History Of E-learning
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HISTORY OF E-LEARNING The Open University’s distance learning Degrees are a well-known example of effective Virtual learning / e-learning. HEIs have been using virtual MLE environments for some time with varying degrees of affectivity. Virtual learning is a relativly ‘new’ initiative in schools, however, e-learning has been used for training and development in industry for some years. Cuthell’s research into the historical developments in e-learning largely fall into the following three categories: •
Political influences in the form of Government agenda / White Papers and their impacts on teaching in schools;
•
Technological developments and
•
The social shift towards the normalisation of the inclusion of information communication technologies and systems in peoples’ lives.
Since the Government realised the importance of computers in schools and they have committed to investment through the National Grid, whose focus has been online learning and the management of change in the uses of new technology for Teachers /educators students and their parents. The introduction of ICT in the classroom challenged the current pedagogical approaches to learning and teaching information and communicative technologies. Many teachers were left struggling to introduce ICT in to their classrooms. ICT across the curriculum (ICTAC) has been a strand of the National Curriculum that was neatly integrated into assessment frameworks with opportunities for teachers to be assessed on their ability to integrate ICT in to their own teaching patterns. The rise in student access to computers through more students owning their own computers and the affordances that ICT brings also brings attention to those who are disadvantaged by no access at all.
1
In the Acron Micro Computers Era (1980s) computers were used as aids for learning maths and sciences, for presenting final drafts and used in Business Studies for studying databases. At this time, teachers were generally struggling to fit ICT and computers into their teaching schemes so instead they taught about computers. Educators were concerned with how students could undertake work 1
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING using this tool; and how ICT would or could change the work students do. Cuthell explains that ‘the dominant approach from teachers was to learn how to use dominant programs to achieve particular outcomes relating to their curriculum, and then teach the students how to use the programmes in order to achieve those outcomes’ (2002). In looking at Cuthell’s reflections on ICT usage in schools, how different is our approach to ICT in the classroom today? In my intuition: •
Much of the software is based on game formats which students are awarded scores to signify success (similar to the instant test features in Fronter – managed learning environment.
•
The most successful learning experiences involving ICT happened when computers where innate to the students learning experience.
•
Increased provision has not guaranteed that teachers will use more ICT.
By the 1990s there was more ownership of home computers amongst students and the quality and scope of their work began to change and the software that students had a home was broadly compatible with that available in school. The software allowed students to analyse data and generate graphical analysis with relative ease. Students became the expert and the leader in knowledge and understanding of the technology and acting as the mentor to other students and teachers (Cuthell 2002). Although the use of computers by young people has been a subject of debate for some time, much of the research has focused on how computers might enhance or transform learning and schooling (Cuthell 2002). In this project I intend to explore the virtual/ (e)learning experiences for students studying the Creative and Media Diploma. I will act as both a ‘participant and observer’ as at the same time as collecting data from the students and teachers I would also be extending my own understanding of the interpersonal dynamism of virtual platforms (social learning) and which later 2
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING helped me to interrogate my data. I will do this through my membership of an employment-based (school) working group who support the implementation of Fronter (chosen Virtual Managed Learning Environment) in my school. The initial reaction to Fronter’s linear, text-bias interface that it was contrary to the ‘de facto standard graphical user interface’ that students recognised and is described in Cuthell’s research (2002). When studying student usage of ICT and virtual learning environments I will consider the following concepts and methodologies outlined by Cuthell (2002). He explains: •
the concept of Cyborgs as ‘the interlaced man-machine technology that provides a route for us to stand aside from the limitations imposed on our bodies by restrictions of age, gender, class and socio-economic status.’ Current political thinking strengthens the need for ICT being an integral in all aspects of education, whether for collating and sharing student information to use in the classroom as a tool to enhance the learning experience;
•
the process of D.I.Y with the notion that the computer is a tool that supports students ‘creations of their own artefacts and systems of understanding’. As teachers we regularly set Internetbased research tasks and or they are often asked to create PowerPoint presentations to summarise or provide evidence of learning;
•
that hegemony exists, in particular he states that there are a ‘the set of assumptions and practices that dominanate the praxis and thinking of staff and students’. For example, the dominant assumption made by Network Managers, when we are upgrading a new ICT room to facilitate the delivery the creative and media diploma was that we would buying computers running Windows operating systems (only).
•
How ICT promotes production through the acquisition of knowledge, understanding and capability in the use of ICT. This thought has been embedded into the accredited for a level 2 Diploma (all learning lines); students must achieve a level 2 in all
3
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING three Functional Skills (Mathematics, Literacy and ICT) and display knowledge and understanding of process. The relevance of Cyber Theory In investigating the affordances and limitations of e-learning environments, I will need to outline the theories that influence these discourses. Cyber-society and virtual ideologies as summarised in Bunyan’s 1999 thesis are acutely relevant. He explains that “Cyberspace” is the commonly accepted term for the realm of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and discourse. It is the conceptual space one is said to be ‘in’ whilst using the Internet. He continues to explain that the term relates to the “non physical” or real world presence of the subject in question, or of what is being experienced through cyberspace. Thus the terms “virtual” and “cyber” are to some extent interchangeable. He continues to outline that the term “community” is more problematic to define as it has different connotations dependant on the context it is used in. Bunyan refers to Jones’ definition for community as being “bounded territory of sorts (whether physical or ideological), but it can also refer to a sense of common character, identity, or interests as with the ‘gay community’ or the ‘virtual community’” (Jones, 1997, 39). “There is an apparent juxtaposition between individuality and collectivity in cyberspace. Jan Fernback (Jones 1997, 36-54) suggests that cyber-existence in post-industrial societies is partially characterised by emergent tensions between the individual and the collective (Bunyan 1999).” This is perhaps most prevalent in the case of discussion groups and listserved discussion, where messages may either be posted to an individual or the collective ‘list’ where all may view the post. Similar to Facebook’s ‘wall’ feature where friends or group members can publicly publish messages or use the internal individual (person to person) private message features (similar to email). Education as both a collective and individual experience appears to be, through the proliferation of information and communication technologies. Education is struggling to position itself in the emerging virtual societies and communities as schools in particular are currently not underpinned with appropriate e-pedagogy. 4
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Bunyan continues to argue that the virtual or online community gives rise to a notion of that the group as a new type of collective meta-consciousness, reasoning with itself internally as though engaged in a meta-form of intra-personal communication. It is within a relationship to this group identity that individual identity is formed. Jones (1997) notes that identity is derived from both our understanding of group identity and identification within a collective. The individual experiences can come about through the user’s ability to personalise their spaces through the use of a set of tools provided within the environment. Virtual spaces are becoming as equally prominent as the physical space; business and schools alike have spaces on the web. The spaces present as a marketing tool as well as a virtual platform to convergence, share and disseminate information relevant to the community it serves. An allure of virtual interactions in cyberspace allow participants to (with some degree of privacy) contribute to public life from the comfort of their own home (Bunyan, 1999). This allure is not a feature of education-based virtual learning environments; all activity in rooms is controlled by the room owner (the teacher). The importance of identity and community is important criteria for successful virtual learning interaction, and I will consider this in my research methodology and lesson design strategy. DISTANCE LEARNING In John Cuthell’s’ 1999 research into ICT and distance, he argues that traditional course scheduling becomes one of life’s fixed point and we tend to fix everything else around it. The effort of getting to the classroom can often be a strain particularly when the learning is an addition to what the individual does day to day or they are compelled to travel from one place to the next for the learning to take place. Distance learning is attractive as there is an option of completing the course in your own time but successful completion of the course is more to do with will-power needed to fit the coursework around the pressure of life. The advantages of distance learning far out-weigh the disadvantages, in the coming years things will become much faster with technology developments, through broadband and satellite communications now coming 5
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING through the home, more content will transform the nature of virtual education. Paralinguistic fillers, such as ‘ums’ and ‘errs’, which disrupt the fluency delivery and often distort transmission meaning are removed (can be particularly useful for early stage learners of English language and other groups whose accent may inhibit their contributions in a traditional learning environment) – learning conversation are re-defined. VIRTUAL MANAGED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT – PAN LONDON PROGRAMME The managed learning environment being introduced in my institution is Fronter. Each centre must define their own admin structure (see example of admin structure below. In my institution this is being decided by the senior leadership team and the network manager, who consult a working group who contribute the views of the whole school (which I am a member of). The example below shows a typical structure of a secondary MLE. Different users have different permission codes which dictate whether they are able to read (see), write (add content) or whether the room/space is public (anyone with the correct access rights can see it). The permissions of a user are determined by where they are in the structure, which is hierarchical. Student users have the least restricted access a number of different rooms; they can either read or write (add). In the sample structure below, students have write access in one area; Tutor rooms and will be able to read all room curriculum / department created rooms.
6
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING
2
E-PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING STYLES In Cuthell’s research paper on Learning theory and e-pedagogy, he explains the term ICT affordances as being concerned with the facilitating of enhanced learning opportunities independent of content or preferred teaching styles. He argues that the current systems that British schools work within do not facilitate the process of knowledge building and focuses heavily on ‘means and ends of delivery; and content and information transmission are favoured. He continues to argue that Piagetian theory which expects the learner to pass through certain stages of development is a ‘developmental folk myth’. This is based on the ideas that: there are two pillars of received wisdom: learner readiness and competence stage and students are unable to cope with concepts and applications which have been determined to lie outside the bounds of their developmental stage; and each stage needs to be consolidated by practice. I agree with the suggestion that developmental stages are not as fixed in contemporary educational paradigms.
7
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Piaget’s research and methodology has been questioned by a number of researchers (Donaldson, 1978; Gardener, 1983; Seigel & Brainerd, 1978) but the original thesis has retained its’ power over pedagogy and the National Curriculum until 2008 when a focus on thinking and learning as a tool to building knowledge and understanding has taken precedence. 3
The concept of ICT affordance was developed by Wersch (1998),
who said computers as a tool, was a vehicle for combining motor skills, language, and image symbolic manipulation through practical activities. Teaching and Learning models and ICT affordances: Behaviourist Teaching and Learning theory is based on behaviour modification and classroom management. Change as an agent of learning (Atherton, J) The operant conditioning - learning by consequences4 was largely led by Skinner (1957). The support provided by ICT in terms of feedback to the learner, error messages, prompts, templates and wizards provides powerful reinforcement of learning. These affordances underpin independent learning systems and many managed learning environments (Cuthell).
Constructivist theory is based on cognitive theories and there is an emphasis on the learner in constructing an individual view from previous experiences. Or the learner making connections between facts and then developing new understandings.5 Multiple intelligences theory is based on Gardener (1983) his notions, that traditional IQ testing was/is too narrow. Gardener argued that there we have eight intelligences (word, number/logic, picture, music, self-reflection, physical experiences, social experiences and experiences in the natural world). Learning Styles is an approach that originated in 1980s and puts emphasis on styles of learning (Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic). This approach has been adopted as exemplar practise in UK secondary schools6
8
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING ICT has the affordance to utilise the rich learning theories provided by the use of diverse materials and collaborative working where knowledge is inseparable from practice. Three powerful elements of ICT provide drivers for elearning: 1. They are highly ostensive; and are able to support lexical understanding through the act of pointing at things. Cuthell explains, that this supports and reinforces the development of language learning. ICT systems reinforce this through the use of the mouse, interactive whiteboards with the stylus or the finger and in gaming (i.e. Nintendo DS uses both a stylus, fingers, audio commands and joystick/keypad). Rosetta Stone’s
7
language
learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompts them through the software. 2. Visualisation and the ability to move backwards and forwards through different stages of a process or a learning objective, enable learners to recall stages of learning. 3. Ludic elements built into lesson : through games, competitive elements and constant feedback, learning becomes fun. In developing suitable resources I will attempt to include these three ‘powerful elements’. Mover over the success of e-learning depends on teachers’ recognition and action towards the dynamic nature of a new pedagogy in which continual change must be embraced. Students will be an existential reality of living on the edge of cutting edge technology, where the tools they use and the concepts they forge are an integral part of the learning process. The successful implementation of e-learning into our education system will depend, to an extent, on teachers’ personal uses of ICT and e-learning, whether for access to resources, CPD, communities of practice or communities of social networks (Cuthell, 1999). Kolb (1983) saw learning as an active process its stages formed as a continuum; this model for teaching and learning argues that learners should be immersed in experiences, reflect on them and then use these, to through experimentation create, or develop their 9
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING understanding of a concept or concept skill. From concrete experience / involvement; through watching others or developing conversations about their own experience, through abstract conceptualisation there is a creation of ideas that explain their observations. Often a feature in Creative and Media education is simulation projects which provide students with opportunities to have an experience of working within an industry/work related environment. In reflective observation – watching others or developing conversations about one’s own experience through abstract conceptualisation – learners perform evaluative tasks and engage in discussions, observer and comment on others work. In active experimentation students use theories to solve problems and make decisions (Cuthell). The combination of elements of play – the ludic, ostensive and visual stimuli means that computers provide a focus for different types of learning. Computers are still only artefacts that reinforce intuitive understanding and ways of knowing and learning. Distance learning and the use of ICT, Learning Theories, The affordances of ICT for learning, the problems for learning and teaching in an age of new technologies and new pedagogy (e-pedagogy / e-learning). CONTEMPORARY USE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES The emergence and subsequent proliferation of social networking sites where people interact with each other easily. The user developed games, sharing original and found content by providing information about themselves on profile pages. Users of such virtual meeting places agree to a set of agreed behaviour imposed by the community. An agreed numeric-phonetic abbreviated language is used to write on your friends’ wall, comments of photographs or any other content the owner has decided to share. From my own experiences and through data gathered in my student and teacher questionnaire Facebook appeared to be a most popular virtual social network and Microsoft Messenger was very popular with students who used it to ‘Chat’ with friends. Other popular virtual communities or immersive virtual worlds include second life.
10
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Second life is described as a 3D virtual world where you encounter both people and objects you can interact with (through the use of your mouse) by utilising ‘contextual menus’ for ‘objects’ , ‘yourself’ and ‘others’. You can also move around, see people and objects in less/closer details or from different angles. Second life is most well known for the users creation of avatars. Avatars not only act as a form of fun but when considered with social constructivist conceptual framework such as those adopted by the Appalachian State University Reich College of Education; we begin to see that the use of avatars are much more significant to the community practice. Bronack, Tashner et al (2008) argue that: (1)Learning occurs in communities of practice; (2)Knowledge is socially constructed and learning is social in nature; (3)The development of educators proceeds through stages of Novice to Expert under the guidance of more experienced and Knowledgeable mentors in the community of practice; (4)Cognition is distributed; that is, individual thinking and problem solving are revealed through socially contextual practices.
The need for e-learning in schools or not? The systemic normalisation of the need for and harvesting Cyborgs and other forms of virtual learning communities and platforms have become an integral part of what is considered exemplar learning and teaching in British secondary education. The arguments put forward by Raymond Williams in his essay Ideas of Nature question the role and importance of progress. When applying his exploration of the concepts of nature he argues that ‘nature’ is a mere ideological and often-hegemonic construct, I have further explored his ideas with an epistemological framework to question the need for e-learning in schools (ed. During 1993).
11
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
1 Cuthell, J Virtual Learning - The Impact of ICT on the Way Young People Work www.virtuallearning.org.uk/virtuallearning 2 http://api.ning.com/files/9i*QBkry3p6qdg37pHGS1Pswh*1aN*UrmudJPXPKyGmiR7Z1CeaZwLtSPqU4UKAPNPV8XIC 4l1mszbr40YEEWdXMAqdt2RzW/MLEStructureFeb2009.jpg 3http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm 4 http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism 5 http://www.emtech.net/construc.htm 6 Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary schools / Unit 19 (learning styles). www.dcsf.gov.uk 7Rosetta Stone – is a language learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompt through the software www.rosettastone.co.uk/.
Political influences in the form of Government agenda / White Papers and their impacts on teaching in schools;
•
Technological developments and
•
The social shift towards the normalisation of the inclusion of information communication technologies and systems in peoples’ lives.
Since the Government realised the importance of computers in schools and they have committed to investment through the National Grid, whose focus has been online learning and the management of change in the uses of new technology for Teachers /educators students and their parents. The introduction of ICT in the classroom challenged the current pedagogical approaches to learning and teaching information and communicative technologies. Many teachers were left struggling to introduce ICT in to their classrooms. ICT across the curriculum (ICTAC) has been a strand of the National Curriculum that was neatly integrated into assessment frameworks with opportunities for teachers to be assessed on their ability to integrate ICT in to their own teaching patterns. The rise in student access to computers through more students owning their own computers and the affordances that ICT brings also brings attention to those who are disadvantaged by no access at all.
1
In the Acron Micro Computers Era (1980s) computers were used as aids for learning maths and sciences, for presenting final drafts and used in Business Studies for studying databases. At this time, teachers were generally struggling to fit ICT and computers into their teaching schemes so instead they taught about computers. Educators were concerned with how students could undertake work 1
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING using this tool; and how ICT would or could change the work students do. Cuthell explains that ‘the dominant approach from teachers was to learn how to use dominant programs to achieve particular outcomes relating to their curriculum, and then teach the students how to use the programmes in order to achieve those outcomes’ (2002). In looking at Cuthell’s reflections on ICT usage in schools, how different is our approach to ICT in the classroom today? In my intuition: •
Much of the software is based on game formats which students are awarded scores to signify success (similar to the instant test features in Fronter – managed learning environment.
•
The most successful learning experiences involving ICT happened when computers where innate to the students learning experience.
•
Increased provision has not guaranteed that teachers will use more ICT.
By the 1990s there was more ownership of home computers amongst students and the quality and scope of their work began to change and the software that students had a home was broadly compatible with that available in school. The software allowed students to analyse data and generate graphical analysis with relative ease. Students became the expert and the leader in knowledge and understanding of the technology and acting as the mentor to other students and teachers (Cuthell 2002). Although the use of computers by young people has been a subject of debate for some time, much of the research has focused on how computers might enhance or transform learning and schooling (Cuthell 2002). In this project I intend to explore the virtual/ (e)learning experiences for students studying the Creative and Media Diploma. I will act as both a ‘participant and observer’ as at the same time as collecting data from the students and teachers I would also be extending my own understanding of the interpersonal dynamism of virtual platforms (social learning) and which later 2
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING helped me to interrogate my data. I will do this through my membership of an employment-based (school) working group who support the implementation of Fronter (chosen Virtual Managed Learning Environment) in my school. The initial reaction to Fronter’s linear, text-bias interface that it was contrary to the ‘de facto standard graphical user interface’ that students recognised and is described in Cuthell’s research (2002). When studying student usage of ICT and virtual learning environments I will consider the following concepts and methodologies outlined by Cuthell (2002). He explains: •
the concept of Cyborgs as ‘the interlaced man-machine technology that provides a route for us to stand aside from the limitations imposed on our bodies by restrictions of age, gender, class and socio-economic status.’ Current political thinking strengthens the need for ICT being an integral in all aspects of education, whether for collating and sharing student information to use in the classroom as a tool to enhance the learning experience;
•
the process of D.I.Y with the notion that the computer is a tool that supports students ‘creations of their own artefacts and systems of understanding’. As teachers we regularly set Internetbased research tasks and or they are often asked to create PowerPoint presentations to summarise or provide evidence of learning;
•
that hegemony exists, in particular he states that there are a ‘the set of assumptions and practices that dominanate the praxis and thinking of staff and students’. For example, the dominant assumption made by Network Managers, when we are upgrading a new ICT room to facilitate the delivery the creative and media diploma was that we would buying computers running Windows operating systems (only).
•
How ICT promotes production through the acquisition of knowledge, understanding and capability in the use of ICT. This thought has been embedded into the accredited for a level 2 Diploma (all learning lines); students must achieve a level 2 in all
3
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING three Functional Skills (Mathematics, Literacy and ICT) and display knowledge and understanding of process. The relevance of Cyber Theory In investigating the affordances and limitations of e-learning environments, I will need to outline the theories that influence these discourses. Cyber-society and virtual ideologies as summarised in Bunyan’s 1999 thesis are acutely relevant. He explains that “Cyberspace” is the commonly accepted term for the realm of Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) and discourse. It is the conceptual space one is said to be ‘in’ whilst using the Internet. He continues to explain that the term relates to the “non physical” or real world presence of the subject in question, or of what is being experienced through cyberspace. Thus the terms “virtual” and “cyber” are to some extent interchangeable. He continues to outline that the term “community” is more problematic to define as it has different connotations dependant on the context it is used in. Bunyan refers to Jones’ definition for community as being “bounded territory of sorts (whether physical or ideological), but it can also refer to a sense of common character, identity, or interests as with the ‘gay community’ or the ‘virtual community’” (Jones, 1997, 39). “There is an apparent juxtaposition between individuality and collectivity in cyberspace. Jan Fernback (Jones 1997, 36-54) suggests that cyber-existence in post-industrial societies is partially characterised by emergent tensions between the individual and the collective (Bunyan 1999).” This is perhaps most prevalent in the case of discussion groups and listserved discussion, where messages may either be posted to an individual or the collective ‘list’ where all may view the post. Similar to Facebook’s ‘wall’ feature where friends or group members can publicly publish messages or use the internal individual (person to person) private message features (similar to email). Education as both a collective and individual experience appears to be, through the proliferation of information and communication technologies. Education is struggling to position itself in the emerging virtual societies and communities as schools in particular are currently not underpinned with appropriate e-pedagogy. 4
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Bunyan continues to argue that the virtual or online community gives rise to a notion of that the group as a new type of collective meta-consciousness, reasoning with itself internally as though engaged in a meta-form of intra-personal communication. It is within a relationship to this group identity that individual identity is formed. Jones (1997) notes that identity is derived from both our understanding of group identity and identification within a collective. The individual experiences can come about through the user’s ability to personalise their spaces through the use of a set of tools provided within the environment. Virtual spaces are becoming as equally prominent as the physical space; business and schools alike have spaces on the web. The spaces present as a marketing tool as well as a virtual platform to convergence, share and disseminate information relevant to the community it serves. An allure of virtual interactions in cyberspace allow participants to (with some degree of privacy) contribute to public life from the comfort of their own home (Bunyan, 1999). This allure is not a feature of education-based virtual learning environments; all activity in rooms is controlled by the room owner (the teacher). The importance of identity and community is important criteria for successful virtual learning interaction, and I will consider this in my research methodology and lesson design strategy. DISTANCE LEARNING In John Cuthell’s’ 1999 research into ICT and distance, he argues that traditional course scheduling becomes one of life’s fixed point and we tend to fix everything else around it. The effort of getting to the classroom can often be a strain particularly when the learning is an addition to what the individual does day to day or they are compelled to travel from one place to the next for the learning to take place. Distance learning is attractive as there is an option of completing the course in your own time but successful completion of the course is more to do with will-power needed to fit the coursework around the pressure of life. The advantages of distance learning far out-weigh the disadvantages, in the coming years things will become much faster with technology developments, through broadband and satellite communications now coming 5
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING through the home, more content will transform the nature of virtual education. Paralinguistic fillers, such as ‘ums’ and ‘errs’, which disrupt the fluency delivery and often distort transmission meaning are removed (can be particularly useful for early stage learners of English language and other groups whose accent may inhibit their contributions in a traditional learning environment) – learning conversation are re-defined. VIRTUAL MANAGED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT – PAN LONDON PROGRAMME The managed learning environment being introduced in my institution is Fronter. Each centre must define their own admin structure (see example of admin structure below. In my institution this is being decided by the senior leadership team and the network manager, who consult a working group who contribute the views of the whole school (which I am a member of). The example below shows a typical structure of a secondary MLE. Different users have different permission codes which dictate whether they are able to read (see), write (add content) or whether the room/space is public (anyone with the correct access rights can see it). The permissions of a user are determined by where they are in the structure, which is hierarchical. Student users have the least restricted access a number of different rooms; they can either read or write (add). In the sample structure below, students have write access in one area; Tutor rooms and will be able to read all room curriculum / department created rooms.
6
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING
2
E-PEDAGOGIES AND LEARNING STYLES In Cuthell’s research paper on Learning theory and e-pedagogy, he explains the term ICT affordances as being concerned with the facilitating of enhanced learning opportunities independent of content or preferred teaching styles. He argues that the current systems that British schools work within do not facilitate the process of knowledge building and focuses heavily on ‘means and ends of delivery; and content and information transmission are favoured. He continues to argue that Piagetian theory which expects the learner to pass through certain stages of development is a ‘developmental folk myth’. This is based on the ideas that: there are two pillars of received wisdom: learner readiness and competence stage and students are unable to cope with concepts and applications which have been determined to lie outside the bounds of their developmental stage; and each stage needs to be consolidated by practice. I agree with the suggestion that developmental stages are not as fixed in contemporary educational paradigms.
7
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Piaget’s research and methodology has been questioned by a number of researchers (Donaldson, 1978; Gardener, 1983; Seigel & Brainerd, 1978) but the original thesis has retained its’ power over pedagogy and the National Curriculum until 2008 when a focus on thinking and learning as a tool to building knowledge and understanding has taken precedence. 3
The concept of ICT affordance was developed by Wersch (1998),
who said computers as a tool, was a vehicle for combining motor skills, language, and image symbolic manipulation through practical activities. Teaching and Learning models and ICT affordances: Behaviourist Teaching and Learning theory is based on behaviour modification and classroom management. Change as an agent of learning (Atherton, J) The operant conditioning - learning by consequences4 was largely led by Skinner (1957). The support provided by ICT in terms of feedback to the learner, error messages, prompts, templates and wizards provides powerful reinforcement of learning. These affordances underpin independent learning systems and many managed learning environments (Cuthell).
Constructivist theory is based on cognitive theories and there is an emphasis on the learner in constructing an individual view from previous experiences. Or the learner making connections between facts and then developing new understandings.5 Multiple intelligences theory is based on Gardener (1983) his notions, that traditional IQ testing was/is too narrow. Gardener argued that there we have eight intelligences (word, number/logic, picture, music, self-reflection, physical experiences, social experiences and experiences in the natural world). Learning Styles is an approach that originated in 1980s and puts emphasis on styles of learning (Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic). This approach has been adopted as exemplar practise in UK secondary schools6
8
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING ICT has the affordance to utilise the rich learning theories provided by the use of diverse materials and collaborative working where knowledge is inseparable from practice. Three powerful elements of ICT provide drivers for elearning: 1. They are highly ostensive; and are able to support lexical understanding through the act of pointing at things. Cuthell explains, that this supports and reinforces the development of language learning. ICT systems reinforce this through the use of the mouse, interactive whiteboards with the stylus or the finger and in gaming (i.e. Nintendo DS uses both a stylus, fingers, audio commands and joystick/keypad). Rosetta Stone’s
7
language
learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompts them through the software. 2. Visualisation and the ability to move backwards and forwards through different stages of a process or a learning objective, enable learners to recall stages of learning. 3. Ludic elements built into lesson : through games, competitive elements and constant feedback, learning becomes fun. In developing suitable resources I will attempt to include these three ‘powerful elements’. Mover over the success of e-learning depends on teachers’ recognition and action towards the dynamic nature of a new pedagogy in which continual change must be embraced. Students will be an existential reality of living on the edge of cutting edge technology, where the tools they use and the concepts they forge are an integral part of the learning process. The successful implementation of e-learning into our education system will depend, to an extent, on teachers’ personal uses of ICT and e-learning, whether for access to resources, CPD, communities of practice or communities of social networks (Cuthell, 1999). Kolb (1983) saw learning as an active process its stages formed as a continuum; this model for teaching and learning argues that learners should be immersed in experiences, reflect on them and then use these, to through experimentation create, or develop their 9
KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING understanding of a concept or concept skill. From concrete experience / involvement; through watching others or developing conversations about their own experience, through abstract conceptualisation there is a creation of ideas that explain their observations. Often a feature in Creative and Media education is simulation projects which provide students with opportunities to have an experience of working within an industry/work related environment. In reflective observation – watching others or developing conversations about one’s own experience through abstract conceptualisation – learners perform evaluative tasks and engage in discussions, observer and comment on others work. In active experimentation students use theories to solve problems and make decisions (Cuthell). The combination of elements of play – the ludic, ostensive and visual stimuli means that computers provide a focus for different types of learning. Computers are still only artefacts that reinforce intuitive understanding and ways of knowing and learning. Distance learning and the use of ICT, Learning Theories, The affordances of ICT for learning, the problems for learning and teaching in an age of new technologies and new pedagogy (e-pedagogy / e-learning). CONTEMPORARY USE OF INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES The emergence and subsequent proliferation of social networking sites where people interact with each other easily. The user developed games, sharing original and found content by providing information about themselves on profile pages. Users of such virtual meeting places agree to a set of agreed behaviour imposed by the community. An agreed numeric-phonetic abbreviated language is used to write on your friends’ wall, comments of photographs or any other content the owner has decided to share. From my own experiences and through data gathered in my student and teacher questionnaire Facebook appeared to be a most popular virtual social network and Microsoft Messenger was very popular with students who used it to ‘Chat’ with friends. Other popular virtual communities or immersive virtual worlds include second life.
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KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
HISTORY OF E-LEARNING Second life is described as a 3D virtual world where you encounter both people and objects you can interact with (through the use of your mouse) by utilising ‘contextual menus’ for ‘objects’ , ‘yourself’ and ‘others’. You can also move around, see people and objects in less/closer details or from different angles. Second life is most well known for the users creation of avatars. Avatars not only act as a form of fun but when considered with social constructivist conceptual framework such as those adopted by the Appalachian State University Reich College of Education; we begin to see that the use of avatars are much more significant to the community practice. Bronack, Tashner et al (2008) argue that: (1)Learning occurs in communities of practice; (2)Knowledge is socially constructed and learning is social in nature; (3)The development of educators proceeds through stages of Novice to Expert under the guidance of more experienced and Knowledgeable mentors in the community of practice; (4)Cognition is distributed; that is, individual thinking and problem solving are revealed through socially contextual practices.
The need for e-learning in schools or not? The systemic normalisation of the need for and harvesting Cyborgs and other forms of virtual learning communities and platforms have become an integral part of what is considered exemplar learning and teaching in British secondary education. The arguments put forward by Raymond Williams in his essay Ideas of Nature question the role and importance of progress. When applying his exploration of the concepts of nature he argues that ‘nature’ is a mere ideological and often-hegemonic construct, I have further explored his ideas with an epistemological framework to question the need for e-learning in schools (ed. During 1993).
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KELLY DOOLEY
November 2009
1 Cuthell, J Virtual Learning - The Impact of ICT on the Way Young People Work www.virtuallearning.org.uk/virtuallearning 2 http://api.ning.com/files/9i*QBkry3p6qdg37pHGS1Pswh*1aN*UrmudJPXPKyGmiR7Z1CeaZwLtSPqU4UKAPNPV8XIC 4l1mszbr40YEEWdXMAqdt2RzW/MLEStructureFeb2009.jpg 3http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/behaviour.htm 4 http://www.funderstanding.com/content/behaviorism 5 http://www.emtech.net/construc.htm 6 Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary schools / Unit 19 (learning styles). www.dcsf.gov.uk 7Rosetta Stone – is a language learning e-learning system which relies on learners to click on the correct visual example when an audio (voice) prompt through the software www.rosettastone.co.uk/.
