Final Report-senior Capstone

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6 December 2009

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Introduction The purpose of this report is to serve a founding document for the creation of, or the eventual working in the Middle East with a non-profit organization focused on water conservation. Though several other organizations already exist with similar mission statements this report was initially created as a pilot action plan limited to the countries of Afghanistan, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen. The report has since become more generalized in nature with an overall focus on the applicability and feasibility of three main water conservation strategies that include: 1) Public awareness, 2) Grey water and irrigation, and 3) Rain catching. To supplement country specific information and to better prioritize the area of focus for the non-profit organization an appendix has been added with country specific information and short assessments prioritizing conservation strategies. The objective of the report is to determine a non-profit organization’s ability to implement those conservation strategies while taking into account financing, climate, and, to some extent, local politics. The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) is the most water deprived region in the world, experiencing the highest variation of annual precipitation and a forecasted 60% percent increase in population over the next sixteen years, reaching 500 million,1 the dynamic of the region make its future unstable at best. Currently in the MENA the average person has access to 1,200m³ of water annually, compared to 7,000m³ annually available to people worldwide.2 Furthermore, in a model setting each person annually needs one cubic meter of water for personal use (drinking), a hundred cubic meters for other uses, and an additional thousand cubic meters for agricultural

1 2

(Water Resouce Management in MENA 2008) (Water Resouce Management in MENA 2008)

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production.3 With exponential population growth the demand for water, especially in agriculture, has exceeded the discharge rate of renewable water sources. Due to the scarcity of water and limited access to fresh water the average annual withdrawal in the Middle East is 686m³ compared to 972m³ in the United States. It’s important to note that several factors in the MENA skew the interpretation of data to include faulty data collection, regional disputes over water rights, municipal regulations, and wasteful use of water. Limited water supply throughout the region can mostly be attributed to the overwhelming demand from agricultural irrigation, but can also be a result of local politics that affect the use and distribution of fresh water. For example, in most countries farmers are required to pay a flat rate on water rights to irrigate their fields, but the rights do not place restrictions on how much water can be used nor charge the farmer extra for excessive withdrawal leading to over irrigation and wasteful practices. On the other side though,

United States, drinking water on average costs

per m³ Cost of Access in MENA Type/Method Cost per m³: Low High Precipitation free free Suface Water $ 0.01 $ 0.10 Groundwater $ 0.10 $ 1.00 Pipelines $ 0.60 >$0.60 Tankers and Bags $ 1.00 >$1.00 Re-used Urban Waste-Water $ 1.00 >$1.00 Desalinated Water $ 1.00 >$1.00

$0.40 per cubic meter (m³) whereas drinking

Figure 1 Data based on FAO 1995: 32, Table 18.Invalid source specified.

it’s also unfair to the farmer who doesn’t use as much water but is still charged. Economically the price of water can determine a person’s access to water if they simply cannot afford it. In the

water in the MENA frequently reaches more than $1 per m³. Put into perspective if the average income in the United States is $50K and the Middle East is $9K, Americans are paying roughly 1% of their income to water and sewage while in the Middle East a person is spending more than 7% of their income. 3

(Allan 1998)

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If any initiative is to take place on alleviating water scarcity in the Middle East it must be done through Public Awareness. It’s impossible to over emphasize how important awareness in the United States and the targeted region is. Water conservation systems are no more than tools, but if those who posses such systems do not know how to operate and manage the tools given or do not understand the importance of water conservation, then the tools given will ultimately breakdown because the people have not been empowered.

Public Awareness The most critical aspect to the success of a non-profit organization is the promotion and education of the organization’s mission to both the people of the affected region and citizens outside the area. Public awareness is most effectively carried out through education and the use of religious context is especially important in the MENA. In the United States public awareness is vital as the country in many respects is isolated from the rest of the world and simple humanitarian relief efforts seldom make the news or the public’s attention. It is therefore vital that in order to receive support from the community they must be made aware of the situation. Education is pivotal in implementing lasting change, as without a concerted effort in education any implementation of conservation strategies will only be temporary. Education on water conservation topics such as types of soil compositions, irrigation methods and maintenance, the water cycle, rain catching, and wastewater recycling empower individuals to implement conservation techniques themselves. A pilot program initiated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) created the Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources (MWGWR). Based in Israel, the MWGWR has developed a vital textbook titled WaterCare. The

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textbook, available in English, Hebrew, or Arabic online, provides basic information about where water comes from and how it is regenerated, reasons for water scarcity in the MENA region, and proper methods of consumption. For the purpose of this report WaterCare will serve as a primary tool to be used by our no-profit organization as a model for the future development of lesson plans and educating people on water conservation.4 With the dominance of Islam in the MENA region, being able to express the importance of water conservation techniques through religion is vital in the public awareness process and persuading people to take it to heart. Several non-profit organizations in the region have already benefited from the use of religion to promote awareness. Techniques have included the use of Quranic and Hadith verses in connection to water conservation on posters, leaflets, booklets, and stickers. Another simple technique has been to choose a name for the non-profit organization that can be associated with Islam. One example of this comes from an water conservation organization based in Palestine named Zam Zam after a famous water spring in Mecca, “where Hagar and Ishmael quenched their thirst after wandering in the desert.”5 Other more influential techniques include holding educational seminars for Imams and Mullahs to teach and allow spiritual leaders to preach and educate the community at gathering, most notably the Kutbah (Friday prayer). Examples of these seminars can be found in Afghanistan, Jordan, Palestine, and Egypt, and have proven to be extremely cost effective.6 In the United States it is critical to ensure that the public is knowledgeable about water issues facing the Middle East. To confront this problem in advance, a model survey has been drafted and will serve the primary role of assessing community awareness of water related issues and the 4

(WaterCare 2004) (Gilli n.d.) 6 (Gilli n.d.) 5

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level of financial support that could plausibly be received. Critical limitations exist in that the creation of such an organization is still hypothetical, so it would be inaccurate to take a general or localized survey of America citizens support before the geographic location of the ‘headquarters’ has been established. Based on responses fundraising seminars and marketing strategies can be carried out to target communities with the most support and educate communities that have little knowledge on the subject.

Water Conservation in the Middle East Survey Please enter your zip code:___________ 1 (Negligible)
10 (Significant)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

In terms of percentage. How often do you consciously limit your water use? How important is water conservation to you?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

How important is international humanitarian issues to you?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

□Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No □Yes □No <$50 $50-$100

How much money do you annually donate to non-profit organizations?

$100-$150 >$150

□Yes □No

Would you be interested in supporting a non-profit organization that focuses on water conservation in the Middle East? If Yes, what ways would you like to help or what ideas do you have for our organization?

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Grey Water and Irrigation When it comes to irrigation in the Middle East no other nation has set the bar higher than Israel and its harnessing of drip irrigation. Managed and enhanced by sensors and computers, irrigation has become so efficient that the average water withdrawal is 189m³/p/yr contrasted with the average of other countries in the region at 648m³/p/yr. There are of course several factors that need to be equated into these findings, such as climate variability since Israel enjoys a relatively milder climate, and the amount of produce that Israel imports. Nevertheless, the climate and geography of the Middle East puts an enormous strain on agricultural production and all MENA nations are faced with overcoming these clear limitations. Implementing more efficient irrigation techniques is a challenge not only to the farmers, but also to the civilian populous as a whole. It is not feasable to expect every country to have the ability to install high tech irrigation systems similar to Israel and it would be equally ineffective for a micro non-profit organization to invest in such systems when more influential changes can be made with the people themselves. Therefore, a critical aspect to this is to educate farmers on

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appropriate irrigation techniques, but there is also a significant impact to be made from domestic water use in the form of recycling grey water. There are two kinds of wastewater generated domestically and they are commonly referred to as ‘grey’ and ‘black’ water. Grey water classifies the waste water that comes from sinks, dishwashers, laundry machines, and baths/showers. Black water, also known as sewage, is comprised of wastewater from toilets and garbage disposals that carry a high amount of waste. Black water cannot be effectively treated domestically, but grey water can be treated to a near potable level. Recycled grey water may not be good enough for drinking but does hold several other uses such as irrigation, washing, laundry, and toilet flushing.7 Grey water recycling is not a new concept in the Middle East. Organizations like the Inter Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management (Jordan), CARE International (Jordan), The Middle East Center for the Transfer of Appropriate Technologies (Lebanon), and The Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committee (Palestine) have been primarily working on grey water issues such as sanitation for years.8 Even in the United States there has been an increased push for installing grey water treatment systems in homes for less than $350. The effectiveness of grey water treatment is heavily dependent on what the consumer does with the water prior to it becoming wastewater. There are many different pretreatment methods, but for the purposes of this report we use as an example the methods 7 8

(WaterFiltering.com 2009) (Centre n.d.)

Figure 2 Anaerobic to aerobic pre-treatment www.waterwell.net

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of Aerobic Pre-Treatment and Anaerobic to Aerobic Pre-Treatment (Figure 2). Deciding between the two methods can be a critical part of the recycling process as Aerobic Pre-Treatment may only be suitable for wastewater from showers, hand washing and laundry, and Anaerobic to Aerobic Pre-Treatment is more appropriate for wastewater from kitchen sinks and dishwashers where water has a high food residue. Both Pre-Treatment methods rely on separating out the larger particles and letting bacteria naturally breakdown the wastewater. In the Aerobic PreTreatment system, larger particles are simply separated out. In the to Aerobic Pre-Treatment systems, the grey water passes through a staged septic tank that separates and breaks down the particles before it flows through a slow sand filter. This only works, though, if the consumer refrains from using bleach and detergents that destroy the bacteria needed. Once pre-treated the water can either go through a slow sand filter to become nearly potable water for use in washing or producing edible food, or the water can be used directly for landscaping purposes. The slow sand filter works off the principle of harvesting bacteria and microbes within the sand of a cylinder that the water naturally seeps through. In respect to grey water the byproduct is near potable, but the use of rainwater or freshwater sources can result in fully potable water. Ideally grey water recycling systems would serve to alleviate strains on municipal wastewater management and increase the water available for irrigation while also increasing the fresh water availability for drinking purposes. Take for example the water situation in Afghanistan; irrigation consumes 98% of the fresh water withdrawal leaving domestic use at 1.5% or 14m³/p/yr.9 Putting aside the obvious complication of rerouting the plumbing of an entire community to supply agricultural production, installment of grey water systems, assuming 9

(Gleick 2009)

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that they can recycle 50-80% of a households water, could increase the domestic consumption to 21-25m³/p/yr and alleviate freshwater consumption by local irrigation (see appendix for further information). This first requires that farmers are educated on the importance of proper water use for irrigation in order for domestic fresh water availability to increase. Irrigation management not only involves educating farmers on basic practices to optimize produce growth and promote general conservation awareness, but also how to take care of their irrigation systems. The model for which this paper is based on will provide basic maintenance to irrigation systems in order to help promote awareness and self-sufficiency. Awareness is key, as a study conducted in the early 1990’s concluded that after educating and training farmers in Egypt on basic farm management skills that irrigation efficiency could improve by as much as 30% with a mean improvement of 10-15%.10 According to some conversationalist, poor management of irrigation systems in the Middle East frequently amounts to at least 60% of the water withdrawn to be wasted before reaching crops.11 The main reasons for this holds true for any irrigation system and includes water seeping out of unlined irrigation canals, evaporation (while applied through high pressure sprinkler systems, in canals, or in the soil), and improper irrigation scheduling (most efficient irrigation is typically done during the coolest part of the day to prevent evaporation).12 Therefore education and training should consist of leak detection, installment of lining materials, low pressure irrigation systems, and proper irrigation scheduling depending on the crop. In helping to maintain irrigation systems this non-profit organization should be prepared to spend by the hectare (ha) and according to the size of the irrigation system. For large scale 10 11 12

(Xie, Kuffner and Le Moigne 1993) (Rached, Rathgeber and Brooks 1996, 59)

(Muir 2008)

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irrigation systems providing produce on a regional level new irrigation systems have been quoted at $10-20K/ha while repairing existing systems is forecasted at $1.5-2K/ha. For small scale irrigation systems providing produce on a local level the implementing of a new system is at $.51.5K/ha while the cost of repairing existing systems is little to none.13

Rain Catching and Runoff The Middle East claims the highest varying degree of precipitation in the world making any rainfall vital to the well-being of the region. Such little rainfall may be the reason why it makes up such a small percentage of the freshwater utilized, but to the same extent rain catching in itself is not commonly practiced in the region. In the most arid regions, a 15ft² area can catch enough rain water for a small family to use for drinking over the course of an entire year. Catchment of rain water can be approached in two different ways, either with a catchment system (i.e. gutter or a tarp) or through rechanneling runoff into a pool or a similar collection area. For the purpose of this report, both methods are rudimentary in practice but in order for the water to be properly treated it needs to be reasonably clean without a lot of dirt or soil contamination from runoff. In the process of developing this report it became clear that the utilization of a catchment system would provide its own challenges. In the United States catching rainwater has been simplified by the fact that most buildings have evenly sloped roofs and gutter systems that can effectively channel rainwater into a filtration system capable of making the water potable. In the

13

(Rached, Rathgeber and Brooks 1996, 61)

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Middle East, buildings have flat roofs, often uncompleted, and incorporate no real gutter system. As a result a catchment and gutter system needed to be devised. The Project The plan called for a square catchment area measuring 15ft² to be constructed with a tarp that would catch the rain and funnel the water into a pipe. The square design of the catchment

Figure 3 Conceptual plan of the rain catcher with a cross section of the slow sand filter and cistern.

would enable it to be constructed on top of buildings in the region wit withh a low profile. Once water had entered the pipe it would first enter a five gallon container that would separate the dust and particles caught in the runoff. The water would then flow into a slow sand filter to be biologically filtered. Once it had passed through the filter it would then be stored in cisterns until used. Construction of the project was incredibly promising. The catchment area was constructed in a half day with plywood, screws, and a tarp for around $1 $15. 5. The filter consisted of a 32gallon 32 trash can retrofitted with an entry and exit for a 1/2” pipe. Once the pipe for the filtered water had been installed in the base of the filter it was layered first with 5” of gravel, then 10” of coarse sand, and finally 15” of fine sand (play sand). Complete ete construction of the filter with the 25ft of ½” piping took less than half a day and cost around $20 making the entire system extremely affordable. Once constructed the system performed as intended and the slow sand filter discharged filtered water at around round 3 liters an hour. There were several limitations in the project, one being

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that no purchase of a hundred-gallon gallon cistern was made, which would have been the most expensive item possibly adding $100 to the entire project. Second, there were several design sign flaws such as the tarp being a poor material where if it is windy or snow fall may compromise the tensile strength. As a result of the windy conditions the tarp would either tear or dislodge the piping in a way to that the system did not work properly. Future designs will incorporate

Figure 4 Completed rain catcher with slow sand filter.

either sloped plastic or metal platforms that can resist wind and snow buildup while channeling water. There is also an inherent limitation to the slow sand filte filterr in that it takes a week for microbes to harvest before it can effectively filter water, so there was no way of determining whether the water was potable or not. Filtration Systems While the filtration of water methods was created to those that could be practiced racticed by the most remote villages without electricity or gas, the two methods selected from this are solar distillation and, as previously mentioned, slow sand filtration. Both are slow in their filtration process, but if harnessed correctly can provide another source of daily drinking water for a remarkably cheap price.

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Solar filtration is especially ideal in the Middle East due to the heat and intense sunshine received. Two primary ways to utilize solar filtration are either through a solar box (see Figure 5) or a solar still (see Figure 6). A solar box is nearly identical to a solar cooker with the interior of box painted black, the top side enclosed by glass and the use of tinfoil or mirrors to direct sunlight into the box. Filtration occurs in the box

Figure 5 Solar Box. Courtesy of: www.sunspot.org

when the water, placed in an open-faced container, reaches 150ºF allowing UV rays to pasteurize the water. Experiments with solar boxes have concluded that up to 17 gallons can be produced on sunny days using cookers no more expensive than $4.14 A solar still on the other hand

Figure 6 Solar Still. Courtesy of: www.thefoodguys.com

has the same dimensions as a dining room table, usually 3ft wide by 6ft long and works off the principle of evaporating water and capturing the condensation. Solar stills of the mentioned dimension can filter 3 gallons a day in the summer, but cost $200-$300.15 However, the benefits of a solar still compared to a solar box are that because the siphoned water has been evaporated it has been treated on a molecular level, leaving behind any harmful chemicals whereas the solar box is only effective at killing some bacteria. Another benefit to the solar still is its ability to treat brackish water (water that posses’ a degree of salinity less than sea water, but can be used to irrigate certain crops) for drinking purposes. Slow sand filtration is, in many ways, the method of choice for rural processing of potable water, but like the solar box it cannot treat chemically tainted water. Some designs have incorporated a layer of charcoal to help with the filtration of chemicals, but if not monitored 14 15

(Rolla 1998) (Rolla 1998)

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closely the charcoal can become a breeding ground for harmful bacteria. Slow sand filtration uses gravitational force to let the water naturally seep through the various layers of sand in the filter in order to allow the microbes living in the sand to attack any harmful bacteria in the water. On site in the Middle East, the sand and gravel from river beds can be used for the filter with the benefit of already having microbes in the soil. In constructing a slow sand filtration system the only specification is that there is at least 25” depth of sand that the water has to pass through. Water from

Figure 7 Slow Sand Filter. Type used in the rain catching project. Courtesy of: www.slowsandfilter.org

ground sources should be tested for chemical contamination prior to filtration, but otherwise, in contrast with solar filtration, slow sand filters can operate at all hours with a discharge rate of around 19 gallons per 24-hour day and result in a total cost of around $20. Periodic maintenance is required as the top layer of sand becomes slimy with microbes and needs to be scraped off every year or two.

Conclusion This report was initially created to offer a new approach towards water conservation in the Middle East; however, without a firm foundation or subject matter expert in water conservation the report inevitably reverted to the standard practices being utilized by other nonprofit organization. Several countries in the MENA posses’ high tech irrigation and waste water recycling systems for use locally that could be introduced on a much larger scale in the region; however, for the purposes of an action plan for a tentative non-profit organization it seems more

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appropriate to introduce techniques and systems that are within the means of the targeted people. Instead of attempting to implement a $10K high tech waste treatment system that would require trained professionals to fix and maintain, it was more prudent to focus on “Appropriate Technology” that the locals themselves could operate. Therefore, the report has identified key conservation systems and public awareness options that can be used when incorporated into the development of a non-profit organization. Awareness strategies have been identified either with reference to MWGWR WaterCare textbook or with educating through religious leaders, grey water recycling and irrigation management systems have been identified to help alleviate the strain on fresh water withdrawal from irrigation, and rain water catching and filtering processes have been developed to dramatically increase a household’s access to fresh water. The basic systems researched also ensured that water conservation is economically feasible and that many projects would not require more than $100. Water conservation in the Middle East will remain a vital subject for the next century with the unknown question of how regional governments are going to react to a growing demand for more water while the climate becomes less favorable. Optimists may argue that the Middle East has avoided conflict due to supplementing their grim supply by using “virtual water,” or water that is embodied in food imports such as wheat, fruits, and meats which can amount to a significant portion of water consumption. Skeptics would argue that water consumption gained by “virtual water” is negligible; having no direct effect on the overall issue of withdrawing water faster than it can naturally be renewed. Many Middle East and North Africa countries still only charge farmers an annual flat rate on water and do not charge extra for over withdrawal, putting little pressure on farmers to try and conserve the water used.

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Several limitations were reached in this report most of which dealt directly with the local government if any large-scale changes are to be made. One case of this is in rerouting the plumbing of an entire community to benefit irrigation that would require the involvement of the local government. Therefore, a non-profit organization founded on introducing water conservation strategies and techniques could function and affect change on a small scale by working on its own, but with the support of the local government its abilities would increase exponentially and could more effectively alleviate the strain on fresh water resources.

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information This appendix was created to serve as a general reference to determine of areas and regions that need to be focused on according to several different variables. For example, grey water and rain catching systems can be implemented in countries where urban and rural access to fresh water is low, and/or domestic use is critically low, and/or where average precipitation is conducive to effective rain catching (100mm annually, with the use of a 15ft² catchment area can yield 561 gallons, enough for two people to drink 3 liters a day).16 Determination of placing an emphasis on improved irrigation techniques is made on the bases of how reliant the country is on water withdrawal for irrigation use, and/or the strain on total renewable water, and/or the annual rate of population growth. Precipitation maps of the Precipitation Change 19512002 (%/yr) and the AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) have been included for general reference on where rain catching is most vital within a country. All information should be used as general guideline, since the methods of reporting data vary significantly between countries. Therefore, any determination made by the recorded data should be verified prior to action on the authors following assessments.

16

(Water 2009)

Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Notes: 1) Assessments made by the authors’ interpretation of the data available and researched conservation techniques. 2) Data for Agricultural Use, Domestic Use, and Total Use was obtained from Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009. 3) Date for Total Renewable Water and Average Precipitation was obtained from AQUASTAT online database. Organization, Food and Agriculture. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009). 4) Data for Annual Rate of Population Growth was obtained from the Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). 5) Data charts for Precipitation Change 1951-2002 (%/yr) and AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) were obtained from Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

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Bibliography Allan, Tony. "Watersheds and Problemsheds: Explaining the Absence of Armed Conflict Over Water in the Middle East." Middle East Review of International Affairs 2, no. 1 (March 1998). AQUASTAT online database. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009). Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). Gilli, Francesca. Islam Water Conservation and Public Awareness Campaigns. Venice: University of Ca’ Foscar. Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009. Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). Muir, Patricia. Irrigation Issues. November 25, 2008. http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/irrigati.htm (accessed December 5, 2009). Rached, Eglal, Eva Rathgeber, and David B. Brooks. Water Managment in Africa and the Middle East. Ottawa: International Development Researh Center, 1996. Rolla, Trudy C. "Sun and water: an overview of solar water treatment devices." Journal of Enviroment Health 60, no. 10 (1998): 30.

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Urban Poverty and Environment Program. International Development Research Center. http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/ (accessed December 05, 2009). Water Resouce Management in ME+A. The World Bank Group, 2008. Water, Lenntech. Rainfall calculator. 2009. http://www.lenntech.com/calculators/rain/rainfallprecipitation.htm (accessed December 5, 2009). WaterCare. WaterCare - Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources, 2004. WaterFiltering.com. Water Filtering - Water Filter Products. 2009. http://www.waterfiltering.com/ (accessed December 05, 2009). Xie, M., U. Kuffner, and G. Le Moigne. Using Water Efficiently. World Bank Technical Paper, Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1993.

Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Appendix A: Country Specific Information

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Notes: 1) Assessments made by the authors’ interpretation of the data available and researched conservation techniques. 2) Data for Agricultural Use, Domestic Use, and Total Use was obtained from Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009. 3) Date for Total Renewable Water and Average Precipitation was obtained from AQUASTAT online database. Organization, Food and Agriculture. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009). 4) Data for Annual Rate of Population Growth was obtained from the Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). 5) Data charts for Precipitation Change 1951-2002 (%/yr) and AVG Annual Precip 1951-2002 (mm) were obtained from Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009).

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Bibliography Allan, Tony. "Watersheds and Problemsheds: Explaining the Absence of Armed Conflict Over Water in the Middle East." Middle East Review of International Affairs 2, no. 1 (March 1998). AQUASTAT online database. Food and Agriculture Organization. 2008. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat (accessed December 5, 2009). Climate Wizard. Santa Clara University. 2007. http://www.climatewizard.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). Gilli, Francesca. Islam Water Conservation and Public Awareness Campaigns. Venice: University of Ca’ Foscar. Gleick, Peter. The World's Water. Washington: Islandpress, 2009. Human Development Report (HDR). United Nations Development Programme. 2009. http://hdr.undp.org/ (accessed December 5, 2009). Muir, Patricia. Irrigation Issues. November 25, 2008. http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/irrigati.htm (accessed December 5, 2009). Rached, Eglal, Eva Rathgeber, and David B. Brooks. Water Managment in Africa and the Middle East. Ottawa: International Development Researh Center, 1996. Rolla, Trudy C. "Sun and water: an overview of solar water treatment devices." Journal of Enviroment Health 60, no. 10 (1998): 30.

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Urban Poverty and Environment Program. International Development Research Center. http://www.idrc.ca/cfp/ (accessed December 05, 2009). Water Resouce Management in ME+A. The World Bank Group, 2008. Water, Lenntech. Rainfall calculator. 2009. http://www.lenntech.com/calculators/rain/rainfallprecipitation.htm (accessed December 5, 2009). WaterCare. WaterCare - Multilateral Working Group on Water Resources, 2004. WaterFiltering.com. Water Filtering - Water Filter Products. 2009. http://www.waterfiltering.com/ (accessed December 05, 2009). Xie, M., U. Kuffner, and G. Le Moigne. Using Water Efficiently. World Bank Technical Paper, Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1993.