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Finally, participants completed additional measure of their current and their psychological well-being. Result indicated that those in the forgiven condition (participants led to believe that they had forgiveness the offender) reported higher self-esteem and lower level of negative affect than those in the no-forgiveness condition. Other findings showed that the benefits of forgiveness were stronger for relationships to which individuals are strongly committed. In other words, the closer we are to those who offend us, the more beneficial it is to forgive them for doing things that offend us. Why are some people able to forgive more readily than other? In part, because of their own traits. Research finding indicate that forgiving people differ from nonforgiving people with respect to two aspect of personality we examined in detail in chapter 10: They are higher in agreeableness-a tendency to trust others and want to help them-and the higher in emotional stability-they show low vulnerability to negative moods or emotions (Berry et al,2001) How, precisely, does forgiveness work? What do people do to forgive people? One technique involves empathy-they try to understand the feelings, emotions, and circumstances that caused the offending person to harm them. Similarly, they make generous attributions about the causes of their enemies’ behavior, concluding that they had good reasons for it, even past transgressions; once these over, they put them out of their minds(McCullough et al, 2001) In sum, given the benefits that forgiveness may confer, it seems to be one social skill we should all try to develop. When we do, we may learn that there is a large grain of truth in the proverb, “to err is human; to forgive, divine.

SUMMARY AND REVIEW OF KEY POINTS. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON AGGRESSION: IN SEARH OF THE ROOTS OF VIOLENCE. •

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Aggression is the intentional infliction of harm on others. Although most social psychologist reject the view that human aggression is strongly determined by genetic factors, many now accept an evolutionary perspective that recognizes the potential role of such factors. Drive theories suggest that aggression stem from externally elicited drives to harm or injure others. The frustration-aggression hypothesis is the most famous example. Modern theorist of aggression, such as the general aggression model, recognize the important in aggression of learning, various eliciting input variables, individual differences, affective states, and especially, cognitive processes.

CAUSES OF HUMAN AGGRESSION: SOCIAL, CULTURAL, PERSONAL, AND SITUATIONAL. • • • •

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Contrary to the famous hypothesis, all frustration-aggression does not stem from frustration, and frustrations does not always lead to aggressions only under certain limited conditions. In contrast, provocation from others is a powerful elicitor the aggressions. We rarely turn the other cheek; rather, we match or slightly exceed the level of aggressions we receive from others. Heightened arousal can increase aggressions if it persists beyond the situation in which it was induced and it falsely interpreted as anger. Exposure to media violence has been found increase aggressions among viewers. This is due to several factors, such as the priming of aggressive thoughts and the weakening of restraints against aggression. Exposure to violet pornography appears to increase the willingness of some to engage in similar behavior and to generate callous attitudes towards various forms of sexual violence. In cultures of honor, norms requiring aggression as response to threats to one’ honor exist and exert powerful effects. Sexual jealousy poses a major threat to male honor in cultures of honor, with the result that aggression in response to sexual infidelity is condoned to a greater extent, and women who are accepting of such aggression are viewed more favorably. Persons shoeing the Type A behavior pattern are more irritable and aggression than person with the Type B behavior pattern.

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Individuals high in hostile attribution bias attribute others’ actions to hostile intent. As the result, they are more aggressive than persons low in this characteristic. Persons high in narcissism hold an over inflated view of their own worth. They react with exceptionally high level of aggression to feedback from others than threatens their inflated egos. Persons high in sensation seeking tend to be more aggressive because they are attracted to aggression-eliciting situation and because they experience anger and hostile thoughts more often. Males are more aggressive overall than females, but this different decreases in the context of strong provocation. Males are more likely to use direct forms of aggression, but female are more likes to use indirect. High temperatures tend to increase aggression up to the point. Beyond some level, aggressions declines as temperature rise. Consuming alcohol can increase aggression, especially by individuals who normally show low level of aggression. Alcohol may exert these effects by reducing individual’s capacity to process some kinds of information and by chancing their reactions to unexpected behavior by others.

Aggression in long-term relationships: bullying and workplace violence •

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Bullying involves repeated aggression against individuals who, for various reasons, are unable to defend themselves. bullying occurs in many con texts, including schools, workplace and prisons. Few people are solely bullies or victims; more play both roles. Bullies and bully –victims appear to have lower self-esteem than people who are not involved in bullying. Workplace aggression takes different forms but is usually covert in nature. It stems from a range of factor, including perception of having been treated unfairly and the many disturbing change that have occurred in workplaces recently.

The Prevention and Control of Aggression: Some useful; Techniques • •

Punishment can be effective in reducing aggression but only when it is delivered under certain conditions. The catharsis hypothesis appears to be mainly false. Engaging in vigorous activities may produce reductions in arousal, but these are only temporary. Similarly, aggression is not reduced by engaging in apparently ” safe” forms of aggression.

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Aggression can be reduced by apologies admissions of wrong doing that includes a request forgiveness- and by overcoming the cognitive deficits produced by strong anger. Forgiveness- surrendering the desire revenge. – is also effective in reducing aggression. In addition, it may contribute to our physic logical well-being.