Immigration Policies On Asian Exclusion

Candidate (001241 003) 1

An Investigation into the effects of World War II: To what extent did it alter immigration policies of Asian Exclusion in conservative countries?

IB 20th Century History HL Internal Assessment 9 Dec 2008

Wendy Choi Candidate number: 001241-003

Word Count: 1,990

Candidate (001241 003) 2

A. Plan of Investigation Aside from the destructive effects of World War II, the outbreak of World War II itself has greatly impacted the world in numerous ways. Most countries involved with the war have developed technologically to provide for a more dependable way of traveling in response to the needs of war mobilizations. In fact, World War II also accelerated globalization into our modern world, which includes global economic exchange as well as the exchange of people. Thus, the security and economical effects of World War II was the major elements in loosening the Asian Exclusion policies in many conservative countries. In the period following World War II, “Asian immigrants in Australia, Canada, or the USA…Asians in the UK” all faced Asian exclusion policies.1 Indeed, many countries such as Australia began to realize that its vulnerability to foreign attacks was a direct result of its limited population. Therefore, the “White Australia” policy from the mid-19th century— once enshrined in Australian laws and policies— became relaxed as the Australians commenced to open the door to Asian immigrants in the post-World War II era. To a greater extent, Australia even encouraged immigration by financing for many of these needy immigrants. On the whole, this investigation will focus on providing a detailed analysis on the effects that World War II had on global Asian Exclusion policies with a specific case study on Australia with clear, analytical and statistical evaluation from several studies, which includes Freda Hawkins’ Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared.

1

Castles, Stephen, Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. (New York: Guilford Press, 2003) 238.

Candidate (001241 003) 3 B. Summary of Evidence Prior to World War II, most Asian immigrants sought for prosperity as workers in other countries before they return to China. In the United States, the Chinese Exclusion Law of 1882 (extended indefinitely in 1904) rejected all Chinese immigrants and the Scott Act of 1888 barred re-entry Asians who returned to visit their home countries. Consequently, Chinese immigration “declined 40 percent between 1880 and 1890.”2 Finally in 1946, the Luce-Celler Act allowed naturalization for over 80,000 Filipinos who had enlisted in the U.S. military and increased the quotas for all Asians. Elsewhere in Canada and Australia, similar adjustments emerged. Since the late nineteenth century, the White Canada and White Australia immigration policies were strictly enforced. After the Gold Rush era of 1851 to 1860, immigration rates peaked at approximately 50,000 per year. These non-English-speaking immigrant groups were considered “unassimilable or [threatening to] social harmony or employment conditions.”3 Of the two and a half million immigrants to Canada between 1896 and 1914: about forty percent are British, thirty percent are Americans, and roughly over twenty percent are continental Europeans due to the “White Canada” policies.4 Hence, immigrants from Asia remained only part of the sum in the remaining ten percent identified as “all others” from late nineteenth century to midtwentieth century. Similar to Canada, the Immigration Restriction Act from 1901 to 1958 preserved a “White Australia” thirteen years behind World War II. The series of White Australia policies in Australia such as the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901 also used devices such as "dictation test" to exclude unwanted immigrants. For the United States in 1943, the Chinese Exclusion Act was finally repealed by the Magnuson Act, which allowed the naturalization of Chinese residents and increased the quota of 2

Campi, Alicia. “‘Eating Bitterness’: The Impact of Asian-Pacific Migration on U.S. Immigration Policy.” Immigration Policy Center. 12 Nov 2008 3 Jupp, James. From White Australia to Woomera. (‘2nd ed.’ New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007) 14. 4 Refer to Data Set 1.2

Candidate (001241 003) 4 Chinese immigrants to 105 per annum.5 In Australia, a large section of their population of four million has perished during the First World War so after the Second World War in 1945, the Australian Minister for Immigration Arthur Calwell became determined to implement a “populate or perish”6 program to strengthen Australia’s national security and economic development through increasing population growth by one percent per annum. Until the 1960s, British immigrants remained the largest of all Australia’s foreign intake.7 Eventually, the urgent needs of Europeans and the decreasing numbers of British refugees led to the inclusion of Middle Eastern immigrant recruitment policies of the 1950s’. In 1966, the Minister for Immigration Hubert Opperman announced the opportunity for admission of “distinguished and highly qualified non-Europeans.”8 Furthermore, the White Australia policy is officially abolished in 1973.

5

Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan. “Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910-1950” Asian Law Journal. vol. 9, 2002. 6 Hawkins, 32. 7 Table 3 – Top 10 Immigrant Groups in Australia from 1949 forward 8 Opperman, Hubert. “Australia’s Immigration Policy on the Admission of Non-Europeans” (Migration News: Journal of the International Catholic Migration Commission, no1. Jan-Feb 1967) 6.

Candidate (001241 003) 5 C. Evaluation of Sources

Castles, Stephen, Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. New York: Guilford Press, 2003.

Written by Stephen Castles— the Professor of Migration and Refugees Studies and Director of the Refugee Studies Center at the University of Oxford, UK— and Mark J. Miller— Professor of Political Science and International Relations at the University of Delaware— this analytical study introduces the multiple aspects of population movements around the world from the patterns of migration and governmental policies to issues of immigrant assimilation and antiimmigrant politics. In Chapter 4, it suggests that World War II had greatly increased “Migration to Highly Developed Countries since 1945” (68). Certainly, it also establishes international migration as a global cycle that is influenced by and affects the structure of our global political order. This proposal is valuable in that it recognizes the importance of immigration and its suggestions are supported by an entire set of concrete examples, tables, and maps. However, the statistics presented are limited in that they are conclusions of researches done by Americans to corroborate the United States as a nation of immigrants.

Hawkins, Freda. Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared. Ontario, Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991.

Aimed at scholars and students as well as politicians, bureaucrats, policy-makers, and managers of all levels, Freda Hawkins— a Professor Emeritus at the University of Toronto and

Candidate (001241 003) 6 an Honorary Professor at the University of Warwick— proposes to assist immigrants and refugees who wish to have an input into the policy-making process of immigrations. Hawkins suggests her perspective of the theory of migration in addition to other theories in public policymaking with regard to governments, parliaments, political parties, interest groups and related policy areas. According to the introductory information embedded within the study, Hawkins also aims to demonstrate how two major countries of immigration have developed useful principles and good ways of managing a difficult and sensitive area of public policy and the extent to which they have shared their experiences overtime. This analytical study is a valuable source of information in terms of the politics of immigration involved and this study also identifies many causes of the increased rate of immigration after World War II. Despite the fact that Hawkins is more associated with Canada and has no connection with Australia, this study does not appeared to be biased because it includes the outcome of years in research in both Australia and Canada with help from each of their governments, academic communities, voluntary sectors and many individuals involved in the world of immigrants and refugees. Thus, this studies draws information not only from the Department of Political Science at the University of Toronto but also the Department of Demography at the Australian National University in Canberra. However, this source maybe limited due to Hawkins’ basis of research on a continuously expanding work of the universities instead of well-established theories of such matters.

Candidate (001241 003) 7 D. Analysis Long since the 1650s, “migration [had been] a long-standing and important facet of social life and the political economy” around the world.9 Chinese immigrants were known to create job competition as they “serve as cheap labor, frequently building the railroads” or doing other constructional works.10 Therefore, “[s]ome countries of immigration make it very difficult for immigrants to become citizens, others grant citizenship but only at the price of cultural assimilation, while a third group makes it possible for immigrants to become citizens while maintaining distinct cultural identities.”11 Until the twentieth century, Asian immigrants were largely rejected in Western societies because of their differences in culture, tradition, appearance, and values. Later during World War II, a slow but steady progression into the mid-twentieth century stimulated the communication and technological developments in preparation for World War II. In America, for example, Chinese workers were much reviled for their speedy and hardworking nature. Thus, “[m]uch of the early hostility towards Asian immigrants was directed against Chinese workers, who were attacked in mining camps and subjected to special onerous taxes and laws that excluded ‘Asiatics and South Sea Islanders’ from mining activities. ‘Chinese Quarters’ were established in cities.”12 However, the United States’ involvement in World War II and especially the Philippines’ crucial role in Pacific operations allowed for over 80,000 Filipinos enlisted in the U.S. military and increased the quota for other Asians from The Republic of China and Vietnam.

9

Moch, L.P.. Moving Europeans: historical migration practices in Western Europe. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 126. 10 Cahn, William. A Pictorial History of American Labor. (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1972) 154. 11 Castles, 243. 12 Campi

Candidate (001241 003) 8 Since then, immigration policy revolutionized to welcome any British immigrants in order to repopulate Australia. After World War II, the technology of air transport has experienced rapid expansion and became more popular and therefore more affordable to the commons. Thus, “World War II, which was much more of a global war than World War I had been, threatened Australia’s security far more directly than it did Canada’s, and was a more traumatic experience for the Australian people.”13 Therefore, the Australians implemented a “populate or perish”14 program to strengthen its national security and economic development by increasing its population growth by one per cent annually. The need for skilled workers and new ideas also prevailed in America so immigrants who fought at the front lines of World War II were promised citizenship after war and became skilled workers of important industries. Moreover, security was the main cause of the adjustment of Asian immigration policies. Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, occupation of Burma, seizure of the Philippines and Dutch East Indies, invasion of Malaya, and the capture of Hong Kong and Singapore brought the Australians to realization of their vulnerability as well, thus, the immediate extensive immigrant recruitment began almost immediately after World War II ended in 1945. On the other hand, Canada’s new immigration acts in 1952 refused admission based on nationality, origin, culture and lifestyle. The Canadians reasoned that their changes leans more toward the needs of “national economic development and population growth” after World War II.15 Therefore, the security and economical effects of World War II greatly loosens Asian Exclusion policies in conservative countries.

13

Hawkins, Freda. Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared (Ontario, Kingston: McGillQueen's University Press, 1991) 31. 14 Hawkins, 32. 15 Hawkins, 36.

Candidate (001241 003) 9 E. Conclusion The end of World War II helped accelerate conservative countries in implementing widespread policies for Asian Immigration. Not only did it accelerate the growth of technological and communication fields in larger countries— which increased the accessibility of global travelling by the commons— it also alerted smaller countries for the needs of a larger population in case of war and also to stimulate the economic growth of the country as well. These in turn contributes to a rapid growth in the demand for labor and national security (military). For the fact that most Europeans did not desire to immigrate to smaller, conservative countries, the Asian exclusion immigration policies became modified in appeal to foreigners from Asia. All things considered, World War II globalized immigration policies and enhanced the ethnical integration of many countries.

Word Count: 1,990

Candidate (001241 003) 10 Appendix Table 1 - 1911- European Immigration Population in Canada16 Immigrant Group Scandinavian German Jewish Ukrainian Netherlands

Population 113,000 403,000 76,000 75,000 56,000

Immigrant Group Italian Russian Austrian Polish Hungarian

Population 46,000 44,000 44,000 34,000 12,000

Data Set 1 1896-1914 Immigration Statistics: 961,000 immigrants from Britain, 784,000 from the United States, and 594,000 from continental Europe of an estimated total of 2.5 million immigrants Data Set 1.2 After Processing: from 1896-1914 Immigrant Population in Canada Ethnicity Immigrant Population Percentage British 961,000/ 2,500,000 38.44% American 784,000/ 2,500,000 31.36% Continental Europeans 594,000/ 2,500,000 23.76%

Table 2 - Post-WWII Top 14 Nationalities of Refugees to Australia 1945- June 198417 Top 14 Nationalities Polish Vietnamese Hungarian Latvian Cypriot/ Lebanese Czechoslovakian Ukrainian White Russian (from China) Kampuchean Lithuanian Laotian Timorese Estonian USSR* (Jewish refugees from Soviet Union) Total of all nationalities

16

Number of Refugees 74,973 70,492 26,185 19,241 17,389 15,276 14,464 13,292 11,052 9,906 6,519 5,479 5,329 4,791 418,870

Kalbach, Warren. “Growth and Distribution of Canada’s Ethnic Populations 1971-1971.” The Canadian Ethnic Mosaic: A Quest for Identity (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1978) 17 Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs – These are estimated figures only; a breakdown of approximately 90,000 East European refugees arriving between 1954 and 1982 is not available.

Candidate (001241 003) 11 Table 3 – Top 10 Immigrant Groups in Australia from 1949 forward Birthplace 1 United Kingdom & Ireland 2 Italy 3 New Zealand 4 Germany 5 Greece 6 Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia recorded until 1994 – 95 inclusive) 7 Viet Nam 8 Netherlands 9 Hong Kong 10 Philippines Malta Austria USA Egypt Spain Lebanon Turkey India Top Ten Total Other Total Settler Arrivals

18

Total between Jul 1949 – Jun 200018 1,780,989 (31.6%) 390,810 (6.9%) 371,683 (6.6%) 255,930 (4.5%) 220,603 (3.9%) 206,554 (3.7%)

Jul 1949 – Jun 195919

Jul 1959 - Jun 197020

419,946 (33.5%)

654,640 (45.3%)

201,428 (16.1%) 29,649 (2.4%) 162,756 (13.0%) 55,326 (4.4%) not in top 10

150,669 (10.4%) 30,341 (2.1%) 50,452 (3.5%) 124,324 (8.6%) 94,555 (6.5%)

170,990 (3.0%) 161,298 (2.9%) 108,181 (1.9%) 103,310 (1.8%) not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 3,770,348 (66.8%) 1,870,290 (33.2%) 5,640,638 (100.0%)

not in top 10 100,970 (8.1%) not in top 10 not in top 10 38,113 (3.0%) 33,730 (2.7%) 16,982 (1.4%) 13,430 (1.1%) not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 1,072,330 (85.6%) 180,753 (14.4%)

not in top 10 36,533 (2.5%) not in top 10 not in top 10 28,916 (2.0%) not in top 10 20,467 (1.4%) not in top 10 17,611 (1.2%) not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 1,208,508 (83.6%) 236,848 (16.4%)

1,253,083

1,445,356

Jul 1970 - Jun 1980 (11 years) 342,373 (35.8%) 28,800 (3.0%) 58,163 (6.1%) not in top 10 30,907 (3.2%) 61,283 (6.4%) 30,633 (3.2%) not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 not in top 10 27,769 (2.9%) not in top 10 not in top 10 32,207 (3.4%) 18,444 (1.9%) 17,910 (1.9%) 648,489 (67.8%) 308,280 (32.2%) 956,769

"Immigration: Federation to Century's End 1901–2000." Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs Oct 2001. 20 Nov 2008. 64. 19 Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs: Settler arrivals by birthplace; Permanent and Long Term Arrivals by Country of Last Residence have been included as a proxy for this data. 20

Candidate (001241 003) 12 F. List of Sources Cahn, William. A Pictorial History of American Labor. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1972. Campi, Alicia. “‘Eating Bitterness’: The Impact of Asian-Pacific Migration on U.S. Immigration Policy.” Immigration Policy Center. May 2004. 12 Nov 2008 Castles, Stephen, Mark J. Miller. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. New York: Guilford Press, 2003. Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan. “Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910-1950” Asian Law Journal. vol. 9, 2002. “Fact Sheet 4 - More than 60 Years of Post-war Migration.” National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship, Canberra, Commonwealth of Australia 2008. 17 Nov 2008. 12 Nov 2008 Hawkins, Freda. Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared. Ontario, Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1991. Jupp, James. From White Australia to Woomera. ‘2nd ed.’ New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Gyory, Andrew. Closing the Gate: Race, Politics, and the Chinese Exclusion Act. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1998. Martin, Susan. “Global migration trends and asylum.” Washington: Institute for the Study of International Migration, Apr 2001. 11 Nov 2008 . Moch, L.P.. Moving Europeans: historical migration practices in Western Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Opperman, Hubert. “Australia’s Immigration Policy on the Admission of Non-Europeans” Migration News: Journal of the International Catholic Migration Commission, no1. JanFeb 1967. Sowell, Thomas. Migration and Cultures: A World View. New York: BasicBooks, 1996.