Improving Coastal Resource Management

1 The Chittagong University Journal of Social Sciences Vol. XX, No. X (p. 1-20) April 2008

Improving Coastal Resource Management for Socio-economic Development of Rural Communities in Cox’s Bazar: A Participatory Appraisal M. Shahadat Hossain1 and M. Shamsuddoha2 1

Institute of Marine Sciences and Fisheries, 2 Department of Marketing University of Chittagong, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh.

Tel. 88-031-710347 (Off), 88-031-752486 (Res), Mobile: 88-01711-720950 Fax: 88-031-713109, Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Coastal ecosystems are complex, sensitive and subject to influences of nature as well as human interference. The Cox’s Bazar coastal zone of Bangladesh has had great importance since long for the abund ance of its natural resources. However, in terms of recent development efforts, the coastal zone has been neglected. It is essential to diagnose the coastal issues and appraise the needs of the coastal communities through the bottom- up approach for more rigorous research and facilitate the formulation of the sustainable management plan. The use of space-borne remote sensing for land use applications has widely demonstrated as an important tool, particularly for land cover identification. Satellite image of Landsat TM, covering the Cox’s Bazar coast were processed to extract information about the coastal natural resources. The integrated use of remote sensing and GIS technology does not only improve the quality of geographic information but also enables information previously unavailable to be economically produced. Participatory Rural Appraisal

2 (PRA) was conducted to focus local community opinion to analyze their situation as well as to assess the coastal natural resources, land use patterns, problems, and potentials. Proper resource utilization and integration among stakeholder’s activities can increase environmentfriendly production efficiency, which have a positive role in successful poverty alleviation program and socio -economic development of coastal rural communities. Keywords: Coastal natural resources, bottom- up approaches, rapid rural appraisal, socio-economic development. 1. INTRODUCTION The increasing population in the world is often associated with the movement of people to coastal zones, where the natural resources are of great importance for them. As a result, these natural resources are under increasing pressure from over-exploitation, resulting in unsustainable development of coastal areas. Depletion of natural resources results in losses of income for coastal communities that are dependent both directly and indirectly on fisheries and coastal habitats (Sudara, 1999). In the coastal zone of Bangladesh some informal forms of coastal area management practices exist at local levels. However, external forces together with changes in social values, conspicuous consumption, loopholes in regulations, insufficient knowledge and information, and inadequate law enforcement are major threats to such local management practices. Decision- makers need information that is relevant, timely, accurate, and usable (Chambers, 1980). The Earth Summit in Rio in June 1992 was very noticeably oriented towards empowerment through participation and emphasis shifted significantly from the traditional top-down perspective on policy implementation, to one of bottom- up people- led development. It was recognized that sustainable development would require training and education at all levels of society, where indigenous people and their communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices (Younis, 1997). Knowledge of water, soil, seasons, shrimp farming, salt production,

3 domestic animals, agricultural practices, diet, cooking practices and child care of the local people is often rich. But techniques for eliciting, learning and using such knowledge are still quite primitive. In the Cox’s Bazar coast most of the residents are involved in agriculture, fishing, salt production and shrimp farming, while some are in coastal tourism and trading. However, the government has not prepared a formal coastal resource management plan based on participation of the local communities. A participatory approach to coastal resource planning can consider the long-term interests of the host community, on whom most of the activities depend. This approach is based on the assumption that coastal management programs will be more successful if local people are involved in planning and implementing coastal policies and programs. Involvement of local peoples in the management practice would give them a sense of awareness of the resources and ensure their continued livelihood and economic well being. In this way, coastal zone management links ecology with economics, sociology and politics, promoting policies and practices which discourage further degradation, establish priorities, provide incentives for improvement and provide sufficient resources for local people so that they manage themselves willingly. Warren (2001) measured participatio n at several stakeholder levels such as primary stakeholders, including community and societal actors in projects and programs; secondary stakeholders, including local governance institutions and "interface" institutions such as technical services, NGOs, private sector organizations, and, sometimes, the project itself; and tertiary stakeholders, including national- level development agencies, national NGOs, policy makers and international support agencies. In this study, we look at all three but focus our analysis mainly on primary stakeholders, specifically the local community. 2. METHODS Participatory appraisal evolved a series of qualitative multidisciplinary approaches to learning about local- level conditions and local peoples’ perspectives. Many examples have been recorded of successful

4 community participation in achieving good results in managing coastal resources in different countries (Fezzardi, 2001). Participatory Rural Appraisal technique was used applying observation and community level group meeting with 15 different stakeholder groups to gather primary information, following Pido (1995), Pido et al. (1996) and Townsley (1996). Prior to this research, letters were sent to the administrator of Cox’s Bazar District and relevant organizations to inform them about the proposed research. Before meeting, request letters to the leader of the particular stakeholder groups were sent to give the research team the opportunity to explain the objectives of the research to the community. Observation was conducted through transects across the area defined by using maps and satellite images (Landsat TM). Camera was used as an important research tool for direct observation because photographs can be used to document conditions before an intervention. The transects was carried out in as wide a range of environments as possible to observe land use patterns, resource conditions, problems and potential, and interviewed people. Other specific PRA tools such as problem tree and seasonal calendar were used in the present study. To produce useable outputs, observations were recorded as drawings and notes. Stakeholder analysis was conducted to select appropriate groups for collecting required information and reveal the relationship between their activities. A checklist of topics was used to aid the memory. An important way of learning about local conditions and resources is to ask local communities what they know (Pelto & Pelto, 1978). In the Cox’s Bazar coast, individual knowledge varied greatly where the willingness and verbal capabilities of the people differed in expressing information. Direct observation prevents rapid appraisal from being misled by myth (Chambers, 1980) and it often provides more valid and less costly information than other research methods (KKU, 1987).

5 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Coastal natural resources The Cox’s Bazar coast was found rich in both renewable and nonrenewable natural resources. The main economically important coastal natural resources including land, mangrove forest, rivers, hills, islands, cliffs and sandy beach were identified and marked on the satellite image (Figure 1). Villagers who cannot read were generally keen to look at the satellite image and by interviewing useful information was collected. 91050?N

92010?N

92000?N Chittagong

N Kutubdia Island

21045?E

Chittagong Hill Tracts

Matamuhuri River

Moheshkhali Island

21030?E

Bay of Bengal

Mangroves

Moheshkhali Channel

Baghkhali River Cox’s Bazar Sandy beach

Cliffs

Figure 1. Satellite image (Landsat TM) showing the geographical location and coastal resources of Cox’s Bazar.

6 The coastal flood plains are the most important resources that support multi-purpose use of coastal land for crop production, livestock rearing, salt production, shrimp/fish farming, tourism activities, infrastructure development, fishing crafts and gear manufacturing, and harbour activities. The fluvial and tidal geomorphological features of the Cox’s Bazar coast have been created by the continuous deposition of weathered materials from the nearby lands, towering cliffs and hills, which are ultimately carried by the Matamuhuri river, the Bagkhali river and numerous small tributaries and canals. This factor helps in the formation of a newly accreted coastal landscape, which gives an opportunity for multiple utilization, particularly mangrove afforestation. During the monsoon season (April to September) fresh water is abundant, whereas during the winter water becomes a scarce resources. Due to reduced river flows in winter, the surface water systems suffer from saline water intrusion, making the resource unsuitable for agricultural and domestic uses. A number of factors have contributed to salinization of land and water in the coastal zone of Bangladesh (Figure 2). The ground water aquifers in the coastal area are under growing stress of salinization resulting from over-exploitation. Sea level rise and low river flows would substantially contribute to that stress. Winter agriculture in the coastal areas is dependent on ground water. Rural water supply almost entirely depends on fresh water source. With the spread of shrimp culture and sa lt production activities, a large part of the land in the area is kept submerged under tidal water for a greater part of the year. Rice and grass that grew in the fields, formerly used for forage of cattle and buffalo heads are submerged under tidal water as such made unavailable to them. 3.2. Occupation The major activities of the people are shrimp farming, agriculture, fishing, salt production, either as daily labour and owners of such production facilities. One person may be engaged in two or more different occupations i.e., one family may have shrimp ponds, salt beds and agricultural land. Some of the occupations are seasonal, so a person can take up different activities depending on the seasons. Among the business

7 people, most are engaged in hotels and restaurants, selling of handicrafts and gift items for tourists, supplying of fish, shrimp and salt.

Threat to livelihood generation

Local extinction of species

Decrease of community income

Reduction of livestock/poultry

Change land/water use pattern Aggravation of upstream land

Reduced fertility of land

Increased Salinization

Intrusion of saline water

Unplanned Sea salt horizontal production expansion of coastal shrimp farming Conversion of ? Agricultural land ? Mangrove forest

Natural disaster

Cyclone/ Tidal surge

Stocking Depression high salinity in the Bay water for longer period

Upstream Embankment

Draught

Control water flow

Rivers become dry

PROBLEM Sea level rise

River course change

Global warming

CAUSES

Low yield of agriculture crops

Hamper species adaptation

EFFECTS

Loss of biodiversity

Emission of green house gases

Reduced freshwater flow

Figure 2. Problem tree analysis for increasing salinization in the coastal environment

8 Pomeroy (1995) has proposed community-based resource management as a way to involve resource users and to utilize indigenous institutional arrangements and knowledge in resource management. This can lead to a form of co-management, a sharing of responsibility and authority in various degrees for resource management between the government and the local resource users/community (Figure 3). Government-based Management

Government centralized management

Community-based Management

Community selfgovernance and self-management

Informing Consultation Cooperation Communication Information Exchange Advisory Joint Action Partnership Community Control Inter-area coordination

Figure 3. A hierarchy of co- management arrangements (modified from Pomeroy, 1995). Some couples were requested to participate in a time allocation study. They were asked to identify their activities over 24 hours. This information gave an idea how they spend their time and see if they would still have time for additional livelihood activities. The daily activities of men involve intensive labour for income generation for the family, while the women’s activities are family oriented (Figure 4). Most of the men work in agricultural land, salt beds and shrimp farms and they are also engaged in woodcutting, husbandry of cattle and trading in the local market. During the fishing period (September to March) fishermen stay 37 days on the sea depending on the availability of the catch. Some of them

9

12 Housework, Homestead gardening, Fire wood collection, Chicken-duck rearing, Family take care

06

Cooking, Bathing, Johore prayer Lunch, Rest

Morning cleaning, Breakfast making

Housework, Swing cloths Making net, basket, hat, etc. Chicken-duck rear Asar prayer Evening cleaning

18

Magrib prayer

Fazar prayer

Sleeping WOME

Housework, cooking, dinner, Esha prayer

24 12 Field works, fishing, agriculture, wood cutting, shrimp farming, salt production, cattle care, daily labor

Bathing, Johore prayer, Lunch

Field works, Woodcutting, Daily labor, Agriculture, Fishing, Asar prayer

06

Breakfast

Trading in local market

Fazar prayer

18

Magrib prayer Dinner, Esha prayer

Sleeping MEN

24

Figure 4. Daily activity charts of men and women in Cox’s Bazar coast. are engaged in making fishing crafts and gears. Women in coastal communities do not participate directly in income generating activities.

10 They generally look after their families. The daily chore of childcare, collecting water, fuel, cooking, chicken and duck rearing, homestead gardening, sewing cloths, making handicrafts and occasional enterprise to add to the family income is a heavy burden. All this work goes unrecognized and unpaid for. In the Cox’s Bazar coast most of the respondents were Muslims and they offer prayers five times a day. These prayers are offered at around dawn (Fazar), at noon (Johore), mid afternoon (Asar), after sunset (Magrib) and evening (Esha). Wild shrimp fry collection, which was major income generating activity, has been reduced greatly due to the recent development of hatchery industries in the Cox’s Bazar coast. As a result very few men and children were found collecting wild shrimp fry from the rivers, canals, creeks and coastal waters. However they still have spare time for other livelihood activities. 3.3. Seasonal calendar Seasonal calendar is helpful for documenting regular cyclical periods (i.e., seasonal) and significant events that occur during a year and influence the life of the community (IIRR, 1998). It provides a general picture of important environmental and socio-economic periods throughout the year. The primary stakeholders such as shrimp farmers, salt producers, fishermen and tour operators were asked questions regarding rainy and dry season’s duration, environmental condition and their activities. Respective government offices at Cox’s Bazar such as the District Administration, District Fishery office, Coastal Afforestation Division, Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation (BSCIC), National Tourism Organization were visited and their personnel interviewed to know about the environmental condition, people’s behaviour, their activities, relationships, social situation and economic condition. The members/leaders of different associations such as the hatchery owners association, salt mill owners association, frozen food exporters association, and fish and shrimp traders association were met to collect the same information. Group meetings had several advantages, including access to a large body of knowledge and mutual checking. There was found a self-correcting mechanism within the group because if one person put across an over- favourable picture of his/her own or group’s behaviour, a peer would give a more realistic observation. In cross checking with

11 other groups a high degree of uniformity was found. The information was assimilated, synthesized and triangulated and then a seasonal calendar of livelihood activities in the coastal community was formulated (Figure 5). Activity Shrimp farming Salt production

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Mangrove afforestation Coastal tourism Handicrafts

Fishing Agriculture Rainfall Cyclonic storm Income

Figure 5. Seasona l calendar showing different coastal activities in the Cox’s Bazar coast. The seasons are distinct in the Cox’s Bazar coast, the rainy season starts from April or May and ends in September or October, while the dry season starts from November and ends in April. The historical record indicates that cyclonic storm occurs during pre-monsoon and postmonsoon periods (Hossain, 2001a). High rainfall and strong winds limit the fishing and tourism activities and completely stop salt production. The rainy season is favourable for shrimp farming and mangrove afforestation as well as agriculture (transplanted Amon rice). But heavy raining and cyclonic storms may wash out all sorts of coastal properties.

12

Village

Channel/Sea

Land use Resources

Livelihood

Problem

Opport unities

Dike

Channel Fish, shrimp, oyster, green mussel Fishing, shrimp fry

Shrimp pond

Dike Grass tree

Water pollution, siltation, decling fishery production

Fishing

Shelter

Salt bed

Shrimp

River

Temporary Shrimp pond Canal home

Salt

River

Shrimp, sea bass, mullet

-

-

Pond preparation, harvesting

Salt collection

Fish, shrimp, oyster, green mussel Fishing, shrimp fry

Mangrove destruction, lack of technology

Mangrove destruction

Water pollution, reduce fishery production

Overexplo itation of natural resources

Employment

Fishing, water supply

Human

Shrimp

Canal

Shrimp/Fish

Salt bed

Shrimp

Salt

Human

Shrimp, sea bass, mullet

Fish, shrimp

Shrimp, cat fish, prawn

-

Tree, livestock

Pond preparation, harvesting

Water supply

Pond preparation, harvesting

Salt colle ction

Gardening, poultry, agricul-ture

Mangrove destruction

Water pollu tion

Mangrove destruction

Man grove destruction

Lack of drinking water, electricity, transportation, education, toilet Construction of house, water tank

Employment

Employment

Figure 6. Transect analysis showing present land use pattern of the Cox’s Bazar coast.

13 Transect analysis clearly focused the existing land use pattern, particularly of the Chakaria area. The transect assisted in concentrating discussions on specific zones and the activities carried out there and identified some key problems (Figure 6). Among the advantages of transect is the simple portrayal of the resources present and the associated economic, social and environmental issues in spatial terms (Pido et al., 1996). 3.4. Socio -economic condition Field visits and group interviews provided some ideas about the socioeconomic condition of the local people. Most had been living there for generations. The typical average household size consists of 7 to 8 members in the Cox’s Bazar coast, and the households usually composed of husband, wife, children, brothers, sisters and parents. The area is densely populated with 687 people per square kilometer as per 1998 estimations (BBS, 2000). More than 90% people are Muslim; very few are Hindus while Rakhayns are dominant among the tribal groups. Increased population is one of the main factors that here caused natural resources depletion i.e., mangrove destruction, over exploitation of fisheries resources, etc. The local people depend largely on the coastal natural resources for living, which has led to destruction of the coastal natural resources to meet their demands. About 55% people of the study area are illiterate, which is also related to natural resource destruction (Hossain, 2001b). Education creates awareness among the people about the important iss ues of the society i.e., population pressure, overexploitation of natural resources, degradation of the natural environment, carrying capacity of the environment, etc. Education initiatives should include children education and mass media campaign for public education to raise awareness about coastal ecosystems and their services, and also develop curriculum on community-based coastal resource management and technical training program for community members to become trainers. The present study revealed that 20 to 25 years ago local people of Chakaria depended upon mangrove forest. Many household necessities, such as firewood, housing materials, boat making materials, herbal plants

14 for traditional medicines, honey, and other minor products were provided by the Chakaria Sunderban mangrove forest. The area was a very good habitat for different types of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, etc. People use to catch fishes and shrimps from the water bodies inside the mangrove forest (Hossain et al., 2001). Deforestation of Chakaria Sunderban has affected socio-economic life of more than 90% of the local communities of Chakaria region. The villagers have been using mud stoves for cooking food. Traditionally they collected some fuel wood from the forest, nearby hills and along roadsides. But now above 90% buy fuel wood from the market. Presently fuel wood price ranges from Tk. 200-250 per 100 Kg, compared to Tk. 2550 about 20-25 years ago. The price increases has badly affected the social life of the local communities. Some villagers have lost their agricultural land due to shrimp farm establishment, which also has significant impact on the socio-economic condition. About 50% of the local people have changed their previous occupation in search to increase income. Shrimp farming is the main cause of changing occupation. Other reasons are directly related to deforestation. Fishermen have lost their fishing grounds and have been forced to seek some other occupation to earn a living. A similar story can be related to woodcutters. Farmers are facing lot of troubles in maintaining their cattle and buffaloes. 3.5. Stakeholders Stakeholders are important because they can support and sustain a particular resource. They could be potential partners or threats in managing and developing coastal resources. The stakeholder analysis generates insights into the characteristics of coastal resource user groups and their relationships. The primary stakeholders of coastal resource utilization in the Cox’s Bazar coast are fishermen, shrimp farmers, salt producers, agriculturists and tour operators. The local residents are known as insider, who cultivates their own land and sometimes their neighbor’s land on crop sharing basis. On the other hand, if the landowner lease out the land to a non-resident person(s) for a certain period, the leaseholder

15 are known as outsider. The leaseholder may operate the area by his employees or sometimes joint ventures with local residents. Other stakeholders are government agencies, private/business organizations, academic or research organizations, religion/cultural groups and donors. 3.6. Conflict resolution Individuals, either within a community or in several different communities, share most coastal resources. The attempts of local people to draw resource-use boundaries are limited by their capability to control the resources. In these cases, disputes and conflicts on resource utilization are inevitable both among members of the same communities and between different communities at Cox’s Bazar coast. When disputes occur among local communities, the local elders and respectable persons play important roles in resolving the problems or requesting involvement of the legal authorities. The village formal administrative committee is led by an elected Union Parishad Chairman and composed of several village members. Besides this, there coexists an informal mechanism, generally composed of a few elders and other influential figures in the village. Formal ways of resolving disputes are less preferred by local resource users and are used only when their informal attempts fail. This is because of the usual passive role of officials, and the long and costly process of involvement leading to the perceptions of ineffectiveness and unreliability towards formal procedures among the local people. For example, compromise may be needed among fisheries, mangrove, agriculture, tourism, salt production and public works where these sectors are all attempting to use the coastal zone simultaneously. Both fisheries and tourism depend on a large extent on a high level of environmental quality, particularly coastal water quality. Both sectors are affected by pollutants, wildlife habitat loss and mangrove forest destruction. Another example, fisheries may require port services similar to those on which tourism depends, an infrastructure system that supplies water, sanitation, transportation and telecommunication. Therefore, planning for both should be integrated with that for transportation and public works sectors.

16 4. CONCLUSION The marginalized coastal people suffer from a dual vulnerability of being poor and uneducated. The rapid rural appraisal has enabled the research team to understand the local situation and has given the local people the opportunity to analyze their situation. The main barricades of community involvement in the Cox’s Bazar coast are the under-estimation of knowledge and experience of the local community, and a bias for technical rather than social considerations in coastal zone management efforts. The rapid appraisal of coastal resources is envisaged to play a crucial role in providing timely and reliable information for better decision making. The output is a primary-stakeholder-managed trial or development activity that closely involves the local communities. This process is bottom- up and allows the participation of all staff members at different levels (Figure 7). The people need to be empowered economically, personally, educationally and politically to ensure their participation in coastal zone management. It is also imperative that women be fully involved in all aspects of the development activities, including management. Women play a key role in the life of all communities and are often the major end -users of coastal resources. It is clear that the coastal zone of Cox’s Bazar has suffered from a large number of management-related problems that have produced poor economic returns and extensive environmental damage. Many of the problems caused could have been avoided if good management practices had been followed. An excellent, comprehensive account of ways to improve coastal resource utilization is provided in the framework that deals with some important processes involved in the Cox’s Bazar coastal zone (Figure 8). Successful coastal zone management requires the participation of local people, government authorities, non-government organizations, researchers and investors. The coastal community must be involved in the decision, planning and management processes especially for matters that affect them directly. This participatory approach will reduce user conflicts, to avoid ecosystem over-exploitation and to promote an understanding about inter-connectivity of coastal habitats that are essential for long-term management of the coastal natural resources.

17

Top down approach

National Government

Departments: ? ? ? ? ?

Fisheries Environment Forest Land Tourism

District administration

Thana/Upazila administration

Local administration ? Union council

Bottom up approach

Primary Stakeholders Shrimp farmer

Salt producer Farmer

Fishermen Tour operator

Trader

Figure 7. Top-down and bottom-up integration for coastal resource management.

18

Management issues: ? Land/resource use conflict ? Population growth ? Coastal pollution ? Infrastructure development

Shrimp farming: ? Zoning ? Area allocation ? Time sharing ? Carrying capacity -Environmental CC -Economic CC ? EIA ? Licensing ? Code of conduct

Natural resources: ? Land ? Waterways ? Mangroves ? Beach ? Shrimp/fish

Coastal processes (Physical and Biological): ? Shrimp/fish farming ? Mangrove clearing and afforestation ? Salt production ? Coastal tourism ? Fishing ? Agriculture ? Urban waste disposal

Management Approach Salt production: Mangrove ? Zoning ? Area allocation ? Common land distribution ? Incentives ? Proper valuation of salt ? Develop warehouse facility

afforestation: ? Zoning ? Area allocation ? Community participation ? Homestead nursery development

Coastal tourism: ? Zoning ? Area allocation ? Infrastructure development ? Tourist facility -Accommodation -Restaurant -Recreation -Sight seeing ? Community participation

Management requirement ? Horizontal integration ? Inter-Department ? Inter-Council ? Inter-Community ? Top down integration ? National level - Community level ? Bottom up integration ? Community level - National level

Figure 8. An ICZM framework for coastal resource management in Cox’s Bazar.

19 5. REFERENCES BBS. 2000. Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Dhaka: Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. Chambers, R. 1980. Rapid rural appraisal: rationale and repertoire. Discussion paper. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK. Fezzardi, D. 2001. Community participation in coastal resources management: lessons learned from a case study of Songkhla Lake, Southern Thailand. M.Sc. thesis, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. Hossain , M.S. 2001a Biological Aspects of the Coastal and Marine Environment of Bangladesh. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 44, No. 3-4, pp 261-282. Hossain, M.S. 2001b Integrated multiple uses of the coastal zone in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh. M.Sc. thesis, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand. Hossain, M.S, Lin, C.K. and Hussain, M.Z. 2001 Goodbye Chakaria Sunderban: The oldest mangrove forest. SWS (Society of Wetland Scientists) Bulletin, Vol. 18, No. 3 pp 19-22. IIRR. (1998 Participatory methods in community-based coastal resource management. 3 vols. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines. KKU (Khon Kaen University). 1987. Rural Systems Research and Farming Systems Research Projects: Thailand. Proceedings of the 1985 International Conference on Rapid Rural Appraisal. Pelto, P., and Pelto, G. 1978. Anthropological Research: The structure of Inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pido, M.D. 1995. The Application of Rapid Rural Appraisal Techniques in Coastal Resources Planning: Experience in Malampaya Sound, Philippines. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 26, No. 1 pp 5772. Pido, M. D., Pomeroy, R. S., Carlos, M. B., and Garces, L. R. 1996. A handbook for rapid appraisal of fisheries management systems (version 1). Manila, Philippines: ICLARM.

20 Pomeroy, R.S. 1995. Community-Based and Co-Management Institutions for Sustainable Coastal Fisheries Management in Southeast Asia. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 27 pp 143-162. Sudara, S. 1999. Who and What is to be Involved in Successful Coastal Zone Management: a Thailand Example. Ocean & Coastal Management, Vol. 42 pp 39-47. Townsley, P. 1996. Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rural Appraisal and Aquaculture. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 358. Rome, Italy, 109 p. Younis, T. 1997. Bottom-up implementation after Rio: Rural community participation in Scottish forestry. Community Development Journal, vol. 32, No. 4 pp 299-311. Warren, P. 2001. Survey at-a-distance on Assessment of Stakeholder Participation in FAO Field Programme. URL: http://www.fao.org/sd/2001/PE0401a_en.htm