickener

Centrifuge

Ion Dosing

Fluid Bed Dryer

Anti-Caking Dosing

Storage

Figure 1.2. Vacuum Salt Refinery System

8

D. Site Selection Climatic and topographical factors have to be taken into consideration prior to the selection of the most appropriate site for an iodized salt production. This selection depends on other parameters than climatology or pedology: wide flat surface areas, as impervious as possible, sea water uncontaminated by dilution or pollution are the major factors which govern brine concentration and evaporation as well as salt crystallization. 1. Development of Possible Location Cases According to Philippines Chamber of Salt Producers (PCSP) Pangasinan, Bulacan, Mindoro Occidental, Iloilo and Cagayan de Oro are the areas in which salt is manufactured specifically solar salt. a) Pangasinan

(Google Earth, 2017)

9

Pangasinan derived its name from the word “panag asinan”, which means “where salt is made”, owing to the rich and fine salt beds which were the prior source of livelihood of the province’s coastal towns. Entry Points: From Manila: via Rosales, via Bayambang or via Mangatarem From Zambales: via Infanta From Nueva Ecija: via Umingan or via Rosales From Baguio City: via Sison or via San Fabian National Transport Carriers: Victory Liner, Five Star, Fermina Express, Dagupan Bus, De Leon Express and Santrans, Fariñas, Genesis, Partas, Viron

Geography: Pangasinan territory covers a land area of 536,818 hectares which constitutes almost one-half (41.8 %) of the total land area of the region and 1.8 % of the total Philippine area. It is bounded in the north by Lingayen Gulf, La Union and Benguet, in the north-east, by Nueva Vizcaya, in the east, by Nueva Ecija and Tarlac in the south and Zambales and China Sea in the west (Pangasinan, 2017).

Land Classification in Hectares (DENR, PAGASA as cited in Pangasinan, 2017) Alienable and Disposable Land - 406,395 (75.70%) Forestland - 130,423 (24.30%)

Climate (DENR, PAGASA as cited in Pangasinan, 2017) Average annual rain fall (mm)

182.3

Season

Wet and Dry

10

(1) Comparative factors (a) Raw Material Supply Seawater is the principal raw material used in salt production. Salt and other elements are naturally present in seawater which is very important in the salt production. According to the topographical aspect of Dasol Pangasinan, Dasol Bay occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and the South China Sea is located on its west. Thus, seawater will be collected from the Dasol bay. (b) Availability of Labor Pangasinan contributes a substantial share to the regional economy or GRDP. The annual economic performance or output of the province averaged 60–70% of the regional total. Its employment shares to the region accounts 52–54% of the regional total and contributes a total family income of PHP 53 B in the 2000 Family Income & Expenditure Survey (FIES). This is more than the combined incomes of La Union, Ilocos Norte, and Ilocos Sur. The service sector, fueled by trade, was also the biggest employment provider in the region with a 46% share in 2007. This was followed by agriculture, fishery and forestry contributing 41%; and the industry sector at 13%. The population of Pangasinan in the 2015 census was 2,956,726 people, with a density of 540 inhabitants per square kilometer or 1,400 inhabitants per square mile. Table 1.1. Population Census of Pangasinan (Philippine Statistics Authority) Year 1903 1918 1939 1948 1960 1970 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 2007 2010 2015

Pop. 442,521 565,922 742,475 920,491 1,124,144 1,386,143 1,520,085 1,636,057 2,020,273 2,178,412 2,434,086 2,645,395 2,779,862 2,956,726

11

±% p.a. — +1.65% +1.30% +2.42% +1.68% +2.11% +1.87% +1.48% +2.13% +1.42% +2.41% +1.15% +1.82% +1.18%

Table 1.2. Trade and Investment (DTI as of 2010) Investments Inflows (Php) Export generated (US$) Registered Establishments by Sector Manufacturing Personal Services Industrial Services Trading

1,590,311,604.34 901,289.27 7,262 437 2,932 246 3,647

(c) Transport Table 1.3. Road Network National Provincial Municipal (2009) Barangay (2009) Total

Lengths (km) 623.74 725.0525 533.462 5,517.04 7,399.29

Paved (km) 623.541 659.2945 398.644 1,780.39 3,461.87

Unpaved (km) 0.199 65.758 134.817 3,736.65 3,937.42

(d) Utilities Table 1.4. Power (DPWH, PEO, MPDC, NIA, PANELCO 1 & 3, DECORP, CENPELCO, LUELCO as of 2009) Municipality Served (%) Barangay Served (%) Household Served (%)

100 100 82

Table 1.5. Water Supply* (As of 2009) Household with Safe Water Sources (%) Household with Unsafe Water Sources (%) *LSS Survey covers 46 (96%) cities/municipalities and 1,312 (97%) barangays only

92.62 7.47

(e) Telecommunication Table 1.6. Telecommunication Facilities (NTC, Digitel, PLDT, PIA, Philpost, TelOf, MPDC/CPDC, LTO As of 2009) Number of existing telephone lines equipped/installed (PLDT, Digitel) Telephone Density (Telephone/100 Persons) Number Of Telegraph Stations (Public)

12

114,244 4.22 19

Cities/Municipalities Served By Telegraph Service (%) Postal Office/Stations Cities/Municipalities Served by Mail Service (%) Postal Density Number of Letter Carriers Letter Carrier to Population Ratio Number of Internet Cafes Number of Internet Service Providers (ISP) Cable Television Stations Number of Radio Stations(AM/FM) Number of Local Newspapers Number of Different Types And Classification Of Motor Vehicle Registered

40 51 100 1:53, 075 107 1:25, 298 645 16 21 21 21 184,743

E. Site Layout Dasol is a third class municipality in the province of Pangasinan, Philippines and is popular for its production of commercial salts. Dasol Bay occupies the whole coastline of Dasol and where the town gets its saltwater.

Dasol is a small town in western Pangasinan, situated in a plateau. It is bounded on the north by the municipalities of Burgos and Mabini, the mineral-rich Zambales mountains in the east, the municipality of Infanta on the south, and the vast South China Sea on the west. It has an area of about 230 square kilometers.

13

(Google Earth, 2017)

(Google Earth, 2017)

14

(Google Earth, 2017)

(Google Earth, 2017)

15

600mm

600mm

600mm

F. Plant Layout

FOR TRUCKS, TRAILER AND CARGO CARS ONLY

100575.3mm

20100.2mm

17692.2mm

TRUCKS, TRAILER AND CARGO CARS PARKING AREA ONLY

12066.8mm

IODIZED SALT WAREHOUSE AND PACKAGING

8437.5mm

5750mm

3755.6mm

10700mm

4750mm 1500mm

PARKING AREA

EMPLOYEES PARKING AREA ONLY

GUARD HOUSE

1650mm

1800mm

3500mm

925mm

2100mm 600mm

EMPLOYERS LOCKER

5291.8mm

CANTEEN

3092.2mm

COMFORT ROOM

5250mm

1400mm

CONFERENCE ROOM 16500mm

5658.2mm

1650mm

ADMINISTRATIVE AND FINANCE DEPARTMENT

3499.6mm

5802.9mm

2950mm

2750mm

LIME AND SODA ASH STORAGE ROOM

1750mm 2749.7mm

HR DEPT

1500mm

3000.4mm

1052.7mm

SLUDGE DEPOSITORY

33570.3mm

WASTE WATER TREATMENT AREA

50733.6mm 8000mm

EMPLOYEES GATE

5749.3mm

9225.8mm 700mm

24500mm

1800mm

PROCESS AREA

QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT

POWER HOUSE/ BOILER DEPARTMENT

13250.1mm

GREENHOUSE

9000mm

COMFORT ROOM 1038.3mm

47500mm

700mm

9000mm

600mm

PUMP HOUSE

13302mm

CLINIC

99700mm

Figure 1.3. Plant Layout of Industrial Production of Iodized Salt

16

Chapter II Market Study Salt is existent in all animal and vegetable life and is coeval with life itself. Virtually every person in the world has some direct or indirect contact with salt daily. People routinely add salt to their food as a flavor enhancer. According to UNICEF Philippines country representative Tomoo Hozumi, salt is almost the only commodity which everyone consumes in more or less the same amount everyday throughout life regardless of socioeconomic status and gender, nationality, ethnic or cultural differences. Sodium chloride is an essential constituent of the body fluids and is responsible for a number of vital functions in the body. Salt is used as a medium in supply of iodine to the body that is used for formation of thyroxin an essential hormone. Thus, iodizing salt for human consumption is a modern trend. A. Demand 1. Local Demand As a prime commodity, salt has a great demand. Aside from being used for food, it is a vital component of industrial products such as steel, fabric, paper and even bullets. It is also a main ingredient in manufacturing Filipino foods such as dried fish, fish sauce and shrimp paste. Figure 2.1 shows the percentage of household that use edible salt fortified with iodine. As mentioned above the demand for table salt/iodized salt is related with human consumption. The Philippines’ National Nutrition Surveys reported mean one-day per capita sodium intakes based on household food weighing, rather than age- and sex-specific intakes. Consumption figures given in per capita averages assume equal shares for household members including infants3-6 and do not show existing variations in intake among different groups. Data from the nutrition surveys of 1978, 1987, 1993, 2003 and 2008 showed that discretionary (ie, salt added during cooking or at the table) use of salt declined over the years. Still, the 2008 data

17

suggest that levels of intake exceeded the recommended amount and that more than half of ingested sodium was accounted for by discretionary use of salt see Table 2.1.

Figure 2.1. Philippines-Consumption of Iodized Salt in % households (World Development Indicator, 2016) Table 2.1. Estimated per capita sodium intakes based on National Surveys-Philippines

National Nutrition Survey year from which data was taken

Mean per capita sodium intake (g/day) Discretionary intake (salt added at the table or during

Total intake

cooking) 2008 2003 1993 1987 1982 1978

1.57 1.57 1.97 2.36 4.63 2.36

18

2.29 NA NA NA NA

Figure 2.2. Sources of Salt in 1990 with an Annual Requirement of 338,000 MT of Salts (Retrieved from http://www.mapabcdf.com.ph/documents/presentations/Agribusiness/Agricultural%20Activities%20and%20Se rvices/06%20Philippine%20Salt%20Industry.pdf)

Figure 2.3. Sources of Salt in 2009 with an Annual Requirement of 590,000 MT of Salts Retrieved from http://www.mapabcdf.com.ph/documents/presentations/Agribusiness/Agricultural%20Activities%20and%2 0Services/06%20Philippine%20Salt%20Industry.pdf a) Type of Consumers and Type of Market Salt is produced for human consumption, food processing, industrial use and animal consumption. Salt for human consumption are known to salt producers as commercial salt since this is the one that is available in the market and usually bought by consumers in retail packs either through “takal” or as repacked.

19

In the “takal” retail system, salt is displayed in open heap where salt is only repacked in plastic bag upon purchase of customers. Salt used for food processing, is salt used for processing of food such as fish sauce (“patis”), fish or shrimp paste (“bagoong”), canned or cured meats, ice or ice cream. Salt used for tanning or curing leather was classified as industrial salt. Salt used for animal consumption are those salt mixed with animal feeds. About 91% 346 salt producers produced salt for human/commercial (salt sold at the market), 75% produced salt for food processing and 27% produced salt for animal consumption. Only 7% of the respondents reportedly produce salt for industrial use. In the IRR of ASIN Law, only industrial salt, salt meant for treatment, processing and/or manufacturing of non-food products, are exempted from salt iodization. 2. World Salt Demand Consumption can vary significantly from one year to another, since demand in one of the largest uses, deicing, is dependent on winter conditions, mostly in the industrialized countries of the Northern Hemisphere. During the forecast period to 2020, salt consumption is expected to grow 1.9 % annually to 335 million metric tons valued at $14.1 billion driven by increasing demand from the chemical industry, as well as expected increasing demand from industrial, food, and feed markets (World Salt, 2016). The global market of salt in 2010 was estimated to decrease by 3.6% from that of 2009. Global demand for salt will rise 2.9% annually through 2015 to the size of 327 million metric tons. Solar evaporation is the most popular method of producing salt, accounting for 38% of 2010 industry shipments. It is the most economical method of producing salt in areas with favorable weather conditions, including a number of nations in the Africa/Mideast, Asia/ Pacific, and Central and South America regions. Salt production is forecast to grow fastest in the Asia/Pacific and Africa/Mideast regions, and as a result solar evaporation will account for an increasing share of global salt output through 2015. Rock salt and brine production will also post moderate increases

20

through 2015. The table salt production industry is expected to remain largely unchanged over the next five years 2011 (Salt Industry Market Research Reports, Analysis & Trends, n.d.) According to IBIS World, due to the staple-nature of table salt, the industry was one of the few to escape the recession unharmed as consumers and food processors maintained demand for salt. Over the period to 2013, revenue growth was expected to increase by an annualized rate of 0.1% and operator profit margins are expected to remain healthy. However, industry revenue dipped 2.8% in 2010 and 7.6% in 2011, largely due to a drop in the price of salt. In 2013 the industry is expected to earn revenue of $598.7 million, a 2.1% increase on 2012. The table salt production industry experienced growth in the five years to 2013, despite revenue volatility in 2010 and 2011 (Salt Industry Market Research Reports, Analysis & Trends, n.d.) B. Supply According to Nutrition Center of the Philippines December 2010 salt survey, salt importers, traders and producers are located in Metro Manila, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union, Bulacan, Pangasinan, Occidental Mindoro, Batangas, Iloilo, Guimaras, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Cebu, Misamis Oriental, Davao, General Santos City and Zamboanga and there are 384 salt producers. Most salt producers use solar evaporation to produce coarse salt. Salt producers from Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, La Union and one-third of producers from Pangasinan use the cooking method to produce fine salt. From the 346 respondents, 9.5% produced salt not exceeding 2 MT (subsistence producers), 72% produced salt ranging from more than 2 MT to 300 MT (small-scale producers), 17.3% produced salt ranging from more than 300 MT to 2,000 MT (medium-scale producers) and 1.2% produced salt exceeding 2,000 MT (large-scale producers).

21

According to the United States Geological survey Philippines ranked 35th place which contribute 0.26% of world production.

Figure 2.4. Major Countries in Salt Production Worldwide from 2011 to 2016 (in 1,000 metric tons) (Statistica, 2016) Salt production typically starts in the month of October and ends in May as the country approaches the rainy season. In 2014, the Philippines produced 1,016 metric tons of salt. (Bollen, 2014) 1. Total Salt Importation The production of quality salt in the Philippines is a crucial component in achieving successful salt iodization in the country. While some groups have called for the importation of salt as a solution in combating iodine deficiency and to sustain the demand of iodized salt in the country, the government must control the quantity of salt imports because it would lead to destabilization of the economic livelihood of salt producing communities in the country.

22

Table 2.2 shows the total salt imports of the country while figure 2.5 shows the competitiveness of Domestic salt. Table 2.2. Total Salt Importation (Bureau of Export Trade Promotion, DTI) Year 2006 2007 2009 2009

Quantity in kilos 380,648,510 614,906,890 492,924,844 436,008,998

Figure 2.5. Local vs. Imported Salt (Philippine Chamber of Salt Producers) C. Price The production of salt in the Philippines contributes to 20% of the country’s salt supply. Despite the large production of local salt producers, these are often replaced by imports. Locally produced salts are very vulnerable to the climate. In addition, local producers do not have the capacity to further process their raw salt. The major traders in the Philippines include, Salinas Corporation, Artemis Salt Corporation, and Arvin International Marketing, Inc. These traders produced salt locally and also import mostly their salt products. These large traders dominate the market and dictate the price of salt as the local

23

producers are dependent on them for financing and trading of their salt. The majority of the producers are small and medium scale, production capacity is highly fragmented and salt quality is an issue, particularly moisture. Moisture makes iodine unstable resulting in inconsistent quality iodized salt. Most producers do not have the financial capacity to make salt farm production more efficient or to invest in machines and storage facilities to be able to supply market requirements for volume and quality (TAMACO, 2017). The first locally produced iodized salt is the Fidel Iodized Salt by Salinas Corporation. It was started in 1993 and is the first locally-produced iodized salt endorsed by the Department of Health. It was made in response to RA 8172 on the Act of promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide or the ASIN LAW, and the desire of the corporation to help the government fight the iodine deficiency among the Filipinos. (Salinas Corporation, 2017) Table 2.3. Price of Local Iodized Salt Brand

Price/kg

Fidel  Coarse  Refined  Free-flowing Marco Polo McCornick RAM Royal Choice TJ

21.25 25.75 32.75 21.5 25.75 19.75 16.75 15.5

A sack of iodized salt (40 kg) costs Php 400 to Php 520 at retail price (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2006). Table 2.4. Price of Imported Iodized Salt Product name Quantity Master Chef Rock 1 sack (250g x 48) Iodized Salt

24

Tax-free price USD Php 4.56 229.62

With Tax (Php) USD Php 5.69 286.40

The price of the imported iodized salt is much than the local iodized salt however in a very small difference. Hence, local producers/suppliers are forced to meet their price. These results, however to lesser profit. 1. Tariff Protection and Tax As stated in the ASIN Law iodized salt is considered a basic necessity of Filipinos. The Republic Act No. 8172 known as ASIN Law (An Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide) envisions to protect and promote the health of the people, to maintain an effective food regulatory system and to provide the entire population especially women and children with proper nutrition. For this purpose, the State shall promote the nutritional fortification of food and combat micronutrient malnutrition as a priority health program for the nation (Food and Drug Authority). Hence the importation of iodized salt is not prohibited. The importation of iodized salt however must comply with the following as stated under Rule IV of the Revised Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act No. 8172 "An Act Promoting Salt Iodization Nationwide and for Related Purposes” (1996): SECTION 1. The BFAD of DOH hereby prescribes the following standards for iodizing salt in the Philippines. COMPOSITION AND STANDARDS Table 2.5. Purity requirements Identification Assay, min Moisture, max Calcium & Magnesium Arsenic, max Cadmium, max Lead, max Mercury, max

positive for Sodium and Chloride 97% (dry basis) 4% for refined salt , 8% for unrefined salt max 2% 1.0mg/kg 0.5 mg/kg 2.0 mg/kg 0.2mg/kg

The salt may contain natural secondary products which may include calcium, potassium and magnesium compounds.

25

Table 2.6. Iodine levels Source Type of container/package Locally produced salt Bulk ( >2kgs ) Retail (≤2 kgs) Production site 70-150 mg/kg 60-100 mg/kg Retail site 50-100 mg/kg 40-100 mg/kg Imported salt 70-150 mg/kg 60-100 mg/kg SECTION 6. Importation of industrial salt shall be in bulk, never in bags or sacks. Imported salt in bulk shall be released to the importers' warehouse for iodization, if it is to be sold for human or animal consumption, and shall be inspected by BFAD after iodization, otherwise it cannot be sold or distributed until iodized. Importers of salt shall submit to BFAD, prior to the arrival of shipment, a non-negotiable copy of Bill of Lading, Commercial Invoice and packing list, if any. In all cases, BFAD shall endeavor that the above transactions are not delayed. No imported salt shall be released from BOC unless BFAD issues clearance. SECTION 7. Only iodized salt shall be imported in bags or sacks, subject to inspection by BFAD upon arrival. If iodine level is below Philippine standards, the importer shall iodize it to conform to Philippine standards. The tax on the production, sale or consumption of a commodity in the Philippines or called excise tax applies on goods manufactured or produced in the Philippines for domestic sale or consumption or for any other disposition and on goods imported. It has two types: 

Specific Tax – refers to the excise tax imposed which is based on weight or volume capacity or any other physical unit of measurement



Ad Valorem Tax – refers to the excise tax which is based on selling price or other specified value of the goods/articles From which, salt is categorized under all mineral and mineral products (non-metallic), quarry

resources which has a tax rate of two percent (2%) based on the actual market value, in the case of those locally-extracted or produced; and, in the case of importation or the value used by the Bureau of Customs in determining tariff and customs duties, net of Excise Tax and Value-Added Tax. (Bureau of Internal Revenue (BIR)).

26

Under Revenue Memorandum 14-2014 which has a subject of “Guidelines and Procedures for the Processing and Issuance of an Electronic Authority to Release Imported Goods (Eatrig) For Excise Tax Purposes” it was indicated that - In case of salt, certification that the imported salt is extracted from sea water duly authenticated by the Philippine embassy at the country of origin to qualify exemption from excise tax (Retrieved

from

ftp://ftp.bir.gov.ph/webadmin1/pdf/84389RMO%20No%2014-2014.pdf).

This implies that the price of imported iodized salt will remain low and can continue to go lower. 2. Projected Price The aim of this industry is to contribute to the supply of iodized salt in the country at a lower price which will lessen the need for importation. It also desires to acquire all raw salt from the local producers if possible and contribute to the local supply of iodized salt in the country. Therefore, it must be at a lower price than the imported iodized salts. From Table 2.3 the cost of locally produced iodized salt ranges from Php15/kg to Php33/kg depending on the brand while the imported iodized salt costs Php23/kg and up. The target production of this industry is 100,000 kg/day (40 MT annually). The projected price will be Php19.75/kg and Php770/sack (40 kg). The industry will start with the marketing strategy of selling 70% of the production in bulk and the remaining will be retailed. D. Marketing Program 1. Marketing Program and Practices of Competitors Due to large demand of salt in many applications, the number of the salt industry grew larger. When the demand and supply of iodized salt are stable, the prices of the salt are usually stable. However, salt producers are focusing on the export strategies and price increase caused by the weather conditions that delays the production. As stated by the law, iodized salt is a prime commodity and that the Act for Salt Iodization Nationwide (ASIN) Law (RA 8172) was implemented to eliminate the micronutrient malnutrition in the country especially Iodine Deficiency Disorder. Major competitors promote the quality of their products by complying with

27

the standards set by the ASIN Law and the price of reflects on the competitiveness of the market. The iodized salt is transported in different locations for home and industrial purposes. 2. Proposed Marketing Program The marketing strategies and practices within the Salt Industry consists four variables, the price, promotion, place and product (Marketing Strategy | Marketing Mix: product, price, place & promotion | Entrreprenuer's Toolkit). a. Product Iodine and sodium can be found in fruits and vegetables. However, the amounts of these may not be always enough. Therefore, iodized salt can help to maintain a healthy balance in the body (10 Benefits of Using Iodized Salt, n.d.). The misconception about the iodized salt is more expensive than the raw salt, however, the difference is minimal and your body benefits its advantages. The target product is a white and clean iodized salt that meets the standards of the consumers. The consumers depend on the product’s affordability, storability and availability. b. Price The aim in setting the price of the iodized salt is to keep the price competition to competitors in order to increase the sales with the aid of promotional strategies and maintain the 100,000 kg/day production. It is important to take note the effects of price increase or reduction, in both cases the producer and consumer seeks good value for money. c. Place The salt warehouse is covered with roof to ensure the quality of the product and to avoid contaminants. It is located in the plant (Dasol, Pangasinan) where trucks are allowed to enter for transportation purposes in distributing the products. The iodised salt are applied in human or household consumption, food manufacturing plants, animal feed manufacturers, and fish canning industries (A Survey of Salt Importers, Producers and Traders in the Philippines: An Evaluation of Internal and External Quality Assurance and Control, 2010) d. Promotions

28

Today’s technology became an advantage in marketing products in every industry. Newsletters via e-mails or internet are the fastest and accessible way to promote the product, by placing advertisements in magazines or by media partners in radio and television. Community-based partnership is also an option that serves as information to the public about the Iodine Deficiency Disorder (IDD) in hospitals and stores. 3. Channels of Distribution Prior to selling the product, the packaging is in brand new woven polypropylene sacks for 40 kg or packed in transparent polyethylene bag for 1 kg. The packaging label includes the manufacture’s name, address and manufacturing date. Within the country, the refined iodized salt’s destination is sold by wholesale and is assumed to be distributed in small-scale businesses in nearby provinces. The salt is also sold in different industry that uses refined iodized salt in their materials. REFINED IODIZED SALT

Wholesaler

1 kg per pack (Sold as wholesale min. 40)

40 kgs per pack

Industries

Small Scale Business (Super Market, Shops) Consumers Figure 2.7. Channels of Distribution of Iodized Salt

E. Projected Sales Quantity Based on the demand and supply study of salt in the Philippines, it shows that iodized salt industries in the Philippines alone cannot meet the increasing demand of salt. Some industries still need to import iodized salt from other countries especially on rainy season just to meet the demand

29

especially on the campaign against iodine deficiency. During the forecast period to 2020, salt consumption is expected to grow 1.9 % annually to 335 million metric tons valued at $14.1 billion driven by increasing demand from the chemical industry, as well as expected increasing demand from industrial, food, and feed markets (World Salt, 2016) and according to the United States Geological survey Philippines ranked 35th place which contribute 0.26% of world production. This salt company will help in meeting the increasing demand of salt without importing in other countries and could also help in combating iodine deficiency. The price of the iodized salt in the Philippines is varying depending on the locality. But the average price is ranging from 16.00 to 25.00 (Php) per kg. The projected sales quantity will now depend on the demand, supply, price and marketing strategies. This salt industry has a target production of 100,000 kg salt/day (100 tons/day). This plant will operate 6 days a week in 7 months (hot season). Therefore, annually, the projected supply of iodized salt for this company is 16,800,000 kg (16,800 tons/year). But there is a chance that small percentage of it will not be sold because of competency with other salt industries. Therefore, marketing strategies are very important. Based on the marketing strategies of the company, we can say that 100% of the product can be sold. Based on selling strategy, the product will be sold by wholesale (70%) and retail (30%). Wholesale will be per sack, containing 40 kg, and retail will be per kg, therefore there are 294,000 sacks and 5,040,000 kg of iodized salt to be sold. Using a price of 19.75 per kg and 770.00 per sack, the projected sales for these 16,800,000 kg of iodized salt is 325,920,000.00 a year.

30

Chapter III TECHNICAL STUDY A. Process Description and Detailed Flowsheets 1. Process Description

Seawater

Solar Evaporation

Crude salt

Mixer

Brine

Figure 3.1. Feed Preparation Block Diagram The water of the seas and oceans contains all the known elements, most of them present in small amounts. It contains significant amount of magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca) and other important seawater based process being the production of magnesium compound. Sodium chloride is the most important compound in terms of concentration, averaging 28g/L. The salinity (grams of salt per kilogram of seawater) of ocean and seawater varies with location and depth. The average salinity is 3.5%, corresponding to a relative density of 1.026. The salt mixture in seawater has the typical following composition: 77 wt % NaCl, 10 wt % MgCl2, 6 wt % MgSO4, and 3.9 wt % CaSO4and 2 wt % KCl. After being pumped from the sea, the seawater passes through the salt field from pond to pond. As it passes through the ponds, the NaCl concentration in the seawater rises from 28 g/L to roughly 260 g/L, corresponding to an increase in relative density from 1.026 to 1.215. At this point, the brine begins to deposit its salt. Most of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O) has already crystallized before this point, while the magnesium salts continue to become concentrated without crystallizing, (See Figure 3.2).

31

Figure 3.2. Brine Composition as function of density. Value for CaSO4 concentration are multiplied by factor of ten Empirical Baume (°Be) is a scale use to measure the concentration of brines. According to that scale the seawater concentration is 3.5 °Be. The crystallization of CaCO3 begins at 4.6 °Be and that of CaSO4 at 13.2 °Be. NaCl crystallizes at 25.7 °Be, followed by the more soluble Mg salts at 30 °Be. By the time the relative density of the brine reaches 1.215 g/L, when NaCl crystals star to form. Salt is harvested from crystallizing ponds as mixture of salt crystals and mother liquor (bitterns) containing soluble impurities in high concentrations. In Mexico a unique process for refining salt was developed. By re-dissolving high-quality solar salt and using a ‘‘salting out’’ process to precipitate out trace amounts of calcium, magnesium, and sulfate, it is possible to produce a solar sea salt exceeding 99% purity. NaOH

Brine

Soda ash (Na2CO3)

Pure

REACTOR

Mg(OH)2

CaCO 3

Figure 3.3. Reactor Block Diagram

32

Brine purification is an important step in the production of sodium chloride. The most common and most problematic impurities in crude salt are the sulfates, chlorides, and, to some extent, the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, as well as the triple salt polyhalite (K2SO4. 2 CaSO4. MgSO4 .2 H2O). The principal impurities of crude brine are therefore calcium, magnesium and sulfate ions. Magnesium and calcium ion must be removed from the crude brine to avoid scale formation and also impurities such as hydroscopic magnesium in solid sodium chloride. Traditional brine purification is performed in the Schweizerhalle process named after a Swiss saline. First is the addition of calcium hydroxide to precipitate magnesium ions as magnesium hydroxide. MgSO 4  Ca OH2  Mg OH2  CaSO4 

Na 2 SO4  Ca OH2  2NaOH  CaSO4 

Second is the addition of soda ash to precipitate the remaining calcium ions as calcium carbonate. The crystallization of calcium carbonate can also be achieved by purging the alkaline brine with carbon dioxide, easily available in the form of combustion gas, which contains about 10-14vol% carbon dioxide.

2NaOH  CO 2  CaSO4  Na 2 SO4  H 2O  Sulfate is not removed completely from the crude brine during this purification process. Salt is obtained from the purified brine by evaporation. Vapor

First Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Vapor

Vapor

Second Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Third Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Vapor

Fourth Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Salt Slurry Figure 3.4. Separator Feed Preparation Block Diagram 33

Pure Brine

Parallel feed multiple effect evaporators involve the adding of fresh pure feed and withdrawal of concentrated product from each effect. The vapor from each effect is still used to heat the next effect. This method of operation is mainly used when the feed is almost saturated and solid crystals are the product, as in evaporation of brine to make salt. The dynamic model for the evaporative crystallization process considers the following assumptions: 

The mass holdup of each crystallizer does not vary with time



The composition of solid phase is homogeneous in each effect



There are no heat losses to the neighborhood



The boiling point elevation of the solution is considered The clear treated saturated brine is fed into a quadruple effect evaporator system consisting of

an evaporator, a tube bundle heat exchanger and a circulation pump. First, the brine is heated, to force evaporation in the upper part of the crystallizers, exceeding the saturation point in the brine and resulting in crystal formation. To control the heat during crystal formation more precisely, the brine contained in each crystallization stage is circulated by a pump. Brine is heated is heated in the exterior heat exchanger. The first crystallization is heated by live steam, while the second, third and fourth crystallizations are heated by the vapors from the previous stage. The live steam condensate from the heater of the first stage returns to the boiler house. Iodine Dosing

Salt Slurry

Dryer

Centrifuge

Filtrate (recycled back to mixer)

Iodized salt

Figure 3.5. Separator Block Diagram

34

The centrifuge forces out the water by spinning the solution, resulting to about 4% moisture salt crystals. Iodine is added while the salt crystals travel from the centrifuge to the dryer, where it will achieve a composition of 98% sodium chloride, 0.002-0.004% iodine and the rest as moisture. 2. Block Flow Diagram Figure 3.6.shows the block flow diagram of the production of iodized salt from seawater.

35

Vapor

First Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Vapor

Vapor

Second Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Vapor

Third Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Fourth Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Iodine Dosing

Salt

Centrifuge

Dryer

Filtrate Pure Brine

NaOH Seawater

Solar Evaporation

Raw salt

Soda ash (Na2CO3) Pure Brine

Clarifier

Mixer

Mg(OH)2

Iodized salt

CaCO3

Figure 3.6. Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

36

3. Input-Output Structure Flow Diagram Figure 3.7. shows the input-output structure flow diagram of the production of iodized salt from seawater. Process feed streams entering from the left and the process product streams leaving to the right. Other auxiliary streams shown on PFD, such as utility streams which are necessary for operations are not part of the basic input-output structure.

37

INPUT

PROCESS Crude salt

Seawater

Mixer

OUTPUT

Brine

Brine

Mg(OH)2 Clarifier

Lime

CaCO3

Soda Ash Pure Brine Salt

First Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Second Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Salt

Third Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Salt

Salt

Fourth Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

Salt

Salt

Centrifuge

Filtrate Salt

Dryer

Iodized

Figure 3.7. Input-Output Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized salt from Seawater

38

4. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram Figure 3.8. shows the qualitative block flow diagram for the production of iodized salt from seawater. The diagram indicates the operating conditions such as temperature and pressure of equipment during the operation. At first step, seawater is put into solar ponds to remove some water through solar evaporation. The temperature can range from 20oC to 45oC. The mixer and the clarifier operates at normal conditions, pressure of 1 atm and temperature of 25oC. According to literatures, brine solution starts to crystallize beyond when the temperature is above 25oC. The salt is crystallized through quadruple effect evaporation. The pressures in the first, second, third and fourth effect are 1atm, 0.5 atm, 0.2 atm and 0.07 atm respectively. The temperatures from the first effect to the fourth effect are 100oC, 81.67oC, 60.37oC and 39.26oC respectively. The decreasing of the pressures unit by unit is for the purpose of decreasing the boiling point of the brine solution. Therefore, the temperatures are also decreased unit by unit. The centrifuge operates at normal conditions, a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 25 oC. The last step for this process is the removal of excess moisture through heating air. The temperature of the heating air is 93oC which is also the temperature of the dryer. These thermodynamics conditions were carefully chosen based on literatures.

39

Vapor

First Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 1 atm, Tsat=100°C

Vapor

Vapor

Second Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 0.5 atm, Tsat=81.67°C

Third Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 0.2 atm, Tsat=60.37°C

Vapor

Fourth Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 1 atm, Tsat=39.26°C

Salt Slurry

Iodine Dosing

Pure Brine

NaOH

Seawater 3.5 % by weight salinity

Solar Evaporation

Raw salt

Mixer 1atm, 25°C

Soda ash (Na2CO3)

Centrifuge 1atm, 25°C

Dryer 1atm, 93°C

Clarifier 1atm, 25°C

Mg(OH)2

CaCO3 Filtrate

Figure 3.8. Qualitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 40

Iodized salt 0.02 % moisture Ts2=60°C

5. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram Figure 3.9. shows the quantitative block flow diagram for the production of iodized salt from seawater. It shows the quantities of material required for the process operation. vapor

vapor

Steam 202.325 kPa

Second Evaporative Crystallizer

First Evaporative Crystallizer

120, 001.6629 L Pure Brine

1 atm,

Tsat = 100 °C

26, 667.0362 kg salt slurry

120, 001.6629 L Pure Brine

0.5 atm,

Tsat = 81.67°C

26, 667.0362 kg salt slurry

373,338.477 kg vapor/day

vapor

Fourth Evaporative Crystallizer

Third Evaporative Crystallizer

120, 001.6629 L Pure Brine

0.2 atm,

Tsat = 60.37°C

120, 001.6629 L Pure Brine

0.07 atm,

Tsat = 39.26 °C

26, 667.0362 kg salt slurry

26, 667.0362 kg salt slurry

106,668.1484 kg salt slurry

2, 875.6247 kg Na2CO3

828.1339 kg NaOH

53, 334.0742 kg salt slurry 277, 627.2636 L seawater 3.5 wt% NaCl

Solar Evaporation

95, 615.2779 kg raw salt

Mixer

479, 910. 8006 L Brine

Clarifier

480, 006.6516 L Pure Brine

50,000 kg wet salt

100,000 kg dry salt 53, 334.0742 kg salt slurry

6, 668.1484 L recycled brine

Filter Centrifuge

Filter Centrifuge

50,000 kg wet salt

6, 668.1484 L recycled brine

SLUDGE 2, 999.6336 kg CaCO3 ↓& 603.6796 kg Mg(OH)2 ↓

Figure 3.9. Quantitative Block Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater 41

Dryer

100,000 kg Iodised Salt

6. Process Flow Diagram Figure 3.10. shows an overview of the process flow diagram for the production of iodized salt from seawater. The diagram also indicates operating variables, such as mass flow, temperature and pressures which are tabulated at various points in the system.

42

M-101 Mixer

B-101 Steam boiler

T-101 Pure brine tank

R-101 Clarifier

EC-102 Force circulation evaporator II

EC-101 Force circulation evaporator I

EC-104 Force circulation evaporator IV

TK-102 EC-103 Condensate Force circulation evaporator III tank

A-101 Air filter

T-102 Salt slurry tank

C-101 Condenser

F-101 Blower

T-103 Recycled brine tank

D-101 Dryer

H-101 FC-101 Air heater Filter centrifuge

TK-101 KIO3 solution tank

FC-102 Filter centrifuge

2875.6247 kg Na2Co3 828.1339 kg NaOH C-101 1 25 479,91.806

seawater

1

1 25 479,91.806

3

95,615.2579

1 25 480,006.6516

4

raw salt

2

R-101

M-101

1 atm

0.5 atm

0.2 atm

0.07 atm

100°C

81.67°C

60.37°C

39.26°C

5 T-101

131,235.3 kg steam /day

1 25 53,334.742

P-101 H-102

H-101

H-104

H-103

FC-101 12

1 25 53,334.742

120,001.6 629

P-104

120,001.6 629

P-105

120,001.6 629

P-106

120,001.6 629

P-102

P-103

70.325 106,668.1484

TK-101 16

T-103 15

106,668.1484 10

220,472.7477

1 25 6,668.1484 14

1 25 100,000

P-107 P-108

120

1 25 6,668.1484

FC-102 13

9

8

7

6

1940.6mm

377,627.2336

addition of KIO3 through drip feeding

11 1 25 100,000

T-102

iodized salt

17 1 60 100,000

18 1 93 217,889.995

D-101

P-109

F-101

H-105

A-101

B-101

TK-102

KEY Pressure ( atm)

Figure 3.10. Process Flow Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

43

Temperature (°C) Mass flow (kg/day)

B. Material and Energy Balance 1. Material Balance Table 3.1. Summary of Material Balance Process Equipment

Description

Mass in (kg/day)

Description Water

Seawater(l)

2,818,765.688

Evaporation Pond

Mixer

Clarifier

First Effect

Evaporated(g)

Mass out ( kg/day) 2,723,150.43 95,615.2579

Raw salt(s) TOTAL

2,818,765.688

TOTAL

2,818,765.688

Raw salt(s)

95,615.2579

Seawater(l)

377,627.2636

Brine(l)

479,910.8006

Recycled Brine(l)

6668.1484

TOTAL

479,910.8006

TOTAL

479,910.8006

Brine(l)

479,910.8006

CaCO3 ↓(s)

2,999.6336

Na2CO3(s)

2875.6247

Mg(OH)2↓(s)

603.6796

NaOH(s)

828.1339

Pure Brine(l)

480,026.6516

TOTAL

483,614.5592

TOTAL

483,614.9688

Pure Brine(l)

120,001.6629

Salt Slurry(aq)

26,667.0362

TOTAL

120,001.6629

TOTAL

26,667.0362

Pure Brine(l)

120,001.6629

Salt Slurry(aq)

26,667.0362

TOTAL

120,001.6629

TOTAL

26,667.0362

Pure Brine(l)

120,001.6629

Salt Slurry(aq)

26,667.0362

Evaporative Crystallizer Second Effect Evaporative Crystallizer

44

Third Effect Evaporative

TOTAL

120,001.6629

TOTAL

26,667.0362

Crystallizer Salt Slurry(aq) Fourth Effect

Pure Brine(l)

120,001.6629

Evaporative

Water Evaporated(g)

26,667.0362 373,334.477

Crystallizer TOTAL

120,001.6629

Salt Slurry(aq)

106,668.1484

Filter Centrifuge

Dryer

TOTAL

400,005.513

Wet Salt(s)

100,000.00

Filtrate(l)

4668.1484

TOTAL

106,668.1484

TOTAL

106,668.1484

Wet Salt(s)

100,000.00

Dried Salt(s)

100,000.00

Air(g)

217,903.41

Air(g)

217,903.41

TOTAL

317,903.41

TOTAL

317,903.41

OVERALL TOTAL

4,686,869.258

End of Table 3.1

45

4,686,869.258

2. Energy Balance Table 3.2. Summary of Energy Balance Energy Required Equipment

(W)

(W) 8.7387

Clarifier

Brine

8.7387

Heat Exchanger

Brine

351,567.27

Steam Dryer

Energy Released

351,567.27

Wet salt

366,387.68

Dry salt

366,387.68

1st Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 2nd Effect Evaporative

3,342,419.42

3,342,419.42

2,867,897.99

2,867,897.99

5,657,555.07

5,657,555.07

8,365,623.83

8,365,623.83

20,951,460

20,951,460

Crystallizer 3rd Effect Evaporative Crystallizer 4th Effect Evaporative Crystallizer TOTAL

46

C. Process Equipment Table 3.3. Process Equipment Summary Process Equipme nt 1 Mixer

Equipment Code

Operating Conditions

M-101

1 atm, 25°C

No. Type/ Function of Description Unit 1 Pitched-blade (45o) Use to mix the turbine

recycled brine, raw salt and seawater to produce 20% brine solution

2 Clarifier

R-101

1 atm, 25°C

1

Cylindrical Tank

Use to remove

with Conical

magnesium,

Bottom

calcium and sulfide ions.

3 Heat Exchanger s

H-101,

4

H-102,

Shell-and-tube

Use to increase

heat exchanger

the

H-103, &

temperature of

H-104

the brine to the desired temperature needed for the evaporation

4 Forced-

EC-101,

214.441 KPa

Circula

EC-102,

(5% extra of

tion

EC-103

the

4

Forced Circulation Responsible Evaporator

47

for the

Evapor ator

& EC-

maximum

104

working

crystallization of brine

pressure) 5 Condenser

C-101

1

Horizontal

shell- Use to

and-tube

condense the

condenser

aqueous vapor from the evaporator to its liquid state (H2O)l

6 Boiler

B-101

1

Type D Industrial Responsible Boiler

for generating steam

7

Centrifuge

FC-101,&

2

Pusher Centrifuge

FC-102

Use to remove excess water from the salt crystals

8 Dryer

D-101

1atm,

1

93°C

Fluidized Bed

Use to achieve

Dryer

the necessary moisture of the salt

9 Blower

F-101

1

A centrifugal

Use to supply

blower with blades the air needed in radial direction

48

in the dryer

10 Air Heater

H-105

1

Shell-and-tube

Use to increase

heat exchanger

the temperature of the air to the desired temperature needed for drying

11 Pure Brine

T-101

1 atm, 25°C

1

Tank

Cylindrical closed vessel

Use as a storage vessel for the pure brine

12

13

Salt

T-102

1

Use to hold

Holding

salt before

Tank

ionization

Ionization

T-103

1

Tank

Continuous Spray Salt Iodization Mixing Tank

Responsible for the ionization of salt

14

KIO3

TK-101

1

Solution

Cylindrical closed vessel

Tank

Use as a container for the KIO3 solution for iodization process

End of Table 3.3 49

1. Mixer (M-101) The mixing tank induces a uniform concentration for the brine solution to be processed. A pitched-blade (45o) turbine impeller is used in this system in consideration for the very large production rate of the mixing tank. Operating conditions: Table 3.4. Operating Conditions for Mixer Parameters

Values Input

1. Recycled Brine Flow Rate

6,668.1484 kg/ day

2. Raw Salt Flow Rate

95,615.2575 kg/day

3. Raw Salt Concentration

0.99

4. Seawater Flow Rate

377,627.2636 L/day

5. Seawater Concentration

0.035 Output

1. Brine Flow Rate

479,910.6645 kg/day

2. Brine Concentration

0.2

50

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment Name: Mixer

Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: M-101

Function: Mixing recycled brine, raw salt and seawater to produce 20% brine solution

Impeller Type: Pitched-blade (45o) turbine

Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail Operating Pressure: 1 atm Operating Temperature: 25oC Tube Details Material of Construction of tubes: Stainless steel 317L Tube nominal diameter: 5/4-in Scheduled number: 80 Number of tubes required, Nt: 234 Actual area required by the tubes: 0.3518 m2 Total area of tube sheet: 0.8069 m2 Tube sheet diameter: 1.01 m Mixer Tank Details Material of Construction of Mixer Tank: Low carbon steel Mixer Tank Diameter: 5.194 m Mixer Tank Area: 21.91 m2 Mixer Tank Height: 5.194 m

51

2. Clarifier (R-101) The objective of this clarifier is to remove the remaining residues, calcium, and magnesium and sulfate ions, from the brine solution. This is achieved by pouring sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide which reacts with the impurities removed as magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate. A cylindrical clarifier with conical bottom is used in this design. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment Name: Clarifier

Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: R-101

Function: Removes magnesium, calcium and sulfide ions.

Description/Type: Cylindrical Tank with Number of Unit: 1 Conical Bottom Technical Detail Operating Pressure: 1 atm Operating Temperature: 25oC Clarifier Tank Details Material of Construction of Mixer Tank: Low Carbon Steel Diameter: 3.94 m Area: 12.19 m2 Height: 3.28 m Clarifier Loading Surface Overflow Rate: 1142.933 L/h m

Detention Time: 2.87 hr.

Weir Overflow Rate: 1125.01 L/h m Solids Loading Rate: 12.66 kg/h m2

52

3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103& EC-104) The system selected is a quadruple effect evaporator system used for concentration of brine solutions. Forced circulation evaporator is used for this system with parallel flow sequence. In parallel feeding, there is no transfer of liquid from one effect to another effect. It is used primarily when the feed is saturated and the product is solid containing slurry. This is most common in crystallizing evaporators. Operating parameters for this system are mentioned below in table 3.4. Table 3.5. Operating Conditions for Quadruple system Parameters

Value

1

Total number of effects

4

2

Feed flow rate

3

Fresh brine solution concentration

0.2

4

Salt slurry concentration

0.9

5

Salt slurry rate

6

Steam temperature

120°C

7

Feed temperature

25°C

120,001.6629 kg/day/effect

53,334.0724 kg/day/effect

53

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment Name: Evaporative Crystallizer

Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: EC-101 ,EC-102, EC-103& Function: responsible for the crystallization EC-104 Type/Description:

of brine Forced

Circulation Number of Unit: 4

evaporator Technical Detail Steam temperature: 120°C

Heating surface area: 118 m2

Steam pressure: 202.325 KPa

Retention time: 2.26 h

Mechanical Design Design Pressure: 214.441 KPa (5% extra of the maximum working pressure) Tube Details Material of Construction of tubes: Stainless steel 317L Tube nominal diameter: 5/4-in Scheduled number: 80 Number of tubes required, Nt: 234 Actual area required by the tubes: 0.3518 m2 Total area of tube sheet: 0.8069 m2 Tube sheet diameter: 1.01 m Evaporator Drum Details Material of Construction of Evaporator Drum: Low carbon steel Evaporator drum diameter: 2.557 m Evaporator drum area: 5.137 m2 Evaporator Drum height: 3.03 m

54

4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104) Aqueous salt solution (120,001.629 kg/day) will be heated from 25°C to 100°C by a steam having an inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used. Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this application.

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Heat Exchanger

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: H-101, H-102, H- Function: to increase the temperature of the brine to 103 & H-104 Description:

Shell-and-tube

the desired temperature needed for evaporation heat Number of Units: 4

exchanger Technical Detail Type:

1-8

Shell-and-tube

heat Fluid arrangement: Counter-current flow

exchanger Heat transfer area: 24.8814 m2

Tube layout: 1.25 square pitch , Fixed tube plate

Number of tubes: 31

25% cut segmental baffle

Material of Construction: Stainless Steel 317L

55

5. Condenser (C-101) The condenser is a horizontal condenser designed to condense (15,555.601 kg vapor/ hr ) at 120°C. The coolant used is water which is supplied in the tube side at an inlet temperature of 20°C and leaves at an outlet temperature of 35°C. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment Name: Condenser

Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: C-101

Function: use to condense the aqueous vapor from the evaporator to its liquid state (H2O liquid)

Type: Horizontal shell and tube condenser

Number of Unit: 1

Technical Detail Working Pressure: 1 atm Design Pressure: 1 atm Mechanical Design Shell side

Tube side

Fluid: Aqueous vapor

Fluid: Water (2,393,661.851 kg/day)

Inlet temperature: 120°C

Inlet temperature: 20°C

Outlet temperature: 120°C

Outlet temperature: 35°C

Number of shell: 1

Number of tubes: 31

Number of passes: 2

Outside diameter: 0.03175 m

Internal Diameter: 889 mm

Length: 4.88 m

Allowable stress: 93.1632 Mpa

Pitch: 39.69 mm (square) Material of Construction: Stainless Steel Allowable stress: 0.09807 Mpa

56

6. Boiler (B-101) Boiler-101 is a closed-vessel and in which steam is generated under pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. Steam generated is 220,472.7477 kg steam / day having a pressure of 202.325kPa. The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. Steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Boiler

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: B-101

Function: Responsible for generating steam

Type/Description: Industrial boiler

Number of Unit: 1 Technical Detail

Steam generated: 202,472.7477 kg steam/day

Steam pressure: 202.325 kPa

Steam/water circulation: Natural circulation Tube layout: Fired tube boiler ( Flue of hot gas is Boiler Layout: Type D flowing inside the tubes while water is contained inside the shell)

57

7. Centrifuge (FC-101 &FC-102) The 106 668.1484 kg of salt slurry is to be filtered through a continuous filtering centrifuge. It was decided to use two centrifuges to filter this amount of salt slurry. Therefore 53, 334.072 of salt slurry will enter each centrifuge. There are different centrifuges in industry depending on its application. In filtering centrifuges, the basis of selection is the particle size of the product. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name : Salt Slurry Centrifuge

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: FC-101 &FC-102

Function: Remove excess water from the salt crystals

Type/Description: Pusher Centrifuge Technical Detail Capacity: 0.017 m2

Number of units: 2 Mechanical Design

D=0.5556 m rb=2.58x10-3 m G= 6827.77 m/s2 Vt= 91 m/s Ω= 1546 r/min

58

8. Dryer (D-101) The dryer is designed according to the following parameters listed in Table 3.6. Table 3.6. Operating Parameters for Dryer Design Parameters

Values Input

Salt Mass Flow Rate, Ls

100,000 kg/day

Air Mass Flow Rate, G

217,899.9005 kg/day

Initial Moisture, x1

0.04 kg total moisture/kg dry salt

Salt Temperature, Ts1

25°C

Heating Air Temperature, TG1

93°C

Humidity of heating air, H1

0.015 kg H2O/kg dry salt Output

Salt Mass Flow Rate, Ls

100,000 kg/day

Air Mass Flow Rate, G

217,899.9005 kg/day

Final Moisture, x2

0.002 kg total moisture/kg dry salt

Salt Temperature, Ts2

60°C

Heating Air Temperature, TG2

38°C

Humidity of heating air, H2

0.032 kg H2O/kg dry salt

59

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Dryer

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: D-101

Function: Responsible for removing the moisture of salt

Type/Description: Fluidized bed dryer

Number of Units: 1

Technical Detail Temperature : 1=93°C Pressure: 1 atm Mechanical Design Material of construction: Mild Steel Fluidized bed height: 2 m Dryer vessel height: 3.28 m Dryer vessel diameter: 7.51 m

60

9. Air Heater (H-105) 217,899.9005 kg dry air per day will be heated from 30°C to 93°C by a steam having an Heater inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used. Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this application. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Air Heater

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: H-

Function: to increase the temperature of the air to the desired temperature needed for drying

Description:

Shell-and-tube Number of Units: 1

heat exchanger Technical Detail Type: 2-4 Shell-and-tube heat Fluid arrangement: Counter-current flow exchanger Heat transfer area: 270.51 m2

Tube layout: 1.25 square pitch , Fixed tube plate

Number of tubes: 904

25% cut segmental baffle

Material

of

Construction:

Stainless Steel 317L

61

10. Blower (F-101) EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Blower

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: F-101

Function: Used to supply air needed in the dryer

Type/Description: A centrifugal blower with Number of Units: 1 blades in radial direction Technical Detail Blower Head: 2.64 m Discharge Power: 862.9 KW

Shaft Power : 1232.71 KW Mechanical Design

Number of blade : 5 Blade diameter : 0.45m

Blade width: 0.04m

Inlet velocity: 4115.45 m/s

Discharge velocity: 96873.76 m/s

Rotational speed: 4111450 rpm

Efficiency = 70%

62

11. Tanks a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101) The pure brine tank serves as the storage tank for the purified brine to be processed in the evaporative crystallizers. It gives the advantage for the pure brine to reach its equilibrium temperature which is measured prior to entering the evaporative crystallizers. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment Name: Pure Brine Tank

Operation: Continuous

Equipment Code: T-101

Function: Storage vessel for the pure brine

Number of Unit: 1 Technical Detail Operating Pressure: 1 atm Operating Temperature: 25oC Pure Brine Tank Details Material of Construction of Pure Brine Tank: Low carbon steel Mixer Tank Diameter: 5.195 m Mixer Tank Height: 5.194 m

63

b) Salt Holding Tank (T-102) The wet salt is needs to be stored into a storage vessel ready for ionization. The wet salt enters kg

the storage vessel at a rate of 100,000day. EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name : Salt Holding Tank

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: T-102

Function: Holds salt before ionization

Type/Description: Cylindrical closed vessel Technical Detail: Capacity: 8.333 m2

Number of unit: 1 Mechanical Design

Height: 4.5 m Diameter: 4.524 m Material of Construction: Stainless Steel

64

c) Ionization Tank (T-103)

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name : Salt Ionization tank

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: T-103

Function: Responsible for ionization of salt

Type/Description: Continuous Spray Salt Iodization Mixing Tank Technical Detail Capacity: 0.0694 m2

Number of unit: 1

Mechanical Design: Height: 0.309 m Diameter: 0.927 m Material of Construction: Stainless Steel

65

D. Piping and Instrumentation Process engineers are often responsible for the operation of chemical processes. As these processes become larger scale and/or more complex, the role of process automation becomes more and more important. Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control of process variable is important in many process applications. Common process variables include pressure, flow, level, temperature, density, pH (acidity or alkalinity), liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are combined in a vessel), mass and conductivity. Small changes in a process can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Many different instruments and devices may or may not be used in control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps), but the three tasks of measurement, comparison, and adjustment are always present. For the control and instrumentation design for industrial production of iodized salt from seawater, Figure 3.11, shows the overall process instrumentation using ISA symbology. Control loops such as pressure control loops, flow control loops (a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller, and a valve or pump are used), level control loops, temperature control loops, and multi-variable loops/advanced control loops (e.g., feed forward control, cascade control and selective control) are used. Control loops can be fairly complex. The strategies used to hold a process at set point is not always simple, and the interaction of numerous set points in an overall process control plan can be subtle and complex.

66

1. The P and I diagram

EC-101 Force circulation evaporator I

T-101 B-101 R-101 Pure brine Clarifier Steam boiler tank

M-101 Mixer

EC-102 Force circulation evaporator II

EC-103 Force circulation evaporator III

TK-102 Condensate tank

EC-104 Force circulation evaporator IV

C-101 Condenser

T-102 Salt slurry tank

H-101 Air heater

F-101 Blower

A-101 Air filter

FC-101 FC-102 Filter centrifuge Filter centrifuge

TK-101 KIO3 solution tank

T-103 Recycled brine tank

D-101 Dryer

Lime and soda ash LI

LI

FV-101 1

LI LC

LC

2

LC 3

raw salt

5

4

FV-102

FV-103

M-101

R-101

FV-104

P-101

T-101

TC

TT

CaCO3(s) Mg(OH)2(s) TC

LT

TC

LT

LC

FC

FT

TC

LT

LC

FC

FT

FV-114

LT

LC

FC

FT

LC

FC

FT

FV-105 FT FV-107

FV-109

FV-111

LI

FV-113 FC

8

9

FT

FT

FT

7

FC-101

FT

6

12

FV-108

FC

FV-106

FC

FC

FV-118 FT FC

seawater

FV-110

FV-112

FC FT

FC-102 13 FV-117

P-103

P-102 P-104

P-105

FV-119

P-107

P-106

T-103

16

FC

FV-121

FV-116

FT

T-102

FV-126

FV-125

Wet iodized salt Fuel

LX

LI TT

FV-128

F

LT

FC

Iodized Salt

TC 18

FFC

FV-129 B-101 H-101

F A-101

Combustion air

D-101

FV-122

F-101

FV-127 P-109

TK-102

P-110

Figure 3.11. Piping and Instrumentation Diagram for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

67

17

LC 15

11 FV-115

FV-124

FV-120

LT

FT

10

FV-123

14

P-108 FC

TK-101

FC

addition of KIO3 through drip feeding

VALVE SYMBOLS

INSTRUMENT SYMBOLS FC

Control Valve

Gate Valve

LINE SYMBOLS

FT

F

Flow Controller

LI

Level Indicator

TC

Flow Transmitter

LT

Level Transmitter

TT Temperature Transmitter

Flow Sensor

LC

Level Controller

Flow Fraction (Ratio) Controller

LX Constant head reservoir

Temperature Controller

Major Process Minor Process

FFC

Future Equipment

EQUIPMENT SYMBOLS

Pump

Blower

Air Heater

Condenser Heat Exchanger

Air Filter

Mixer

Pure Brine Tank

Conveyor

Iodine Dosing Tank

Filter Centrifuge

Steam Boiler

Force Circulation Evaporator

Clarifier

Salt Slurry Tank

Condensate Tank

Recycle Brine Tank

Dryer

Figure 3.12. Process Legend for the Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater

68

2. Valve Selection Control valves play a major role in the everyday effort to increase process plant profitability and conserve energy. Proper selection of these valves can have a significant financial impact on the overall cost of a project and how well the process can be controlled (Bishop et al., 2002). Thus, this section provides the general characteristics of each type of valve that match up with the design requirements (temperature, pressure, flow control characteristics and piping connection requirements) of the plant. Table 3.7. Valve used in the Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater Type of Valve Used Role Characteristics Globe valve

It is recognized that rotary valves Good sealing characteristics, can would not be a good fit for the be seawater

application

used

in

with open/closing

cavitation, noise and vibration change

of

frequent

service,

quick

trim

without

problems. Instead globe valve is removing valve from line, high used

capacity,

low

noise

trim

available, smooth control thus it is

recommended

for

flow

regulation. Ball Valve

For handling salt slurries

Most

suitable

for

handling

slurries, similar properties to gate valves,

lightweight

compact

design, high capacity, good range ability, tight shut off Diaphragm

recommended

for

treatment service

water- almost no leakage, process liquid is isolated from valve stream, self-cleaning

Gate valve

used when the fluid contains no pressure loss across the valve suspended solid

face

69

3. Pumps a. Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103 These pumps (Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103) are devices responsible for the transfer of purified brine from the pure brine tank (T-101) to the evaporator system (EC-101, EC-102, EC103 & EC-104). From the material balance (See Chapter III), the brine that is pump to the evaporative crystallizer is 480,006.6516 kg pure brine/day. The density of the brine is 1000 kg/m3. Design Calculations: According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

Power of pumping =

1.67 flow  ΔP ε

Given: Mass flow rate of pure brine , m pure brine = 480,006.6516 kg pure brine /day ρ brine = 1000

kg m3

ρ  mv pure brine v

m  ρ

kg 1 day  day 24 hr m3  20.0003 kg hr 1000 3 m

480,006.6516

Based from Sulzer centrifugal pump handbook, vertical centrifugal pumps, single stage, single suction are commonly used for brine pumps. From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at v=20.0003 m3/hr (88.0683 gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m). Calculating pump power consumption

kg 1 hr m m3 Power  ρgQH  1000 3  9.8 2  20.0003   91.44 m  4.98 KW hr 3600s m s

70

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Pump

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: P-101, P-102, & P-103

Function: Responsible for the transfer of purified brine from the pure brine

tank

(T-101)

to

the

evaporator system (EC-101, EC102, EC-103 & EC-104) Type/Description: Centrifugal pump single suction, Number of Units: 3 single stage Technical Detail Capacity: 20.0003 m3/hr Total Head: 91.44 m Power : 4.98 KW

71

b. Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107 Pumps (Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, & Pump-107) are devices responsible for the transfer of salt slurry from evaporator system (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103, & EC-104) to salt slurry tank (T-102). From the material balance (See Section 3.2.1), the salt slurry that is pump from the evaporative crystallizer is 26,667.0371 kg salt slurry/day. The density of the salt slurry is 2400.1 kg/m3 (calculated density). Design Calculations: According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

Power of pumping =

1.67 flow  ΔP ε

Given: Mass flow rate of pure brine , m pure brine = 26,667.0371 kg slurry /day ρ brine = 2400.1

kg m3

ρ = (mv )saltslurry

v=

m = ρ

Based

kg 1 day × m3 day 24 hr = 0.463 kg hr 2400.1 3 m

26,667.0371

from

Machinery’s

handbook,

29th

edition

Retrieved

from

http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/slurry_pumps_12849.htm, slurry pumps are best used to process fluids that contain corrosive solids and usually used in cement, steel, salt and agricultural processing plants. Slurry centrifugal pumps are usually single stage, end suction configuration, and lined with rubber to protect against wear. In some cases, these liners can be adjusted while the pump is running and this allows operations run 24-hours a day. From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at v=0.463 m3/hr (48.9247 gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m).

72

Calculating pump power consumption

1 hr m m3 Power  ρgQH  2400.1 3  9.8 2  0.463   91.44 m  0.277KW hr 3600s m s kg

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Pump

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump- Function: Responsible for the transfer of 106, & Pump-107

salt slurry from evaporator system (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103 & EC-104) to salt slurry tank (T-102)

Type/Description: Slurry centrifugal pump, single Number of Units: 4 stage, end suction configuration and lined with adjustable rubber Technical Detail Capacity: 0.463 m3/hr Total Head: 91.44 m Power : 0.277 KW

73

c. Pump-108 This pump is responsible for transferring the salt slurry from the storage to the centrifuges. The salt slurry is pumped at a rate of 106,668.1484 kg salt slurry/day. The density of the salt slurry is 2400.1 kg/m3 (calculated density). Design Calculations: According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

Power of pumping =

1.67 flow  ΔP ε

Given:

Mass flow rate of pure brine , m purebrine =106,668.1484 kg slurry /day kg ρ brine = 2400.1 3 m ρ = mv salt slurry v=

m = ρ

Based

kg 1 day × m3 day 24 hr = 1.85 kg hr 2400.1 3 m

106,668.1484

from

Machinery’s

handbook,

29th

edition

Retrieved

from

http://www.engineersedge.com/pumps/slurry_pumps_12849.htm, slurry pumps are best used to process fluids that contain corrosive solids and usually used in cement, steel, salt and agricultural processing plants. Slurry centrifugal pumps are usually single stage, end suction configuration, and lined with rubber to protect against wear. In some cases, these liners can be adjusted while the pump is running and this allows operations run 24-hours a day. From Figure 10.24 of Perry’s Chemical Engineers handbook, 8th edition, head of liquid at v=1.85 m3/hr (8.15gal/min) is 300 ft (91.44 m). Calculating pump power consumption

kg m m3 1 hr Power  ρgQH  2400.1 3  9.8 2  1.85   91.44 m  1.105KW m s hr 3600s

74

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Pump

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-108

Function:

Responsible

for

the

transferring the salt slurry from salt slurry tank (T-102) to the centrifuges Type/Description: Slurry centrifugal pump, Number of Units: 1 single stage, end suction configuration and lined with adjustable rubber Technical Detail Capacity: 1.85 m3/hr Total Head: 91.44 m Power : 1.105 KW

75

d. Pump-109 This pump is responsible for transferring the condensed water from the condenser to the condensate tank. According to Timmerhaus, 5th edition Chapter 12, double-suction, single-stage pumps used for general water supply, circulation service and chemical service with noncorrosive liquids. Thus, from centrifugal pumps, double-suction single stage pump will be used. e. Pump-110 This pump is responsible for transporting the recycled brine from the recycled brine tank (T103) back to mixer (M-101). The recycled brine is pumped at a rate 6668.1484kg/day. The density of the brine is 1000.0 kg/m3. Design Calculations: According to the heuristics for pumps by Timmerhaus,

Power of pumping =

1.67 (flow ) ΔP ε

Given: Mass flow rate of recycled brine , m recycled brine = 6668.1484kg /day ρ brine = 1000.0

kg m3

ρ = (mv )recycled brine

v=

m = ρ

kg 1 day × m3 day 24 hr = 0.2778 kg hr 1000.0 3 m

6668.1484

Based from Sulzer centrifugal pump handbook, vertical centrifugal pumps, single stage, single suction are commonly used for brine pumps. Calculating pump power consumption

Power  ρgQH  1000.0

kg m m3 1 hr  9.8  0.2778   91.44 m  0.0691 KW 3 2 m s hr 3600s

76

EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATION General Detail Equipment name: Pump

Operation: Continuous

Equipment code: Pump-110

Function: Responsible for transporting the recycled brine from the recycled brine tank (T-103) back to mixer (M-101)

Type/Description:

Centrifugal

pump

single Number of Units: 1

suction, single stage Technical Detail Capacity: 0.2778 m3/hr Total Head: 91.44 m Power :0.0691 KW

77

4. Pipe Size Selection Pipelines are designed to deliver fluid at the required head and flow rate in a cost effective manner. An increase in conduit diameter leads to increase in annual capital costs, and decrease in operating costs. The head losses in piping installations include the energy or head required to overcome resistance of the pipeline and fitting in the pumping system. Friction exists on both the discharge and suction sides of a pump and energy loss in pipe flow depends on the fluid velocity, density, viscosity, and conduit dimension. In selecting pipe size for different applications, small pipe may require a lower initial investment but the head loss due to friction is greater and this increases the energy cost. A larger pipe will save more in energy cost than the additional investment. Thus, an optimum pipe diameter must exist Several rules of thumbs from the Chemical Engineering Rule of Thumb are considered in

 

designing the pipe sizes. Liquid lines should be sized for a velocity of  5 

D  ft  and a pressure 3s

D  ft  drop of 2 psi of pipe at pump discharges. At the pump suction, size for  1.3   and a 

100 ft

6s

pressure drop of 4 psi of pipe (D is pipe diameter in inches). Steam or gas lines can be sized for 100 ft

20D

ft and pressure drops of 0.5 psi of pipe. Limits on superheated, dry steam or line should s 100 ft

be 61 m/s (200 ft/s) and a pressure drop of 0.1 bar or 0.5 psi 0.1 bar/100 m or 0.5 psi/100 ft of 100 m

100 ft

pipe. Limits on saturated steam lines should be 37 m/s (120 ft/s) to avoid erosion (Chemical Engineering Rules of Thumb). Pipe Schedule Number is approximately 1000 P ,where P is the S

internal pressure rating in psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material in psi (Schedule 40 is the most common).

78

5. Control and Instrumentation a) Design Objectives 1. Keep the plant running To keep the production of iodized salt plant running, engineers must have to make sure that the equipment is functioning, that the pumps, valves and motors are operating, that the instruments are calibrated and maintained and that the signals are properly communicated to the control system. Such as the control of flow rates, levels and temperature. 2. Satisfy the product requirement It is not sufficient to keep the physical parameters correct. Other variables that are directly related to the product quality have to be controlled. It involves manipulating variables of different unit processes. 3. Minimize the cost The ultimate goal at this level is to optimize the unit process operation. This is done by elaborating the control scheme of each of the unit processes. All of this depends on suitable sensors and instruments, which is further discussed below. 4. Integrate the plant operation The ultimate purpose of this is to satisfy the product requirement at minimum cost. By coordinating several processes, it is possible to decrease the impact of disturbances to the plant. b) Selection of Appropriate Control Strategy The main purpose of these control systems is to maintain important process characteristics at desired targets. Different control loops and strategies were chosen to formulate the control systems. For each unit process, controlled variables, manipulated and disturbance variable are summarized in Table 3.8.

79

Table 3.8. Classification of process variable in each equipment in the production of iodized salt from seawater Equipment

Code

Control objectives

Operating Conditions

Controlled Variable

Manipulated Variable

Disturbance variable Flowrate of leaving

Mixer

M-101

Liquid Level

Flowrate of entering

mixture because the

mixture (raw salt,

regulation is determined

seawater, recycled brine)

by the another system (clarifier)

To maintain the height It is a continuous process,

Flowrate of leaving

within certain bounds. that there is continuous

purified brine because

This is done to avoid flow in and flow out. Each Clarifier

R-101

overflowing

and equipment

problems with the flow specific

operates pressure

Mixture Level

at

Flowrate of entering

the regulation is

mixture from the mixer

determined by the

and

another system

of production when the temperature ( see Figure

(purified tank)

height is too high and 3.10)

Flowrate of leaving

too low respectively. Purified tank

Flowrate of entering T-101

Purified Brine Level

purified brine from clarifier

purified brine because it is controlled by the another system (evaporative crystallizer)

80

Continuation of Table 3.8 Equipment

Code

Control objectives

Controlled Variable

Operating Conditions

Manipulated Variable

Disturbance variable

To regulate the water in the boiler drum. This aims to bring up to level at boiler start-up and maintain the level at constant stean load.

Boiler

B-101

A dramatic decrease in the

Flowrate of entering

drum level may uncover It is a continuous boiler tubes and an increase process, that there is

feed water from the Drum Level

may interfere with the continuous flow in and out. Each process of separating flow

condensate tank (cooled water from the

Flow rate of the leaving steam

condenser)

steam equipment operates at within the drum, thus specific pressure and reducing boiler efficiency temperature ( see Figure moisture

from

and carrying moisture into 3.10). the process.

To

avoid

explosion

creating

an

Combustion

inside

the

(Temperature of heat

combustion chamber

transfer fluid)

81

Flow rate of entering fuel and air

Entering air composition

Equipment

Iodine Dozing tank

Dyer

Code

Control objectives

T-103

To maintain the height within certain bounds. This is done to avoid overflowing and problems with the flow of production when the height is too high and too low respectively.

D-101

Operating Conditions

It is a continuous process, that there is continuous flow in and flow out. Each equipment operates at specific pressure and temperature ( see figure To maintain the 3.10) moisture content of the dry salt at a desired level (0.2% moisture)

Controlled Variable

Iodine level

Moisture and temperature of wet and dry salt

Manipulated Variable

Disturbance variable

Flowrate of entering iodine solution

Flowrate of the leaving iodine solution

Flowrate and Temperature of entering heated air

Temperature of air Inlet moisture content Feed rate (flowrate of wet salt)

End of Table 3.5

82

c) Individual Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Equipments (1) Mixer

LI seawater

LC

raw salt

M-101

Figure 3.13. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Mixer Raw salt is harvested from crystallizing ponds as mixture of salt crystals and mother liquor containing soluble impurities in high concentrations requiring it to be purified. Prior to clarification, the raw salt is mixed with the seawater and recycled brine from the centrifuge lowering its concentration. This solution is then pumped to the clarification tank. The liquid level in the tank is controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the mixture and is acted upon by the control valve to avoid overflowing. The liquid level indicator serves as the sensor and placed to monitor the height of the mixture inside the tank. The level indicator transmits the measured height to the level controller. The level controller in turn compares this measured height to the desired liquid level in the tank (set point) and sends a signal to the valve. This valve thus, adjusts the flow rate out to maintain the set point (desired height

83

(2) Clarifier and Pure Brine Tank Lime and soda ash

LI

LI LC

LC Pure Brine

Brine

P-101 R-101

T-101

CaCO3(s) Mg(OH)2(s)

Figure 3.14. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Clarifier and Pure brine tank The principal impurities of crude brine are calcium, magnesium and sulfate ions. These degrade the sodium chloride quality therefore requiring them to be removed. Calcium hydroxide is added to precipitate magnesium ions as magnesium hydroxide while soda ash causes the remaining calcium to precipitate as calcium carbonate. Sulfate however is not yet removed in this process. The brine is pumped from the mixing tank is treated in the clarifying unit. The liquid level in the unit is controlled by the first valve. The resulting clarified solution is then stored in a tank. The pure brine tank supplies the pure brine to the evaporative crystallizer. For the brine level to be controlled the outflow rate should be manipulated. The purpose of the level controller is to avoid overflow in the equipment.

84

(3) Boiler

TC

Steam LX Fuel F

LT

FC Feed water

FFC

B-101 F Combustion air

Figure 3.15. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Boiler

For the control and instrumentation of boiler, it is important to keep in mind that the air-tofuel ratio in the combustion zone is important because these directly impacts fuel combustion efficiency and environmental emissions. In figure 4, ratio control strategy is implemented. The combustion air feed rate is adjusted by a flow fraction (ratio) controller to maintain a desired air/fuel ratio. Drum level is also controlled. The boiler drum is where water and steam are separated. Controlling its level is critical – if the level becomes too low, the boiler can run dry resulting in mechanical damage of the drum and boiler piping. If the level becomes too high, water can be carried over into the steam pipe work, possibly damaging downstream equipment. The boiler feed water pump push water through the control valve into the boiler drum. The water level in the drum is measured with a pressure and temperature-compensated level transmitter. The drum level controller compares the drum level measurement to the set point and modulates the feed water control valves to keep the water level in the drum as close to set point as possible.

85

(4) Evaporative Crystallizer

TC

TT

LT

LC

FT

LC

FC

FC

FT

FC

LT

FC

FT

LC

FC

FT

FT

FT

Condensate to condensate tank

FC

FC

FT

LC

LT

FT

Pure brine

LT

TC

FC

TC

TC

P-103

P-102 P-104

P-105

P-106

P-107

FC

FT

Salt slurry

T-102

Figure 3.16. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Evaporative Crystallizer The system is mainly consisting of a forced-circulation evaporator, a pump and the steam heater. The feed pure brine is mixed with a high volumetric flow rate of recycling liquor and is pumped into the heat exchanger heated by steam. The liquid passes the evaporator where the liquid and the vapor are separated. The current control strategy of the forced-circulation system is accomplished by using multiloop cascade SISO controllers. The evaporator liquid level (h) is controlled by the discharge slurry flow, where the valve opening is adjusted for the discharge slurry flow. The temperature of the steam is also controlled by manipulating the flow rate of the entering steam. Temperature controllers, temperature transmitter, level indicator, level controller, level transmitter, flow controller and flow transmitter are installed to satisfy this control strategy.

86

(5) Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

FT

LI

FC

FC-101 FT FC

FT

FC-102

TK-101

FC

LT LC 1975mm

addition of KIO3 through drip feeding

FC

1940.6mm

T-103

FT

T-102

iodized salt

Figure 3.17. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Centrifuge and Iodine Dozing

The objective of the control system of the two centrifuges is to control its inlet flowrate. Therefore, both the systems will use a flow control loop, which is an example of a feedback control loop. In the flow control loop, a flow sensor, a transmitter, a controller and a valve will be used. A feedback loop measures the process variable, i.e. the flowrate, and sends the measurement to a flowrate controller for comparison to the setpoint. If the flowrate is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return the flowrate to setpoint. The flowrate transmitter will measure the flowrate of the fluid, and if necessary, opens or closes the flow rate valve to adjust the fluid’s flowrate. Similarly, the tank which contains the wet slurry and tank for ion dosing will use a feedback loop system, a level control loop system. The objective of this control system is to avoid the overflowing of the tank. The level of the tanks will depend on the flow rate of the outflow. A feedback loop measures the level of the tank and sends the measurement to a level controller to compare it with the set 87

point. If it is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return the level to setpoint. The level transmitter will measure the level of the tank. The final control element is the valve which is connected on the outflows of each tank. If necessary, these valves will be opened or closed to adjust the tanks’ level.

88

(6) Dryer

Wet iodized salt

TT TC

Iodized Salt D-101

F-101

H-101

A-101

Figure 3.18. Control and Instrumentation Diagram of Dryer A resistance temperature detector (RTD) sensor and transmitter are installed in the dryer vessel. The sensor’s resistance property changes in response to the temperature changes. As the air flow rate affects the temperature, the transmitter is set to produce a value of resistance (signal) when the temperature is measured from the dry salt. This signal serves as an input to the valve and adjusts the valve by opening or closing the air supplied in order to obtain the desired temperature for the dryer vessel. The dry salts temperature is the controlled variable and the flow rate of the air supplied is manipulated variable.

89

Chapter IV COSTING AND PROJECT EVALUATION A. Estimation of Equipment Cost Cost estimation of some of the equipment is based on the cost estimated at Matches (2014) and using the Chemical Engineering Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2014 (CE index = 704.6). Forced circulation evaporators and heat exchangers cost was estimated using correlating equations in terms of appropriate key characteristics of the equipment such as ft2 (heating surface area), materials of construction, temperature, pressure, flow rate. Material of Construction is a major factor in the price of equipment so that multipliers for prices relative to carbon steel or other standard materials are given. Usually only the parts in contact with process substances need be of special construction, so that, in general, the multipliers are not always as great as they are for vessels that are made entirely of special materials. Thus, when the tube side of a heat exchanger is special and the shell is carbon steel, the multiplier will vary with the amount of tube surface, as shown in the cost estimation calculations. Calculations of some equipment cost will be seen in the appendix. Summary of the equipment costs will be presented in Table 4.1. 1. Forced-Circulation Evaporator Cost Estimate Calculation Evaporators (IFP: Chemical Engineers Handbook, p.11.42) Forced Circulation:



C = f m exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln A + 0.0851lnA 2



price in $

150  A  8000 ft 2 heat surface

Forced-Circulation Evaporators Construction Material: Shell/Tube fm Steel/Copper 1.00 Monel/Cupronickel 1.35 Nickel/Nickel 1.80

90

Solution: From Chapter III Section C-3. Forced Circulation Evaporator (EC-101, EC-102, EC-103& EC-104) the following data can be deduced: Given: Heating surface area = 118 m2=1270.1105 ft2 Materials of construction: Stainless Steel 317L



C = f m exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln A + 0.0851lnA 2



Therefore, f m =1.00 ; A = 1270.1105ft2 (satisfiesthe above constraints)



C = 1.00exp 5.9785 - 0.6056ln 1270.1105+ 0.0851ln 1270.11052 C = $ 402.2466



$ 402.2466is its cost in 1984

From the given cost index in 1984 (Vatavuk, 2002) and the cost index in 2014 (ChE Cost Index, 2014), the cost indexes are 344.0 and 704.6 respectively. cost of evaporator in 2014  cost of evaporator in 1984

cost index in 2014 , equation based in cost index in 1984

Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, 9-13. Thus, cost of evaporator in 2014  $402.2466 100  (

704.6 ) 344.0

cost of evaporator in 2014= $ 82,390.3937

For heat exchanger installed in the evaporator: Shell and Tube: C  f d f m f p C b price in $





C b  exp 8.821 - 0.30863lnA   0.0681ln A 2 , 150 A  12,000 ft 2

Type Fixed-head

fd

exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln A)]

91

Kettle reboiler U-tube

1.35

exp [- 0.9816 + 0.0803 (ln A)]

Pressure Range 100-300 300-600 600-900

fp

0.7771+ 0.04981(ln A) 1.0305 + 0.07140 (ln A) 1.1400 + 0.12088 (ln A)

Materials Stainless steel 316 Stainless steel 304 Stainless steel 347 Nickel 200 Nickel 400 Inconel 600 Incology 825 Titanium Hastelloy

g1 0.8603 0.8193 0.6116 1.5092 1.2989 1.2040 1.1854 1.5420 0.1549

g2 0.23296 0.15984 0.22186 0.60859 0.43377 0.50764 0.49706 0.42913 0.51774

f m = g1 + g 2 (ln A) Solution: From Chapter III Section C-4. Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, & H-104), the following data can be deduced: Given: Heat transfer area= 24.8814 m2 = 267.8146 ft2 Number of units= 4 Tube layout = Fixed tube plate Materials of construction = Stainless steel 317L/Stainless steel 316 Thus, Shell and Tube: C  f d f m f p C b price in $





C b  exp 8.821 - 0.30863lnA   0.0681ln A 2 , 150 A  12,000 ft 2

92

Since A=267.8146 ft2, which satisfies the constraint, the formula can therefore be used in computing its cost,

Cb = exp [8.821 - 0.30863 ln (267.8146) + 0.0681(ln 267.8146)2 ] Cb = 10136.3925 And since it fixed-head, fd = exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln A)]

f d = exp [- 1.1156 + 0.0906 (ln 267.8146)] f d = 0.5438 And since the pressure ranges from 100-300 psig, f p = 0.7771 + 0.04981 (ln A )

f p = 0.7771+ 0.04981(ln A ) = 0.7771+ 0.04981(ln 267.8146) fp = 1.0495 Lastly since the material used is stainless steel 316, g1=0.8603 and g2=0.23296

f m = g1 + g 2 (ln A) f m = 0.8603 + 0.23296 (ln 267.8146) f m = 2.1626 Therefore, cost of shell and tube heat exchanger is

C = 0.5438 (1.0495)(2.1626)(10136.3925) C = $ 12510.6900 From the given cost index in 1984 (Vatavuk, 2002) and the cost index in 2014 (ChE Cost Index, 2014), the cost indexes are 344.0 and 704.6 respectively. cos t of evaporator in 2014  cos t of evaporator in 1984

cos t index in 2014 , equation based in cos t index in 1984

Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, 9-13. Therefore,

93

cost of shell and tube heat exchnager in 2014= $ 12510.6900  (

704.6 ) 344.0

cost o f shell and tube heat exchnager in 2014= $25,625.0935

Cost of One Forced-Circulation Evaporator Cost of one forced-circulation evaporator= cost of heat exchanger + cost of evaporator Cost of one forced-circulation evaporator= $ 25,625.0935+ $82,390.3937=$ 109,015.4872

Table 4.1. Summary of Equipment Costs Equipment Cost/Unit ($) Unit

Cost ($)

Mixer

14,900.00

1

14,900.00

Clarifier

24,270.00

1

24,270.00

Forced-Circulation Evaporative

109,015.49

4

436,061.95

Condenser

57,400.00

1

57,400.00

Boiler

326,900.00

1

326,900.00

Filter Centrifuge

47,000.00

1

47,000.00

Dryer

51,900.00

1

51,900.00

Air Heater

40,300.00

1

40,300.00

Blower

16,800.00

1

16,800.00

Pure Brine Tank

34,500.00

1

34,500.00

Salt Holding Tank

23,600.00

1

23,600.00

Salt Ionization Tank

4,300.00

1

4,300.00

KIO3 solution Tank

31,600.00

1

31,600.00

Pump-101, Pump-102, & Pump-103

4,400.00

3

13,200.00

Pump-104, Pump-105, Pump-106, &

4,000.00

4

16,000.00

crystallizer

Pump-107

94

Pump-108

5,100.00

1

5,100.00

Pump-109

3,900.00

1

3,900.00

Pump-110

4,100.00

1

4,100.00

26

1,151,831.95

TOTAL PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST

B. Estimation of Capital Investment Total capital investment (TCI) is the sum of the fixed-capital investment (FCI) and the working capital (WC). That is, TCI = FCI+WC Estimation of Fixed-Capital Investment According to Peters & Timmerhaus, fixed-capital investment (FCI) is the capital needed to supply the required manufacturing and plant facilities. FCI may be further subdivided into direct cost (manufacturing fixed-capital investment) and indirect cost (non-manufacturing fixed-capital investment). Table 4.2 summarizes the estimated cost of the different components under direct cost. Table 4.2. Direct Cost Checking Estimated Cost

Normalized percentage of FCI, %

Allowable Range

% Calculated

57407304.39

23.91304348

15-40 % of fixed capital investment

23.91304348

22614998.7

9.420289855

25-55% of the purchased equipment cost

39.39393939

17396152.84

7.246376812

8-50% of the purchased equipment cost

30.3030303

Piping

15656537.56

6.52173913

Electrical System

13916922.28

5.797101449

Buildings

24354613.98

10.14492754

Purchased Equipment Purchased Equipment Installation Instrumentati on And Controls

10-40% of the purchased equipment cost 10-80% of the purchased equipment cost 10-70% of the purchased equipment cost

95

27.27272727 24.24242424 42.42424242

Yard Improvement s Service Facilities Land Total Direct Cost , ($)

6958461.138

2.898550725

17396152.84

7.246376812

3479230.569

1.449275362

179180374.3

74.63768116

Estimated Cost

12.12121212 40-100% of the purchased equipment cost 4-8% of the purchased equipment cost

Table 4.3. Indirect Cost Normalized Allowable Range percentage of FCI, %

Engineering and Supervision Constructio n Expenses Legal Expenses Contractor's Fee Contingency

20875383.41

8.695652174

15656537.56

6.52173913

Total Indirect Cost , ($)

5218845.853

2.173913043

5218845.853

2.173913043

13916922.28

5.797101449

60886534.96

25.36231884

5-30% of direct cost

30.3030303 6.060606061

% Calculated 11.65048544 6.52173913

10-20% of fixed capital investment 1-3% of fixed capital investment 5-15% of fixed capital investment

2.173913043 2.173913043 5.797101449

Table 4.3 summarizes the estimated cost of the different components under indirect cost. Table 4.4 summarizes the total capital investment. The table includes the allowable percentage range of each component as well as their selected percentages. Selected percentages were based on different estimation costs of each, and if it is within the allowable range, estimated costs are said to be acceptable. Cost estimations were done by different computations and different adjustments/trial and errors using Excel. And the final fixed capital investment is shown in the table.

96

Table 4.4. Summary of Fixed Capital Costs Components

Range of FCI , %

Selected percentage of FCI,%

Normalized percentage of FCI

Estimated cost

Purchased Equipment

15-40

33

0.239130435

57407304.39

Purchased Equipment Installation Instrumentation And Controls

6-14

13

0.094202899

22614998.7

2-12

10

0.072463768

17396152.84

Piping

4-17

9

0.065217391

15656537.56

Electrical System

2-10

8

0.057971014

13916922.28

Buildings

2-18

14

0.101449275

24354613.98

Yard Improvements

2-5

4

0.028985507

6958461.138

Service Facilities

8-30

10

0.072463768

17396152.84

Land

1-2

2

0.014492754

3479230.569

Engineering And Supervision Construction Expenses

4-20

12

0.086956522

20875383.41

4-17

9

0.065217391

15656537.56

Legal Expenses

1-3

3

0.02173913

5218845.853

Contractor's Fee

2-6

3

0.02173913

5218845.853

Contingency

5-15

8

0.057971014

13916922.28

138

1

240066909.3

Direct Costs

Indirect Costs

Total Fixed Capital Investment , in Peso

For checking, direct cost should be within the range of 65-85% of FCI and indirect cost should be within the range of 15-35% of FCI. For direct cost; Total direct cost = Purchased Equipment + Purchased Equipment Installation  Piping  Instrument ation and Control Electrical System  Buildings  Yard Improvemen ts  Service Facilities  land

97

 57,407,304.39  22,614,998.7  15,656,537.5617,396,152.84  13,916,922.28  24,354,613.98  6,958,461.138  17,396,152.84  3,479,230.569  179,180,374.3  179,180,374.3  % direct cost    x100  240,066,909.3   74.64%; within the range For indirect cost; Total Indirect Cost  Engineering and supervision  construction expences  legal expences  contractor' s fee  contingency  20,875,383.41  15,656,537.56  5,218,845.853  5,218,845.853  13,916,922.28  60,886,534.96  % Indirect cost   x100  240,066,909.3   25.36%; within the range

Estimation of Working Capital The working capital is the capital needed for the operation of the plant. This consist of the total amount of money invested in (1) raw materials and supplies carried in stock; (2) finished products in stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured; (3) accounts receivable; (4) cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, such as salaries, wages, and raw material purchases; (5) accounts payable and (6) taxes payable (Peters & Timmerhaus, et. al.). In most industries, working capital is from 10-20% of the total capital investment. For this study, working capital is considered to be 15%. Thus, TCI  FCI  WC TCI  FCI  0.15TCI TCI  0.15TCI  FCI 0.85TCI  FCI 0.85TCI  240,066,909.3 TCI  282,431,658 WC  42,364,748.7

98

C. Estimation of Total Product Cost The total product cost is composed of the total of all costs of operating the plant, selling the products, recovering the capital investment, and contributing to corporate functions such as management and research and development (Peters & Timmerhaus, et. al.). In general, it is divided into two categories: (1) manufacturing costs and (2) general expenses. Manufacturing costs consist of the variables production cost, fixed charges and plant overhead costs. General expenses consist of administrative expenses, distribution and marketing and research and development expenses. Overall production cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses Manufacturing Cost: Table 4.5 shows the total annual value of products. Table 4.5. Annual Value of Products Products, Co-products and By-products Name of Material Price, Annual $/kg Amount kg/y

Retail :Iodized salt per kilogram 0.40 Whole sale: 40 kg Iodized salt per sack 15.46 Total annual value of products =

5040000.000 294000.000

Annual value of product, $/y

1997992.08 4543946.40 6541938.48

Table 4.6. Estimation of raw material cost annually Raw Materials Name of Material Price, $/kg Annual Amount, Annual raw materials million kg/y cost, million $/y

NA2CO3 NaOH KIO3

0.12 0.33 20.00

0.483 0.139 0.420

99

0.06 0.05 8.40 0.00

0.00 0.00 8.50

Total annual cost of raw materials =

The estimation of wages was based on the National Wages and Productivity Commission under the Department of Labor and Employment which indicates the minimum wages of each region. The wage of each employee was estimated based on the minimum wage set by DOLE. The number of employees per shift was estimated based on the heaviness of work. (Department of Labor and Employment: National Wages and Productivity Commission, 2017). The basis of computation of their annual wages is 7 months. Table 4.7 shows the salaries and wages of employees. The organizational chart is found in Appendix D Table 4.7. Summary of the Wages of Employees Labor Costs Operation Labor Cost Employees Shift per Number of Salary rate day employees (per month) per shift Production Head 1 1 30 000.00 Operating Head Engineers 2 5 25 000.00 Operators 3 7 15 000.00 Technicians 2 1 12 000.00 HSE General Manager 1 1 20 000.00 Safety Officers 2 2 18 000.00

Annual Salary 180 000.00 1 500 000.00 1 890 000.00 144 000.00 120 000.00 432 000.00 4 266 000.00

General Manager Market Analyst Sales Manager Advertising Manager Other employees

Marketing Labor Cost 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5

25 000.00 20 000.00 20 000.00 20 000.00 15 000.00

150 000.00 120 000.00 120 000.00 120 000.00 450 000.00 960 000.00

Chief Accountant Budget Analyst Financial Accountant Purchasing Manager Other Employees

Finance Labor Cost 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

30 000.00 22 000.00 22 000.00 22 000.00 18 000.00

180 000.00 132 000.00 132 000.00 132 000.00 324 000.00 900 000.00

Head Managers

Administration Labor Cost 1 3 22 000.00 100

396 000.00

Managers under Human Resources Other Employees under Human Resources Research Analyst Laboratory Technician Inspector Other Employees under Research and Development Warehouse Supervisor Utility Operator Handymen Nurse Guard Janitor

1

3

20 000.00

360 000.00

1

5

13 000.00

390 000.00

1 1 1 1

1 1 1 2

18 000.00 15 000.00 13 000.00 12 000.00

108 000.00 90 000.00 78 000.00 144 000.00

1 1 1 1 3 1

1 1 4 1 2 2

15 000.00 15 000.00 10 000.00 10 000.00 8 000.00 5 000.00

90 000.00 90 000.00 240 000.00 60 000.00 288 000.00 60 000.00 2 394 000.00 8 520 000.00

Total

Number of operators per shift*

Table 4.8. Annual operating labor cost Shifts Operator rate, $/h # Annual operating per labor cost, million day** $/y

6 3 33.67 1.770 th *See Tables 6-13 and Fig. 6-9 Peter’s et al., 2003, 5 edition **Rule of thumb = 3 for continuous process. # To obtain current,(latest local ENR skilled labor index)/6067 = 1

Default unit cost

Table 4.9. Utility Cost Total Utility Cost = 2.030 million $/y Sent to sheet 'Annual TPC' Utility Default Annual cost units utility requirement, in appropriate units Air, compressed Process air 0.45 $/100m3 # Instrument air 0.90 $/100m3 # 217903 Electricity

101

Default units of utility requirement

100 m3#/y 100 m3#/y

Annual utility cost, million $/y

0.196

Purchased, U.S. average Self-generated Fuel

0.045

$/kWh

0.05

$/kWh

kWh/y

$/GJ $/GJ $/GJ $/GJ

GJ/y GJ/y GJ/y GJ/y

Coal 1.66 Fuel oil 3.30 Natural gas 3.00 Manufactured gas 12.00 Refrigeration, to temperature 15 oC 4.00 5 °C 5.00 o -20 C 8.00 o -50 C 14.00 Steam, saturated 3550 kPa 8.00 790 kPa 6.00 Exhaust (150 kPa) 2.00 Waste water Disposal 0.53 Treatment 0.53 Waste disposal Hazardous 145.00 Non-hazardous 36.00 Water Cooling 0.08 Process General 0.53 Distilled 0.90 # measured at 101.3 kPa and 15°C.

1800000

360000

kWh/y

$/GJ $/GJ $/GJ $/GJ

GJ/y GJ/y GJ/y GJ/y

$/1000 kg $/1000 kg $/1000 kg

1000 kg/y 1000 kg/y 1000 kg/y

$/m3 $/m3

40000

40000

$/1000 kg $/1000 kg

m3/y m3/y

0.081

1.080

0.240

0.021

1000 kg/y 1000 kg/y

$/ m3

2500000

m3/y

0.200

$/m3 $/m3

400000

m3/y m3/y

0.212

Depreciation rates are very important in determining the amount of income tax. The method used to compute the depreciation is the Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System or the MARCS method. According to Perry’s Handbook, 8th edition, food and beverages have a recovery period of 3 years which where iodized salt belongs. Using a service life of 4 years, the following table presents the annual depreciation. Year 1

Table 4.10. Annual Depreciation using MACRS Unadjusted Depreciation Depreciation Basis, Php rate , % Deduction, Php 236587678.7 33.33 78854673.31

102

Adjusted Basis, Php 157733005.4

2

236587678.7

44.45

105163223.2

52569782.2

3 4

236587678.7 236587678.7

14.81 7.41

35038635.21 17531146.99

17531146.99 0

Total Depreciation Average Depreciation/Year

236587678.7 59146919.67

103

Cost Items

Selected Range/ calculated range ,%

Table 4.11. Summary of Total Product Cost Estimation of total product cost Normalized, % Allowable Range, %

I. Manufacturing Cost A. Direct Production Cost Raw Materials Operating Labor Utilities Direct Supervisory And Clerical Labor Maintenance And Repairs Operating Supplies Laboratory Charges Patent And Royalties B. Fixed Charges Depreciation Local Taxes Insurance Financing Interest C. Plant Overhead Cost

724193127.7

Cost Estimate based on Normalized Percentage, PHP /Year 159430902.2

423470000 58289400.00 101134600 5828940

45777607.74 6301153.065 10932769.85 630115.3065

564.6919023 77.72817949 134.8617131 10.00

61.04386236 8.402508113 14.57871066 10.00

about 60% of total product cost 10-80% of total product cost 10-20% of total product cost 10-20% of the total product cost 10-20% of operating labor

6 11 12 5

6 11 12 0.540505912

2-10% of fixed capital investments 10-20% of maintenance cost 10-20% of operating labor 0-6% of total product cost

14404014.56 1584441.601 6994728 3749566.784

14404014.56 1584441.601 756138.3678 405332.6031

1 1

1-4% of fixed capital investments 0.4-1% of fixed capital investment

59146919.67 2400669.093 2400669.093

59146919.67 2400669.093 2400669.093

4 45

0-10% of the total capital investment 5-15% of total product cost 15-25% of the total product cost 2-5% of the total product cost 2-20% of the total product cost about 5% of the total product cost

11043077.83 33746101.06

11043077.83 3647993.428 7926479.004 2900354.725 1459197.371 3566926.907 167357381.2 74991335.68

35.7774665 18 44

4.864553211 10.56985975 3.867586434 1.945821284 4.756452028

925.0592614

100

II. General Expenses Administrative Costs Distribution And Selling Cost Research And Development Total Production Cost Total Product Cost

Cost Estimate, PHP/Year

104

26830000 1459197.371 3566926.907 756049252

D. Feasibility Study Financial analysis This portion gauges the plant’s profitability, liquidity, cash flow solvency and growth over time. 1. Profit and Loss Statement Profit and loss statement (P&L) is a financial statement that summarizes the revenues, costs and expenses incurred during a specific period of time, usually a fiscal quarter or year. These records provide information about a company's ability – or lack thereof – to generate profit by increasing revenue, reducing costs, or both. The P&L statement is also referred to as "statement of profit and loss", "income statement," "statement of operations," "statement of financial results," and "income and expense statement" (Investopedia, 2014). Table 4.12 shows the profit and loss statement of the company during the fiscal year. Table 4.12. Profit and Loss Statement PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT REVENUE Annual Sales 325,919,375.1 Cost of Goods Sold 55,454,788.68 Gross Margin 270,464,586.4 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL EXPENSES Administrative Cost 2,900,354.725 Maintenance and Repairs 14,404,014.56 Wages and Salaries 2,394,000.00 Depreciation 59,146,919.67 Utilities 10,932,769.85 Distribution and marketing costs 1,459,197.371 Others 91,237,256.18 Total Expenses 167,357,381.2 NET PROFIT Net Profit before Taxes 158,562,618.8 Taxes 3,171,252.376 Net Profit after Taxes 155,391,366.4 E. Test of Profitability and Capital Investment These financial tools evaluate the justification for investing in the plant, shows the operational performance and efficiency of the plant. Table 4.13 shows the summary of capital investment and profitability analysis of the plant.

105

Gross Income Gross Income  Projected Sales - Total Production Cost  325,919,375.1 - 167,357,381.2  158,561,993.9

Annual Net Profit Annual Net Profit  Gross Income - Tax Rates  158,561,993.9  0.029(158,561,993.9 )  155,390,754

Rate of Return

 Anunual Net PRofit  x100 Rate of Return    Fixed Capital Invest   155,390,754   x100  240,066,909.3   64.728%   Fixed Capital Investment  Payback Period    Net Annual Profit  Annual Depreciation  240,066,909.3  155,390,754  59,146,919.67  1.12 years Thus, it takes 1 year and 2 months to recover the cost of an investment. Table 4.13. Summary of Capital Investment and Profitability Analysis Projected Sales 325919375.1 Total Production Cost 167357381.2 Formula Gross Income Projected Sales - Total Production Cost 158561993.9 Local Tax Rate 0.02 Annual Net Profit Gross Income -Tax Rates 155390754 Fixed Capital Investment 240066909.3 Annual Net Profit Rate Of Return 64.7281% ( )x100 Fixed Capital Investment

Depreciation Payback Period

Fixed Capital Investment Net Annual Profit  Annual Depreciation

106

59146919.67 1.118996516

Chapter V Safety, Health and Environment A. Safety and Loss Prevention One of the most important responsibilities in the operation of this plant is to always hold on safety of the workers and the environment. The production and safety goes hand in hand and that a safe working environment leads to improved production. To do this, effort must be placed on safety by every employee at this facility. 1. Company policy The best way to control workers’ compensation costs is to prevent injuries in the workplace. Fewer injuries mean no lost time, increased productivity and no costly workers’ compensation claims to manage. Ensuring safe operation will also ensure efficient operation. a) Responsibilities of Employer 1. Prepare and/or review at least annually a written company Health and Safety policy. 2. Assign the necessary resources and support to the Health and Safety representative to make programs effective in accordance with the Health and Safety Act. 3. Supply such items as protective glasses, hearing protection, and fall arrest equipment. 4. Promote safe work practices in order to ensure the protection of worker Health and Safety. 5. Meet all legal requirements for investigating and reporting critical injuries, accidents and occurrences. b) Responsibilities of Supervisors 1. Ensure that all workers comply with the protective devices, measures, and procedures required by the Occupation Health and Safety Act. 2. Ensure that all workers use or wear the equipment, protective devices and clothing as required by the employer and by the requirements of the Occupation Health and Safety Act. 3. Provide orientation for the new crew members. 4. Support and enforce safety programs.

107

5. Identify specific site hazards and instruct workers in proper work practices and update instructions as required. 6. Ensure all workers work in a manner that doesn’t endanger themselves or their co- workers or company clients. 7. Report health and safety concerns to Health and Safety representative and/or employer. 8. Assist in the investigations of accidents and take corrective action. 9. Accompany inspectors during site visits. 10. Inspect safety equipment, tools and sites at least weekly. 11. Ensure housekeeping is done on a daily basis. 12. Initiate emergency response plans when necessary. c) Responsibilities of Workers 1. Supply and wear at all times a CSA certified hard hat and CSA certified grade 1 footwear as prescribed in Occupation Health and Safety Act. 2. Work in compliance with the company Health and Safety policy as well as regulations set forth by the Occupation Health and Safety Act. 3. Report hazards and unsafe working conditions to supervisors and assist if requested in taking corrective action. 4. Assist in site clean-up on a daily basis 5. Work in a manner that will not endanger themselves, their co-workers or clients of the company. 6. If necessary the worker may exercise their “right to refuse” or to “stop work” if the worker believes that the condition of the workplace or equipment may endanger himself, herself or another worker. 7. Must never engage in pranks, rough-housing, feat of strength contests, or boisterous conduct. 8. Communicate to the site supervision about any concerns regarding Health and Safety. 9. Assist in emergency response procedures.

108

10. Wear appropriate protection at all times where there is risk of injury. 2. Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) Evaluation of Storage Tanks

Figure 5.1. Pure Brine Tank (T-101)

Figure 5.2. Salt Slurry Tank (T-102)

Figure 5.3. Uniodized Wet Salt Tank

109

a) Pure Brine Tank (T-101) Table 5.1. HAZOP evaluation of pure brine tank Equipment Deviation reference from and operating operating conditions conditions Storage Level tank

Less

What event could cause this deviation?

1. Tank runs dry

Consequences of this deviation on item of equipment under consideration Pump cavitates

Additional implications of this consequence Damage to pump

T-101

Process indications

LI-101 LC-101

2. Rupture discharge line Pure brine released

LI-101

Notes and questions

Can pure brine react or explode if overheated in pump? Estimate release quantity.

LC-101 3.

FV-104

open

or Pure brine released

LI-101

Consider FV-104 protection

Pure brine released

L1-101

What external events can cause

broken 4. Tank rapture More

rapture? Tank overfills

Pure brine

5. Unload too much from

LI-101

released Tank overfills

shutoff. LI-101

the clarifier

Pure brine

110

Consider

second

high-level

No

6. Reverse flow from

released

Process

Consider check valve in pump discharge line.

Same as less

Consider second shutdown on feed lines

Composition Other than

7. Wrong reagent/liquid

Possible reaction

Possible tank rupture

As well as

8. Impurity in reagent

If volatile, possible overpressure Possible problem in the evaporator

111

Consider

sampling

before

unloading. Are other materials delivered in the reactor? What are possible impurities?

b) Salt Slurry Tank (T-102) Table 5.2. HAZOP evaluation of salt slurry tank Equipment reference and operating conditions Storage tank

Deviation from operating conditions Level

T-103

Less

What event could cause this deviation?

1. Tank runs dry

2. Rupture discharge

Consequences of this deviation on Additional item of equipment implications of under this consequence consideration

Pump cavitates

Damage to pump

Wet salts released

line

3. FV-120 open or

Process indications

LT-103

Can pure brine react or

LC-103

explode if overheated in

LI-103

pump?

LC-103 Wet salts released

FC-120

Wet salts released

LC-103

broken 4. FV-119 More

Notes and questions

Estimate release quantity.

Consider FV-104 protection What external events can cause

Tank overfills

Wet salts released

LI-103

malfunctioned

rapture? Consider second high-level

Tank overfills

Wet salts released

5. Tank rapture

112

LI-103

shutoff.

Consider check valve in pump No

6. Unload too much

discharge line.

from

Consider second shutdown on

the clarifier

feed lines

7. Reverse flow from Process Same as less

Composition Other than

8. Wrong reagent/liquid

Possible reaction

Possible rupture

As well as

9. Impurity in reagent

If volatile, possible overpressure

iodized

Consider

sampling

before

unloading. Are other materials delivered in the centrifuge?

Possible problem in the

tank

salt

storage tank.

113

What are possible impurities?

c) Uniodized Wet Salt Tank Equipment reference and operating conditions Storage tank

Deviation from operating conditions Level

T-103

Less

Table 5.3. HAZOP evaluation of wet salts (uniodized) tank Consequences of What event could cause this deviation on Additional Process this deviation? item of equipment implications of indications under consideration this consequence

1. Tank runs dry

Pump cavitates

2. Rupture discharge line

Damage to pump

Wet salts released

Notes and questions

LT-103

Can pure brine react or explode

LC-103

if overheated in pump?

LI-103

Estimate release quantity.

LC-103 3.

FV-120

open

or Wet salts released

FC-120

Consider FV-104 protection

Wet salts released

LC-103

What external events can cause

broken 4. FV-119 malfunctioned

rapture? Tank overfills

More

Wet salts released

LI-103

5. Tank rapture

Consider

second

high-level

shutoff. Tank overfills

Wet salts released

6. Unload too much from

LI-103 Consider check valve in pump

the clarifier

discharge line.

114

No

7. Reverse flow from

Consider second shutdown on

Process

feed lines

Same as less

Composition Other than

8. Wrong reagent/liquid

Possible reaction

Possible rupture

As well as

9. Impurity in reagent

If volatile, possible overpressure Possible problem in the iodized salt storage tank.

115

tank

Consider

sampling

before

unloading. Are other materials delivered in the centrifuge? What are possible impurities?

B. Environmental Constraints and Analysis Sodium chloride is not classified as dangerous to the environment and the manufacture of salt does not require registration under the Environmental Protection Act Integrated Pollution and Control Regulations (Environmental Impact). There is no specific law that covers the environmental limitations of the salt industry in the Philippines. However, there are national laws that are relevant in the protection of the environment during the production of iodized salt. List of the laws and its description is shown in Table 5.4 (Environmental Laws and Policies; Philippine and International Laws on Marine Wildlife Protection). Table 5.4. Environmental Laws and Policies Policies & Legislation Description DENR

Administrative

Order No. 97-05

Defines the procedures in the retention of areas within certain distances along the banks of rivers, streams, and shore of seas, lakes and oceans for environmental protection. Covers the implementation of a systematic, comprehensive and

Republic Act 9003 (2000) – Ecological Waste

ecological solid waste management program ensuring the protection of public health and environment.

Management Act Considered in the salt industry because of the wastes produced and proper disposal should be observed. Recognizes the responsibility of the local government units to deal with air pollutants that causes environmental problems. Republic Act 8749 (1999) Clean Air Act

The process uses boilers to produce steam for evaporative crystallizers and air heater although the vapor is recycled into a condensate, clean air act should be followed.

116

Presidential Decree 984 (1976)

–

Pollution

Control

Provides guidelines for prevention, abatement and control of pollution of water, air and land.

Presidential Decree 1152 Prescribes management guidelines aimed to protect and improve (1996) - The Philippine

the quality of Philippine water resources through improvement

Environment Code

of the quality of the Philippine water resource.

Republic Act 9275 (2004) - Aims to protect the country’s water bodies from pollution from The Philippine Clean

land-based sources (industries and commercial establishments,

Water Act

agriculture and community/household activities).

117

C. Material and Safety Data Sheet

a.   b.       c. 

d.   a.  

Section 1 Product identification Product name: Iodized Salt Identified use: Food additive Restrictions on use: N/A Section 2 Hazardous Components It is not classified as hazardous substance or mixture. But slightly hazardous for usual industrial or commercial handling. See section 5 for further details. Section 3 Physical Data Physical state: Solid Appearance: White, translucent crystals Odor: Essentially odourless Section 4 Fire and Explosion Hazard Data Fire extinguishing media Suitable extinguishing media Use extinguishing measures that are appropriate to local circumstances and the surrounding environment. Most probably CO2, Dry Powder or Foam type Extinguishers. Do not use direct water jet on burning material. Unsuitable extinguishing media No limitations of extinguishing agents are given for substance/mixture. Special fire-fighting procedures Wear self-contained breathing apparatus. Prevent skin contact by keeping a safe distance or by wearing suitable protective clothing. Avoid vapour inhalation. Keep away from sources of ignition. Closed containers may build up pressure when exposed to heat therefore it should be cooled with water spray. Suppress (knock down) gases/vapours/mists with a water spray jet. Prevent fire extinguishing water from contaminating surface water or the ground water system. Do not smoke. Unusual fire and explosion hazards Fire hazard includes the emission of toxic fumes when it is heated to decomposition. Explosion hazard includes the formation of explosive nitrogen trichloride through the electrolysis of sodium chloride in the presence of nitrogenous compounds to produce chlorine. Nitrogen trichloride is potentially explosive when reacts with dichloromaleic anhydride + urea. Toxic gases produced Ambient fire may liberate hazardous vapours. Fire may cause evolution of: Hydrogen chloride gas, chlorine gas and oxides of sodium. Section 5 Health and Hazard Data Effects of overexposure Eyes. May cause irritation. Skin. May cause irritation. 118



Inhalation. Dusts of this product may cause irritation of the nose, throat, and respiratory tract.  Ingestion. May cause stomach distress, nausea or vomiting. b. Target organs  Eyes. Skin. Respiratory system c. Medical conditions generally aggravated by exposure  Symptoms of overexposure may be headache, dizziness, tiredness, nausea and vomiting. It may also include redness, edema, drying, defatting and cracking of the skin. d. Emergency and first aid procedures  Eye Contact. Remove contact lenses if any. Rinse immediately with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes. Consult a doctor if irritation persists.  Skin Contact. Take off immediately all contaminated clothes. Wash thoroughly with soap and water. If irritation persists, consult a doctor.  Ingestion. Do not induce vomiting. Never give anything by mouth if victim is unconscious, or is convulsing. But if conscious, make him drink water (two glasses at most). Consult a doctor IMMEDIATELY.  Inhalation. If inhaled, stay away from the exposure site and breathe fresh air. Drink water if necessary. If symptoms persist, consult a doctor. Section 6 Reactivity Data  It presents no significant reactivity hazards, by itself or in contact with water.  It is reactive with oxidizing agents, strong acids, alkali metals, lithium, and bromine trifluoride.  Under wet conditions, it can corrode many common metals, particularly iron, aluminium and zinc. Section 7 Spill and Disposal Procedures a. Steps to be followed in the event of a spill or discharge - Remove all potential ignition sources. - Cover with an inert or non-combustible inorganic absorbent material. - Use appropriate tools to collect material for proper disposal without raising dust. - Put the spilled solid in a convenient waste disposal container. - Finish cleaning by spreading water on the contaminated surface b. Disposal procedure - Dispose according to local and regional authority requirements. Section 8 Protective Equipment Personal protective equipment Eye protection: Safety glasses with side shields are recommended to prevent eye contact. Use chemical safety goggles when there is potential for eye contact. Contact lenses should not be worn when working with this material. Skin protection: Gloves and protective clothing made from rubber or plastic should be impervious under conditions of use. Prior to use, user should confirm impermeability. Respiratory protection: A NIOSH/MSHA-approved air-purifying respirator equipped with dust, mist, and fume cartridges for concentrations up to 100mg/m3 particulate. An air supplied respirator is suggested, if concentrations are higher or unknown. If while wearing a respiratory protection, you can smell, taste, or otherwise detect any unusual, or in the case of a full face piece respirator, you experience eye irritation, leave the area immediately. Check to make sure the respirator to face seal is still good. If it is, replace

119

the filter, cartridge, or canister. If the seal is no longer good, you may need a new respirator. Other personal protective equipment: Wear regular clothing. The use of coveralls is recommended. Locate safety shower and eyewash station close to chemical handling area. Take all precautions to avoid personal contact. General hygiene considerations: Handle in accordance with good industrial hygiene and safety practice. When using do not eat or drink. Wash hands before breaks and immediately after handling the product. Section 9 Storage and Handling Procedures a. Special precautions  Storage Precautions - Keep containers tightly closed. Store them in a cool, dry and well-ventilated area, away from heat sources and protected from light. Keep air contact to a minimum. - Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents and acids. - Keep away from ignition sources and naked flames. Take precautions to avoid static discharges in working area.  Handling Precautions - Observe label precautions. - Keep locked up. Do not ingest. Do not breathe dust. Avoid contact with eyes. Wear suitable protective clothing. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label. - Apply good manufacturing practice & industrial hygiene practices, ensuring proper ventilation. Observe good personal hygiene, and do not eat, drink or smoke whilst handling. - Change contaminated clothing. Wash hands after working with substance. Section 10 Transportation Data and Other Information a. b. -

Domestic Not classified as dangerous by means of transport regulations. International Not classified as dangerous by means of transport regulations.

120

D. Waste Disposal Material and energy are required in order to generate salt as a product but it also produces waste streams. To examine the environmental impacts, there is a need of analysing the life cycle of the salt industry from the extraction and processing of the resources, over production and further processing, distribution and transport, use and consumption to recycling and disposal—have to be assessed with regard to all relevant material and energy flows (Finkbeiner, M. et. al., 2010). The goal is to quantify the environmental impacts from solar evaporation to salt manufacturing plant and this includes the waste management option for the wastes obtained. The system boundary is showed in the figure and the object of the study (functional unit) is the production of 100,000 kg of salt. Sea water is pumped from the ocean through an intake to large ponds where energy in the form of sunshine and wind goes to work and evaporation begins. Solar salt production process requires a wide area for evaporation. It disrupts some of the natural habitat of living organisms in the area as it involves the construction of interconnected ponds for evaporation. Clear cutting of mangroves for salt production are made and it poses a threat to the conservation of mangrove ecosystems. In addition to deforestation, salt pans are responsible for elevating local soil salinity and for producing a hypersaline runoff that may impair mangrove growth and regeneration (Wolchok, L., 2006). However, it does not involve chemical treatments and hazardous processes. In fact, it requires a balance ecosystem for optimal operation. Thus, the process depends mainly on the natural environment. In addition solar salt production provides a new habitat for some birds. Birds can use the constructed dikes for nesting and smaller ones find more shallow waters, comparing with the case of one big lake, where they can feed (Korovessis & Lekkas, 1999). In the chemical industry, salt is mostly dissolved together with the impurities in water or brine. Prior to feeding to the process, the brine is purified. Failure to purify the brine may have serious, even lethal consequences (Sedivy, 2009).

121

Chemicals Manufacture

NaOH Na2CO3 KIO3

Figure 5.4. Product and Waste Generated The waste generated in the salt production process is consist of magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] and calcium carbonate [CaCO3], which are the by-products in the purification of the salt brine. From the material and energy balance of the clarifier, the generation of the sludge is 603.6796 kg Mg(OH)2 and 2,999.6336 kg CaCO3 per day production. The waste materials of salt production have no adverse effects on the environment, as the only wastes produced are bitterns and salt sludge. These come from the sea and can safely be returned to the sea, although the salt sludge is sometimes used in fertilizer instead (Patt, R. et.al., 2002; The Salt Recovery Process).

122

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freiburg.de/images/Aufgaben/Problem_des_Monats/ullmann_sodium_chloride.pdf 48. Winkler, R. (2006). Seit 150 Jahren Wärmepumpen in der Salzproduktion. 49. Wolchok, L. (2006). Impacts of Salt Production on Pemba. 50. World Development Indicator. (2016, June). Philippines-Consumption of Iodized Salt (% households). Retrieved

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indicators-wdi-june-2016?tsId=2574930

127

Appendix A Material Balance Calculations The plant has a production rate of 100,000 kg/day A.1. Material Balance around Dryer

TG1, H1 LS, TS1, x1

TG2, H2

Dryer 1 atm, 93oC

LS, TS2, x2

Where: LS = rate of salt (kg dry salt/day) x = free moisture (kg moisture/kg dry salt) H = humidity of heating air (kg H2O/ kg dry air) T = temperature Given: LS = 100,000 kg dry salt/ day x2 = 0.2% mixture (based on literature) = 0.002 kg total moisture/ kg dry salt Assumptions: x1 = 4% moisture = 0.04 kg total moisture/ kg dry salt TS1 = 25OC TS2 = 60OC TG1 = 93OC TG2 = 38OC Required: G (mass velocity of heating air); H2 (humidity of outlet air) Degrees of freedom of analysis: NU = no. of unknowns NE = no. of independent equations

128

Where: NU = 2 NE = 2 (there are 3 equations, but only 2 are independent)

DOF  NU  NE  2  2  0  exactly specified,solution exists Solution: Heat capacity of NaCl = 0.85 KJ/ kg. K From given temperature of 93OC; H1 = 0.015 kg H2O/ kg dry air from psychrometric chart. Overall Material Balance:

 kg H 2O  kg dry salt  kg total moisture    100,00  0.04  G 0.015 kg dry air  day  kg dry salt   GH 2  100,000

kg dry salt  kg total moisture   0.002  day  kg dry salt 

0.015G  4,000  GH 2  200

(1)

GH1 + L s x1 = GH 2 + L s x1

Heat balance: Datum of T0 = 0oC (convenient temperature) is selected. From steam tables: λ0 = 2501 KJ/kg For entering air: HG’1 = enthalpy of the air H G '1 = C S (TG1 - TO ) + H1λ O C S = Humid heat = 1.005+ 1.88H H G '1 = (1.005+ 1.88H1 )(TG1 - T0 ) + H1λ 0

H G '1 = 1.005+ 1.88H1 93o C + 0.0152501 H G '1 = 133.6026kJ kg dry air

For exit air:

H G ' 2 = CS TG2 + T0  + H 2 λ 0 H G ' 2 = 1.005+ 1.88H2 TG2 - T0  + H 2 λ 0

H G ' 2 = 1.005+ 1.88H2 38o C+ H 2 2501 H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572H2

2  129

For Entering Wet Salts: H S '1 = C PS TS1 - T0  + x1C PA TS1 - T0  C PS = 0.85KJ kg • K C PA = 4.187KJ kg • K

H S '1 = 0.85KJ kg • K 25o C - 0 + 0.044.187 KJ kg • K 25o C - 0  H S '1 = 25.437KJ kg dry salt H S ' 2 = C PS TS2 - T0  + x1C PA TS2 - T0 

H S ' 2 = 0.85KJ kg • K 60o C - 0 + 0.0024.187KJ kg • K 60o C - 0  H S ' 2 = 51.5024 KJ kg dry salt

Assume Q = 0; no heat loss from the surrounding GHG '1+LS HS '1 = GHG ' 2 +LS HS ' 2

From Equation 2:

H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44H2 G133.6026 T kg dry air + 100,000 kg dry salt day  25.437 KJ kg dry salt = G38.19+ 2572.44H2  + 100,000 kg dry salt day 51.5024KJ kg dry salt 133.6026G+ 2543700 KJ day = 38.18G+ 2572.44GH2 + 5150240 KJ day 95.4126G- 2572.44GH2 = 2606540 KJ day

(3)

Solving Equations 1&3:

95.4126G 2572.443800+ 0.015G = 2606540 58.286 G =12381812

G = 217899.9005 kg dry air day H2 = 0.032 kg H2O kg dry air From equation 2: H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44H2 H G ' 2 = 38.19+ 2572.44(0.032) H G ' 2 = 120.5081KJ kg dry air

130

(4)

A.2. Material Balance around Filter Centrifuge W(salt slurry) 90

%

Filter Centrifuge 1 atm, 25oC

X (wet salt) 96

%

solid Y (filtrate) 200 ppm solid Since production rate = 100,000 kg dry salt/day and filter centrifuge is a batch process, 50,000 kg of wet salt per batch is produced. Let: X = kg of wet salts; Y = kg of filtrate; W = kg of salt slurry Given: X = 50,000 kg of wet salts, Xx = 0.96 Xy = 0.04 Wx = 0.9 Yx = 0.002 Required: W = kg of salt slurry Y = kg of filtrate Degrees of freedom: NU = 2 unknowns (kg of salt slurry, kg filtrate) NU = 2 independent equations DOF = 2-2 = 0

 solution exist

Material balance: W = X + Y = 50,000+ Y

(5)

Solid balance:

0.9W = 0.96(50,000)+ 0.002Y

(6)

131

Equating 5 & 6:

W = 53,334.07424 kg of salt slurry day Y = 3,334.0742 kg of filtrate day Solids in filtrate = solids per batch

Solids in filtrate = 200 1 × 106 3334.0742 Solids in filtrate = 0.667 kg of solids day batch A.3. Material Balance around Evaporative Crystallizer (Parallel-feed Forced- Circulation Evaporator) mv4, Tv4 mv1, Tv1

Live steam from boiler ms1, Ts1

II 1 atm 1atm Tsat = o 100 Co

II 1 atm Tsat= 81.67oC

Tsat= 100 C

mf xf 20% salt sol’n

mv2, Tv2

mv3, Tv3 IIIIII 1 atm 1atm Tsat = 60.37oC

IVIV 1 atm 1atm Tsat = o 39.26 Tsat= C

Tsat=

mf xf mp, xp

mf xf

mf xf mp, xp

mp, xp

mp, xp

90% 90% 90% 90% Based from the previous calculations to produce 50,000 kg of wet salt/day you’ll need 53,334.0724 kg of salt slurry. Therefore, to produce 100,000 kg/ day of wet salt there must be 106,668.1448 kg of salt slurry. A.3.1. Material balance in first effect: Given: mp = 106,668.1448 kg of salt slurry/day xp = 0.9 xf = 0.2 Required:

132

mf & mv Degrees of Freedom: NU = 2 unknowns NE = 2 independent equations DOF = 2-2 =0  solution exists. Solution:

m p = 106,668.144 4 = 26,667.0362 kg of salt slurry produced per effect m f = m v1 + m p m f = m v1 + 26,667.0362 Solid Balance:

m f = m v1 + 26,667.0362 0.2m f = 26,667.03620.9 mf = 120,001.6629 kg fresh pure brine day effect

Note: We take the salt solution to be 20% solid according to the Duhring’s chart wherein it is the maximum concentration of sodium chloride solution. The Duhring’s chart is needed in calculation for the energy balance. The total fresh pure brine needed to supply for the four- effect evaporator is 480,006.6516 kg of fresh pure brine/ day. A.4. Material Balance around Mixer and Clarifier Na2 CO3

Recycled Raw Seawater 3.5% by weight NaCl Mg2+ = 0.5 g/L Ca2+ = 2.5 g/L

Mixer 1 atm, 25oC

Na2 OH

Pure Brine =

480,006.6516 kg/day Brine Clarifier o 20% NaCl 1 atm, 25 C 20% NaCl 2+ 3 ppm Mg2+ Mg = 0.5 g/L 2+ 2 ppm Ca2+ Mg OH 2 ↓ Ca = 2.5 g/L CaCO 3 ↓

Based from literature: seawater contains 3.5% by weight NaCl and contains impurities (Mg2+ = 0.5 g/L and Ca2+ = 2.5 g/L).

133

Assume: Negligible impurities in the entering raw salt and recycled brine Raw salt contains 99% by weight NaCl A.4.1. Material balance around clarifier Composition of Pure brine: 20% NaCl 3 ppm Mg2+ 2 ppm Ca2+ (based from Asin Law (RA 8172) Chemical reactions: Ca 2+ + Na 2 CO 3 → CaCO3 ↓ + 2Na +

Mg 2+ + 2NaOH → Mg OH2 ↓ + 2Na +

Degrees of Freedom Analysis: NU = 4 NE = 2 DOF = 4-2 = 2  underspecified The other 2 unspecified can be derived from the chemical reaction relation Inlet brine composition:

(

Equivalent mole of Ca 2 + = (2.5 g L ) 1 mole Ca 2 + 40g

)

= 0.0625mole Ca 2 + L of brine

(

Equivalent mole of Mg 2 + = (205 g L ) 1 mole Mg 2 + 23g

)

= 0.0217mole Mg 2 + L of brine Pure brine composition: Equivalent mole of Ca 2+ = 2ppm = 0.002g L 1 mole Ca 2+ 40g  = 5 ×10 5 mole Ca 2+ L of brine Equivalent mole of Mg 2+ = 3ppm = 0.003g L 1 mole Mg 2+ 23g  = 1.304× 10 4 mole Mg 2+ L of brine

134

Required weight of Na2CO3:

(0.0625× 10-5 - 5 × 10-5 )(mole Ca 2+ L of brine )(1mole Na 2CO3 (96gNa 2 CO 3

1 mole Ca 2+

)

1moleNa 2 CO 3 )= 5.995g Na 2 CO 3 L of brine

Required weight of CaCO3 ↓:

(0.0625× 10-5 - 5 × 10-5 )(mole Ca 2+ L of brine )(1mole Ca 2CO 3 (100.0869gCaCO3

1 mole Ca 2+

)

1mole Ca 2 CO 3 )= 6.2504gCaCO 3 L of brine

Required weight of NaOH:

(0.0217x

)(

)(

1.3043× 10- 4 mole Mg 2 + L of brine 2 mole NaOH 1 mole Mg 2+

)

(40 g NaOH 1 mole NaOH)= 1.7256g NaOH L Required weight of Mg(OH)2 :

(0.0217x 1.3043× 10- 4 )(mole Mg 2+ (58.3197g Mg (OH)2

)(

L of brine 1mole of Mg(OH )2 1 mole Mg 2 +

1mole )= 1.2579g Mg (OH )2 L of brine

Na

Na2C

OH

O3 Brine MB

Pure Brine MPB = 480,006.6516 kg/day

Clarifier 1 atm, 25oC

20% NaCl 3 ppm Mg2+ 2 ppm Ca2+

Mg(OH)2 CaCO3

= 1.2579 g Mg(OH)2(MB)/L/day = 6.2504 g CaCO3 (MB) /L/day

Let: MB = rate of brine (kg/day) entering MPB = rate of pure brine (kg/day) leaving MNaOH = rate of NaOH (kg/day) entering M Na2CO3 = rate of Na2CO3 (kg/day) entering

135

)

M Mg(OH)2 = rate of Mg(OH)2 (kg/day) leaving MCaCO3 = rate of CaCO3 (kg/day) leaving Overall Material Balance around Clarifier:

M B + M Na 2CO3 + M NaOH = M CaCO3 + M Mg OH 2 + M PB M B + 5.9952gNa2 CO 3 L of brine M B kg of brine day  + 1.7256gNaOH Lof brine 

M B kg of brine day  = 6.2504gCaCO3 L of brine M B kg of brine + 1.2579g MgOH2 Lof brine M B kg of brine day 

day 

+ 480,006.6256 kg day M B + 5.992× 10-3 M B + 1.7256× 10-3 M B = 6.2504× 10-3 M B + 1.2579× 10-3 M B + 480,006.6256 1.002MB = 480,006.625 kg day M B = 479,910.6445 kg of brine day

M Na 2 CO3 = (5.9952gNa2CO3 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 2,875.6247kg day

M NaOH = (1.7256g NaOH L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 828.1339kg day MCaCO3 = (6.2504 gCaCO3 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 2,999.6336kg day M Mg(OH ) = (1.2579gMg(OH)2 L of brine )(479,910.6645 kg of brine day ) = 603.6796kg day 2

A.4.2. Mixer

Raw Salt Seawater Recycled

Brine

Mixer 1 atm, 25oc

20 % NaCl solution 479,910.6645 kg/day

Brine Given:

Seawater = 3.5% by weight NaCl Raw Salt = 99% by weight NaCl Recycled Brine: Based from the calculation around filter centrifuge

136

M RB = 6,668.1484recycle brine day 1.3336kg total NaCl day Required: MRS & MSW Let: MRB = rate of recycled brine entering (kg/day) MRS = rate of raw salt entering (kg/day) MSW = rate of seawater entering (kg/day) MB = rate of brine leaving (kg/day) Degrees of Freedom of Analysis: NU = 2 unknowns NE = 2 independent equations DOF = 2-2 =0  solution exists Overall Material Balance:

M RB + M RS + M SW = M B 6,668.1484+ M RS + M SW = 479,910.6695 M RS + M SW = 473,242.5211 kg day

(

)

NaCl balance : 1.3336+ M RS (0.99) + M SW 3.5 × 10 3 = 479,910.6695(0.2) 0.99 M RS + 3.5 x 10 - 3 M SW = 95,980.8003 M RS = 95,615.2575 kg of raw salt day M SW = 377,627.2636 L of seawater day

A.5. Solar Evaporation

Seawater 3.5 wt% NaCl

Solar Evaporation

137

Raw Salt 95,615.2579 kg of raw salt

Formula was based according to Akridge, 2007:

(

m s = m w 1.52× 10- 4 s 2 + 9.5 × 10- 3 s

)

Where: ms = mass (kg) of salt crystallized mw = mass(kg) of solar evaporated s = initial salt concentration of the brine in wt% of NaCl Solution:

(

m s = m w 1.52 × 10 - 4 s 2 + 9.5 × 10 - 3 s

)

[

]

95,615.2579kg = m w 1.52 × 10 - 4 (3.5)2 + 9.5 × 10 - 3 (3.5) m w = 2,723,150. 43 kg of H 2O

At 20oC- 40oC: based on William, 2002, 12.5-15 kg of salt/day requires evaporation of 3543 kg of H2O evaporation rate of 3.5- 4.8mm/day

138

Appendix B Energy Balance Calculations B.1. Energy Balance around Dryer Energy used for air today the salt to 0.02% moisture:

q = (217,903.41)(1 24 )(1000 3600)(133.60)+ (100,000)(1 24 )(1000 3600)(25.44) q = 366,387.6803W Energy absorbed by the wet salt:

 



 



q  217,903.41 1 24 1000 3600 120.51  100,000 1 24 1000 3600 51.50

B.2. Energy Balance around Heat exchanger Given: Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C Inlet aqueous salt temperature = 25°C Outlet aqueous salt temperature = 100°C Mass flow rate of aqueous salt entering = 120,001.629 kg/day Specific heat capacity of steam at 120°C (1.9854 bar) = 2.1196 kJ/kg. K (Calculated from Steam Characteristics Table) Specific heat capacity of aqueous salt at concentration by mass of 20% = 3.375 kJ/kg. K Energy Balance: Assume no heat loss to the surrounding

Q = m aq salt Caqsalt t 2 - t 1  =120,001.629 kg day 1 day 24 hr 3.375 KJ kg • K 100 - 25°C =1,265,642.181KJ hr = 351,567.2727W

139

B.3. Energy Balance around Parallel Feed Quadruple Effect Evaporator mV4, TV4 Live steam from boiler ms1, Ts1

mv1, Tv1

mv2, Tv2

II 1 atm 1atm Tsat = 100oCo

II 1 atm Tsat= 81.67oC

Tsat= 100 C

mv3, Tv3 IIIIII 1 atm Tsat1atm = 60.37oC

IVIV 1 atm 1atm Tsat = o 39.26 Tsat= C

Tsat=

mf

mf

mf

mf

xf

xf

xf

xf

mp , xp

mp , xp

mp , xp

90% 90% 90% From section A.3. Material Balance around Parallel Feed Quadruple Effect Evaporator m f = 120,001.6629 kg m p = 26,667.0362

m v1 = 93,334.5967

mp , xp 90%

of fresh pure brine of 20% moisture

kg/day of 90% salt slurry kg vapor/day

For Heat Balance: Assume: BPR, °C, in each effect is constant to be 2°C. Area of each effect is constant to be 118 m2. Since it is parallel feed : m f = m f1 = m f2 = m f3 = m f4 ; m p = m p1 = m p2 = m p3 = m p4 & X F and X P

is constant throughout the process, therefore calculations are analyzed as a single-effect evaporator. B.3.1. Energy Balance around Effect I Evaporative Crystallizer W mV1 ms, Ts1 S F mf, xF

I 1 atm 100°C P mP, xP

140

Given: m f = 120,001.6629 kg m p = 26,667.0362

m v1 = 93,334.5967

of fresh pure brine/day at 20% NaCl solution, TF = 25°C

kg/day salt slurry/day at 90% solution

kg vapor/day

Since, A = 35m2 ; BPR,°C = 2°C At 1 atm, Tsat, °C = 100°C

T1 = BPR,°C + Tsat ,°C T1 = 2°C + 100°C = 102°C λ = latent heat of vaporization = 2200.5582 KJ/kg (steam table) at TS = 120 °C, at 202.65 kPa At T1 = 102 C , using heat capacity of feed which is assumed CPF = 4.14 kJ/kg∙K (often, for feeds of inorganic salts in H2O, the CP can be assumed to be approximately that of water alone). At T1 = 102oC: Enthalpy of saturated vapor at Tsat = 2672.0 kJ/kg (steam table)

∴ H v = 2,676.0KJ kg + 4.14 KJ kg • K 102°C - 100o C 1 K 1o C  H v = 2,684.28KJ kg HC = 0; since of 373.15 K datum temperature (1 atm vapor space pressure)

h F = C PF (TF - T1 ) = 4.14 KJ kg • K (298.15K- 375.15K)

Heat Balance: FC PF (TF - T1 ) + Sλ = PH L + WH v

(120,001.6629)(4.14 KJ kg • K )( 298.15K - 375.15K) + S(2,200.5582) = 26,667.0362(0 ) + 93,334.5967( 2684.28) S = 131,235.03kg steam day S = 31,235.03(kg steam day )(1 day 24 hr )

141

S = 5,468.126249 kg steam/hr

q = Sλ = 5,468(kg steam day )(2,200.5582)(1000 3600) q = 3,342,419.415 W

(

)

q = UAΔA = UA (Ts - T1 ) = 3,342,419.415 W = U 118m 2 (120 - 102) U1 = 1573.6438 W/m 2 • K B.3.2. Energy Balance around Effect II Evaporative Crystallizer m mV1,

II

100°C

0.5 atm

mf,xF

mP,xP From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day

m v1 = 93,334.5967

kg vapor/day

Material Balance:

m f + m v1 = m v2 + m p m v2 = m f + m v1 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 93,334.5967 - 26,667.0364 m v2 = 186,669.2239 kg of steam/day Heat Balance: At Tsat = 81.67°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor = 2,646.5382 kJ/kg BPR = 2 °C;

142

T2 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 81.67°C= 83.67°C

At T2 = 83.67°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v2 = 2,646.5382+ 4.14(83.67°C - 81.67°C) = 2,654.8682KJ kg q 2 = m v1 H v2  q 2 = 95,334.5967 kg day 2,654.8182KJ kg 1000J 1 KJ1 day 24 hr 1hr 3600 s  q 2 = 2,867,897.986 W

q 2 = 2.867x106 W q 2 = UAΔT = 28,867,897.986 = U(118m2 )(100°C - 83.67°C) U 2 = 1,488.3172 W/m 2 K B.3.3. Energy Balance around Effect III Evaporative Crystallizer mV3 mV2, 81.67°C

III 0.2 atm Tsat= 60.37°C

mf,xF

mP,xP

From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day

m v2 = 186,669.2239 kg vapor day

Material Balance:

m f + m v1 = m v2 + m p m v3 = m f + m v2 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 186,669.2239 - 26,667.0364 m v3 = 280,003.8903 kg of steam/day

143

Heat Balance:

m v2 (h v2 )+ m f (h F )= m v3 (h v3 )+ m p (h L ) At Tsat = 60.37°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapour = 2,610.3239 kJ/kg BPR = 2 °C; T3 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 60.37°C= 62.37°C

At T3 = 62.37°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapour using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v3 = 2,610.3239kJ kg + 4.14(2°C)(1 K 1o C)= 2,618.6029kJ kg q 3 = m v2 (H v3 ) = (186,669.2239 kg day)(2,618.6029kJ kg)(1000 J kJ)(1 day 24 hr)(1 hr 3600 s) q 3 = 5,657,555.066 W

q 3 = UAΔT = 5,657,555.066 W = U(118m2 )(81.67°C - 62.37°C) U 3 = 2,484.2167 W/m 2 K B.3.4. Energy Balance around Effect IV Evaporative Crystallizer mV4 mV3

III 0.2 atm Tsat = 60.37°C

mf,xF

mp,xp From previous calculations:

m f = 120,001.6629 kg of fresh pure brine day at 25o C

m p = 26,667.0362 kg salt slurry day m v3 = 280,003.8502 kg vapor day

144

Material Balance:

m f + m v3 = m v4 + m p m v4 = m f + m v3 - m p = 120,001.6629 + 280,0003.8502 - 26,667.0364 m v4 = 280,003.8903 kg of steam/day Heat Balance:

m v3 (h v3 )+ m f (h F )= m v4 (h v4 )+ m p (h L ) At Tsat = 39.26°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor = 2,573.0769 kJ/kg BPR = 2 °C; T4 = BPR,°C + Tsat = 2°C + 39.26°C= 41.26°C

At T4 = 41.26°C: Enthalpy of saturated vapor using heat of capacity (4.14 kJ/kg∙K)

H v4 = 2,573.877kJ kg + 4.14(2°C)(1 K 1o C)= 2,581.357kJ kg q 4 = m v3 (H v4 )= (280,003.8502 kg day)(2,581.357kJ kg)

(1000 J 1 kJ)(1 day 24hr)(1 hr 3600 s)

q 4 = 8,365,623.831 W q 4 = UAΔT = 8,365,623.831 W = U(118m2 )(62.67°C - 39.26°C) U 4 = 3,082.4116 W/m 2 K B.4. Energy Balance around Condenser H2O (l) T=120°C

CONDENSER

H2O (l) T = 25°C P = 1 atm

Q Given: m v4 = 373,338.477 kg vapor day (vapor from the last effect)

Assumptions: T = 25°C; P = 1 atm at normal conditions

145

Required: Cooling duty to condense the water vapor (Q) Va

∧

ΔH Δ Vapor Solution: ∧

Q = mΔ H Q = m( H 1 + ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 ) ΔH 1 = C p ΔT C p at 16°C = 4.248 kJ kg K

ΔH 1 = 4.248 kJ kg K 100 - 120°C ΔH 1 = 84.96kJ kg ΔH 2 = ΔH v = heat of vaporization = -4.219 kJ kg at T = 100°C ΔH 3 = C p ΔT

C p at 25°C = 4.180kJ kg K

ΔH 3 = 4.180kJ kg K 25 - 100°C ΔH 3 = 313.5 kJ kg ∧

∴ Q = mΔ H = m(Δ( 1 + ΔH 2 + ΔH 3 ) Q = 373,338.477 kg vapor day(84.96+ 4.219+ 313.5)kJ kg

(1 day 24 hr)(1000 J 1 kJ)(1 hr 3600 s) Q = 1,739,994.96 W

146

B.5 Energy Balance around Clarifier In any reaction between stable molecules, energy is required to break the reactant chemical bonds and energy is released when the products bonds form. (Chapter 9, Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd edition) ∧

The heat of reaction (or enthalpy of reaction), Δ H , (T,P) At 25°C, 1 atm: ∧

q= ΔH Ca 2+ + Na 2 CO 3 → CaCO 3 ↓ +2Na+ Mg 2+ + 2NaOH → Mg(OH)2 ↓ +2Na+ ṅin and ṅout is based from the material balance around clarifier (see 3.1.4) Inlet-Outlet enthalpy table:

Ca 2+ (aq)

ṅin (mol/s) 0.0625

Mg 2+ (aq)

0.0217

-462.0

-

-

Na2CO3 (s)

0.3467

-1,130.68

-

-

NaOH (s)

0.2396

-426.7

-

-

CaCO3 (s) Mg (OH)2

-

-

0.3469

-1,207.0

-

-

0.1198

-924.54

Substance

∧

∧

Hin (kJ/mol) -543.0

ṅout (mol/s) -

∧

Hout (kJ/mol) -

∧

Δ H = ∑ n out H out - ∑ n in H in Δ H = [(0.3569)(- 1207.0) +(0.1198)(- 924.54)]

[(0.0625)(- 543.0) +(0.0217)(- 462.0) +(0.3467)(11130.68) +(0.2396)(- 426.7)] Δ H = 529.4682- (- 538.2067) Δ H = 8.7387 W

147

Energy Balance: Open System Q- W s = Δ H+ ΔE k + ΔE P W s = 0; ΔE P = 0; ΔE k = 0 Q = Δ H = 8.7387

Q = 8.7387 W

148

Appendix C Equipment Design Calculations C.1. Mixer Design Dimension of the tank: Operating condition:

At T = 25o C, ρ = 1453.3kg m 3 Liquid granular mix in the mixing tank = 479,910.6645 kg day Per batch:

1 batch = 8 hours 479,910.6645 kg day × 1 day 24 hours × 8hours = 159,970.2215 kg m 159,970.2215 kg V= = = 110.0738m 3 batch 3 ρ 1453.3kg m Volume of Cylinder:

V = π hD 2 4 Assumption:

h = 1 → square batch D πD 3 V= = 110.0738m 3 4

4 110.0738m 3  = 5.194m π D = h = 5.194 m

D=3

A = π D2 4 =

π5.194 m  2 = 21.91m 2 4

Dimensions in the impeller Assume: pitched-blade (45o) turbine

5.194 m  1.7313m 3 1.7313m Blade width (W)  D a /8   0.2164m 8

Impeller diameterD a   D/3 

149

N=

Q Nq Da 3

From Geankoplis, for pitched – blade (45°) turbine (p.151);

N q = 0.5 Q = Av i ; A = 21.191m 2 v i = 3.048 m min

Q = 21.191m 2 3.048 m min  = 64.5901m 3 min 64.5901m 3 min N= = 24.8931rev min 0.51.73133  N Re = N Re =

D a 2 Nρ μ

1.7313m2 × 24.8931rev

min × 60 sec min × 1453.3kg m 3 1.557× 10 -3 Pa s

N Re = 11.6075× 10 5 Rotational Speed, N Motor Horsepower

Np =

P ρN 3 D a 5

P = N p ρN 3 D a 5 From Figure 3.4-4 of Transport Processes and Unit Operations by Geankoplis 3e (p.145), Power Correlations for Various Impellers and Baffles For NRe = 11.6075x105, Np = 12

P = 1.2× 1453.3kg m 3 × 24.8931rev min × 1 min 60s3 × 1.7313m 5 P = 1.9372 Kilo Watts = 2.5979hp C.2. Clarifier Design (R-101) Feed flow rates: Brine solution = 479,910.6645 kg day Na 2CO 3 = 2,875.624kg day NaOH = 2,999.6336kg day

150

Total liquid loading = 479,910.6645 kg day + 2,875.624kg day + 2,999.6336kg day = 485,785.9221kg day Per Batch: 485,785.9221kg day 1 day 24 hrs 8 hrs 1 batch = 161,928.6407 kg batch

Influent Volume Flow Rate per Batch:

Influent Volume Flow Rate per Batch : V = m  = 161,928.6407 kg 1453.3kg m 3 = 111.4213m 3 batch = 111,421.3L batch V = 13927.66L hr Detention time: Operating parameters for the determination of detention time for clarifiers as discussed by the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Operation Training and Certification Unit, and Rick Fuller on his Wastewater Info Webpage and many other authors: Detention Time = 2-3 hours Trial 1 Assume that the Clarifier Tank has a capacity of 10,000 L.

Tank Volume 10 m 3 = = 0.09 batch Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m 3 batch 8 hrs. Detention time = 0.09 batch × = 0.72 hrs > detention time parameter 1 batch

Detention Time =

Trial 1 Assume that the Clarifier Tank has a capacity of 30,000 L.

Tank Volume 25 m 3 8 hrs. = × = 2.154 hrs. 3 Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m batch 1 batch Detention Time = 2.154 hrs. → within the detention time parameter range

Detention Time =

Volume of Clarifier Tank = 30,000L= 30m 3 The volume of the cone is not considered as it is too small compared to the total volume of the clarifier tank and it is filled with sludge. Assume :

D =1 h

151

πD 3 V= = 30m 3 4 D = h = 3.4m SA =

πD 2 3.4 2 π = = 9.08 m 2 4 4

Clarifier Loading: Surface Overflow Rate, SOR From Table 18-7: Typical Thickener and Clarifier Design Criteria and Operating Conditions, of Perry’s Handbook 7th edition:

SOR = 0.5 - 1.2 m 3 m 2

h for brine purification

Trial 1: Flow Rate 13927.66L h = = 1533.88L h m 2 2 SA 9.08 m 2 SOR = 1533.88L h m → exceeds the design criteria

Overflow Rate, SOR =

Thus, the capacity of the clarifier is further adjusted: Assuming that the clarifier has a capacity of 40,000 L: Tank Volume 40m 3 8hrs = × = 2.87 hrs. 3 Influent Flow Rate 111.4213m /batch 1batch Detention Time = 2.87 hrs. → within the design criteria

Detention Time =

Dimensions of the Clarifier: Assume

D = 1.2, this generates a larger surface area. h

πD2 h D ;h = 4 1.2 3 πD πD3 V = 40 m 3 = = 4 × 1.2 4.8

V = 40 m 3 =

D = 3.94m h = 3.28m SA =

πD 2 π × 3.94 2 = = 12.19 m 2 4 4

Surface Overflow Rate, SOR:

152

Flow Rate 13927.66L/h = = 1142.933L/h m SA 12.19 m 2 SOR = 1142.933L/h m → this is within the design criteria

SOR =

Weir Overflow Rate, WOR:

WOR =

Influent Flow Rate Length of Weir

Influent Flow Rate = 13.928 m 3 h = 13,928L h Length of Weir = π × 3.94 = 12.38 m 13,927.66L h WOR = = 1125.01L h m 12.38 m Solids Loading Rate, SLR:

Solids Surface Area Solids = sum of flow rate of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide entering Solids = 2,875.624+ 828.1339 kg day = 3703.7579kg day 3703kg day SLR = = 303.84kg day m 2 = 12.66kg hr m 2 2 12.19 m

SLR =

C.3. Forced Circulation Evaporator Design Slurry density: Since the slurry density consists of solid particles suspended in liquid the properties of a slurry mixture will depend upon its constituents. density of slurry = ρ m = [100 (C w ρ s )] + [(100 - C w ) ρ 1]

Where: ρm = Cw

density of the salt slurry

=solid concentration by weight, %

C w =density of liquid in mixture, kg/m3 L =density

of liquid in mixture, kg/m3

Given: Cw = 90 % ρ s = ρ NaCl =

2.16 g/cm3 = 2160 kg/m3

153

ρL

=1000 kg/m3

density of slurry = ρ m = [100 (90 2160)]+ [(100 - 90) 1000]= 2400.01kg m 3 Retention time:

Vfresh brine in =

(salt slurry,(kg hr))(retention time, hr) ρ m , (kg m 3 )

Given:

Vfreshbrine =120,001.6634 kg hr (1 day 24 hr)(0.00042 m 3 kg) = 2.10m 3 salt slurry = 53,334.0724 kg hr (1 day 24 hr) = 2222.2530kg hr ρ m = 2400.01kg m 3 retention time =

2.10 m 3(2400.01kg m 3 ) = 2.26hr 2222.2530 kg hr

Minimum vapor velocity: Given: From Rule of thumb For vapor heads, a conservative value is recommended = 0.0244 m/s For mesh separator this value may be increased by range of 0.0305-0.0610m/s. Heating surface area required =118 m2 (see Chapter 3) Evaporator drum operating under 1 atm = 101.325 KPa Steam pressure = 202.325 KPa

ρ H 2 O vapor =

101.325KPa (18 g mole) PM = RT (8314 kJ/mole K)(100 + 273)K = 0.588kg m 3

Design pressure = 5% extra of maximum working pressure(steam) =(202.325KPa)(1.05) = 212.441KPa

154

Tube Details: Most generally used diameter ranges from 1.25- 2.00in outer diameter and most generally used lengths of tubes ranges from 4-15 ft. (From Rule of thumb) The corrosive and abrasive nature of the brine requires that consideration be given to the materials of construction. Common materials used in contact with salt solutions include titanium, 317L stainless steel, CD-4 MCu, Incoloy 825, and Alloy 20. CD-4 MCu is a cast corrosion and heat resistant stainless steel alloy with good abrasion resistance. Incoloy is a high-grade nickel chromium alloy (Hart et al., 2004). Given: 5/4-in nominal diameter, 80 scheduled number of 10 ft length stainless steel 317L From Tube dimension table: For 5/4-in nominal diameter outsided diameter, d 0 = 42.164mm inside diameter, d i = 32.46mm lenght = 10 ft = 3.048mm Tube pitch, ΔPT = 1.25 d o = 1.25(42.164 mm) Surface area of each tube, a = πdo L = π(52.705) x10- 3 m (3.048m) = 0.5046m

155

Number of tubes required, N T =

heating surface area A = a surface area of each tube =

118 m 2 0.5046m 2

= 233.81tubes= 234 tubes 2 Area ocuupied by tubes = N T (1 2)(PT ) (sin α)

where α = 60° 2 = 234(1 2)(52.705x10- 3 ) (sin 60)

= 0.2814m 2 But actual one is more than this: From rule of thumb area san be divided by a factor which varies from 0.8-1.0. Therefore actual area required by the tubes =

0.2814 = 0.3518 m 2 . 0.8

Also from the rule of thumb, the central downcomer area is taken 40-70% of the total cross sectional area of tubes. 2

2

Downcomer area = 0.5 [(N T )(π 4)(d o ) ]= 0.5[233(π 4)(0.042164) Downcomer diameter =

] = 0.1627m2

4 (0.1627) = 0.4551m 2 π

Total area of tube sheet in evaporator = downcomer area + area occupied by tubes = 0.4551 + 0.3518 m2 = 0.8069 m2 Thus tube sheet diameter =

4(0.8069) = 1.01m π

Evaporator drum diameter: V A

Rd = 0.0172

(ρ L - ρ v )

; Equation used to determine drum diameter

ρv

Where:

156

V=volumetric flow rate of vapor in m3/s A= cross-sectional of drum The diameter of the drum may be the same as that of the calendria. However it is necessary to check the size from the point of satisfactory entrainment separation. For drums having wire mesh as entrainment separator device, Rd may be taken as 1.3.

V

A=

(R d ) 0.0172

(ρ L - ρ v )

=

ρv

Therefore drum diameter =

373,334.427 kg day(1 day 3600 s)(1 m 3 0.588kg) = 5.137m 2 (1000 - 0.588) (1.3)(0.0172) 0.588

4 (5.137) = 2.557m π

From the rule of thumb drum height can be taken as 2-5 times of tube sheet diameter. Drum height = 3(1.01)= 3.03m

C.4. Design Calculations for Heat Exchangers (H-101, H-102, H-103, H-104) Problem Statement 120,001.629 kg per day of aqueous salt solution will be heated from 25°C to 100°C by a steam having an inlet temperature of 120°C to 55°C. Published fouling factors should be used. Design a shell and tube heat exchanger for this application. Thermal Design Given: Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C Inlet aqueous salt temperature = 25°C Outlet aqueous salt temperature = 100°C Mass flow rate of aqueous salt entering = 120,001.629 kg/day

157

Specific heat capacity of steam at 120°C (1.9854 bar) = 2.1196 kJ/kg. K (Calculated from Steam Characteristics Table) Specific heat capacity of aqueous salt at concentration by mass of 20% = 3.375 kJ/kg. K Energy Balance: Assume no heat loss to the surrounding Q= m steam csteam (T1 - T2 )= m aq salt C aqsalt (t 2 - t 1) Q = m aq salt C aqsalt (t 2 - t 1)=120,001.629 kg day(1 day 24 hr)(3.375kJ kg.K)(100 - 25)°C =1,265,642.181kJ hr = 351,567.2727W

Since Q =1,265,642.181 kJ/hr, T2 (outlet steam temperature/condensate temperature) can now be calculated

m steam =

Q Csteam (T2 - T1)

m steam =

1,265,642.181 kJ hr =9186.3644kg hr = 220,472.7477 kg steam day 2.1196 kJ kg.K (120 - 55)

Calculation of heat transfer area and tube numbers: Iteration #1: It has assumed that the first iteration considers 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger with the following parameters: 

Fixed tube plate



1 1 "square pitch(PT ) 4



1" outside diameter tube (do ) = 0.0254m



Tube length (LT) = 20 ft (6.096 m)



Tube ID (di) = 0.834”



Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the evaporating solution (aqueous salt solution) on the tube side.

158

The log mean temperature correction factor (F1-2) for 1-2 shell and tube heat exchanger.

R 2 +1

F1- 2 =

R -1

ln

1- P 1 - PR

ln

A + R 2 +1 A - R 2 +1

T - T 120 - 55 R= 1 2= = 0.867 t 2 - t 1 100 - 25 t -t 100 - 25 P= 2 1 = = 0.789 T1 - t 1 120 - 25 2 2 A = -1 - R = - 1 - 0.867 = - 1.8645 P 0.789 0.8672 + 1

1 - 0.867 F1- 2 = ln 0.867 1 1 - 0.867× 0.789

ln

1.8645+ 0.8672 + 1 1.8645

0.8672 + 1

=

0.8380 = 0.4893 1.7738

For countercurrent flow:

(T - t )- (T2 - t 1) (120 - 100) -(55 - 25) ΔTlm = 1 2 = = 24.6630°C 120 - 100 (T1 - t 2 ) ln ln 55 - 25 (T2 - t 1) Calculating the heat transfer area: From table 12.1.Typical overall coefficients (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.637).The value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is 1000-1500

W m 2 o C . Say that from the appropriate given range, 1200 W m 2 o C is used as the value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U).

A=

Q U × ΔTlm × F1 2

=

351,567.2727 W 1200 W m

2o

= 24.2728m 2 C × 24.6630°C× 0.4893

Calculating the number of tubes: Ntubes =

24.2728m 2 A = = 49.9= 50 tubes π × d o × L t π × 0.0254m × 6.096m

Check for Fluid velocity:

159

If the tube side fluid velocity, u, is < 1m/s (typical design velocity), consider revising the design parameters and consideration (increase the number of tube pass) to meet the design velocity (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.660).

4 × m aqueous salt solution × u=

n tube pass N tubes

π × ρ× d i 2

1day 1hr 2 × × 24 hr 3600s 50 = 0.1574m/s kg π ×1000 3 × 0.02122 m

4 × 120,001.629× =

Since u=0.1574m/s, it is less than 1m/s, consider increasing the number of tube pass to meet the typical velocity design. Iteration #2: Considers 1-8 shell and tube heat exchanger with the following parameters: 

Fixed tube plate



1 1 " square pitch (PT ) 4



1" outside diameter tube (do ) = 0.0254m



Tube length (LT) = 33 ft ( 10.0584 m)



Tube ID (di) = 0.834”



Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the evaporating solution (aqueous salt solution) on the tube side.

Calculating the number of tubes: Ntubes =

24.2728m 2 A = = 30.2418= 31 tubes π × d o × L t π ×0.0254m ×10.0584m

Check for Fluid velocity:

4 × m aqueous salt solution × u=

π × ρ× d i 2

n tube pass N tubes

4 × 120,001.629× =

1day 1hr 8 × × 24 hr 3600s 31

π ×1000 kg m 3 × 0.02122

u =1.0348m/s

160

Since u=1.0348 m/s > 1 m/s, therefore, the design velocity is within the acceptable range. Calculating the bundle diameter: From table 12.4.Constants for K1 and n1 depending whether the tube layout is a triangular or a rectangular pitch (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.649), for square pith and 8 number of tube passes K1 and n1 values are 0.0331 and 2.643 respectively. 1

1

N 31 2.643 Bundle diameter= d o ( tubes ) n 1 = 0.0254( ) = 0.3382m K1 0.0331

Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi): From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ handbook the viscosity of aqueous salt solution is 2.5 cp (2.5x10-3kg/m. s). Number of tube pass Number of tube π × d i ×μ

4 × m aqueous salt solution × Re =

1 hr kg 1 day 8 × × × day 24 hr 3600s 31 π × 0.0212× 2.5 cp

4 × 120,001.629 Re = Re = 8610.650

From Figure 12.23.Tube-side heat transfer factor (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 14.1x10-3. The relationship of jh and jH is jH = jh x Re.

jh = jH × Re = 0.0141× 8610.650=121.410 hd jH = i i μC k -1 3 μ μ w  k Consider μ μ w = 1, μ = viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w = viscosity of the tube side fluid at wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity) = 0.596W m 2 .K .

161

121.410=

h i 0.0212m  2.51x10-3 × 3375 J kg.K 0.596 J s.m.K-1 3 (1) 0.596 J s.m.K

h i = 8267.9645 W m 2 .K Shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho): Assume: 25% cut segmental baffles 1 n1

Bundle diameter= d o (N tubes K 1)

1 2.643

= 0.0254(31 0.0331)

= 0.3382m

From Figure 12.10.Shell Bundle clearance (Sinnot, R.K.,3rd edition. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.646), the bundle diameter clearance is 12 mm = 0.012 m. Shell diameter, Ds = 0.3382 m + 0.012 m = 0.3502 m

D 0.3502m Baffle spacing, l B = s = = 0.0700m 5 5 Tube pitch, PT = 1.25 d 0 = 1.25(0.0254 m)= 0.03175m 4 (PT2 - π/4do2 ) Equivalentdiameter for the shell side, D e = πdo De =

4 (0.031752 - π/4 0.02542 ) = 0.0251m π × 0.0254

(P - d )D l (0.03175- 0.0254) 0.3502× 0.07 Cross flow area, A s = T o S B = = 0.0049m 2 PT 0.03175 Mass velocity,G D = 220,472.7477

1 hr kg 1 day kg 1 × × × = 520.769 2 day 24 hr 3600s 0.0049m s. m 2

μs (viscosity of steam at 120 °C ) = 0.0130 cp D × Gs Re = e = μs

0.0251m × 520.769 0.0130cp

kg s. m 2

= 1.00548× 106

From Figure 12.29. Shell-side heat transfer factors (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 7.8x10-4 with 25% cut segmental baffles.

162

jh = jH × Re = 7.8x10- 4 × 1.00548x106 = 784.2744 h d -1 3 -14 jH = o e (μCs k) (μ μ w ) k 784.2744=

h o (0.0251m) 0.0184 W m.K

×

(0.0130cp× 2119.6 J kg.K )- 1 3 0.0184 W m.K

h o = 657.7668W m.K

From Table 12.2.Fouling factors coefficient, typical values (Sinnot, R.K., 3rdedition.Coulson

&Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.640), the fouling factor of steam (oil free) and aqueous salt solution are 0.0001 and 0.0003 m2. °C/W respectively. U o, calculated =

A A A 1 + R d,steam + o [(d o - d i ) 2k w ]+ o (1 h i )+ o (R d, aqueous salt solution ) ho A1 A1 A1

U o, calculated =1412.40 W m 2 o C U o, calculated is above the assumed1200 W m 2 o C

Therefore the calculated overall heat transfer coefficient is within the design criteria 1000-1500

W m 2 o C . The required heat transfer area where number of tubes is 31: A required =πdo L t n t =π × 0.0254m ×10.0584m × 31 = 24.8814m 2

C.5. Condenser Design (C-101) Amount of water to be circulated: M w (C p × ΔT )= M v (λ) M w [4.187 kJ kg.K ×(35 - 20)]=15,555.601kg vapor hr (1 hr 3600 s)(402.679kJ kg) M w = 27.70kg s amount of water required= M w = 2,393,661.851kg day water at 20°C

Logarithmic mean temperature difference:

163

LMTD =

[(Tv - Twin ) (Tv - Twout )] [(120- 20)- (120- 35)] = = 92.296°C (120 - 20) (Tv - Twin ) ln ln (120 - 35) (Tv - Twout )

Overall heat transfer coefficient From Table 12.1 Typical overall coefficients For condenser: Hot Fluid: Aqueous vapor Cold fluid: Water

U(W m 2 o C)= 1000 - 1500 Let U=1200 W m 2 o C Q= 1,739,994.96 W (See Chapter 3 for calculations)

Total heat transfer, A =

1,739,994.96 W Q = =15.71m 2 2 o U × ΔTLMTD 1200 W m C ×(92.296°C)

Tubes of 5/4-in outside diameter, 16 BWG, length of 4.8768 m lay on 25/16” square pitch. Number of tubes, Nt=

A 15.71m2 = = 32.60= 33 tubes π × d o × L π × 0.03175m × 4.83

From tube count table: For tube O.D of 5/4-in on 25/16” square pitch

No. of passes= 2 I.D. of shell = 889mm Nearest number of tubes = 31 Corrected heat transfer area = N × π × d × L = 31× π × 0.03175× 4.88= 15. 09 m 2 Corrected U =

1,739,994.96 W 2

15.09m × 92.296°C

= 1249.3262 W m 2 °C

C.6. Boiler Design (B-101)

164

The boiler system comprises of a feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam demand. The steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the point of use. Steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 1. Pressure 1.1. Low to medium pressure (< 10 Bar) – used as industrial boilers, normally has natural circulation (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 1.2. High pressure (10 – 14 Bar) – used as utility boilers, normally has natural circulation (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 1.3. Super high pressure boilers (> 17 Bar) – used as utility, can be natural or forced circulation. The prevention of film boiling and high temperature corrosion should be considered (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 1.4. Supercritical pressure boilers (> 22.1 Bar) – used as utility boiler with large capacity once through or combined circulation. The prevention of film boiling and high temperature corrosion should be considered (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). From the above statement steam generated by Boiler-101 is 202.325 kPa (2.02325 bar) which is less than 10 bar, thus classified under low to medium pressure, B-101 is used as industrial boilers and normally has natural circulation. According to Jaya, Aprilia (2011), natural circulation boiler, the circulation of the working fluid in the evaporating tube is produced by the difference in density between the steam / water mixture in the risers and water in the down comers

165

2. Tube layout Table 1. Comparison of fired tube and water tube boiler (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011) No.

Parameter

Fired Tube

Water tube

1

Rate of steam generation

Less rapid

More rapid

2

Pressure

< 25 kg/cm2

> 25 kg/cm2

3

Risk of explosion

Less

More

4

Floor space

More

Less

5

Cost

Higher

Less

6

Operating Skill

Less

Higher

7

Water treatment

Low

Higher

Therefore, based from the above table it is appropriate to use fired tube. Fired tube boilers consist of a series of straight tubes that are housed inside a water-filled outer shell. The tubes are arranged so that hot combustion gases flow through the tubes. As the hot gases flow through the tubes, they heat the water surrounding the tubes. The water is confined by the outer shell of boiler. To avoid the need for a thick outer shell fired tube boilers are used for lower pressure applications (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). Flue of hot gas is flowing inside the tubes. Water is contained inside the shell. Moreover, fired tube boilers typically have a lower initial cost, are more fuel efficient and are easier to operate, but they are limited generally to capacities of 25000 kg/h and pressures of 17.5 kg/cm 2 (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 3. Boiler Layout- There are three basic designs: A, D and O type. The names are derived from the general shapes of the tube and drum arrangements. All have steam drums for the separation of the steam from the water, and one or more mud drums for the removal of sludge (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011).

166

2.1. Type A - have two mud drums symmetrically below the steam drum. Drums are each smaller than the single mud drums of the type D or O. Bottom blows should not be undertaken at more than 80% of the rated steam load in these boilers. Bottom blow refers to the required regular blow down from the boiler mud drums to remove sludge and suspended solids (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 2.2. Type D is the most flexible design. They have a single steam drum and a single mud drum, vertically aligned. The boiler tubes extend to one side of each drum. Generally, have more tube surface exposed to the radiant heat than other designs (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). 2.3. Type O - have a single steam drum and a single mud drum. The drums are directly aligned vertically with each other, and have a roughly symmetrical arrangement of riser tubes. Circulation is more easily controlled, and the larger mud drum design renders the boilers less prone to starvation due to flow blockage, although burner alignment and other factors can impact circulation (Jaya, Aprilia, 2011). Therefore, based from the three basic design stated above, it is most appropriate to use type D, since it is the most flexible and more tube surface is expose to the radiant heat than other designs. C.7. Centrifuge (FC-101) Parameters:

G = centrifugal acceleration m s 2 D = diameter(m) Ω = speed of the centrifuge , r min Vt = tip speed of the bowl, m s rb = throughput radius(m) The basis to design this equipment is the particle size of the salt, which is120 𝜇𝑚. From table 18-14 in Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th edition, Pusher Centrifuge is the type of centrifuge suitable for salt with a particle size of 120 𝜇𝑚. 167

For Pusher Centrifuge:

Minimum velocity, V = 5 x 10-5 m s Minimum capacity= 1 ton h ; Diameter, D = 250 mm Maximum capacity= 120 ton h ; Diameter, D = 2150 mm Basis: 1 ton h 24 000 kg day ; D = 250 mm at rate = 50 000 kg day ; D = ? By ratio and proportion : D 53,334.072= 250 24,000 D = mm D ≈ 555.6 mm = 0.5556m

From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th edition General Principle of Centrifuge:

average speed, Vt  91 m s For centrifuges made of stainless steel G g  0.000559 2 D G  Vt 2 Q 1 n Where:

G  centrifugal acceleration, m s 2  g  earth' s gravity,  m s 2 

n  usually between 2 and 3 D  diameter, (m)

  speed of centrifuge, r min  Q  flowrate, kg s 

Vt  tip speed of the bowl, m s  using n = 2.5 (average) Vt = 91 m s Q = 53 334.072kg day g = 9.81m s 2

168

G = V 2Q1 n = 912 53 334.072kg day 1 day 24 hrs 1 hr 3600 s 1 2 t G = 6827.77m s 2 G g = 0.000559Ω 2 D 6827.77 9.81 = 0.000559Ω 2 0.521 Ω = 1545.9 r min Ω = 1546 r min throughput radius, rb G = Ω 2 rb rb = G Ω 2 = 6827.77 15462 = 2.86x10- 3 m

C.8. Equipment Design of Dryer d p  120μm ρ (salt) 2160kg/m 3 ρp (air) 0.9643kg/m 3 μ (air)  0.02179cP  2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2

Dimensions of the Fluidized Bed Vessel Dryer (Stanley, W., & Walas, E., 1990) Using Leva’s Equation in obtaining the minimum fluidization velocity:

Umf 

0.0093dp1.82 (ρp  ρ)0.94 μ0.88 ρf 0.06

0.0093(120 10 6 m)1.82 (2160kg/m3  0.9643kg/m3 )0.94 Umf  (2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )0.88 (0.9643kg/m 3 )0.06 Umf  0.0118m/s Arrhenius Equation Ar  ρ(ρp  ρ)gd 3p/μ 0.9643kg/m3 (2160kg/m3  0.9643kg/m3 )(9.81m/s 2 )(120  10 6 m)3 (2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )2 Ar  74.3311

Ar 

Reynolds Number

Re mf  (27.2)2  0.0408(Ar)  27.2 Re mf  (27.2)2  0.0408(74.3311) 27.2 Re mf  0.0557

169

Using Grace’s equation in obtaining the minimum fluidization velocity:

U mf 

μRe mf d pρ

(2.179 10 5 Ns/m 2 )(0.0557) (120 10 6 m)(0.9643kg/m 3 ) U mf  0.0105m/s

U mf 

The conservative one is the larger value,

Umf  0.0118m/s

Minimum bubbling velocity

U mb  33dp (ρρ/μ0.1  0.9643kg/m3   U mb  33 120  10 m  5 2   2.179 10 Ns/m  U mb  0.0115m/s  U mb/U mf  0.0115/0.0118  0.9748

0.1

6

m'  0.03

The fluctuation in level is:

r  e m Gf G mf /Gmf  '

r  e 0.03(5 1)  r  1.1275

170

Entrainment of the smallest particles cannot be avoided, but an appreciable multiple of the minimum fluidizing velocity can be used for operation; say the ratio is 5. (Couper) u f  5u mf  5(0.0118) 0.059m/s

Reading from the graph, d p 120μ2  0.0047 in and G f /G mf

5 ,

The R (Bed Expansion Ratio) is obtained by interpolation or from the dashed line By interpolation:

0.004  0.0047 1.18  R  0.004  0.006 1.18  1.24 R  1.201 Off the dashed line: R  1.22

R=1.22 is more conservative. ε mb/ε mf  Gf /G mf 0.22  50.22  1.42 ε mf  0.4094/1.42  0.2883

Ratio of Bed Levels:

L mb/L mf  1  ε mf /1  ε mb  L mb/L mf  1  0.2883/1  0.4094  1.2050

171

Reading from the graph, d p  120μ2  0.0047in m'  0.03

The fluctuation in level is:

r  e m Gf G mf /Gmf  '

r  e 0.03(5 1)  r  1.1275 

G

217,899.9005 kg/day  225,966.9195 m 3/day 3 0.9643kg/m 

A  G /u f 1day  225,966.9195 m 3/day 86400s   A 0.059m/s A  44.33m 2 A  πd2/4 d  4A/π d  4(44.33)/π d  7.51m With a charge of 100,000 kg of solids and a voidage at minimum bubbling of 0.4094, the height of the minimum bubbling bed is

L

m ρ p 1  ε A

100,000 216044.33m 2 1  0.4094 L  1.77m

L

L b  Lr  1.771.1275  1.99m  2 m

TDH from the figure,

TDH  1.238m Dryer Vessel Length  1.238  2  3.238m

172

Terminal Velocity using Stoke’s Law: ut 



g ρp  ρ

d

2 p

18μ 9.812160  0.9643 120  10 6 2 ut  5 182.179  10  u t  0.7776m/s

Flow rate in the terminal velocity: V' ut  Au

V' ut  44.330.7776  34.47m3/s Power required in the bed : P  V' ut gL ρ  ρ p 1  ε 





P  9.81(2)34.472160  0.96431  0.4094 P  862.9kW

C.8. Equipment Design of Blower (F-101) Basis of the Blower design (Suleiman, Y. et.al.,2013) Blower head

H

862.9 P   2.64 m ρgVut 0.9643 9.81 34.47

173

Froml iterature, r1 , radius of the suction eye  0.06m b1 , blade width  0.04 m r2  0.225m b 2  0.032m N b , number of blades  5 Speed of the suction eye

v n1 

Vut 34.47   2279.23m/s 2ππ1b1 2π0.060.04

But v n1  U1tanβ1

v n1 2279.23   4111.45m/s tanβ1 tan 29 4111.45 60 N  4111450rpm 0.06  2π

U1 

2π4111450  0.225  96873.76m/s 60 Vut 34.47    761.95m/s 2ππ2 b 2 2π0.2250.032

U 2  r2 ω  2ππ  v n2

Impeller discharge velocity,v 2

v 2  U2 2  v n2 2  96873.762  761.952  96876.7565m/s

Assuming that the fluid enters the impeller with purely radial absolute velocity, (Cheng-Kang and Mu-En, 2009) νt1= 0. The increase in head becomes, U2 v t2 g Hg 2.64  9.81 v t2    0.0003m/s U2 96873.76

H

Shaft Power:

Ps 

Pd 862.9   1,232.71kW η 0.7

C.9. Equipment Design of Air Heater (H-105)

174

Thermal Design Given: Inlet steam temperature (T1) = 120°C Outlet steam temperature (T2) = 55°C Since air temperature is varying from 20-30 °C, assume inlet air temperature (t1) = 25°C Outlet air temperature (t2) = 93°C Mass flow rate of dry air entering = 217,899.9005 kg/day Physical Properties From the temperatures given the properties of air and steam at 1 atm (Geankoplis, 2003): Steam: Specific heat, C p  1.8966kJ/kg  C Thermal conductivity, k  0.02467W/m  C Density, ρ  0.5670kg/m 3 Viscosity,μ  1.2434 10 5 kg/m  s N Pr  0.9559

Air: Specific heat, C p  1.008kJ/kg  C Thermal conductivity, k  0.02872W/m  C Density, ρ  1.0653kg/m 3 Viscosity,μ  2.00  10 5 kg/m  s N Pr  0.7027

Energy Balance Assume no heat loss to the surrounding Q  m steam c p,steam T2  T1   m air Cp, air t 2  t 1 

Q  m air Cp, air t 2  t 1   217,899.90 05

kg  1day   J   93  25C    1008 day  86400sec   kg. K 

 172,867.254 4 W

175

Since Q =172,867.2544 W, T2 (outlet steam temperature/condensate temperature) can now be calculated

m steam 

Q C p,steam T2  T1 

J sec  1.4022 kg  121,153.893 kg steam  J sec day 1896.6 (120 - 55) kg.K 172,867.2544

m steam

Calculation of heat transfer area and tube numbers: For countercurrent flow:

ΔTlm 

T1 - t 2  - T2 - t1   120 - 93 - 55 - 25  28.4737C  T - t    120 - 93  ln   ln 1 2  55 25     T t  2 1 

R

T1  T2 120  55   0.96 t 2  t 1 93  25

P

t 2  t 1 93  25   0.72 T2  t 1 120  25

From Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook 8th edition, these values do not intercept on the figure for a single shell-pass exchanger, Fig. 11-4 (a), so use the figure for a two-pass shell, Figure Fig. 11-4 (b), which gives (FT) = 0.75. So, ΔTm  FT ΔTlm  0.75 28.4737  21.36C

Calculating the heat transfer area: From table 12.1.Typical overall coefficients (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.637).The value of the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is 30-300

W W . Say that from the appropriate given range, 30 2 is used as the value of the overall 2 m C m C heat transfer coefficient (U).

176

A

Q 172,867.254 4W   269.7679 m 2 W U  ΔTm 30  21.36C m 2 C

The parameters in calculating the number of tubes, considering a 2-4 Shell-and-tube heat exchanger. 

Fixed tube plate



14 B.W.G Gage



1 ¼” square pitch



3 " outside diameter tube (d o ) = 0.01905 m 4



Tube length (LT) = 5 m (popular size)



Tube ID (di) = 0.01483 m



Fluid arrangement: Countercurrent; Steam heating on the shell side and the dry air on the tube side.

Calculating the number of tubes:

A 269.7879m 2 Ntubes    902 tubes π  d o  L t π  0.01905m  5 m say 904 So, for 4 passes, tubes per pass = 226 tubes Check for Fluid velocity: If the tube side fluid velocity, u, is < 1m/s (typical design velocity), consider revising the design parameters and consideration (increase the number of tube pass) to meet the design velocity (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.660).  n tube pass   4  217,899.9005 1day  1hr   4  4  m dry air   24 hr 3600s  904   Ntubes   ut   60.7025m/s 2 kg π  ρ d i π 1.0653 3  0.014832 m

177

Tube side heat transfer coefficient (hi): From Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ handbook the viscosity of air is 1.845 x 10-3 Pa.s.





kg m ρ d i u t 1.0653 m 3 60.7025 sec 0.01483m  Re = = μ 2.00  10 5 kg m  sec  47,950.1158

From Figure 12.23. Tube-side heat transfer factor (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 3.3410 x10-3. Consider

μ  1, μw

μ  viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w  viscosityof the tube side fluid at

wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity)  0.02872

W . m. K

Nu  jh RePr 0.33  3.341 103 47,950.1158 0.70270.33  142.5937  k   0.02872 h i  Nu    142.5937   276.1490  0.01483  Di  Bundle and Shell Diameter: From table 12.4. Constants for K1 and n1 depending whether the tube layout is a triangular or a rectangular pitch (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.649), for square pith and 4 number of tube passes K1 and n1 values are 0.175 and 2.285 respectively.

Assume: 25% cut segmental baffles N  Bundle diameter  d o  tubes   K1 

1 n1

1

 904  2.285  0.01905  0.8 m   0.175 

From Figure 12.10.Shell Bundle clearance (Sinnot, R.K.,3rd edition. Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.646), the bundle diameter clearance is 16 mm = 0.016 m. Shell diameter, Ds = 0.8 m + 0.016 m = 0.816 m 178

Shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho):

Baffle spacing, l B 

Ds 0.816m   0.1632m 5 5

Tube pitch, PT 1.25d0 1.250.01905m  0.0238m

Equivalentdiameterfor the shell side, De  De 





1.1 2 PT  0.917do 2 do





1.1 0.02382  0.9170.019052  0.01349m 0.01905

Cross flow area, A s 

PT - d o DS l B  0.0238- 0.019050.816 0.1632  0.0266m 2 PT

0.0238

1day  121,153.893 kg day  86400sec  m steam  us    93.0784m/s kg 2 A sρ  0.0266m  0.5670  m3  





 0.567kg  60.7025m sec 0.01483m  ρ d e u s  m3  Re = = μ 1.2434 10 5 kg m  sec  57,257.5887

From Figure 12.29. Shell-side heat transfer factors (Sinnot, R.K. 3rd edition, Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering.6, p.665), jh is equal to 2.6274 x10-3 with 25% cut segmental baffles. Consider

μ  1, μw

μ  viscosity of the tube side fluid & μ w  viscosityof the tube side fluid at

wall temperature and k (thermal conductivity)  0.02467

W . m. K

Nu  jh RePr 0.33  2.6374 103 57,257.58870.95590.33  148.2161  k   0.02467 h s  Nu    148.2161   271.0519  0.01349  De 

179

From Table 12.2.Fouling factors coefficient, typical values (Sinnot, R.K., 3rdedition.Coulson

&Richardson’s Chemical Engineering.6, p.640), the fouling factor of steam and air are 0.0001 and

0.0002 m2. °C/W respectively. The thermal conductivity, kw of stainless steel is 15.0574 W/ m2 -

°C.

d   d o ln o  do  di    2× k w  di  

  + 1 + R d,steam  hs      0.01905ln0.01905  1 1   0.01905  0.01483  +  + 0.0002  + 0.0001  276.1490  0.01483  2 × 15.0574 W  271.0519  m 2 . °C  

1 Uo, calculated =  + R d,air  hi

W =112.9135 2 ; m . °C

Uo, calculated is above the assumed 30

W . m 2 . °C

Therefore the calculated overall heat transfer coefficient is within the design criteria 30-300 The required heat transfer area where number of tubes is 904:

A required  πdoL t nt  π  0.01905m  5 m  904  270.51m 2

C.10. Equipment Design of Tanks C.10.1. Pure Brine Tank Design Pure brine tank dimensions: Operating conditions: T = 25oC

ρ = 1453.3kg day Liquid in the Tank = 480,006.6516 kg/day

180

W . m 2 . °C

Per Batch: 480,006.6516 kg/day ×

1 day 8 hrs. × = 160,002.2172 kg batch 24 hrs 1 batch

Therefore, V=

m 160,002.2172 kg = = 110.1m 3 ρ 1453.3kg/m 3

V=

πD2h 4

Assume :

D =1 h

πD3 = 110.1m 3 4 D = 5.195 m D = h = 5.195 m V=

C.10.2. Salt Holding Tank (T=102) Parameters: Capacity of the vessel; V (m3) Diameter of the vessel; D (m) Height of the vessel; H (m)

flowrate of salt leaving each centrifuge = 50 000 kg day total flowrate of salt entering the tank = 100 000 kg day Assumption 1: 1 kg = 1 L therefore;

100 000 kg day = 100 000 L day 1 m 3 1000 L  = 100 m 3 day

Assumption 2: operation time : 8 hr retention time : 20 mins volume of the tank, V :

V = 2100 m 3 day 1 day 8 hrs 1 hr 8 hrs 20min V = 8.333 m 3

181

Rule - of - thumb :

H =3 D

H = 3D

C.10.3. Ionization Tank (T-103) flowrate of salt entering the tank  100 000 kg day

Assumption 1:

1 kg  1 L

therefore; 100 000 kg day  100 000 L day 1 m 3 1000 L   100 m 3 day

Assumption 2: operation time : 24 hrs retention time : 30 s

Assumption 3: Computation of V of Storage Tank and Ionization Tank is the same So, the volume of the ionization tank, Vi:

Vi  2100 m 3 day 1day 24 hrs 1hr 60min1 min 60s 30s V  0.0694 m 3 Rule-of-thumb: H 3 D H  3D π Vi  D 2 H 4 3π 3 0.0694  D 4 D  0.309 m H  0.927 m π V = D2H 4 3π 3 8.333= D 4 D = 1.524m H = 4.524m

182

Appendix D Organizational Chart

183

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT DESIGN ASSESSMENT RUBRIC Project Name: Industrial Production of Iodized Salt from Seawater Team Members:

1. De Vera, Crissalie Mariez M. 2. Gammad, Miriam A. 3. Mamattong, Jinky B. 4. Pingad, Rizza P.

Category/ Dimensions Organization & Style

Exceptional (4) Information is presented in a logical, interesting way, which is easy to follow.

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(2)

Purpose is clearly stated and explains the structure of work.

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Demonstration of full knowledge of the subject with explanations and elaboration.

Purpose of work is clearly stated assists the structure of work. At ease with content and able to elaborate and explain to some degree.

(2) Design Problem and Boundaries (2) Alternative Designs (1)

Date: May 15, 2017

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Overall sound understanding of the problem and constraints. Does not significantly impair solution.

Some understanding of problem. Major deficiencies that will impact the quality of solution.

Final design achieved after review of reasonable alternatives.

Alternative approaches identified to some degree.

Serious deficiencies in exploring and identifying alternative designs.

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(3)

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Process Economics

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Moderately effective utilization of resource conservation and recycle potentials. Reasonable profitability Analysis presented, but no interpretation of the results.

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No or totally erroneous cost Estimates presented.

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