How To Write Scientific Engineering Paper.docx

How to write Scientific Engineering Paper: Introduction: •

Writing a journal article can be an overwhelming process, but breaking it down into manageable tasks can make the overwhelming the routine. These manageable tasks can be identified by determining what the essential elements of a successful article are and how they function together to produce the desired result: a published journal article. Often, deferent languages and cultures write in deferent styles and with deferent organization than English language authors. This can compound the problem for nonnative English writers. In this article, I outline the essential elements of an Englishlanguage journal article in engineering or the sciences, providing a functional template and guidelines for authors.

Before starting to write: •

Before you start to write, you should spend some time thinking about the article content. At this stage, you should write down ideas in a free form, creating a general outline for the paper. Jerk suggests you consider such questions as:

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• What is the message of the paper?

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• What is the new result or contribution that you want to describe?

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• What do you want to convince people of?

Goals 

The goals to be achieved by studying this module are the following:

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Know the different kinds of scientific texts.

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Understand the structure of a scientific paper.

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Elaborate paper titles.

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Elaborate paper abstracts.

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Understand the importance, meaning and writing of each paper section.

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Know some hints on scientific writing.

Structure and function of the article: What to write: •

In formulating the outline it is important to know that most engineering or science journal articles have a well-accepted general format. Each of the following sections are included, usually also in this order, though specific articles may disguise them under deferent section titles that relate closer to the actual contents of each section. These sections are

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1. Abstract

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2. Introduction

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3. Methods

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4. Results

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5. Discussion

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6. Summary and Conclusions

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7. Acknowledgments

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8. References

The Abstract: •

The abstract is a single paragraph that precedes the article and summarizes the content. The abstract reduces the whole paper to a single paragraph

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The abstract should inform the reader in a succinct manner as to what the article is about and what the major contributions are that are discussed

The Introduction: •

The introduction is perhaps the most important sections in a research article. Nearly every reader will at least skim through the introduction. The introduction is also written with the strictest requirements in terms of organization.

The Methods: •

The methods sections often come disguised with other article-specific section titles, but serve a unified purpose: to detail the methods used in an objective manner without introduction of interpretation or opinion (van Wagenen 1990). The methods sections should tell the reader clearly how the results were obtained. They should be specific. They should also make adequate reference to accepted methods and identify differences. The governing principle is as follows:

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Describe all of the techniques used to obtain the results in a separate, objective Methods section

The Results: •

The results section and the following discussion section allow the most flexibility in terms of organization and content. In general, the pure, unbiased results should be presented first without interpretation (van Wagenen 1990). These results should present the raw data or the results after applying the techniques outlined in the methods section.

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Results should be clear, convincing, and general and should be free from interpretations or opinions

The Discussion:

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The discussion section is where the article interprets the results to reach its major conclusions. This is also where the author’s opinion enters the picture (van Wagenen 1990)—the discussion is where the argument is made.

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Discussion sections interpret the results to reach the main conclusions of the article

The Summary and Conclusions: •

The final section of the paper does not introduce any new information or insights: it merely summarizes and concludes. This section is longer than the abstract and generally includes more specific conclusions.

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1. Organize based on logical flow for points that are interconnected

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2. Organize based on merit, where the most important items appear first

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The summary and conclusions section tells the reader what has already been read and draws the important conclusions—keep it short and make it as specific as possible

The Acknowledgments: •

The acknowledgments are given at the end of the research paper and should at a minimum name the sources of funding that contributed to the article. You may also recognize other people who contributed to the article or data contained in the article, but at a level of effort that does not justify their inclusion as authors.

The References: •

All reference works cited in the paper must appear in a list of references that follow the formatting requirements of the journal in which the article is to be published. You may not include references that were not cited. Refereed journal articles, research monographs, and books are preferred over less stable or reliable sources, such as personal communications, unrefereed conference proceedings, or web-site addresses.

Literary style: How to write: •

Scientific writing does not leave a lot of room for creativity, but good writing style is inherently more understandable and enjoyable to read. Readers respond well when sentences have a varied length and when paragraphs have a consistent length (Gray 2003). There should be a good mix of short and long sentences. There should also be a mix of sentence structure (Gray 2003). Punctuation, the use of subordinate clauses and compound sentences, and varied tempo are examples of ways to alternate sentence length.

The review process: What to expect: •

After spending hours writing your journal submission, you are ready to begin the review process. This process likely contains three stages: editorial review by your advisor (or

yourself if you are the only author), external review by peer reviewers, and publication, modification, or rejection. •

Revise and edit your article as if you are not the one who has to do all the work Publication:

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Once the article is accepted and your final version is submitted, you have achieved your goal of being published. Hopefully, you have also achieved the goal of the article: to communicate the results of your research to a broad audience. The Science Citation Index keeps track of article citations and will provide you with a means to track who is citing your work. Summary and Conclusions:

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In this article I have briefly described the necessary elements of a good scientific or engineering journal publication, some of the steps along the publication process, and have provided specific guidelines for developing the journal article. Some sections, like the introduction, have very specific requirements, whereas, other sections, like the results and discussion, have a freer form.

Types of Scientific Literature/paper: While the research article is the workhorse of the scientific literature, it is by no means the only game in town. Presented below, in no particular order, is a brief list of some of the various types of written information that scientists may consult during the course of their work. For a brief introduction to the peer review process and primary research articles, see my Very Brief Introduction to the Scientific Literature. 

Primary research articles (aka “original research articles” or just “research articles”) – These are your standard scientific articles. Most often published in peer reviewed journals, primary research articles report on the findings of a scientists work. They will almost always include a description of how the research was done and what the results mean. Joe Dunckley over at the blog Journalology, has a nice series of posts about what the scientific paper is and what may be wrong with the current model.

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Review articles – These can be easily confused with primary research articles. They are also published in peer reviewed journals, but seek to synthesize and summarize the work of a particular sub-field, rather than report on new results. Review articles will often lack a “Materials and Methods” section. Students who are asked to use only primary research articles for their projects can still find review articles useful – they can provide background information and their Works Cited sections can contain a wealth of useful references. I have briefly summarized the difference between primary research articles and review articles in my Very Brief Introduction to the Scientific Literature.

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Editorials/Opinion/Commentary/Perspectives – An article expressing the authors view about a particular issue. This may be an issue of science policy (“The NSF needs to…”) or urging a particular research agenda (“More scientists need to study X…”) or even taking a side in a particular scientific dispute (“These folks are right, the other folks are wrong”). These articles can be well researched and include a lot of citations to the peer reviewed literature, or simple items without citations. They can appear in peer reviewed journals, in trade publications, or in popular publications (although the items that appear in trade or popular publications are often easier for students to recognize as not-primary research articles.)

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Trade publication articles – Between the standard scholarly journals (Nature, Journal of the American Chemical Society) and the popular publications (Time, Newsweek, Scientific American) lie the Trade publications. These publications are often aimed at medical professionals (Vaccine Weekly) or particular disciplines (Chemical and Engineering News). Articles in these publications may be several pages long and include a few references, but they are usually summarizing research published in other publications or reporting on industry news. These can be helpful for keeping up with your discipline or finding a research topic.

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News – Science news articles can be found in a wide variety of publications. Popular newspapers and magazines, trade publications and scholarly publications can all have science news articles. These articles often will refer to a recent study published as a primary research article.

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Blog posts – The world of scholarly publication is changing, although no one is quite sure what it is evolving into. We do know that scientists are blogging about all kinds of things: their daily research, science policy or life in academia. Blogs can be a great way to get involved in the scientific community, and many scientific blog posts can point you back to the peer reviewed literature. How blogs will be valued as a means for communicating research findings is still in question. While some scholars continue to dismiss blogs as a scholarly medium, other have embraced their potential for communicating science quickly and effectively.

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Article comments (formal, reviewed) – Traditionally, if you had a criticism of a published journal article, you submitted a formal comment. These short pieces would be reviewed by editors or possibly peer-reviewers, and published in a subsequent journal issue. In the print world, it was practically impossible to know what articles had been commented on or where to find the comments. Now that almost every journal is online, a link to a formal comment is often included on the site for the original article. Of course, the formal nature of these comment could often be frustrated, and certainly didn’t encourage rapid communication (See this great piece about the difficulty of getting a comment published.)

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Article comments (online, with or without moderation) – Since one of the problems with formal article comments is slow turn around time, many online journal systems have the ability to allow users to comment directly on the articles. Sometimes these comments are

moderated, sometimes they aren’t. Interestingly, many online journal articles have not seen a large amount of comments, but blog posts about those articles can have comments. 

Technical Reports – Government agencies and NGO’s often do scientific work. The reports they produce are not often peer reviewed, but can be an important part of the scientific literature. Reports from the World Health Organization or the USGS can provide vital information to scientists. These reports can be found in scholarly databases and on the web, and are classified by some folks as gray Literature (see below).

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Conference proceedings – abstracts – More often, the research presented as posters or PowerPoint presentations at a conference won’t have a formal write up published after the fact. Occasionally the scientists will archive a copy of their presentation on a website, but most often the only record of the presentation will be the brief description (abstract) of their presentation that the scientists submitted to the conference organizers. These abstracts can be found in search engines and scholarly databases, and students often want to find the paper that the abstract describes, only to learn that there isn’t a paper. This can be frustrating.

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Books (including reference materials like handbooks and dictionaries) – You’ve seen these before. They still exist, in your library or your library’s off site storage facility. Most scientific books cannot be considered ‘primary research’. In general, they describe and interpret the primary research published in the journal articles. Of course, more and more you can find full text versions of books available via publishers websites, Google Books or the Hathi Trust, sometimes free, sometimes for a fee.

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Book series (sometimes called “Special Papers”) – These can be confusing. In some fields, these book series publish individual chapters that could be considered primary research articles. These individual chapters are cited and indexed individually, which can occasionally be confusing for students trying to find them. In addition, these items can sometimes look a lot like journals – they may have volume numbers and a series title that looks like a journal title.

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Dissertations/Thesis – These are the final products that result from research conducted for a PhD or a Masters degree. These items can often be very long, going into great detail about methods and with lots of appendices of data. The literature review sections can also be exhaustive. Thesis and dissertations have become easier to find in recent years as many libraries post complete copies of completed dissertations online. This can be useful, because libraries have been reluctant to lend copies through ILL. Dissertations or thesis are often cited later on by their authors in future journal articles. While they undergo exhaustive review by academic advisers and committee members, they wouldn’t be considered “peer-reviewed”.

Technical guidelines for communication: Technical communication is a means to convey scientific, engineering, or other technical information.[1] Individuals in a variety of contexts and with varied professional credentials engage in technical communication. Some individuals are designated as technical communicators. These individuals use a set of methods to research, document, and present technical processes or products. Technical communicators may put the information they capture into paper documents, web pages, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video, and other media. The Society for Technical Communication defines the field as any form of communication that focuses on technical or specialized topics, communicates specifically by using technology or provides instructions on how to do something. More succinctly, the Institute of Scientific and Technical Communicators defines technical communication as factual communication, usually about products and services. The technical writing process can be divided into five steps: 1. Determine purpose and audience 2. Collect information 3. Organize and outline information 4. Write the first draft 5. Revise and edit

Determining purpose and audience: All technical communication serves a particular purpose—typically to communicate ideas and concepts to an audience, or instruct an audience a particular task. Technical communication professionals use various techniques to understand the audience and, when possible, test content on the target audience. For example, if bank workers don't properly post deposits, a technical communicator would: 

Review existing instructional material (or lack thereof)

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Interview bank workers to identify conceptual errors

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Interview subject matter experts to learn the correct procedures

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Author new material that instructs workers in the correct procedures

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Test the new material on the bank workers

Audience type affects many aspects of communication, from word selection and graphics use to style and organization. Most often, to address a particular audience, a technical communicator must consider what qualities make a text useful (capable of supporting a meaningful task) and usable (capable of being used in service of that task). A non-technical audience might misunderstand or not even read a document that is heavy with jargon—while a technical audience might crave detail critical to their work. Busy audiences often don't have time to read entire documents, so content must be organized for ease of searching—for example by frequent headings, white space, and other cues that guide attention. Other requirements vary according to particular audience's needs. Collecting information: Technical communicators must collect all information that each document requires. They may collect information through primary (first-hand) research—or secondary research, using information from existing work by other authors. Technical communicators must acknowledge all sources they use to produce their work. To this end, technical communicators typically distinguish quotations, paraphrases, and summaries when taking notes. Organizing and outlining information: Before writing the initial draft, the technical communicator organizes ideas in a way that makes the document flow well. Once each idea is organized, the writer organizes the document as a whole—accomplishing this task in various ways: 

Chronological: used for documents that involve a linear process, such as a step-by-step guide that describes how to accomplish something

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Parts of an object: Used for documents that describe the parts of an object, such as a graphic showing the parts of a computer (keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.)

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Simple to complex (or vice versa): starts with easy ideas and gradually goes into complex ideas

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Specific to general: starts with many ideas, then organizes the ideas into sub-categories

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General to specific: starts with a few categories of ideas, then goes deeper

After organizing the whole document, the writer typically creates a final outline that shows the document structure. Outlines make the writing process easier and save the author time. Writing the first draft: After the outline is complete, the writer begins the first draft, following the outline's structure. Setting aside blocks of an hour or more, in a place free of distractions, helps the writer maintain a flow. Most writers prefer to wait until the draft is complete before any revising so they don't break their flow. Typically, the writer should start with the easiest section, and write the summary only after the body is drafted. The ABC (abstract, body, and conclusion) format can be used when writing a first draft of some document types. The abstract describes the subject, so that the reader knows what the document covers. The body is the majority of the document and covers topics in depth. Lastly, the conclusion section restates the document's main topics. The ABC format can also apply to individual paragraphs—beginning with a topic sentence that states the paragraph's topic, followed by the topic, and finally, a concluding sentence. Revising and editing: Once the initial draft is laid out, editing and revising can be done to fine-tune the draft into a final copy. Four tasks transform the early draft into its final form, suggested by Pfeiffer and Boogard. Adjusting and reorganizing content: In this step, the writer revises the draft to elaborate on topics that need more attention, shorten other sections—and relocate certain paragraphs, sentences, or entire topics. Editing for style: Good style makes writing more interesting, appealing, and readable. In general, the personal writing style of the writer is not evident in technical writing. Modern technical writing style relies on attributes that contribute to clarity: 

Headings, lists, graphics

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Generous white space

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Short sentences

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Present tense

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Simple nouns

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Active voice (though some scientific applications still use the passive voice)

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Second and third person as required

Technical writing as a discipline usually requires that a technical writer use a style guide. These guides may relate to a specific project, product, company, or brand. They ensure that technical writing reflects formatting, punctuation, and general stylistic standards that the audience expects. In the United States, many consider the Chicago Manual of Style the bible for general technical communication. Other style guides have their adherents, particularly for specific industries— such as the Microsoft Style Guide in some information technology settings. Editing for grammar and punctuation[edit] At this point, the writer performs a mechanical edit, checking the document for grammar, punctuation, common word confusions, passive voice, overly long sentences, etc.

Effective use of graph charts and tables: Introduction: –

A picture is worth a thousand words.

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Put up a graph or chart and tables then suddenly everything you're saying makes sense! Graphs or charts help people understand data quickly. Whether you want to make a comparison, show a relationship, or highlight a trend, they help your audience "see" what you are talking about

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A table is generally less effective than a graph because it only shows the data, whereas the graph shows an interpretation of the data, which is easier for the audience to understand

Graphs (charts): –

A graph or chart is a Two-dimensional drawing showing a relationship (usually between two set of numbers) by means of a line, curve, a series of bars, or other symbols.

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a graph usually has four quadrants representing the positive and negative values of the variables, usually only the north-east quadrant is shown when the negative values do not exist or are of no interest.

Why create charts or graphs? –

Present the data in a visual method

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Prevent distorting data

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Present many numbers in a single unit

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Make large data set easy to understand

Parts of chart: –

Axis: The reference line in a coordinate system.the x axis is a horizontal reference and a y axis is a verticle refrence

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Title: describes the data the charts is symbolizing

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Legend: an explanatory list of symbol on a chart (needed when you graph multiple data sets)

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Labels: are needed for linking the charts to the information being displayed.

Key Graph Elements: –

Colors – Make sure that you set the background color and the color of each data series so that there is enough contrast to be seen clearly by the audience

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Depth – The depth of the graph refers to whether the graph is 2-D or 3-D. There is almost no value ot the third dimension, and I suggest graphs be 2-D.

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Axes – except the pie graph all graphs have two axes.

Creating the Graph: –

Most presentation software packages have a built-in graph creation tool. For earlier versions of Microsoft PowerPoint, it is the Microsoft Graph application, and later versions use Microsoft Excel. Most of these tools are quite robust and will meet the needs of most presenters.

Types of charts: 1)Vertical bar charts: Vertical bar charts are best for comparing means or percentages between 2 to 7 different groups. 2)Horizontal Bar Charts: The horizontal bar chart is used when comparing the mean or percentages of 8 or more different groups As with the vertical bar chart, the horizontal bar chart should only be used when comparing categories that are mutually exclusive

3) Pie Charts: –

it is best to use pie charts when you want to show differences within groups based on one variable.

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It is important to remember that pie charts should only be used with a group of categories that combine to make up a whole.

4) Line Charts: –

Line charts are used to illustrate trends over time

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This is done most often to measure the long term progression of sales, or any other empirical statistic important to businesses or organizations. It can also be used to compare two different variables over time

5) Scatter Plot: –

Scatter plots are used to depict how different objects settle around a mean based on 2 to 3 different dimensions.

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This allows for quick and easy comparisons between competing variables.

6) Histogram: –

The histogram, also called a frequency distributions graph, is a specialized type of bar graph(either horizontal or vertical) that resembles a column graph, but without any gaps between the columns. It is used to represent data from the measurement of a continuous variable

What are Tables?: –

A table is a means of arranging data in rows and columns. The use of tables is pervasive throughout all communication, research and data analysis. Tables appear in print media, handwritten notes, computer software, architectural ornamentation, traffic signs and many other places.

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The basic structure of a table is a set of columns and rows that contain the data and usually contain either a row or column (or both) of headings that organize the data.

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When deciding on the size of the table, it is a good idea to keep the six by six guideline in mind.

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In selecting the size of the table, make sure that the font size of the text in each cell of the table is big enough to be read clearly when displayed.

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A table is generally less effective than a graph because it only shows the data, whereas the graph shows an interpretation of the data, which is easier for the audience to understand

– Using Graphs and Tables on Presentation Slides: –

When presenting ideas that include references to data, it can be helpful to make the point using a graph or table

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These visual methods can make the point much stronger than simply describing the data

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While they can be powerful methods, they also have the potential to ruin a presentation if they convey the wrong message or they confuse the audience

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Appropriate use of graphs and tables is one way to enhance the message you are delivering.

Adding Emphasis: –

When using a graph or a table, you should emphasize the key parts so that your points are stronger.

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One way to add emphasis is to animate the graph or table elements so that they appear one-by-one instead of all at one time.

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. This allows you to discuss each element or data series individually and keep the audience focus on the message you are delivering.

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You can also use drawing tools such as arrows and boxes to highlight a portion of the table or graph.

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You can use a strong contrasting color for the drawing element to visually draw the audience’s eyes to that part of the graph or table

Tips on effective use of tables and figures in research papers: –

Several studies, journal guidelines, and discourses on scientific writing1-10 affirm the critical role that tables, figures, and graphs (or display items) play in enhancing the quality of manuscripts

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These visual elements help authors present detailed results and complex relationships, patterns, and trends clearly and concisely reduce the length of the manuscript and enhance readers’ understanding of the study results

Planning your paper: When to use tables and figures in scientific papers: –

Producing effective tables and figures requires careful planning that begins at the manuscript writing stage

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• First, check out what your target journal has to say on the issue. Some journals limit the number of tables and figures and also have specific guidelines on the design aspects of these display items.

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• Next, decide whether to use tables and figures or text to put across key information.

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• After you’ve decided to use a display item, choose the display item that best fits your purpose based on what you wish readers to focus on and what you want to present

Guidelines for figures::

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1. Ensure image clarity:

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Make sure that all the parts of the figure are clear. Use standard font; check that labels are legible against the figure background; and ensure that images are sharp.

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2. Use legends to explain the key message:

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Figure legends are pivotal to the effectiveness of a figure. Use them to draw attention to the central message as well as to explain abbreviations and symbols.

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3. Label all important parts:

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Label the key sections and parts of schematic diagrams and photographs, and all axes, curves, and data sets in graphs and data plots.

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4. Give specifics:

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Include scale bars in images and maps; specify units wherever quantities are listed; include legends in maps and schematics; and specify latitudes and longitudes on maps

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1. The title clearly describes what the table is about.

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2. The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the data presented.

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3. The data is divided into categories for clarity.

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4. It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without reference to the entire paper.

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5. Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying information.

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6. Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is clean; and the font is legible.

Conclusion: –

Figures and tables, or display items, are powerful communication tools—they give your manuscript a professional feel, attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently present large amounts of complex information. Moreover, as most journals editors and reviewers will glance at these display items before they begin a full reading of your paper

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Graphs are a common method to visually illustrate relationships in the data. The purpose of a graph is to present data that are too numerous or complicated to be described adequately in the text and in less space.

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A basic requirement for a graph is that it is clear and readable

Email in the process of communication: What is communication? Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood

the message of the sender (from Wikipedia)

Email is an information and communications technology. It uses technology to communicate a digital message over the Internet. Users use email differently, based on how they think about it. There are many software platforms available to send and receive. Popular email platforms include Gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, Outlook, and many others.[6]

Types Of Email: Types Web-based email: Many email providers have a web-based email client (e.g. AOL Mail, Gmail, Outlook.com and Yahoo! Mail). This allows users to log into the email account by using any compatible web browser to send and receive their email. Mail is typically not downloaded to the client, so can't be read without a current Internet connection. POP3 email services: The Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) is a mail access protocol used by a client application to read messages from the mail server. Received messages are often deleted from the server. POP supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes (termed maildrop in the POP RFC's).[84]

IMAP email servers: The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) provides features to manage a mailbox from multiple devices. Small portable devices like smartphones are increasingly used to check email while travelling, and to make brief replies, larger devices with better keyboard access being used to reply at greater length. IMAP shows the headers of messages, the sender and the subject and the device needs to request to download specific messages. Usually mail is left in folders in the mail server. MAPI email servers: Messaging Application Programming Interface (MAPI) is a messaging architecture and an API based on the Component Object Model (COM) for Microsoft Windows 1.

2.

3. 4.

The Seven Categories of Email No need to reply, and not important to read. Generously apply the archive or delete function! And if it's a newsletter that you almost never read, do yourself a favor and unsubscribe. If some information is really that important, trust that it will come to you another way, e.g. through your personal network. File away. Examples include tax receipts, examples of great emails, and info needed when you next work on a project. It can be helpful to create folders for these, but don't get crazy with categorization; if you find yourself creating many folders, you need to simplify your work or life. And when you actually need to find an email, practice using the search function. Optional response. No need to respond, but it would be more courteous if you did. Spare time reading. It would be nice to read, but not required. Practice putting as many emails as possible into this category (and the previous one!) This is key to improving your email productivity. 5. Required to respond today— Go ahead and respond either in the moment, if important and urgent, or at the end of your workday when you are clearing out your inbox. 6. Required to respond (e.g. emails from a boss, partner, or client) but not today. Distance creates perspective. If an email doesn't require a response today, put it in a folder named the day you would like to respond (Monday, Tuesday, etc.) then on that day, go into that folder. For example you might want to follow a "morning checklist" that includes "Open today's email folder." There are a few tools you can use to automate this: RightInbox for Gmail (I use this) and FollowUpThen.com or FollowUp.cc. 7. Undecided. Rather than suffer from paralysis by analysis, just put it into one of the above categories. It's probably #1 or #2. Consider creating email folders for #2-5. #2 could be multiple folders depending on projects. #3 and #4 can just be one folder each.

#5 could be multiple folders too—a different folder for each weekday, and another set of folders for each month, or you can use the automated tools suggested above.

Speech Communication its function and types: The process by which meanings are exchanged b/w people through the use of common set of symbols is called COMMUNICATION. What is Speech Communication? (from Latin "communis", meaning to share) is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding. skills in intrapersonal and interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, and evaluating. Use of these processes is developmental and transfers to all areas of life: home, school, community, work, and beyond. It is through communication that collaboration and cooperation occur.

Functions of Communication •

Gives information

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Knowledge management

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Decision making

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Coordinating work activities

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Creates control

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Express feeling / emotion

Forms of Communication:

 NON – VERBAL COMMUNICATION  VERBAL COMMUNICATION

* WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ORAL COMMUNICATION: is the ability to talk with others to give and exchange information & ideas, such as: ask questions, give directions, coordinate work tasks, explain & persuade by using the words of mouth. How we use this skill?  greeting people and taking messages  reassuring, comforting or persuading  seeking information & resolving conflicts  facilitating or leading a group

Types of Speech Communication:

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•

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Informative – This speech serves to provide interesting and useful information to your audience. Some examples of informative speeches: –

A teacher telling students about earthquakes

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A student talking about her research

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A computer programmer speaking about new software

Demonstrative – This has many similarities with an informative speech. A demonstrative speech also teaches you something. The main difference lies in including a demonstration of how to do the thing you’re teaching. Some examples of demonstrative speeches: *

How to start your own blog

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How to bake a cake

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How to write a speech

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How to… just about anything

Persuasive – A persuasive speech works to convince people to change in some way: they think, the way they do something, or to start doing something that they are not currently doing. Some examples of persuasive speeches: •

Become an organ donor

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Improve your health through better eating

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Television violence is negatively influencing children

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our

Become a volunteer and change the world

Entertaining — The after-dinner speech is a typical example of an entertaining speech. The speaker provides pleasure and enjoyment that make the audience laugh or identify with anecdotal information. Some examples of entertaining speeches: •

Explaining cricket to an American

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Things you wouldn’t know without the movies

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Effective Communication:

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Preparation

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Practice - practice makes perfect - revision

- get time right •

Presence/Posture -overcome nervousness -Body language -voice tone -gestures -eye contact -positive attitude