Gender Diff And Motivation

COLLEGE STUDENTS AND GAMBLING: AN EXAMINATION OF GENDER DIFFERENCES ýN MOTIVATION FOR PARTICIPATION TERRY

D.

BURGER

Indiana State University DONNA DAHLGREN

Indiana University Southeast CHRISTINE

D.

MACDONALD

Indiana State University The current research is among the first to examine whether gender or the level of competitiveness affects a person's motivation to gamble. One hundred fifty two participants completed a scale to measure whether they were intrinsically or extrinsically motivated to gamble (Gambling Motivation Scale) and a scale to measure their level of competitiveness (Hypercompetitiveness Attitude Scale). As hypothesized, results indicate men scored higher than women on intrinsic motivations for gambling. However, no gender differences were found for extrinsic motivation in gambling. Participants with high-competitive scores (male and female) were more likely to have higher intrinsic and higher

extrinsic motivations for gambling.

In 1974, and again in 1980, 80% of adult Americans surveyed expressed a favorable interest in seeing legalized gambling of some kind in their state of residence (Moran, 1997). This apparent moral acceptance of gambling has been reflected by the tremendous growth rate of legalized gambling venues across America during the last 25 years. Forty-eight states have legalized at least one form of gambling (Moran, 1997). In 1995, $500 billion was legally exchanged in some form of gambling in the United States, representing nearly a 3000% increase over figures reported in 1975 ($17.4 billion) (Netemeyer et al., 1998). The increase in popularity and availability of gambling raises concern among

mental health professionals who have observed that perhaps as high as 3% of the adult population meet the diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling [American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1994; Morrison, 1995]. That is, up to 3% of the adult population exhibits gambling behavior that interferes with personal, family, and professional relationships. A 1989 Gallup poll revealed that of the adult population who reported they had gambled during the previous 12-month period, 70% reported having gambled three or more times per week, with as many as 6% considered probable "compulsive gamblers" (Netemeyer, et al., 1998). Pathological gamblers generally show the following characteristics: being obsessed with the thought of

70M

Gender Differences in Motivation ... /705 gambling; telling lies to family, friends, or employers; and wagering increasingly larger amounts in an attempt to make up losses (termed "chasing") (APA, 1994). Additionally, an association with crime has also been widely reported as a characteristic of the pathological gambler (APA, 1994; Meyer & Stadler, 1999; Netemeyer et al., 1998; Vitaro, Arseneault, & Tremblay, 1999). In his classic study, Lesieur (1984) reported that many people view gambling as an opportunity to briefly forget about their troubles and have fun. However, for the pathological gambler, gambling ceases being an effective coping mechanism for dealing with the stressors of their world. These gamblers often find themselves having to emotionally deal with not only the issues that led them to gamble in the first place (e.g., impulsivity, financial problems) but also with the negative consequences of their gambling (e.g., strained personal and professional relationships, loss of employment, legal issues) (Gaudia, 1987; Lesieur, 1984; Rosenthal, 1992). In short, the pathological gambler loses his or her ability to gamble responsibly. One way to understand what drives so many people to gamble is to examine both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for participation. For example, does an individual gamble to have a good time or to learn something new (intrinsic motivation) or to gain a monetary reward (extrinsic motivation)? A 1989 Gallup survey reported 39% of gambling participants questioned confirmed they gambled "to have a good time" while 27% stated their involvement was for monetary gain (Gallup, 1990). Some who gamble claim to do so primarily due

to intrinsic motivation, while others are primarily extrinsically motivated (Chantal & Vallerand, 1995; Feldman, 1996). Thus, an individual's primary underlying driving force could be indicative of both their level and frequency of gambling involvement. Additionally, an individual's central motivation to participate in gambling activities may also be connotative of disorders such as pathological gambling or other high-risk behaviors that are often comorbid with pathological gambling (e.g., heavy alcohol consumption) (Kessler, 1994; Nelson, Heath, et al., 1998; Shaffer & Hall, 2002). In an attempt to quantify types and frequencies of motivation, Chantal and Vallerand (1995) examined motivation and its relationship to gambling involvement. The authors hypothesized that a greater level of participation would be found in gambling participants who had an intrinsic motivation and sought a sense of entertainment from their involvement. The authors further predicted that those participants seeking tangible rewards would have a lesser level of participation. That is, participants who gamble primarily for fun and excitement would likely gamble more than someone whose sole purpose was to win money. Participants (with a mean age of 48.3 years) completed the Gambling Motivation Scale (GMS) and a measure to investigate the level of gambling involvement. The results indicated a greater level of participation in gambling activities for intrinsic reasons than for extrinsic ones. Given the mean age of the participants, these results suggest that middle-aged gamblers primarily participate in gambling activities for fun and excitement.

706 / College Student Journal

These results further indicated that type of motivation can lead to various levels of participation. Adebayo (1998) conducted a study to examine the motivation behind gambling participation in a sample of rural community college students. Results indicated that 80% of students who reported they had gambled indicated extrinsic reasons for gambling, while 65% reported intrinsic reasons. These results reflect the fact that some students seek to satisfy both extrinsic and intrinsic needs via their gambling participation. It would appear that college students, while gambling for fun (intrinsic motivation) also have hopes of winning money (extrinsic motivation). Most studies on gambling to date have not examined gender differences. Given that numerous studies on gender differences indicate men and women differ in motivational drives (e.g., Delfabbro, 2000; Grant & Kim, 2002; Nower & Washington, 2001), it may be possible that gender differences affect the types of motivation involved in the gambling behaviors previously stated. As an example, these studies indicate men may be motivated to gamble to achieve goals whereas women may be more motivated to gamble to relax and relieve tension. Researchers on gambling have generally failed to specifically report the impact of gender on motivation in their studies. Instead, their studies typically report the impact of gender on factors such as the type of gambling instrument preferred (e.g., Adebayo, 1998; Delfabbro, 2000; Grant & Kim, 2002; Ladd & Petry, 2002). This is not to say that the type of game preferred by a particular gender does not offer a pos-

sible link to a person's motivation to gamble. Adebayo (1998) demonstrated this when he reported that male students preferred games that involved some type of skill dimension (e.g., sports betting, horse racing), whereas female students were more likely to participate in more passive games (e.g., bingo, scratch-off lottery tickets). That is, men are motivated to participate in gambling in different venues than women. This suggests that men and women may indeed differ in motivational needs since different game types are selected. Lynn (1993), who examined gender difference in competition among college students in 20 countries, supported the possibility that men and women may differ in motivational needs. He reported that men were more competitive than women, and suggested that men are intrinsically motivated to express their competitive superiority over others. Lynn further stated that one avenue for men to accomplish this may be to use money as a symbolic expression of their success. These findings suggest that where monetary gain is both literally and symbolically possible, gender differences in the driving force behind participation are likely to be found. For example, men may be more apt to gamble for the high intrinsic pleasure they receive from competition than are women. It is this possibility that men may differ from women in type and level of motivation that is at the heart of the current study. Accordingly, the current study proposes to examine the motivations behind gambling participation among college students by directly focusing on gender-related attributions. It is predicted that men will report being more competi-

Gender Differences in Motivation ... /707

tive than women. Because men are more likely to participate in gambling venues they view as skill contests, the study's second hypothesis is that men will report higher levels of overall intrinsic motivation for their gambling participation than will women. Method Participants

One hundred fifty-two students (76 men and 76 women) enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a small Midwestern university were recruited to participate in the current study. The mean age of the participants was 20.7 years (SD = 4.72) with a range of 17 to 45 years. Measures

Participants were asked to complete three measures for the current study: a measure of competitiveness, a motivation scale, and a screen for pathological gambling. Competitiveness. The Hypercompeti-

tive Attitude Scale is a 26-item measure of competitiveness (Ryckman, Hammer, Kaczor, & Gold, 1990). The scale employs a 5-point Likert-type response method, with response selections ranging from never true of me (1) to always true of me (5).

Higher scores indicate greater hypercompetitive attitudes. Ryckman et al. (1990) conducted four studies to assess the reliability and validity of the scale, with each study's results indicating strong support for the scale. Motivation. The Gambling Motivation Scale (GMS) is a 28-item questionnaire which measures intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation among gambling participants (Chantal, Vallerand, & Vallieres, 1994). The measure consists of seven subscales that correspond to seven types of motivation. Specifically, three subscales are collectively used to assess intrinsic motivations (intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to accomplish, and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulations), three subscales are collectively used to assess extrinsic motivations (identified regulation, internal regulation, and external regulation), and one subscale measures amotivation (not used in the current study). Chantal and Vallerand (1995) found sound internal consistency for the GMS for each subscale. PathologicalGambling. The South

Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS; Leisure & Blume, 1987) is a widely used self-administered measure for pathological gambling. The SOGS was employed in the current study as both an indicator and quantifier of potential problem gambling among the study's participants. The SOGS measures an individual's gambling involvement over the course of their lifetime. Scores on the SOGS can range from 0 to 20. A score of 0 on the SOGS indicates "no problem gambling," scores of either 3 or 4 indicate "possible problem gambling," while scores of 5 or higher indicate 'probable' pathological gambling" as defined by DSM-IV (APA, 1994) criteria for pathological gambling (Leisure & Blume, 1987). Procedure

Permission from the human subjects review board was granted to conduct the current study. All participants were

708 / College Student Journal

Table I South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) Categoriesfor ParticipantsWho Reported Gambling Within the PreviousSix Months (N = 123)

No gambling problem

Men

Women

(N = 62)

(N = 61)

Total

(Percent)

59

57

116

(94.3)

Possible gambling problem *

1

3

4

(3.3)

Probable gamblingproblem**

2

3

(2.4)

*

SOGS score

=

3 or 4. -* SOGS score>t 5.

required to sign an informed consent statement confirming their willingness to participate in the study that would ask them to report their gambling behaviors, some of which might be illegal in nature. Participants were informed by the researcher that they could withdraw from the study at any time and were assured of their anonymity. No students chose to withdraw from the study. All surveys were completed in the classroom, with no surveys being allowed to leave the classroom for any reason due to the sensitive nature of the questions and the anonymity issue. Students were given extra credit in their introductory psychology course for their participation in the study. The current study defines gambling participation as an individual's active participation (i.e., participation within the last six-month period) in one or more of the following venues of speculation: state lotteries, scratch off instant tickets, horse or dog track wagering, sports wagering, casino-style gambling (including riverboat

casinos), bingo, and card games. Results Of the 152 participants surveyed, 80.9% (N = 123; 62 men, 61 women) reported having gambled at least once within the last six months. Of the participants reporting having gambled in the previous six months, 94% (N = 116; 59 men, 57 women) were classified as having no gambling problems based on their SOGS scores. Four (2.6%) participants' SOGS score indicated a potential problem associated with their level of gambling involvement (i.e., scores of 3 to 4 on the SOGS). Three (2%) participants' SOGS score met the criteria for pathological gambling (i.e., scores greater than 5 on the SOGS). Table 1 offers a complete summary of participants' gambling participation. Table 2 reports means and standard deviations for intrinsic and extrinsic motivations of those participants reporting

Gender Differences in Motivation ... /709 Table 2 Means and StandardDeviations of Intrinsicand Extrinsic Motivation Scales for ParticipantsWho Reported Having Gambled In the Previous Six Months

Men

Women

Total

(N = 62)

(N= 61)

(N= 123)

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

Intrinsic To Know

2.79

1.55

1.92

1.11

2.36

1.42

Accomplishment

2.23

1.09

1.54

.82

1.89

1.02

Stimulation

3.23

1.31

2.74

1.25

2.99

1.30

Combined

2.75

L12

2.07

.95

2.42

1.09

Identification

1.72

.97

1.53

1.02

1.63

1.00

Introjected

1.79

1.20

1.63

1.11

1.71

1.15

External Regulation

2.83

1.89

2.66

1.95

2.75

1.91

Combined

2.12

2.02

1.03

Extrinsic

1.02

having gambled in the previous six months. One hundred (51 men and 49 women) of the 123 participants who reported having gambled at least once within the last six months elected to indicate their favorite gambling venues on their SOGS questionnaire. Men overwhelmingly reported poker/card playing as their favorite gambling venue (37.3%). Other top male responses included sports (13.7%), horse racing (11.8%), lottery/raffle (9.8%), and other games of skill (7.8%). Women also reported poker/card games as their favorite gambling activity, but by a much slimmer margin (24.5%). Other female responses were: lottery/raffle (22.4%), scratch off tickets/pull tabs (16.3%), horse racing

1.93

1.03

(12.2%), and bingo (10.2%). Table 3 summarizes offers a complete summary of participants' game-type preferences by gender. Competitiveness An independent samples t-test indicated that men (M = 61.01, SD 10.17) were significantly more competitive than women (M = 55.83, SD 11.43), t (149) = 2.94, p < .01. This finding coincides with previous research that indicates men are more competitive than women. Intrinsic Motivation The three GMS subscales used to assess intrinsic motivations were summed to reach

710 / College Student Journal Table 3 Percentageof Men and Women Who Prefer Various Game-Types (N= 100)

Game Type

Men

Women

Poker/cardplaying

37.3

24.5

Sports

13.7

2.0

Horse racing

11.8

12.2

7.8

2.0

Lottery/raffle

9.8

22.4

Scratch-off tickets/pull tibs

5.9

16.3

Bingo

0

10.2

Table/dicegames

3.9

4.l

Slot machines/video poker

2.0

6.1

Office pools

5.9

0

Games ofSkill

Other Non Skill Games

Note. Twenty-three of the 123 participantswho indicated they had gambled in the previous 6 months did not denote a specific gametype preference. Participantswere allowed to list only one gametype preference.

an overall intrinsic motivation score. A 2

of intrinsic motivation to gamble than low-

(Competitiveness: High, Low) x 2 (Gender: Male, Female) ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of gender such that men (M = 2.59, SD = 1.19) showed higher levels of intrinsic motivation to gamble than did women (M = 1.91, SD = .93), F (1, 74) = 11.7,p <.01. A significant main effect of competitiveness was also found such that high-competitive participants (M = 2.49, SD = 1.24) showed higher levels

competitive participants (M = 1.95, SD = .89), F (1, 140) = 5.76, p < .05. The interaction was not significant, F (1, 140) = .31, p= .58. Extrinsic Motivation The three GMS subscales used to asses extrinsic motivations were summed to reach an overall extrinsic motivation score. A 2 (Gender: Male, Female) x 2 (Coin-

Gender Differences in Motivation ... /711

petitiveness: High, Low) ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of gender on extrinsic motivation, F (1, 74) = .304, p = .58. However, a significant main effect of competitiveness was found such that highcompetitive participants (M = 2.29, SD = 1.19) scored significantly higher on extrinsic motivation than did low-competitive participants, (M = 1.48, SD = .60), F (1, 140) = 24.68, p <.001. The interaction was again not significant, F (1, 140) = 2.25, p = .14. Discussion The purpose of the current study was to determine how gender and competitiveness affect college students' gambling motivations. It is the first study to examine whether gender or the level of competitiveness affects a person's motivation to gamble. Lynn (1993) found men to be more competitive than women overall. The current study's first hypothesis was supported when its results mirrored Lynn's findings that men were significantly more competitive than women. Highly competitive individuals (i.e., intrinsically driven), regardless of gender, are more likely to spend more time gambling than those who are predominantly extrinsically motivated (Chantal & Vallerand, 1995). The relationship between gender and competitiveness is important in that competitive differences between men and women can often be seen in the game type preferred for gambling. Adebayo (1998) reported that male college students preferred wagering on games of skill such as sports betting, horse racing, or pool. The

results of the current study confirm Adebayo's finding. Of the 51 men who responded to the question about what their favorite gambling venue was, 36 (70.6%) chose games of skill. Of the 49 women who answered the same question, only 20 (40.8%) chose games of skill as their favorite gambling type. Women were much more likely to choose more passive gambling types such as bingo, lottery tickets, or scratch-off tickets. This indicates that males and females may differ in their motivations for participation. Results indicated support for the second hypothesis that men would be more intrinsically motivated to participate in gambling than women. Overall, men did report significantly higher levels of intrinsic involvement than women. No significant gender differences were found in extrinsic motivations. Perhaps, as Chantal and Vallerand (1995) suggest, this was due to external rewards being viewed as a "means to an end," not involving issues of "selfdetermination." Therefore, external rewards (e.g., money and social approval) are beyond the individual's control and leads to the individual experiencing negative emotions with their gambling involvement (e.g., tension, uncertainty). These negative feelings may cause both men and women to be less extrinsically motivated to participate in gambling activities, leading both genders equally to a reduction in both the amount of time and money reserved for gambling activities (Chantal & Vallerand, 1995). An interesting finding in the current study was that highly competitive participants, regardless of gender, reported higher

712 / College Student Journal

levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations than those who scored low in competitiveness. This finding seems to suggest a deeper emotional involvement among highly competitive gamblers, which may be indicative of current or future problem gambling. Evidence of this deeper emotional involvement is indicated in the SOGS scores of the current study's seven participants whose scores indicate possible or probable gambling problems (e.g., pathological gambling). Limitations

One limitation of the current study was the lack of diversity among its participants. This study's results are based on a sample with an average age just under the legal age limit for many gambling activities, such as those played in a casino (M = 20.7 years, mode = 18). This may explain in part why only 2% of the current study's participants met the criteria for pathological gambling as opposed to the 3% of the adult population (i.e., over age 21 years) who are typically reported to meet the criteria (APA, 1994). Also, of the study's 152 participants, 91.4 percent (n = 139) were Caucasian. Only 13 participants were members of an ethnic minority group (African American = 7, Hispanic = 3, Asian American = 2, and Other = 1). Additional

research is needed to determine if this study's pattern of results will remain comparable across ethnic groups and age groups. A second limitation of the current study is that its data may not easily be generalized to the population at large given that the sample size was relatively small and limited to an introductory psychology class

at a small Midwestern university. Therefore, additional research is needed to determine if the current study's results can be replicated in a larger, more geographically diverse sample. Future Research Highly competitive individuals are both more intrinsically motivated and more likely to spend a greater amount of time and emotional commitment in gambling activities than are individuals who are primarily extrinsically motivated to participate in gambling activities. This greater level of participation among highly competitive individuals may lead to a greater rate of problem gambling in this population. Therefore, future research should more closely examine the possible link between highly competitive gamblers and rates of problem gambling. Given that men are more likely than women to be highly competitive (Lynn, 1993) and that a greater number of men are likely to experience gambling-related problems (Leisure & Blume, 1987), future research should specifically target men and explore for possible relationships between level of competition and severity of gambling problems. Furthermore, it appears that, when combined, gender and level of competitiveness may serve as a predictor of an individual's type and level of gambling involvement. Future research should examine interactions between gender and competitiveness in a larger, more diverse population. Finally, future research should look for gender differences in motivation for college students to participate in online gambling venues given both the relative ease and

Gender Differences in Motivation ... /713

availability of this particular type of venue and the rapid advances being witnessed in the field of technology (Griffiths & Wood, 2000). Examples of recent technological advances include the availability of broadband internet connections, online banking, and real-time sports information (e.g., scores of games in progress), which collectively make internet casino gaming and sports betting available instantaneously. Conclusions In conclusion, it is remarkable that (possible) gender effects on motivation to gamble have not been previously reported as any gender differences found might offer additional insight to the primary motivation for both initial and sustained participation. Since most college students view gambling as a form of recreation or a quick fix to their financial problems (Adebayo, 1998), discovering whether students are gambling for intrinsic or extrinsic rewards is taking the first step in assuring proper counseling services are available to both those who are currently participating in gambling activities, and as a preventive measure for those who are not. Finally, if the current study's findings are replicated in future research, improved preventative education programs could be designed and implemented at the early secondary-school level where previous research has well established a positive link between adolescents and gambling involvement (Stinchfield, 2000; Stinchfield & Winters, 1998, 2001; Westphal & Rush, 1998).

References Adebayo, B. (1998). Luck of the dice: Gambling attitudes of a sample of community college students. College Student Journal, 32, 255-257.

American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th edition). Washington, D.C.,

APA. Chantal, Y., & Vallerand, R.J. (1995). Motivation and gambling involvement. Journalof Social Psychology, 135, 755-763.

Chantal, Y., Vallerand, R.J., & Vallieres, E.F., (1994). On the development and validation of the gambling motivation scale. Society and Leisure, 17, 189-212.

Delfabbro, P. (2000). Gender differences in Australian gambling: A critical summary ofsociological and psychological research. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 35, 145-

156. Feldman, R.S. (1996). Motivation and emotion. In UnderstandingPsychology, (4th edition) (pp.

318-355). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Gallup, G. Jr. (1990). The Gallup Poll Public Opin-

ion, 1989. Wilmington, Resources, Inc.

DE:

Scholarly

Gaudia, R. (1987). Effects of compulsive gambling on the family. Social Work, 254-256.

Grant, J.E., & Kim, S.W. (2002). Gender differences in pathological gamblers seeking medication treatment. Comprehensive PsYchiatry, 43, 56-62.

Griffiths, M., & Wood, R. (2000). Risk factors in adolescence: The case of gambling, videogame playing, and the internet. Journalof Gambling Studies, 16, 199-225.

Kessler, R.C. (1994). The national comorbidity survey of the United States. International Review of Psychiatry, 6, 365-376.

Ladd, G.T., & Petry, N.M. (2002). Gender differences among pathological gamblers seeking treatment. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 302-309.

714 / College Student Journal

Lesieur, H.R. (1984). The chase: Career of the compulsive gambler. Cambridge, MA.: Schenkman Publishing Co. Lesieur, H.R., & Blume, S.B. (1987). The South Oaks gambling screen (SOGS): A new instrument for the identification of pathological gamblers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1184-1188.

Nower, L.M., & Washington, U. (2001). Taking risks: The relationship of impulsivity, sensation seeking, stress-coping, and substance use in youth gamblers. Dissertation Abstracts InternationalSection A: Humanities & Social Sciences, 62 (1-A), 332. Rosenthal, R.J. (1992). Pathological gambling. PsychiatricAnnals, 22 (2), 72-78.

Lynn, R. (1993). Sex differences in competitiveness and the valuation of money in twenty countries. Journalof Social Psychology, 133, 507- 511.

Ryckman, R.M., Hammer, M., Kaczor, L.M., & Gold, J.A. (1990). Construction of a hypercompetitive attitude scale. Journal of PersonalityAssessment, 55, 630-639.

Meyer, G., & Stadler, M.A. (1999). Criminal behavior associated with pathological gambling. Journalof Gambling Studies, 15, 29-43.

Shaffer, H.J., & Hall, M.N. (2002). The natural history of gambling and drinking problems among casino employees. Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 405-424.

Moran, P.W. (1997). Great expectations: The legitimization of gambling in America, 1964-1995. Journalof PopularCulture, 31, 49-65. Morrison, J. (1995). DSM-IV made easy. New York: Guilford Press. Nelson, C.B., Heath, A.C., et al. (1998). Temporal progression of alcohol dependence symptoms in the U.S. household population: Results from the national comorbidity survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 474483. Netemeyer, R.G., Burton, S., Cole, L.K., Williamson, D.A., Zuker, N., Bertman, L. & Diefenbach, G. (1998). Characteristics and beliefs associated with probable pathological gambling: A pilot study with implications for the national gambling impact and policy comPublic Policy & mission. Journal of Marketing, 17, 147-160.

Stinchfield, R. (2000). Gambling and correlates of gambling among Minnesota public school students. Journal of Gambling Studies, 16, 153-173. Stinchfield, R., & Winters, K.C. (1998). Gambling and problem gambling among youths. Annals of the American Academy of Political& Social Science, 556, 172-185. Stinchfield, R. & Winters, K.C. (2001). Outcome of Minnesota's gambling treatment programs. Journalof Gambling Studies, 17, 217-245. Vitaro, F., Arseneault, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Impulsivity predicts problem gambling in low SES adolescent males. Addiction, 94, 565-575. Westphal, J., & Rush, J. (1998). Gambling behavior of adolescents in residential placement in northwest Louisiana. Southern Medical Journal, 91, 1038-1041.

COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

TITLE: College Students and Gambling: An Examination of Gender Differences in SOURCE: College Student Journal 40 no3 S 2006 PAGE(S): 704-14 WN: 0624403829029 The magazine publisher is the copyright holder of this article and it is reproduced with permission. Further reproduction of this article in violation of the copyright is prohibited.

Copyright 1982-2006 The H.W. Wilson Company.

All rights reserved.