Environmental Handbook. Documentation On Monitoring And Eval

Published by: Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) © Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Division 44: Environmental Management, Water, Energy, Transport Eschborn December 2000 Development of EIA Instruments Phone: (+49) 6196-79-1372 Fax: (+49) 6196-79-7144 E-mail: [email protected] Author: Jürgen Porst Technical supervision: Hermann Rump (KfW) (in overall charge), Roger Wolf (GTZ) Responsible: Burghard Rauschelbach

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Contents 1

Scope...................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Definition of used oil..................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Origination of used oils ................................................................................................................ 4

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Environmental impacts and protective measures................................................................................... 5 2.1 Used oils as an environmental problem....................................................................................... 5 2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and health................................................................................. 5 2.1.2 International conventions................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use................................................... 6 2.3 Collection of used oils .................................................................................................................. 7 2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany that can also be applied to developing countries.......................................................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries .................................................................. 8 2.3.3 General conditions in developing countries....................................................................... 9 2.4 Transport of used oils ................................................................................................................ 10 2.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handling in industrialised countries .......................................................................................................................... 10 2.4.2 Developing countries ....................................................................................................... 10 2.5 Reuse of used oils ..................................................................................................................... 10 2.5.1 The situation in industrialised countries........................................................................... 10 2.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries ................................................................................ 11 2.6 Disposal of used oils .................................................................................................................. 12 2.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing countries ............................ 12

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Notes on the analysis and evaluation of environmental impacts ......................................................... 14

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Interaction with other sectors................................................................................................................ 16

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Summary assessment of environmental relevance.............................................................................. 17

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References ........................................................................................................................................... 19

APPENDIX 1 ..................................................................................................................................... App. 1, 1 APPENDIX 2 ......................................................................................................................................App. 2, 1 APPENDIX 3 ......................................................................................................................................App. 3, 1

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Abbreviations AbfG AltölV BImSchG BImSchV BbodSchG GC-MS KrW-/AbfG PAH PCB

Waste Avoidance and Waste Management Act Used Oil Ordinance Federal Act on Air Pollution Control and Noise Abatement Federal Pollution Control Act – Implementing Ordinance Federal Soil Protection Act Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons Polychlorinated biphenyls

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1 SCOPE 1.1 Overview Used oil arises wherever work is carried out with oil and where it is put to use for a particular purpose: this means primarily in the lubrication and maintenance of engines, motors, machines and vehicles, but also when filling and emptying tanks or other facilities or structures containing oil, such as transformers, hydraulic equipment or ships’ hulls. Other sources are leaks from such facilities or structures, and during metalworking. Careful collection and at the same time strict separation according to the type of oil are the most important starting points for preventing problematical environmental impacts and negative effects on human health. Soil, groundwater and surface water, in particular, are endangered by the introduction of used oil, and along with these protected resources the health of the population is also put at risk. Moreover it is not only the hydrocarbons contained in the used oil which constitute a contamination risk, but much more so it is the toxic substances that they may contain, such as heavy metals or certain halogenated organic compounds.

1.2 Definition of used oil Because of the danger to the environment and health from inappropriate management of used oil and in view of the possible content of problematical foreign substances (such as heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or other halogen compounds), used oils require special handling. In the Federal Republic of Germany and in most industrialised countries, used oil is classed as hazardous waste. The collective term “used oil” includes used and contaminated mineral oils, oily residues from containers, emulsions, and water-oil mixtures. In the industrialised countries the term used oil tends to be defined more according to the disposal channel than according to the material composition. In contrast with the complicated legal context applicable in Germany (for further details refer to Appendix 1), in developing countries used oil, sometimes also referred to as “waste oil” or “oil waste”, is usually defined in simple terms: generally speaking, used or waste oils are used, semiliquid or liquid substances consisting entirely or partially of mineral oil or synthetic oils (PCBs, glycols, esters of phosphoric acid etc.). Accordingly, used oil is oil that has taken up foreign substances or impurities and can no longer be used for lubrication purposes. It may contain small quantities of toxic substances which are liable to degrade the quality of air, soil and groundwater if it is not handled and disposed of in an appropriate manner. It is not always the case that other residues that should be classified as used oil or drums/containers contaminated with used oil are recognised as such in developing countries and are handled and disposed of accordingly: ! Synthetic oils ! Used brake fluids ! Certain solvents, petroleum naphtha, white spirit ! Oil filters ! Contaminated containers ! Oily residues from receptacles Oil emulsions are stable mixtures of mineral oil and water obtained by the addition of emulsifying agents. Emulsions of this type are produced during metalworking, in particular. Drawing oils usually contain halogens, and cutting oils usually contain sulphur. Used oil-water mixtures occur for example as separation products in oil and

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petrol separators in refineries, tank farms, filling stations etc., or as bilge oils in the shipping industry, where they can cause problems when ships undergo overhaul in dockyards or if they are illegally dumped at sea. Synthetic oils and halogenated organic compounds such as cooling, hydraulic and electrical insulating oils are often toxic compounds.

1.3 Origination of used oils Used oil arises wherever fresh oil is put to use or consumed and where it is changed, stored, handled or disposed of. The most significant and, in terms of volume, largest proportion is used lubricating oil from internal combustion engines (petrol and diesel engines) in road transport and – especially in the case of island nations – in shipping, including oil collected in oil separators at filling stations. In comparison, residues of oils used in fixed locations (transformers, hydraulic installations, mechanical oils such as drilling and cutting oils) play a relatively minor role, but because of the important principle of separate collection they should not be neglected. In order to decide what is to be done with used oil, it is necessary to know the quantities arising in individual countries and regions and the sources of generation. The example in Appendix 2 is intended to illustrate what data is required in order to record the quantities of used oil arising so that an effective collection and disposal system can be devised. In developing countries, most of the used oil that is generated originates from lubricating oil in the transport sector; the quantities of hydraulic oil and transformer oil are relatively small. Agriculture (irrigation pumps etc.) and the energy sector (smallscale power stations with diesel engines) are the second most significant source. Most used oil arises in urban centres and along major roads at filling stations and motor vehicle repair shops, and in some cases also at do-it-yourself oil-change stations on major roads.

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2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES 2.1 Used oils as an environmental problem 2.1.1 Danger for soil, water, air and health If used oil is not disposed of properly, there is a risk that it and any other substances that it may contain will enter natural cycles and the food chain via water, soil and the air. In this way, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, PCBs and other halogen compounds sometimes contained in used oil pose a risk to human health and impede the growth of plants and their ability to take up water. As little as one litre of used oil, it is often said, contaminates one million litres of groundwater or surface water. This is because the concentration of oil in the water is then 1 ppm (part per million) or 1 microlitre per litre, a level that is seen as the upper limit that can still be considered tolerable. The quality of used oils is determined mainly, apart from their content of middle distillates and highly volatile components, by the treatment of lubricating oils with additives and the conditions under which the oils are used. Additives serve the purpose of improving viscosity or flow properties, for example, or of reducing wear. In connection with the question of additive treatment, the growing use of synthetic oils is a significant factor. ! The infiltration of oil into soil as a phase or in dissolved form constitutes above all a long-term threat to groundwater and hence potentially to drinking water quality. Both the biodegradation of oils in soil and the discharge of the substances into groundwater proceed very slowly.

2.1.2 International conventions The Basel Convention and the Montreal Protocol are both of significance in connection with used oil. Basel Convention: Since 1992, trade in hazardous waste has been regulated in the signatory countries to the Basel Convention1. Amongst other things the Convention advocates the elaboration of appropriate provisions and regulations on the management of hazardous waste as one of the most important preconditions for the cross-border movement of wastes, among them also used oil. As a result of numerous cases of no longer needed toxic substances and hazardous waste being exported from countries with strict regulations (usually industrialised countries) to countries with no statutory waste disposal regulations or with less strict laws, serious environmental and public health problems have repeatedly arisen in developing countries. As it is common practice in those countries, for example, for waste to be sorted into recoverable resources and residues by hand on the landfill sites by “waste scavengers”, there is a constant risk to health. The Convention governs the cross-border movement of such waste substances and obliges the signatory states to handle hazardous waste in an environmentally acceptable manner and to dispose of it accordingly. The most important principles are as follows: !

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In accordance with the requirement for environmentally acceptable handling, transboundary movements of hazardous waste are to be restricted to a minimum.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was adopted in 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992

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!

Hazardous waste should be treated and disposed of as close as possible to the place of its origin.

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The amounts of hazardous waste should be reduced and also minimised at source (avoidance principle).

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In order to achieve the objectives, the transboundary movement of hazardous waste is monitored and supervised, and unauthorised trafficking is prevented. The Convention supports environmentally acceptable hazardous waste management, promotes cooperation in this field and develops technical guidelines.

Montreal Protocol: The “Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer”2, adopted in 1987, relates to protection of the atmospheric ozone layer. The concern of the Protocol is to protect human health and the environment against detrimental effects that are caused by the emission of ozone-depleting substances, primarily certain halogenated hydrocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons). The discharge and production of these substances are regulated, as is the process of bringing them into circulation. Particular support is provided to developing countries in this respect. The Convention has an indirect connection with used oil: if used oil is mixed or contaminated with substances containing halogens and is incinerated, provision must be made for the emission of halogenated hydrocarbons to be reduced accordingly, or incineration should be avoided altogether.

2.2 Avoidance of used oils - substitute materials and areas of use Considerable environmental pollution is caused by engine oil being changed too frequently and by leaks from hydraulic systems. Even in the industrialised countries, the consumption of lubricants and the generation of used oil could be reduced by approximately 30 % within about 5 years through better maintenance and design of engines, gearboxes and machines. The consumption of fresh oil could be reduced if non-container-bound dispensing facilities, for example pumps with nozzles similar to those used for petrol pumps, were provided more often at filling stations instead of cans, because considerable residual amounts are left in the containers. Moreover, this would also allow more precise metering when replenishing the oil in vehicle engines. Much greater potential savings can be achieved solely by extending the oil change intervals for motor vehicles. Passenger cars can run for 30,000 km and trucks for up to 100,000 km with a single oil filling without damaging the engine. Oil changes at the specified regular, relatively closely spaced service intervals are often unnecessary when using high-quality oils – usually branded oils in high performance classes, which age only slowly. More attention can also be paid to reducing oil consumption in the development of new engines. Hundreds of thousands of tonnes of engine oil are burned in a country’s road traffic every year; the waste products from this together with those from the fuel and the exhaust gases are released into the air. Some of the oil that is used for cooling in metalworking also escapes into the air. The evaporation or atomisation of cooling lubricants such as these can be reduced by using better machine tools, lowemission oils and exhaust air filters. Unnecessary consumption of fresh oil occurs as a result of leaks from poorly maintained hydraulic systems (presses, lifting platforms, diggers, agricultural and road construction machines). Not inconsiderable quantities of hydraulic oils, which 2

“as adjusted and amended by the last Meeting of the Parties in Montreal, 15-17 September 1997; this entered into force on 4 June 1998”. Source: UNEP Internet Web page, December 1999

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often find their way into the soil, can be saved through improved maintenance and handling. Oil-smeared piping and equipment, but also empty containers that are disposed of without being cleaned, are a further source of contamination. A large amount of oil is also lost during the shredding or other forms of disposal of scrap vehicles, because until now the salvage operators have often not drained the engines. In the Federal Republic of Germany the proper draining of scrap vehicles is made mandatory by the Scrap Car Ordinance (Altautoverordnung), which has been in force since April 1, 1998. So-called once-through lubricants for chainsaws and for corrosion prevention, but also form oils, release agents or carrier oils for the application of crop pesticides should be replaced by quickly biodegradable alternatives. Such alternatives should also be sought for lubricants and hydraulic fluids of which part are produced from vegetable oils. Other measures in the fields of avoidance/reduction and reuse/recovery, applicable above all to companies, are listed in the following; they are implementable in developing countries within the framework of existing or specially initiated projects: !

! ! !

!

! !

! !

! !

Disclosure of deficiencies and strengths (positive starting points) through audits and the introduction of good housekeeping practices above all through personnel training Prevention of leaks, overflows and spills through appropriate training of staff and through the use of requisite equipment Use of dispensing equipment, catch pans, funnels and drip collectors Separate collection and avoidance of cross contamination of different waste streams; reduction of the contamination of used oil with foreign substances, in particular halogenated and other organic substances, heavy metals etc. Oil changes should not be carried out because a certain time interval has elapsed but only after true running times or when certain levels of contamination are reached Log books should be kept and other quality assurance measures introduced in order to prevent the accumulation of outdated oil products In addition to the reprocessing and heat-recovery incineration of used oils, other safe possibilities for their use should be found in the company: promotion of innovation Used oil can also be added to asphalt as a thinner or for plastification In the case of heat-recovery incineration of used oil, it is an important condition that the oil should contain no halogenated admixtures because they can be converted into toxic dioxins and furans in the course of combustion A service can be set up to ensure the safe disposal or cleaning of oily rags The correct methods of handling and disposing of fresh and used oil should be set out in simple work instructions which are put on show at the places of work

2.3 Collection of used oils 2.3.1 General conditions in the Federal Republic of Germany that can also be applied to developing countries Since 1986 the disposal of used oils has been carried out in accordance with the provisions of the legislation on waste management. Details are set out in the Altölverordnung (Used Oil Ordinance), which also remained in force after the Kreislaufwirtschafts- und Abfallgesetzes (Closed Substance Cycle and Waste

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Management Act) came into effect. The principles and regulations laid down in the Altölverordnung include in particular the following aspects which can be used as a model for setting up a used oil management scheme in developing countries: !

Determination of reprocessable used oils and of reprocessing procedures, with possibilities being left open for innovations in relation to materials recycling or in the event of higher pollutant loading

!

Stipulation of limit values for PCBs and total halogen and the methods of their determination in used oils, i.e. for substances which make reprocessing more difficult, which can accumulate in re-refined oils or which result in other impacts on the environment, for example relating to the law on ambient air protection

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Introduction of a labelling and take-back obligation in the distribution of oil for internal combustion engines and gear oils, according to the polluter-pays principle

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Priority given to materials recycling over disposal

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Obligation to set up used oil collection stations in the vicinity of sales outlets and places of use

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Prohibition of the admixture of foreign substances (e.g. oils containing PCBs, other hazardous wastes, solvents etc.)

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Establishment of facilities for carrying out oil changes at used oil collection stations

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Dovetailing of provisions pertaining to waste law and the law on ambient air protection by the authorisation of heat-recovery incineration of used oils, for example in high-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blast furnaces or melting chamber furnaces, and of materials recycling in refining or hydrogenation plants

The law on waste should ensure that ! recovery, ! collection and ! transportation to recycling or reprocessing plants is carried out under supervision (with full documentation) and in particular that there is no mixing of used oils with hazardous substances, which can be a considerable burden on the environment whether the oils are recycled or are used to generate energy.

2.3.2 Collection methods in industrialised countries Collecting receptacles: The following collecting receptacles are available on the European market for motor vehicle repair shops and filling stations for wastes that require particular monitoring: !

Receptacles for engine oil, gear oil and other used oils

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Receptacles for contaminated fuels (e.g. from tanks filled incorrectly)

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Receptacles for materials and equipment contaminated with grease and oil. The receptacles are not intended for the collection of oil filters, but among other things for cans, tubes, cartridges etc. with greasy or oily adhesions. Separate receptacles for containers with oily impurities are not necessary.

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Receptacles for coolants

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!

Receptacles for brake fluids

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Receptacles for starter batteries (lead-acid batteries)

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Receptacles for metal containers with harmful impurities (e.g. brake fluid, cleansing agents)

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Receptacles for plastic containers with harmful impurities (e.g. battery acid, paint residues)

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Receptacles for spray cans without the "Green Dot" environmental labelling mark

All receptacles and collection systems are generally licensed under traffic law, which for example allows the transport of wastes that require particular monitoring to recycling, reprocessing or incineration plants. Sites for collecting receptacles The collecting receptacles should be situated as close as possible to the place of work, the place where the waste is generated or the sales outlet. Short distances guarantee better sorting. Particular requirements apply to the sites for collecting receptacles. In order to prevent pollutants from being washed out when substances that are harmful to water or combustible substances are stored in the receptacles, and therefore from entering the sewer system or the soil, they are fitted with roofs and, depending on the type of waste, with catch pans.

2.3.3 General conditions in developing countries In most developing countries, used oil is classified as hazardous waste and must be disposed of accordingly. In the Philippines, for example, the reprocessing and recycling of used oil began as long ago as the Seventies, after the oil crisis. Companies collecting and recycling used oil operate in many developing countries; not all of these, though, operate to capacity and some have to import used oil for processing. In most cases, however, full data on the quantity and type of used oils arising or on their sources is just as unlikely to be available as a formal collection and reprocessing system. For used oil from motor vehicles, at least, complete data should be available. In many developing countries there are no regulated and monitored collection systems. If at all, used oil tends to be collected on a random basis and put to various uses, for example as two-stroke oil, as fuel, or for subsidiary lubrication purposes, etc. Otherwise excess used oil is disposed of in an uncontrolled manner (tipping). The sphere of hazardous waste is nowadays subject to statutory regulation in most developing countries. Although the types of hazardous waste are frequently defined and measures for handling and disposal are described, in most cases these are not specific enough to provide a useable basis to allow meaningful implementation. The legislation is therefore not always complete or problem-oriented, nor is it easy to enforce in practice. A significant shortcoming in many developing countries is the absence of collection systems and the lack of adequate treatment plants and disposal sites for hazardous wastes, in particular for wastes in liquid form. Another negative factor in many places is the lack of sophisticated analysis and measuring equipment for the trace constituents. The dissemination of information and the raising of awareness of the subject of used oil in industry (especially in small industries and microindustries) and as part of vocational training are indispensable prerequisites for future improvements.

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2.4 Transport of used oils 2.4.1 The Federal Republic of Germany as an example of handling in industrialised countries Full documentation in the form of a declaration of collection, disposal and recycling or reprocessing is governed by statutory regulation. Transport (collection) is carried out exclusively by approved and, usually, certificated specialist companies. These companies must: ! Examine the quality of the used oils provided ! Take reference samples in order to preserve evidence ! In some cases pump out the oil with vacuum tankers ! Perform the declaration analyses ! Fill in the waste consignment documents ! Subsequently forward the oils for appropriate disposal or recycling/reprocessing

2.4.2 Developing countries In developing countries there are regulations on the transport of dangerous goods and hazardous wastes in many places, but control and implementation tends to be deficient and used oil is rarely specified separately, with the effect that there are no manageable foundations in place. The shortcomings in the transport of used oil are the same as for the transport of other dangerous goods by road, rail or water: leakages occur, oil is lost during the filling or emptying of tanks or transfer from one to another, the vehicles and tanks are not safe enough, there is no labelling obligation and there is no documentation system (obligation to provide accompanying documents). In the event of accidents with oil (during transport, or when relatively large quantities escape from stores or from road tankers or tanker ships), extensive and speedy safety measures are necessary which are directed at protecting water resources and wells, as well as the soil and other biological media. It is also necessary to use oilbinding agents.

2.5 Reuse of used oils 2.5.1 The situation in industrialised countries It is not possible to reuse used oil without it first undergoing pretreatment or reprocessing. The reprocessing of used oils is only performed in large plants known as re-refineries, which recover materials from used oil. Re-refineries produce high-quality re-refined oils, which are used as engine oils, gear oils, hydraulic oils, gas oils and flux oils (for the bitumen industry). The introduction of quality management systems and the performance of regular environmental and certification audits in these plants ensures that the quality of the re-refined oils is constant and competitive. The technical steps involved in the reprocessing and disposal of used oil are listed in Appendix 3.

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2.5.2 Possibilities in developing countries In addition to the technical aspects mentioned above, two other substantive considerations are also important, namely the location at which the used oil is reprocessed in developing countries, and the purpose to which it is put. In principle the following applies: ! The shorter the time the used oils are stored, the simpler the reprocessing will be and the better the re-refined products. In the simplest case, oils can be fine-filtered directly at their place of use, and returned to the system. This also applies to petrol engines. A bypass filter system of this type removes solid particles, which results in an improvement in lubricating efficiency and reduces emulsification and oxidation, because these are catalysed by metal particles. However, filtration is not enough to be considered a complete recycling technology, because traces of water accumulate and bacterial degradation takes effect, especially during the intermediate storage of used oil. Mobile facilities for recycling used oil, equipped with a heat source, vacuum generator and a pressure filtration component are in operation in the USA. These facilities enable water and impurities to be removed from existing recirculation plants or from collected used oil and the lubricating oils to be reprocessed to a high level of quality. Better results are achieved in central plants with filtration and distillation stages and with chemical treatment. This, though, presupposes that there is a collection system, intermediate storage and transport. As already described above, larger plants allow the production of re-refined oils, the quality of which approaches that of fresh oil. Experience shows that the quality that consumers demand of re-refined used oil rises when the used oil is processed in full-scale re-refineries (off-site). If reprocessing is carried out in the company’s own plant (on-site), losses in quality tend more to be accepted. The processing of oil-water mixtures and emulsions follows the principle of the decentralised on-site facilities. The techniques for filtration and subsequent breaking of the emulsions must be adapted to the respective types of oil in each case, with centrifuges also being used. The isolated aqueous phase then has to be treated as wastewater. Reprocessing technologies are also available for used oils that become highly contaminated when used for their intended purpose, and even for those that are contaminated in other ways: there is then the possibility that these re-refined products can be used for lesser purposes than those of the original products. The classical case is crankcase lubricating oils, which are reprocessed as engine lubricating oil. These types of oils are exposed to the effects of flames and heat in internal combustion engines and to the influences of fuels and breakdown products as well as air pollutants that enter via the carburettor. Other types of oil such as hydraulic oil and turbine oil are subjected to far less stress, which is why they can be reprocessed at considerably lower cost. The precondition for this, however, is that the different types of oil from the various applications must be collected and kept strictly separately. The complications of separate collection and separate processing together with the complex reprocessing technology itself make it more difficult to use reprocessing in developing countries, and in addition to the frequent shortcomings in enforcement of the law these are the reason why used oil is more often incinerated there or simply used in two-stroke engines rather than being re-refined or processed in some other way, which would be technically more demanding.

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Regardless of the purpose for which used oil is reused, it replaces an equivalent amount of crude oil. There is no doubt that this assumption that a litre of used oil is equivalent to a litre of crude oil needs to be closely examined in each individual case, but as a rough guide it can be assumed that the cost of re-refining used oil is approximately the same as that of refining crude oil to lubricating oil or heating oil. If it is taken into consideration that during the re-refining of used oil up to a third of the quantity is lost due to process-related causes and that the expenditure of energy is higher than when used oil is pretreated for thermal treatment, in other words incineration, it is necessary to assess carefully which types of used oil are to be selected for reprocessing and which for energy recovery through incineration. It is essential therefore to perform economic analyses and ecological materials balances in each individual case.

2.6 Disposal of used oils 2.6.1 Routes to sustainable used oil management in developing countries In many developing countries it is necessary to work out systems to ensure the rational and environmentally friendly reprocessing and disposal of used oil, and the prerequisites for establishing such systems, or in places where a start has been made in this direction to examine what has been done so far and if necessary improve and optimise the systems. The following principles are indispensable in achieving this: !

Only used oils from internal combustion engines should be considered for reprocessing (re-refining, recycling).

!

The recovery of energy from used oil (incineration) may only be performed in suitable, licensed facilities.

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Contaminated, mixed used oil and used oil of unknown origin may only be disposed of in hazardous waste treatment plants.

The approach to be taken is as follows: ! !

Identify and estimate the sources, types and quantities of used oil arising Analyse and assess existing practices for the disposal and further use of used oil ! Identify collection and reprocessing companies for used oil ! Introduce improvements on the basis of the principles listed above: collection and transport system, reprocessing, thermal exploitation and hazardous waste treatment As much as possible of the volume of used oil originating solely from motor vehicle engines must be collected and kept separately from other used oils. The costs covering this work of collection and intermediate storage, including the costs of the actual technical reprocessing itself, must be sufficiently low that it is worth reselling the re-refined products, in other words at a lower price than fresh oil. In the Federal Republic of Germany, for example, according to estimates by the mineral oil industry the amount of used oil from do-it-yourself oil changing but with an unknown final destination was put at roughly 10,000 t per annum before the Used Oil Ordinance (AltölV) came into force in 1986. The reason for this was not only a lack of environmental awareness but also an ignorance of the requirements and possibilities of proper disposal among consumers and in the trade. Another factor was that some of the distributors, in particular hypermarkets and self-service outlets, did not take back used oils after use. Furthermore, used oils were often disposed of illegally,

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because people avoided travelling relatively long distances to collection points to save inconveniencing themselves. The same findings are also significant factors in developing countries, and the consequences derived from these should be used as the basis for proposed solutions, for example in accordance with the following criteria: ! Objective – exploitation of the original properties of the oil: materials recycling, re-refining to produce high-quality base oils. ! Objective – exploitation of the energy content of used oils for power generation: heat-recovery incineration. A broad range of possibilities are available. Various criteria can be used to distinguish between usage, for example between the use of pretreated used oils as a fuel on their own and their use as an admixture with specified fuels such as coke, oil or gas or other substances such as domestic-type refuse, hazardous wastes or sewage sludge. Further differentiation can be made according to the field of application for the used oil as a fuel, for example for electricity generation or heat generation in industrial processes such as the production of pig iron, asphalt, bricks or cement and the waste incineration or waste disposal procedures mentioned above. ! Objective – removal/disposal of used oils: this is generally carried out if used oils have become unusable as a consequence of contamination and/or admixtures, such that they cannot be put to any technical or economic use in any of the three above-named ways and therefore they have to be disposed of as waste. The possibilities range from controlled disposal in hazardous waste disposal plants to controlled dumping in a pure or chemically bonded form, in each case either on its own or as an admixture. The decision as to the way in which used oils are to be treated is determined by a large number of technological, economic and legal factors, which are all interrelated. A key role in determining the method for treating used oils is played by the matter of collection, which is generally to be considered as the crucial function within a used oil system, upon which all of the subsequent possibilities are dependent. The collected quantities determine the downstream technology for the used oil treatment methods: some technologies are not technically feasible unless certain minimum throughput volumes are reached, while others are only economic from certain volumes upwards. The interplay between technological, economic and legal criteria in the decision to choose a particular treatment option often does not allow a clear-cut choice to be made according to microeconomic considerations. For example, in particular the question of whether to re-refine or incinerate used oils must be discussed carefully between the authorities and the various groups and institutions involved in or interested in the matter before a decision is taken. In this connection it is worth noting that in countries with a relatively well-defined legal system relating to used oil – the Used Oil Ordinance in the Federal Republic of Germany is considered trend-setting in this respect – there is no clear position on this question. A range of macroeconomic and business management details are necessary for the decision-making process. Having as much reliable data as possible about the sectors in which fresh oil is consumed and used oil is generated is essential.

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3 NOTES ON THE ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS In addition to a range of ecotoxicological effects, even low concentrations of oil have a detrimental effect on the taste of drinking water, making it unpalatable. Purification is only possible at great expense. In this connection, in order to carry out a qualitative assessment of environmental damage and risks arising from seepage as a result of improper storage and disposal it is necessary to take account of a number of factors: ! Geological and hydrogeological site characteristics ! Sites and site conditions with regard to the recovery and treatment of drinking water, wastewater collection and wastewater treatment plants ! Drinking water protection measures (water protection zones, observance of limit values and other standards) and framework conditions relating to environment law ! Estimation of the potential hazards to groundwater and other risks As well as the analytical identification of environmental impacts, it is also important to perform analytical tests on the used oil itself. Crucial aspects include taking representative samples that are appropriate to the task in hand and examining samples in a test laboratory that has suitable equipment and staff. The following parameters should be analysed in order to determine the quality of the collected used oil: ! Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ! Total halogen ! Sulphur ! Water content ! Net calorific value ! Flash point ! Heavy metals, especially lead ! Phenols In addition to these parameters, tests are normally also performed on a random sample basis with the aid of GC-MS screenings3 to determine whether there is any content of middle distillates (light distillate oil and diesel), carburettor fuels or lubricating oils, or contamination by PAH4-containing tar oils and other organic additives or pollutants (such as cold cleaners, particularly in bilge oils). After appropriate preparation (extraction), environmental samples (soil, groundwater, surface water and drinking water) are investigated for their content of mineral oil hydrocarbons using a variety of methods: spectroscopy (UV/Vis, IR), chromatography and gravimetry. The atmosphere is an additional route of exposure in the emission of oil fumes. Air samples are only analysed for oil content in exceptional cases. In industrialised countries the maximum permissible concentrations of mineral oil hydrocarbons are of the following orders of magnitude:

3 4

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10 micrograms per litre of drinking water

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100 micrograms per litre of groundwater

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100 or 1000 milligrams per kilogram of air-dry soil

Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to provide an overview analysis Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

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The higher figure for soil indicates that remediation of the soil is necessary if it is exceeded. The remediation measures that come into consideration for contaminated soils are soil exchange or clean-up procedures. If the lower figure for soil is exceeded, more extensive investigations are required. The risks to the environment and health resulting from the storage, collection and transport of used oil are high, because of the potential for spills, leaks and accidents and other forms of contamination. Likewise there is a high risk associated with final storage in landfill sites or with processing (recycling or incineration). These negative consequences of protective measures make it essential that the control and regulatory mechanisms described above should be in place, enshrined in law. On the one hand used oil is a secondary resource which it is worth reprocessing, but at the same time it is also an environmentally hazardous substance, especially when it is not handled properly and is disposed of as waste. A preventive effect is therefore achieved through activities and programmes which are aimed at minimisation of use and improvement in handling, and which make it possible to arrange for safe disposal. Both of these lead to an improvement in conditions at the workplace in relation to the management of oil and used oil, provide greater health protection and relieve the burden on the environment.

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4 INTERACTION WITH OTHER SECTORS Environmentally damaging oil losses occur as a result of incorrect handling (spillage), or because of leaks, accidents, collisions and improper disposal. In the case of shipping and off-shore extraction it is seawaters that are affected, and in the case of the petrochemical industry and quite substantially in the motor vehicle and machine sector in addition to the protected resources of soil and groundwater it is in particular inland seas and oceans that are affected. ! ! ! ! !

Metalworking industry Petrochemical industry Power stations with fuel-powered generators, transforming stations Paint shops Scrap yards

The most important sector is the transport sector, in which the following are affected: ! Filling stations ! Motor vehicle repair shops ! Port operations ! Bus and taxi stations ! Airports In developing countries, motor vehicle repair shops, filling stations, transport companies and bus and coach businesses, industrial plants and power stations along with small diesel-powered power plants are the most important sources where used oil arises. Widely dispersed sources of used oil are often found in countries where oil changes are carried out privately on vehicles by the owners themselves. Examples of used oil arising in developing countries include: !

Lubricating oil from internal combustion engines (petrol engines, diesel engines and filters from those engines) ! Other lubricating oils from gearboxes, turbines or similar machinery without incineration processes ! Hydraulic oil ! Metalworking oils, oil-water mixtures, emulsions ! Cooling oils ! Transformer oil ! Oily wastewater ! Oily sludges In addition, residues from the petrochemical industry from the production of petrol and chemical products in oil refineries are also important because they are burned as bunker C fuel on merchant ships, in some cases mixed with used oils. The highly contaminated oil sludge remaining on the ships as a result of using this fuel is often disposed of illegally on the high seas, resulting in long-term pollution of the oceans.

Page 17

5 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL RELEVANCE In most developing countries the situation relating to the disposal of used oil is unsatisfactory. If oil is dumped on the ground after use, as is often the case, seepage occurs, after which layers of the soil and above all groundwater resources and drinking water wells may be contaminated. Because of the possible content of extremely toxic halogen compounds, this practice is hazardous to health. Small proportions of the used oil or in some cases also the entire arisings (depending on how the law is enforced or the economic situation) are collected and transported to resource recoverers, who mostly use it as a fuel without pretreatment or resell it. Positive approaches include heat-recovery incineration in cement works and lime kilns, where it is used as an additive to heating oil. A system of complete collection, broken down according to types of oil, together with a reduction of the quantities of oil used in all fields of application to a minimum reduces the risks to as great an extent as possible. Used oil from petrol engines can be reprocessed – although this is relatively complex technically – to produce high-quality lubricating oil or oil of lesser quality than the original products. It can be treated by thermal means, in other words incinerated, in that way exploiting its energy content, or it can be dealt with solely by disposal, in other words by safe final disposal. The possibilities of dealing with used oil should be examined in this order. Disposal is only to be considered if the two first-named options are not possible, or if the used oil is too highly contaminated with foreign substances (“adulterated”). Whichever of the three stated alternatives is chosen, used oil must be pretreated in a certain way and with different degrees of effort and expense. Roughly half of the fresh oil that is used is lost as a result of lubrication, oxidation processes and unavoidable leakages. The rest arises again as used oil. Since the enactment of the Used Oil Ordinance (Altölverordnung), in the Federal Republic of Germany two thirds of used oil is reprocessed (recycled) by re-refining and one third is used for energy generation. Through the recovery of oil filters from petrol engines, re-refinable used oil and steel scrap can be returned to the economic cycle. Good management of oil and used oil reduces environmental and health risks to a large extent and makes the greatest possible use of the energy content of the natural resource that is crude oil. Good management is taken to mean dealing with it responsibly and in an environmentally acceptable way. This includes: !

Storage, transport, use, treatment, handling and disposal

!

Minimising consumption

Used oil should never by disposed of simply by dumping: any contact with soil and water must be avoided whatever the circumstances. Disposal on waste landfill sites or in sewers and sewage treatment works is unacceptable. If no other disposal option is available, if need be it should be stored safely in the medium term. Safely means in closed, leak-proof receptacles and among other things protected against unauthorised access, roofed and provided with catch pans. In the medium term means for as long as necessary until one of the environmentally acceptable means of disposal described above can be made possible. The incineration of used oil must only be carried out in plants that are expressly suitable or approved for that purpose. The addition of used oil to liquid fuels in hightemperature furnaces is considered environmentally friendly. This includes the kilns used for cement manufacture, for example. These principles should be observed in all development projects in which used oil is generated. If for no other reason than the oil changes on vehicles with internal

Page 18

combustion engines, this amounts to a large number of projects. At the same time, the range of quantities and qualities of used oil generated in connection with development projects is very large. Consideration should be given to the management and treatment of used oil at an early stage, during the planning phase of development projects. Recommendations or regulations must be included in the project documentation. Staff who will be dealing with used oil should be given appropriate instructions or training and upgrading, and clear areas of responsibility should be established. The management of oil and used oil can easily be standardised by drawing up short Standard Operating Procedures and Work Instructions.

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6 REFERENCES Arner, Robert, "Safe recycling of used oils", BioCycle, 36:36-37, September 1995. Barry, Carol F., "New rules for used oil: a compliance guide for used oil handlers, "Environment Report-BNA 25(41):2015-2021, February 17, 1995. Basel Convention (1994): “Framework Document on the Preparation of Technical Guidelines for the Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Subject to the Basel Convention”. Document no. 94/005. Secretariat of the Basel Convention, Geneva. Batstone, R et al (ed) (1989): “The Safe Disposal of Hazardous Wastes - The Special Needs and Problems of Developing Countries”. World Bank Technical Paper Number 93 (3 Vols.) Washington DC. Beiring, Elizabeth A., "Used oil in the United States: Environmental impact, regulation, and management" Buffalo Law Review 41(1):157-205, Winter 1993. Bruening, John C., "Filters seek recycling niche," Recycling Today, 33(4):28-30, April 1995. CODE OF PRACTICE FOR USED OIL MANAGEMENT IN CANADA / Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Ottawa, August 1989. Report TS/WM-TRE006E. 61 p. Harrison, Charles, "The engineering aspects of a used oil recycling project," Waste Management 14(3-4):231-235, 1994. Finnish International Development Agency (FINNIDA) (1994): “Guidelines for the Management of Oil Wastes” IMO (1995): “Global Waste Survey - Final Report. DRAFT” International Maritime Organisation, London. Khawaja, Manzoor A. and Mohmoud M. Aban, "Characteristics of used lubricating oils, their environmental impact and survey of disposal methods," Environmental Management and Health, 7(1):23-32, 1996. Kim, Myung-Soo, Jong-Sic Hwang and Hyung-Rak Kim, "Re-refining of waste lube oils by vacuum distillation with petroleum atmospheric residuum," Journal of Environmental Science & Health, Part A: Environmental Science & Engineering, A32(4): 1013-1024, 1997. Land, Walter R., "Used oil management," presented at the 1980 NPRA Annual Meeting, March 23-25, 1980, New Orleans. National Petroleum Refiners Association, Washington, D.C., 1980. 19 p. AM-80-23. Peaslee, Kent D. and Darrell E. Roberts, II, "Characterization of used automotive oil filters for recycling," Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 19(2):81-91, 1997. Porst J: Waste Oil Recycling, in: GATE (No.3) 1990, p 27 Porst J: "Waste-Oil Management in Developing Countries", in: F. Arendt, M. Hinsenveld and W.J. van den Brink (eds.), Contaminated Soil '90, p 145-146, Dordrecht, Boston, London 1990 Shipley, Charles W. and Boyd Jamie Taylor, "Waste oil disposal problems," Pipeline & Gas Journal 9(9):31-34, January 1991. Siegel, Richard and Chester Skidd, "Case studies utilizing mobile on-site recycling of industrial oils for immediate reapplication," Journal of the Society of Tribologists & Lubrication Engineers, 51(9):767-770, September 1995. Troch, Filip, "Recycling of waste brake fluids," Industry and Environment 17(2):32-35, AprilJune 1994. UNEP (1992): “Hazardous Waste Policies and Strategies - A Training Manual” UNEP Industry and Environment Programme, Technical Report No.10. UNEP/IE, Paris. (Also in French and Spanish.)

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Umweltbundesamt (publisher): Ermittlung von Altölvermeidungspotentialen, UBA-TEXTE Nr. 16/97 Warren, Timothy J. and Scott Cohoon, "Changing our disposal habits: recycling used oil filters," Resource Recycling, 14(2):44,46-48,50,52,53, February 1995. WHO (1983): “Management of Hazardous Waste - Policy Guidelines and Code of Practice”. Regional Publications, European Series No.14. Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen. Wolfe, Paris R., "Economics of used oil recycling: still slippery," Resource Recycling 11(9):28,30,32-33,35-38,40, September 1992.

Appendix 1, Page 1

APPENDIX 1 According to § 42 of the Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act (KrW/AbfG), used oil is waste that requires special supervision. The management of used oil is regulated by the Used Oil Ordinance (AltölV)5. The wide-ranging term “used oil” fundamentally includes all liquid and semiliquid substances produced from mineral oil and originating from applications such as lubrication, driving, cooling, insulation or metalworking (drilling, cutting, grinding, drawing, loosening or greasing). In addition it also includes other oleaginous substances and synthetic hydrocarbons, for example on the basis of PCBs and halogen-containing substitute products, such as may be contained in transformers, capacitors and hydraulic equipment (§ 4 AltölV). The term used oil also covers a range of solvents, in particular white spirit, petroleum naphtha, cold cleaner and solvent mixtures. The term used oil as in § 5a Waste Avoidance and Waste Management Act (AbfG) encompasses – subject to further specification in accordance with the waste compendium (Appendix 2) – the following three categories, which are defined according to the way in which they can be used: (1) Used oils which are considered for reprocessing, depending on the starting product and place of generation. According to § 2 Clause 1 AltölV, these are used oils from internal combustion engines and gearboxes, and mineral machine oils, gear oils and hydraulic oils in which the limit values for PCBs and total halogen (§ 3 AltölV) are not exceeded. Other used oils may be reprocessed in individual cases if the pollutants contained in them are rendered harmless in the procedure used by means of conversion or separation (§ 2 Clause 2 AltölV). Whether reprocessing is permissible is dependent solely on the permit for operation of the plant concerned according to the law on ambient air protection. (2) Used oils which are supplied for energy generation in plants specially approved for that purpose within the meaning of § 4 of the Federal Pollution Control Act (BImSchG). Whether used oils can be exploited in this form is dependent solely on the permit according to the law on ambient air protection. The limit values specified in § 3 AltölV do not apply in this case. (3) Used oils which must be treated in hazardous waste disposal plants on account of their pollutant content (in particular PCBs and total halogen content) and which are not covered by (1) and (2). This also applies to used oils whose origin cannot be specified with certainty (admixture of foreign substances or suspicion thereof). In the Federal Republic of Germany the problem of environmental endangerment as a result of contamination in soil and groundwater has been regulated by the Federal Soil Protection Act (Bundesbodenschutzgesetz - BbodSchG) and the associated ordinances implemented at the national and Land level, specifically consolidated in the Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (Bundesbodenschutzverordnung – see Appendix 2) with specific test values for mineral oil hydrocarbons and PCBs. In connection with the clean-up of contaminated sites, in the Federal Republic of Germany the assessment of hazards in relation to the soil-groundwater pollutant path for the mineral oil hydrocarbon parameter is particularly important. The contamination of soil substance with mineral oil hydrocarbons is one of the most common causes of a high potential for environmental hazards affecting protected groundwater resources.

5

UB-Media Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Abfallrecht und Entsorgungspraxis [Law on Waste and Disposal Practice]; publ.: Prof. Dr. Peter M. Kunz

Appendix 1, Page 2

In addition, the health and industrial safety legislation aspects of dealing with used oils are regulated and defined in the 4th Implementing Ordinance of the Federal Pollution Control Act (4th. BImSchV) and in the general statutory regulations of the employers’ liability insurance associations (ZH1/708 skin protection in the broader sense). In this case used oils are classified in the group of skin-irritating working substances because of their skin-adherent properties. A variety of regulations on handling and safety have resulted from this6. For technological, ecological and also economic reasons the need is growing in the Federal Republic of Germany to carry out separate collection of used oils of various qualities and compositions, both for incineration and for re-refining.

6

A. Meyer-Falke, G. Leßwing, publ: Sicherheit und Gesundheit im Betrieb [Safety and Health at Work]; UB-Media Fachdatenbank 11/1999 Arbeitsschutz [Industrial Safety]

Appendix 2, Page 1

APPENDIX 2

Table 1: Number of registered motor vehicles according to type and region Private Philippines in total Metro Manila Cordillera Auton. Region Ilocos Cagayan Valley Central Luzon Southern Tagalog Bicol

Government Diplomatic services 2,030,705 51,160 3,070 909,411 12,873 2,904 20,764 1,273 0 80,195 2,072 6 40,290 2,817 0 208,095 3,216 144 223,378 3,111 0 38,678 2,093 6

Rented vehicles 493,103 127,311 8,856 37,015 29,944 66,766 70,023 19,791

Nontaxpayers 3,316 3,193 0 64 0 8 0 0

All types 2,581,354 1,055,692 30,893 119,352 73,051 278,229 296,512 60,568

Source: Land Transportation Office, Manila, 1998

Table 2: Number of registered motor vehicles according to region and annual trend National Capital Region TOTAL

1990 684,778 1,620,242

1991 721,776 1,715,366

1992 799,754 1,879,563

1993 901,312 2,125,115

1994 973,550 2,341,469

1995 1,055,692 2,581,354

Source: LTO Annual Statistical Reports, Manila, 1996

In order to estimate the quantities of used oil originating from the important sector of motor traffic on the basis of (by way of example) the motor vehicles registered in the conurbation of Manila – according to Table 2 roughly 1 million – it is assumed, for instance, that the oil in these vehicles is changed on average every 20,000 kilometres. Given an average annual mileage of 10,000 km and a quantity of 2.5 litres of oil, this results in a volume of 5 million litres or approximately 4,000 tonnes per year, from this sector alone. If roughly 50% of this is collected, some 2,000 tonnes per year needs to be reprocessed. This is of an order of magnitude in which the operation of an entire re-refining plant dedicated to this type of used oil begins to be worthwhile. Further information is required in order to establish the basis for economically sensible and ecologically effective used oil management in a developing country.

Appendix 3, Page 1

APPENDIX 3 Technical recycling: The individual processing steps in the large-scale reprocessing of used oils: !

Examination of the quality of the delivered batches, in particular for contamination with pollutants

!

Presorting and qualitative separation in the receiving tank store

!

Water separation by gravity

!

Chemical breaking of emulsion constituents

!

Separation of the remainder of the water by centrifugation and distillation

!

Thermal pretreatment (cracking of additive residues)

!

Refining with sulphur (separation of tar impurities)

!

Vacuum distillation for the recovery of lubricating oil fractions

!

Filtration of the lubricating oils with bleaching earth

!

Post-filtration of the lubricating oil and gas oil fractions in chamber filter presses

!

Mixing of the mineral oil fractions for adjusting required properties such as viscosity

!

Addition of additives for the production of top-specification industrial oils and engine oils

!

Waste gas purification: thermal afterburning of gaseous emissions

!

Wastewater treatment: separation of the oil phase in collection systems and secondary purification in boundary layer evaporators

Heat-recovery incineration: Plants in which used oils are used for energy recovery require a permit before they are built and enter operation. Heat-recovery incineration is possible in the following: !

High-temperature incineration plants such as cement works, blast furnaces or melting chamber furnaces

!

Refining plants

!

Hydrogenation plants