Environment And Development

E NVI RO N ME NT AND DE VE L O PM E NT O mk a r N Kou l

In trodu cti on Eve r s i nce t he i n d us t r i a l r evol u t i o n , m a n h a s soug h t t o a n d s ucceeded i n s h a r i n g t he u n i ve r se t o h i s own e n ds t h rou g h sci e nce a n d t ec h no logy. Yet , i nc r e as i n g l y t ec h nolo gy on wh i c h m a n k i n d ’s develop m e n t depe n ds h a s com e up a g a i ns t t he l aw of u nex pect ed co nseq ue nces . Adva nces i n h e a l t h c a r e h ave l e n gt he n ed l i fe s p a ns , l owe red i nf a n t m o r t a l i t y r a t e , a n d , t h u s a gg r av a t ed t he popul a t i o n p roble m . T h e us e of pes t i c i des h a s i nc r e ased t h e c rop yi el ds but pol l u t ed t h e wat e r sup pl i es . T h e i nve n t i o ns of a ut omobi les a n d a i r p l a n es h ave r evol u t i o n i s ed t r avel but su l l i ed t he a t m os p he r e . Fo r bet t e r or wo rse , m a n h a s r e ac h ed a poi n t i n h i s evol u t i o n whe re h e con t ro ls t he des t i n y of t h i s p r ecious r e pos i to ry of l i fe, t h i s p l a ne t . Fo r deca des ove ru t i l i z a t io n of n a t u r a l r esou r ces fo r t h e be nefi t of human popu l a t i o n h a s give n r i s e t o va r i ous p robl em s . G loba l wa r m i n g, u n p re di c ted weat h e r s , soi l m a l a d i es , u rba n con ges t i o n , ex t i n ct i o n of / or t h re a t to cou n t l ess s pecies of pl a n t s a n d a n i m a l s t h a t i m ba l a nce t he eco-sys t em a n d r es ul t i n pol l u t i o n of l a n d , wat e r a n d a i r. Now we u n de r s t a n d t h a t t h e ea r t h i s n ot a n i nfi n i t e r es e rvoi r of r esou r ces for m a n , whi c h woul d m ee t eve ry conceivable de m a n d wi t hou t l i m i t . T h e e nvi ro n m e n t i s m a de u p of a n i n t r i c a t e s et of biologi ca l , p hys ic a l a n d c he m i ca l r e a ct io ns t h a t m a ke up web of l i fe. E nv i ro n m e n t i n t h e p as t h a s bee n t re a t e d as a com mod i t y fo r t h e r e a l i s at i o n of socio–eco nom i c goa l s of a soci ety, to m ax i m i se t he wel l bei n g of i t s m em be r s , t h a t i s developm e n t . M ajo r develop m e n t s a r e a s soci a t ed wi t h some n e ga t i ve e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p act s . T h e p r ese n t s i t u a t io n h a s a r i s e n becaus e one object ive of developm e n t i s pu rs ued i g no r i n g t h e ot he r t h a t i s of e nvi ro n m e n t a l cons e rva t io n eve n t hou g h t h e ul t i m a t e pu r pose of bot h i s t h e s a t i sf act i o n of bas i c h u m a n n eeds , a n d e n h a n cem e n t of qu a l i ty of l ife. Fo r t he developi n g wor l d , t he sce n a r i o i s ve ry a dve r se . T h ey h ave to m ode r n i se i n a f r a gi l e a n d m a rgi n a l eco-sys te m s . A n i nc r e ase i n popul a t i o n , us e of i n a p p rop r i a t e t ec h no logi es i n t h e n a m e of develop me n t , a n d t he a dopt i o n of cons um p t i o n h abi t of i n d us t r i a l i sed n a t i o ns pl aces g r e a t bu r de n on t h e r esou rces of develop i n g wo rl d . G r a d u a l ly, t he i s s ues of e nvi ro n m e n t a n d develop me n t a re a d d res sed ope n ly. T he i n t e r r e l a t io ns h i p betwee n popu l a t io n , r esou rces , develop m e n t a n d e nvi ro n m e n t i s h i g h l i g h t ed . T h e concept of developm e n t wi t hou t des t r uct io n a n d p rot ect i n g ecosys t em s fo r p rovi d i n g base for ‘s us t a i n ab le develop m e n t ; i s val ued . I n a u n i que c r i s i s s i t u at i o n , developm e n t of eco nomy h a s to s t r i ke a h a r m o n ious bal a n ce wi t h g re a t e r soci al equi ty, i m p roved e nvi ro n m e n t a l a n d n a t u r a l r esou rce m a n a ge m e n t . T h i s r e qu i r es a n u n de rs t a n d i n g of t h e i n t e r r el a t io ns h i p betwee n r esou rce use a n d developm e n t , wh i c h woul d h el p t o des i gn a n d i m pl e m e n t cul t u r a l l y a n d ecologi c a l l y sou n d t ec h n i ques a n d t ec h nolo gi es .

Here we wi l l focus a t t e n t i o n o n t he c r i t i c a l com po ne n t s of t h e develop m e n t a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a n d t he a l t e r n a t i ve sol u t i o ns a n d t he s t r a t e gi es fo r t h e develop i n g cou n t r i es wi t h speci a l r efe r e n ce to In d i a . CURRE NT ISSUE S a.

Popul ati on

T h e wo rl d popu l a t i o n i s con t i n uous l y i nc re a s i n g but t he a m ou n t of n a t u r a l r esou rces wi t h whi c h t o sus t a i n t h i s popu l a t io n r e m a i ns co ns t a n t . Hi g h r a t es of popul a t i o n g rowt h e at i n t o s u rp l uses ava i l ab le for eco nom i c a n d soci a l developm e n t . b . Ag r i cu l tu re T h e wor l d p roduces mo r e food pe r h e ad of popu l a t io n tod ay t h a n eve r befo re i n h u m a n h i s t o ry. In 1 98 5, i t p rod uced n e a r l y 5 00 k g. Pe r h e a d of ce re a l s a n d root c rops t o m eet es ca l a t i n g dem a n d c aused by popul a t i o n g rowt h . Ye t mo r e t h a n 73 0 m i l l io ns peop le di d not eat e nou gh to h ave ful l y p rod uc t i ve wor ki n g l i ves . T h e re a r e p l aces whe re too l i t t l e i s g row n ; t he re a r e l a rge p l aces whe re l a rge n u mbe rs ca n not affor d to buy food. A nd t h e re a r e b roa d a r e as of t h e ea r t h , i n bot h i n dus t r i a l a n d LDC s , whe re i n c re as e i n food p rod uc t io n i s u n de r m i n i n g t he bas e for fut u r e p rod uc t io n . T h i s u n p r ecede n t ed g rowt h i n food p rod uc t io n h as bee n a c h i eved p a r t l y by a n ex t e n s io n of t h e p roduct io n bas e: l a rge r c ropped a r e as , mo re l ives tock, a n d mo r e fis h i n g vessel s . But m os t of i t i s d ue to a p h e no me n a l r i s e i n p rod uc t ivi ty. Popu l at i o n i nc re as e h ave m e a n t a decl i ne i n t he a r e a of c ropl a n d i n mos t of t he wor l d i n pe r cap i t a t e r m s a n d h e nce t he focus on i nc re a s i n g p roduct ivi t y t h ro ug h t h e g ree n r evol ut io n p ack a ge a n d subs i di es a n d ot he r i nce n t ives . Des pi t e t h i s i t h a s p roved fa r mo re difficu l t t o r a i se wo rl d a g r i cul t u r a l out p ut by a cons i s t e n t 3% a ye a r i n t h e m i d 8 0s t h a n i t was i n t h e m i d 5 0s . Mo reove r, p rod uc t io n r eco rds h ave been offset by t he a p pea r a n ce of l i n ked eco nom i c a n d ecologi c a l c r i s es . I n d us t r i a l i z ed cou n t r i es a r e fi n d i n g i t i n c r e as i n gl y difficu l t to m a n a ge t he i r s u r pl us food p roduct io n , t h e l i vel i hood bas e of m i l l io ns of poo r p roduce r s i n LDC s i s det e r i o r a t i n g a n d t h e r esou rce bas e for t he a g r i cu l t u re i s u n de r p res s u r e vi r t u a l ly eve ryw he r e. Bes i des , i n t e r- s t a t e p rod uc t ivi ty g a p i s a l so i nc r e as i n g . Di rec t o r i n d i r ect s ubs i d i es , whi c h n ow cove r vi r t u a l l y t h e e nt i r e food cycle h a s becom e ex t r em e ly expe ns ive . It h as become pol i t i ca l l y m o re a t t r ac t i ve a n d us u a l ly c he ape r t o ex po r t s u r p l us es - oft e n as food a i d r a t he r t h a n to s to re t he m . T h ese h e av i l y s ubs i di s ed s u r pl uses dep r ess t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r ke t p r i ces of com modi t i es a n d h ave c re a t ed seve re p roble m s fo r seve r a l LDC s whose eco nom i es a r e bas ed o n a g r i cu l t u re . No n - eme rge n cy food a i d a n d low p r i ced i m po r t s a l so keep down p r i ces r ece ived by t h i r d wor l d fa r m e rs a n d r ed uce t h e i n ce n t ive t o i m p rove do mes t i c food p rod uc t io n a n d d i scou r a ge t h e p rocess i n g of t h e a g r i cu l t u r a l com mod i t i es i n t h e p roduci n g cou n t r i es . As popul a t i o n p res s u r es a n d d i m i n i s h i n g fro n t i e rs of l a n d dem a n d a s h i ft of focus of p roduct ivi ty, t h e key i n g r ed i e n t s of t he g r ee n r evol u t i o n were evolved wh ic h i n cl uded ( i ) ge n et i c

m a n i p ul a t i o n of p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s (i i ) con t ro l of n u t r i e n t i n p u t wi t h fe r t i l i z e r ( i i i ) con t ro l of wate r av a i l abi l i t y wi t h i r r i ga t io n ( iv) pes t co n t rol wi t h pes t i ci des (v) cu l t iv at i o n t ec h n i ques on m ec h a n i z e d t i l l a ge a n d (vi ) developm e n t of a com pl ex societ a l i nf r as t r uct u re fo r t r a ns po r t , c ap i t a l , c re di t , m a r k et r es e a rc h et c. , t h ese h ave becom e i n s ep a r ab le developm e n t o ri e n t ed a g r i cu l t u re . But eac h h a s a t t e n d a n t d a n ge rs i n s to re for t h ei r ecologi ca l e nvi ro n m e n t . ( i ) HYVs of c rops a r e t h e p roduct s of h yb r i di s a t i o n a n d sel ect ive b reedi n g , m ee t i n g specifi c food q u al i t y r e qu i re m e n t s r es i s t a n t t o pes t s a n d wat e r s ho r t a ges . T h e p robl em s a r e Com p a re d to t r a d i t i o n a l va r i et i es , ( a ) t h ey ope r a t e wel l onl y i n s pecific opt i m a l co nd i t io ns , (b) a r e h i g h l y s us cept ibl e to d i se ases (c) i n c re as ed t re n d t owa r ds Mo nocul t u re favou r i n g t he A g r i – bus i n ess concept a s opposed to t he m i x ed fa r m i n g concept s , t he reby e nc h a n t i n g vul ne r ab i l i ty to fam i n e i n cas e of l a rge sca l e d rou g h t a n d b ri n g about t h e dep l et i o n of t he ge n et i c s t ick f rom wh ic h i r r ep l aceable base n a t u r a l select i o n occu rs . ( i i ) In t e n s i ve a g r i cu l t u re h a s to cope wi t h t he t as k of r e p l e n i s h i n g soi l n u t r i e n t o n r e gul a r wa r foot i n g. Bot h orga n i c a n d i no rg a n i c fe r t i l i z e rs a re a d ded to t h e soi l . Add i t i o n of n u t r i e n t s a l t s l ea ds to a n e t loss of h u m us from t h e soi l a n d t he m o re t he soi l low i n h u m us t he m o re t he i r s us cept ibi l i ty to wi n d a n d wat e r e ros io n . P recious topsoi l i s los t to t h e wor l d fa r m i n g a t t h e r a t e of 25 bi l l io n t o nes eve ry yea r, a n d i n In d i a about 2 5% - 3 0% of t he t ot al cu l t iv at ed l a n d . It i s a com p l et el y ex t r a ct i ve fa r m i n g t ec h nolo gy r a t h e r t h a n h a s clos ed r e ge n e r a t ive fa r m i n g. ( i i i ) Li m i t ed av a i l ab i l i t y of wate r h a s bee n a bi g co ns t r a i n t i n a g r i cu l t u re . 85 % of t he wat e r for a g r i c ul t u r e comes f rom r a i nf a l l a n d r e s t com es fro m i r r i g a t io n , wh i c h i s ex t r em e ly c api t a l , a n d e ne rgy i n t e ns ive . T he r e i s a s soci a t ed wat e r loss , wh i c h i s o nl y p a r t i a l ly r ecove r abl e , a n d wi t h e ac h r eus e t he q u al i t y of wat e r i s de g r a d ed . A r i d a n d sem i - a r i d l a n ds t h a t n ee d i r r i ga t i o n a r e mo re s us cept ibl e to l oss of soi l s t r uc t u re t h rou g h s al iv at i o n a n d wat e r – lo ggi n g. ( iv) Pes t i c i des t ec h nol ogy con t ro ls vecto rs of p l a n t d i se ases but i t h a s two m ajo r d r awb acks ( a ) pes t s h ave fou n d t o develop r es i s t a n ce to t he m effect ively a n d r e n de r i n g t he m us eless . He nce t he va r i et y a n d seve r i t y of pes t i nfes t a t io ns m u l t i ply. (b) T hey a r e poi so ns , wh ic h h ave h i g h soci a l a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l cos t s , wh i c h c a n eve n a m ou n t to k i l l i n g of no n t a rget orga n i s m s a s i t t r avel t h ro ug h t h e food c h a i n . W he r e no n - t a rget g roups of p re d a to r s or p a r a s i t es a r e des t royed t h e whol e ecologi c a l bal a n ce goes out of ge a r wi t h i n c r e m e n t a l cos ts . (v) Mec h a n i z a t io n t houg h t h ey m e a n g r a t e r s peed a n d effi cie ncy, lowe r vul ne r ab i l i ty to wea t h e r a n d pes t s a n d s t a n d a r d i s a t io n of fa r m i n g p rocedu res t h ey a l so e n t a i l excess ive r e l i a n ce o n foss i l fuel , di s p l acem e n t of l abou r, i n c r e as i n g fa r m s i ze a n d m a x i m i z i n g ca pi t a l p rofi t s a t t he expe ns e of c rop yiel ds m ay not ge l wi t h t he socio-econom i c fab r i c of l a n d d i s t r ibu t i o n i n LDC s a n d h e nce u n l iveable . (vi ) T h e cas h - c rop synd ro m e h a s do ne i t s bi t t owa r ds c r i p pl i n g food p roduct i o n . As food s upp ly i s so c r uci a l t o a n a t io n ’s s ubs i s t e nce a n d as a h e a l t hy e nvi ro n m e n t i s so esse n t i a l fo r h e a l t hy food p roduct io n , e nvi ro n m e n t a n d developm e n t s houl d wor k h a n d i n h a n d i n m eet i n g t he dem a n d s of food .

( a) FO RE S T E RY Soi l , wat e r a n d p l a n t s a r e t h e wor l d ’s g r e a t es t n a t u r a l r esou rces . Tod ay, fores t r y h a s as s u m ed co ns i de r abl e i m po r t a nce a n d i t i s u n de r s t ood t h a t fo res t s co ns t i t u t e a n i m po r t a n t ecologi ca l u n i t h avi n g vi t a l e nvi ro n m e n t a l s i g n i fi ca n ce. T h ey i nfl ue nce loca l a n d r e gi o n a l cl i m a t e , m a i n t a i n t he soi l m a n t l e , p u r i fy t he a i r, p r eve n t floodi n g o r r i ve r s , a n d h e l p i n e ns u r i n g a con t i n uous flow of cle a n wat e r. Sedi m e n t a t io n a n d s u rf ace r u n off a r e t h e by-p roduct s of fo res t des t r uct io n , whi c h r es ul t s i n c al a m i t i es l i ke soi l e ros io n , floods a n d d rou gh t s on a n u n p recede n t e d sca l e. T h e re i s l i t t l e doubt t h a t m a n y e nvi ro n m e n t s t h rou g hout t h e wo rl d h ave bee n r e n d e r ed ba r r e n a n d i n hos p i t abl e by ex ces s ive p res s u r es f rom t he a xes a n d c at t l e g r a z i n g. I n I n d i a , ove r- g r a z i n g a n d hyd roel ect r i c powe r develop m e n t sc he m es a re i nva d i n g t h e few n a t io n a l p a r k s a n d fo res t r es e rves , wh i c h s t i l l ex i s t . In t he Hi m a l aya n Mou n t a i n s , t he l a n ds c ape i s bei n g c a rved wi t h i n a n i n c h of i t s l ife to s uppo r t t he i nc r e as i n g h u m a n popul a t i o n . Ri g h t now we a re l os i n g fores t s a t t he r a t e of 1 .3 m i l l io n h ec t a res pe r ye a r. T h e i n d i ffe re nce towa r ds fores t ry s te m s from t h e fi rs t fores t pol icy (1 89 4) , wh ic h m a de fo res t ry subse rvi e n t t o a g r i cu l t u re , a n d a l so r e ga r ded i t a s a r eve nue -ge ne r a t i n g s ecto r. T h i s p h i losop hy u nfo r t u n a t e ly pe rs i s t s t o t h i s d ay. O ne s p h e r e a mo n g m a ny t h a t h a s bee n a dve rs el y affect ed i s ge ne t i c va r i abi l i ty. T h e re i s a g rowi n g sci e n t i fic cons e n s us t h a t s peci es a r e d i s a ppe a r i n g a t r a t es n eve r befo re wi t nes sed o n t he pl a n et . Nu m e rous s t ud i es docu me n t t h i s c r i s i s wi t h ex am p l es f rom t rop ic a l fo res t s , t e m pe r a t e fores t s , m a n g rove fo res t s , cor a l r eefs , s ava n n as , g r a s s l a n ds a n d a r i d zo nes . I n M ad a ga sc a r, from abou t m i d- ce n t u ry, a t l e as t 9 3% of t he o ri gi n a l p r i m a ry fo res t s h ave been el i m i n a t ed . T h e pl a n et i s a l so bei n g i m pove r i s he d by t h e l oss of r a ces a n d va r i e t i es wi t h i n s peci es . T h e r e m a i n i n g ge ne pool s of m ajo r c rop p l a n t s s uc h as m a i z e a n d r i ce a mou n t to on ly a fr ac t i o n of t he ge n et i c d ive r s i ty t h ey h a rbou red o nl y a few dec ades a go , even t hou g h t h e speci es t h e m se lves a r e a n yt h i n g but t h r e a t e n ed . Due t o t h e t h re a t t o t h e fores ted a r e a s , a l a rge n u mbe r of a n i m a l s t oo h ave ei t h e r va n i s he d o r a r e on t h e verge of ex t i n ct i o n . He re , bios p h e r e r es e rves h ave bee n a t t e m p t i n g to p l ay a n i m po r t a n t r o l e i n r eve r s i n g t he p rocess , t h e Ni l gi r i bios p he re r e se rve h avi n g ac h i eved cons i de r abl e s ucces s . Tr i b al l i fe i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n t e rwove n wi t h t h e fores t p at t e r n of t he co nce r ne d h abi t a t . Tr i ba l s depe n d on fo res ts fo r t h e m a n y n eces s i t i es of l i fe, s uc h a s food, wate r, fodde r, fi rewood a n d cons t r u ct io n m a t e r i a l s . Defores t a t i o n fo r pu r poses l i ke d a m cons t r u ct io n or p rovi s io n of r aw m a t e r i a l s for fo res t based i n d us t r i es , h as a dve rs el y affected t h i s r e l a t i o ns h i p , by m e a n s of d i s pl ace me n t of t r i ba l o r di s t u rba n ce of t h ei r l i fes t yles . However, t h e n ew fo res t pol icy ( 19 87) h a s kep t i n m i n d t h e l o n g- t e r m ecologi ca l secu r i ty of t r i ba l s as wel l as t h e whol e cou n t r y whi l e no t bei n g obl ivious to t h e p roduct i o n as pect s of m eet i n g n eeds of t he peop le a n d i n d us t r y fo r goods a n d se rvi ces . Bas i c al ly, affo res t a t io n a n d soci a l fo res t ry a r e m ovem e n t s t h a t a r e g a i n i n g g ro u n d , but t h e re a r e p roble ms t h a t go h a n d i n h a n d wi t h t h i s :

1 . W he n t rees a r e g row n i ns t e ad of c rops , t he r i pe n i n g pe r iod i nc r e ases g r e a t ly. As a r es ul t , peopl e a r e dep r ived of i m m edi a t e fuel , whi c h t hey ca n obt ai n i f t h ey g rew c rops . 2 . T h e types of p l a n t s t h a t a r e sel ect ed for affo res t a t i o n ca n c re a t e p robl em s , a s i n t h e case of euc al ypt us a n d p i n e . E uc a lyp t us abso rbs a l ot of wate r, t he r eby r e duc i n g t h e wate r con t e n t of t h e s u r ro u n d i n g l a n d . Today, fores t ry s houl d h ave two m ajo r go a l s : a . Lo n g t e r m ecologi c al secu r i t y t h rou g h co nse rv a t i o n of fo res t cove r a s a l so i t s r es to r a t i o n a n d b. S uppl y of goods a n d se rv ices t o t h e peopl e. T h i s i nvolves a combi n a t i o n of e nvi ro n m e n t i m pe r a t ives a n d p roduct i o n . (b ) IS SUE S IN INDUST RY I n d us t ry i s ce n t r a l to t he eco nom i cs of m ode r n societ i es a n d i n d i s pe n s abl e for g rowt h . It i s es se n t i a l to developi n g cou n t r i es t o wi de n t h ei r develop m e n t bas e a n d m ee t g rowi n g n eeds . M a ny es se n t i a l h u m a n n eeds c a n o nl y be m e t t h ro ug h goods a n d se rvi ces p rovi ded by i n dus t ry. T he p roduct i o n of food r e q ui r es i nc r e as i n g a mou n t s of A gro -c he m i c a l s a n d m ac h i ne ry. T h u s a l l n a t io ns r eq u i re a n d r i g h t l y a s pi r e to effi cie n t i n d us t r i a l bases t o m eet c h a n gi n g n eeds . I n d us t ry a n d i t s p roduct s h ave a n i m p act o n t h e n a t u r a l r esou rce bas e of civi l i z a t io n t h rou g h t h e e nt i r e cycle of r aw m a t e r i a l ex p lo r a t i o n a n d ex t r ac t i o n ; t r a n sfo r m a t i o n i n to p roduct s , e ne rgy cons um pt i o n , vas t ge ne r a t io n a n d t he use a n d t h e d i s pos al of p roduct s by t he co ns u m e r. T h ese i m p act s m ay be pos i t i ve, e n h a n ci n g t he q u al i t y of r esou rce o r ex te n di n g i t s us es , or t hey m ay be n e ga t i ve, as a r es ul t of p roces s a n d p rod uc t pol l ut i o n a n d of depl et io n or deg r a d a t i o n of r esou rces . T h e n e ga t i ve e nvi ro n m e n t i m p ac t of i n d us t r i a l a ct ivi t i es was i n i t i a l l y pe rce ived a s loc al i z e d p roble ms of a i r, wat e r a n d l a n d pol l u t i o n . I n d us t r i a l ex pa n s i o n fol lowi n g t h e wor l d wa r 11 took p l ace wi t hou t m uc h aw a re nes s of t h e e nvi ro n m e n t a n d brou gh t wi t h i t a r a p i d r i s e i n pol l ut i o n . T h ese p roble m s h ave a l so been fou n d i n m a ny p a r t s of t he t h i r d wo rl d as i n d us t r i a l g rowt h , u rba n i z a t io n a n d t he us e of a u t omobi l es s p re a d . Now i t i s becom i n g i n c re as i n gl y cle a r t h a t t he sou rces a n d c auses of pol l u t i o n i s fa r mo re d iffus ed com p l ex a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d t h e effect of pol l ut io n was wi des p r e ad , cu m u l a t ive a n d c h ro n i c . Pol l ut io n p roble m s , whi c h we re once loc al , a re n ow r e gio n a l o r eve n gl oba l i n sc al e . Co nt a m i n a t io n of soi l , g ro u n d wat e r by A g ro-c he m i ca l s i s wide n i n g a n d c he m i c a l pol l u t i o n h a s sp re a d to eve ry cor n e r of t he p l a ne t . T he i nc i de nce of m ajo r acci de n t s i nvolvi n g c he m i ca l h a s g rowt h . D is cove r i es of h a z a r dous was t e d i s pos al s i tes h ave d r aw n a t t e n t io n t o ot he r se r ious p robl em s . T h u s t he i n d us t r i a l i deology of i n c re as ed p roduct i o n a n d cons um pt i o n as a p a r a m et e r of develop m e n t wi l l h ave to be r evi s i t ed . T he t r a d e off of e nvi ro n m e n t a l goods a n d m a r k et goods wi l l h ave to be mo re opt i m a l l y i n cl i ne d t owa r ds e nvi ro n m e n t a l co nce r ns . ( c ) IS SUE S IN MI NI N G

M i n i n g i s seco n d to a g r i cu l t u re as wo rl d ’s ol des t m os t i m po r t a n t i n dus t ry. P r i m i t i ve soci et i es whe r e depe n ds on m i ne d p roduct s t o a ve ry l a rge ex te n t , a n ds t i m es p ro g res sed t h i s depe n de nce con t i n ued i n s i g n i fi ca n ce . E a r t h concea l s vas t r i c h es of m i n e r a l s a n d o res wh ic h p rovi des us wi t h goods r a n gi n g from fuel for ou r e ne rgy r eq u i re m e n t s , m et a l s fo r ou r e n gi n es a n d m ac h i nes , o res fo r ou r c hem i c al a n d fer t i l i se rs cl ay fo r ou r t abl ewa r e , r ocks a n d s to nes for ou r bui l d i n gs , br i d ges a n d d a m s , a n d gol d a n d d i a mo nds a n d p rec ious s to nes fo r jewel le ry. However, i n ge n e r a l , m i n i n g ac t i vi t i es a r e accom p a n i e d by a va r i e ty of e nvi ro n m e n t p roble m s . T he p rocess of e nvi ro n m e n t a l deg r a d i n g , whi c h s t a r t s wi t h t h e ex t r a ct io n of m i ne r a l s r es ul t i n g i n l a n d de g r a d a t io n s a n d a dd i t io n of pol l u t a n t s to a i r a n d wat e r, co nt i n ues as t h e m i n e r a l i s fu r t h e r p rocess ed a n d us ed. To m ee t t h e eve r- i nc r e as i n g s t a n d a r d s of l ivi n g , t h e dem a n d fo r r aw m a t e r i a l s keeps i nc r e as i n g a n d to m eet t h i s dem a n d , t h e s i z e of m i n i n g ope r a t io n s i n c r e as es p ropo r t io n a l ly. T h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p ac t s of m i n i n g ca n be cl as s i fied i n to five c at e go r i es (ii) Wat e r pol l ut io n occu r s i n two ways t h rou g h d i sc h a rge of a ci d m i n e wate r i n to s t re a m s a n d by a dd i n g t ox i c s ubs t a nces l i ke s ele n i u m , n i ckel , fluo r i n e , r a d i o-ac t i ve el em e n t s t o t h e wat e r bodi es . Lowe ri n g of wat e r t abl e i s a no t h e r p h e no me n a r es ul t i n g i n wate r pol l ut io n . (iii) A i r pol l ut io n occu rs i n two ways t h rou g h a dd i t io n of g as eous pol l ut a n t s t o t h e a t mos p h e r e a n d em i s s io n of d us t p a r t i cl es . Gas eous pol l ut a n t s c a n be SO 2 ; ox i des of n i t ro ge n a n d C O. Dus t p a r t i cl es a r e p roduced d u r i n g o re /co al h a n d i n g, bl as t i n g a n d t r a ns po r t a t io n . ( iv) Des pol i a t i o n of l a n d i s c aus ed by s ubs i de nce of l a n d d ue t o u n de rg rou n d m i n i n g a n d l a rge- sca l e excav at i o n , i n s u rf ace m i n i n g , wh i c h s p re a d o n l a rge a re a s t h e r eby m ak i n g t h e m u n us abl e. (v) Defo res t at i o n i n c ases whe re va l u able a r e bodies a re l oca t ed i n ei t h e r t h i c k fo res t s o r a dj ace n t to i t . In a d di t i o n , t h e s p re a d i n g of tox ic ove rbu rde n a n d dus t des t roys t h e veget a t i o n due to s l a g. (vi ) Noi se a n d g ro u n d vib r a t io n p robl em s : wi t h t h e i n t ro duct i o n of sop h i s t i c a t ed m a c h i n e r i es i n t o t he m i n i n g ope r a t i o n n oi s e pol l ut i o n h a s becom e a n a d ded e nvi ro n m e n t a l bu rde n . A l so, h e avy bl as t i n g h a s t o be r eso r t e d to i n t he l a rge ope n cas t m i nes . C a us i n g g rou n d vib r a t i o ns , wh i c h d a m a ge s t r uc t u res i n t h e vici n i ty. T h e i m po r t a n t ques t io n i s s hou l d develop m e n t a t as t ro no m i c a l e ne rgy a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l cos ts be i nc u r r ed i n orde r to fos t e r a h e i g h t e n ed l e gacy of was teful cons um pt i o n . ( a) T H E UR B AN C H AL L E N GE By t he t u r n of t he ce n t u ry, a l m os t h a l f t he wor l d wi l l l i ve i n u rba n a re a s – f rom s m a l l t ow n to h u ge m e ga ci t i es . T he wo rl d ’s econom i c sys t em i s i n c r e as i n gl y a n u rba n o ne , wi t h ove r l a pp i n g n e two rks of com m u n i c a t i o n p roduct i o n a n d t r a de . T h i s sys te m wi t h i t s flows of i nfo r m a t i o n e ne rgy, ca pi t a l , com m e rce a n d peop le p rovi des t he backbone fo r n a t io n a l develop m e n t . i n m a n y n a t io ns ce r t a i n ki n ds of i n d us t r i es a n d se rvi ce e n t e r p r i s es a r e n ow bei n g developed i n r u r a l a r e as . But wi t h h i g h q u a l i t y

i nf r as t r uct u re , t h ese a ct ivi t i es a r e p a r t of u rba n i n d us t r i a l sys t em . T h i s i s t h e ce n t u ry of u rb a n r evol u t i o n . In t h e 35 yea r s s i nce 1 956 , t h e u rb a n popul a t i o n h a s t r i pl e d, i n c re as i n g by 1 . 25 bi l l io n . I n t h e developed i t h a s doubled whi l e i n t h e u n de rdeveloped r e gi o n i t qu a d r up l ed . T h e re h a s bee n g rowt h of m eg a ci t i es whe re n e t i m m i g r a t io n i s a g re a t e r con t r i but o r t h a n n a t u r a l i n c r e as e i n t he popu l a t io n . T hou g h t he g rowt h r a t e of u rb a n popu l a t io n h a s bee n s lowi n g down f rom 5 . 2% i n t h e 19 50 ’s 3 . 4% i n t h e 10 80 ’s , t h e t h i r d wor l d ci tes wi l l a dd t h ree - q u a r t e rs bi l l io n by t he t u r n of t he ce n t u ry. To m a n a ge t h i s g a l lop i n g u rb a n popul a t i o n , t h e developi n g wor l d wi l l h ave to i nc re a se by 65% i t s c ap aci ty to m a n a ge i t s u rba n i nf r as t r uct u r e . A n d i n m a ny cou n t r i es t h i s m us t be a ccom p l i s he d u n de r co nd i t io ns g r e a t eco no m i c h a r d s h i p a n d u nce r t a i n t y. Few ci ty gove r n m e n t s i n t h e developi n g wor l d wi l l h ave t h e r esou rces a n d t h e t r a i n ed s t aff to p rovi de t he i r r a p i dl y g rowi n g popu l a t i o n wi t h t he l a n d , se rv ices a n d t h e faci l i t i es n eeded for a n a dequ a t e h u m a n l i fe; cl ea n wat e r, s a n i t a t i o n , sc hools , t r a n s po r t . T h e r es ul t i s m us h room i n g i l l ega l set t l e m e n t s wi t h p r i m i t i ve faci l i t i es ; i n c r e as ed ove rc rowdi n g; a n d r a m p a n t d i se ase l i n ked t o a n u n h e a l t hy e nvi ro n m e n t . I n m os t t h i r d wor l d ci t i es , t h e e no r m ous p res s u r e fo r s he l t e r a n d se rvi ces h a s fr ayed t he u rb a n fab r i c . Hous i n g, civi c bui l d i n gs , t r a n s po r t sys t em , wate r s upply, s a n i t a t io n a n d d r a i n a ge a re no t a dequ a t e . A g rowi n g n u m be r of t h e u rb a n poo r s uffe r f rom a h i g h i nc i de nce of di s eas e ( r es pi r a to ry or wat e r l i n ke d d i se ase) , m os t of whi c h a re e nvi ro n m e n t based a n d coul d be p r eve n t ed t h ro ug h r e l a t i vel y s m al l i nves t m e n t s . T h e u nco n t ro l l ed p hys i c al ex p a ns io n i n ci t i es h as a l so h a d se r i ous i m p l i c at i o ns for t h e econom y a n d t h e u rb a n e nvi ro n m e n t . It m a kes p rovis io ns for h ous i n g , ro a ds , a n d ot he r civi c act i vi t i es p ro h i bi t ively ex pe ns ive . Hap h a z a r d developm e n t a l so cons u m es l a n d a n d n a t u r a l l a n ds ca pe fo r u rb a n p a r k s a n d r ec r e a t i o n a re as . I n ge n e r a l u rba n g rowt h h as ofte n p receded t he es t abl i s h m e n t of a sol d , dive rs i fied eco no m i c bas e to s uppo r t t h i s bui l d up of h ous i n g , i nf r as t r uct u re a n d em ploym e n t . In m a n y p a l ces t h e p robl em s a re l i n ke d to i n a p p rop r i a t e p a t t e r n of i n d us t r i a l develop m e n t a n d t h e l ac k of cohe re n ce betwee n t he s t r a t e gi es fo r r u r a l a n d u rb a n developm e n t . T h e u n em pl oyed t h e el de r l y, a n d t h e r ac i a l a n d t he et h n i c m i no r i t i es ca n r e m a i n t r a p ped i n a downw a r d sp i r a l o r deg r a d a t i o n a n d pove r ty, a s job oppo r t u n i t i es a n d t h e you n ge r a n d t h e bet t e r- educ a t ed i n d ivi du a l s l e ave decl i n i n g n e i g hbou r hood. C i t y o r m u n i c i p a l gove r n m e n t s ofte n face a l e gacy of poo rl y des i gn ed a n d m a i n t a i n ed publ i c hous i n g, mou n t i n g cos t s a n d decl i n i n g t ax bas es . W hi l e mos t of t he d eveloped cou n t r i es h ave t h e m e a n s a n d r esou rces to t ack l e i n t e r − ci ty decay a n d t he i n t e r l i n ked econom i c decl i ne . Loca l a u t ho r i t i es h ave t h e pol i t i c a l powe r a n d c red ibi l i ty t o t a ke i n i t i a t ive a n d to as sess a n d dep loy r esou rces i n i n nov at i ve ways r efl ect i n g u n i que l oca l co nd i t io ns . T h e p r io r i ty give to col l ect ive good ove r p r iv a t e cons um pt i o n m ay a l so h ave i nc r e ased t he r e sou rces av a i l abl e fo r u rb a n develop m e n t .

I n developed cou n t r i es i n r ece n t yea rs publ ic opi n io n h a s pl ayed a c r i t i c al ro l e i n t he d r i ve t o i m p rove u rba n co nd i t i o ns . T h e combi n a t io n of a dv a n ced t ec h no logy a n d a developed i ns t i t u t io n a l i nf r as t r uct u re , s t ro n ge r eco no my gi ves pot e n t i a l fo r con t i n u i n g r ecove ry to t h e ci t i es i n t he i n d us t r i a l wo rl d . Howeve r develop i n g cou n t r i es a re no t i n t h e s am e s i t u a t i o n . T h ey h ave a m ajo r u rba n c r i s i s o n t h ei r h a n ds a n d h ave t o t ac kl e i t by r eo r i e n t i n g t h ei r eco nom i c developm e n t model s i n a m o re ecologi ca l sou nd m a n ne r. (b ) IS SUE S IN E NE R G Y E n e rgy i s n eces s a ry fo r d ai l y s u rviv al . Fu t u re develop m e n t s c r uci a l ly depe n d on i t s l o n g- t e r m av ai l abi l i t y i n i nc r e as i n g qu a n t i ty f rom sou rces t h a t a r e depe n d abl e, s a ge a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l l y sou n d . Today’s p r i m a ry sou rces of e ne rgy a r e m a i n l y n o n − r e new able− n a t u r a l ga s , oi l , coal a n d conve n t i o n a l n u cl e a r powe r. T he r e a r e a l so r e n ewabl e sou rces i nc l u di n g fal l i n g wat e r, geot he r m a l sou rces , sol a r, t i d a l , wi nd , wave as wel l a s h u m a n a n d a n i m a l m usc le powe r. I n t h eo ry, a l l t h e va r ious e ne rgy sou rces c a n con t r i but e to t h e e ne rgy m i x of t h e fut u re wor l d − wi de. But e ac h h a s i t ’s ow n eco nom i c , h e a l t h a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l cos ts − be nefi t s a n d r i s ks . S i nce de m a n d for e ne rgy i s i nc r e as i n g , t he e nvi ro n m e n t a l r i s ks a n d u n ce r t a i n i t i es of a h i g h - e ne rgy fut u re a r e qu i t e d i s t u rbi n g a n d give r i s e to seve r a l r es e rv a t i o ns . Som e of t h e m ajo r p robl em s , wh ic h m ay a r i se , a r e (vi i ) T h e se r i ous p robabi l i ty of cl i m a t i c c h a n ge ge n e r a t e d by t he g r ee n h ous e effect p roduced f rom t h e combus t i o n of t he foss i l fuels . (vi i i ) Urb a n i n d us t r i a l a i r pol l u t i o n ca us ed by a t mos p he r i c pol l u t a n t s f rom t he combus t i o n of foss i l fuel s . (ix) Aci d ifi ca t io n of e nvi ro n m e n t due to s ul p h u r − di − ox i de i n t he bl ack fores t . (x ) T h e r i s ks of n ucl e a r r e act o r acci de n t s a n d r a d i oac t ive r a i n , t he p roble ms of was t e d i s pos al a n d di s m a n t l i n g of r e act o rs aft e r t he i r se rvi ce l ife i s over, a n d t h e d a n ge r s of p rol ife r a t io n as soci at e d wi t h t h e us e of n uc l e a r e ne rgy. (x i ) Depl et io n of fo res t s a n d h e nce m ajo r p robl em a r i s i n g out of g rowi n g sc a r ci t y of fuel wood . C a n we h ave m i s pl aced t r us t i n u n cl e a n powe r ge n e r a t io n i n vas t q u a n t i t i es for us to t h row away n eed l es s ly t o dive rs ely affect a t mos p he r i c c he m i s t ry for ou r fut u re s u rv iva l? 2.8

IS SUE S IN WAT E R RES O URCE S M A NA GE M E NT

Wat e r r esou rces h ave s i nce t i m e i m m em o r i a l cove red a wide r a n ge of d ive r se uses , bot h cons um p t i ve a n d no n - cons um p t i ve. Qu a l i ty of wate r used i n a l l cou n t r i es fo r va r ious p u r pos es h ave been s t ea d i l y i n c re as i n g i n t he p as t . T h e two m ajo r c r i ses of t h e 1 970 ’s − food a n d e ne rgy− fu r t he r r e - em p h a s i s ed t he ro l e of wat e r con t rol i n econom i c a n d soci a l develop me n t . S i nce n e a r l y 8 0% of wat e r us ed on gl obal bas i s i s fo r a g r i cu l t u re , a n d i r r i g a t io n i s cons um pt i ve use of wat e r whe re as hyd roel ect r i c develop me n t i s n o n - cons um p t i ve , wat e r develop me n t p l a n a ccel e r a t ed i n 19 70 ’s .

To t h i s , i n r ece n t t i m es h ave bee n a d ded n ew uses n a m el y i n d us t r i a l , powe r, soi l cons e rv at i o n a n d fi s he ry. Bec ause l i ke a n y ot he r ki n d of develop me n t , wat e r r e sou rces develop m e n t m ay h ave a l ot of i n t e r r e l a t ed effect s sc al e . T he r e a r e , for ex a m p l e , ofte n p a r t i cu l a r l y s i g n if ic a n t a n d com p l ex i m p act s from t h e co ns t r uct io n of l a rge d a m s on h u m a n h e a l t h , h u m a n com m u n i t i es , eco− sys te m , fi s h l a n d a n d wi l d l i fe. Al l t h e effects on h u m a n l ife, a n d o n eco− sys te m s a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l p rocess es ge ne r a l ly, n eed t o be t ho rou gh l y u n de rs tood , a n d t he l o n g t e r m r e a l cos ts a n d be nefi t s of s uc h e nvi ro n m e n t a l a l t e r a t io n ca r eful ly wei gh ed . No as s es s m e n t of e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p act s of l a rge d a m s a n d l a rge- sc al e wat e r t r a n sfe r sys te m s h a s bee n do ne on t he fol lowi n g t h r ee a s pects . i ) P hys i c al sys te m − Wat e r qu a n t i t y: l evel , di s c h a rge , a n d veloci ty g rou n dw at e r l oss es . Wat e r qu a l i t y: sed i m e n t s , n u t r i e n t s , t u rb i di ty, s a l i n i t y a n d a l k i n i ty, wat e r lo ggi n g et c. La n d i m p l i c a t io n s : e ros io n , sed i m e n t a t i o n , s a l i n i ty, a l k i n i ty, . A t m os p h e r e: t e m pe r a t u r e , evapot r a n s p i r a t io n , c h a n ges i n m i c ro a n d m ac rocl i m a t e. i i ) Biologi ca l sys t em Aq u at i c : ben t hos , z oopl a n k to n , fi s h a n d a qu a t i c ve rt eb r a t es , p l a n t s , di s eas e vecto rs . La n d based: a n i m a l s , veget a t i o n a n d l os s of h ab i t a t s i i i ) Socio− eco no m i c sys te m : P roduc t i o n , a g r i cu l t u re , a q u acu l t u re , h yd ropowe r t r a n s po r t a t io n ( i r r i g a t io n ) , m a n uf ac t u r i n g , r ec re a t i o n , m i n i n g etc i v) Socio− cul t u r a l Soci a l cos t s i n cl ud i n g r es et t l em e n t of t he peopl e i nf r a s t r uc t u r a l develop m e n t s , a n t h r opolo gi c al effect s , and pol i t i c a l i m pl i c a t io ns . Hence, to t ac kl e a l l so rt s of p robl em s a n d a s sess i n g cos t benefi t r a t io of s uc h wat e r r esou rces u t i l i s a t io n p rojects , we a r e p l aced i n h ot t i m e to devi se effi cie n t m a n a gem e n t of wate r r esou r ces a n d fo r m u l a t e a l t e r n a t i ve s t r a t e gi es fo r opt i m u m ut i l i s a t i o n wi t hou t fu r t he r caus i n g d a m a ges to t he e nvi ro n m e n t . ( a)

ISS UES IN PE ACE , SE CURI T Y, DE VE L O PME NT AND THE E NVI RO N ME NT A mo n g t he d a n ge rs faci n g t h e e nvi ro n m e n t , t h e poss ibi l i ty of n uc l ea r wa r, or m i l i t a r y confl i c t of l ess e r sc al e i nvolvi n g weapo ns of m as s des t r uct io n , i s u n doubted ly t h e g r aves t . C e r t a i n as pect s of t h e i s s ues of pe ace a n d secu r i ty bea r d i r ect l y u po n t h e concept of s us t ai n abl e developm e n t . I n d eed , t hey a r e ce n t r a l to i t . E nv i ro n m e n t a l s t res ses a r e bot h a caus e a n d effect of pol i t i c a l t e ns i o n a n d m i l i t a r y confl i ct . N a t i o ns h ave ofte n foug h t t o a s se r t o r r e s i s t con t ro l ove r r aw m a t e r i a l s , e ne rgy s upp l i es , l a n d , r i ve r bas i ns se a p as s a ges a n d ot he r key e nvi ro n m e n t a l r esou rces . Suc h co nfl i ct s a re l i kel y to i n c re as e a s t h ese r esou rces becom e sca rce r a n d com pet i t i o n fo r t h e m i nc r e ases . T h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l cons eque n ce of a r m ed confl i ct s woul d be m os t devas t a t i n g i n t he c ase of t h e r m o − n u cl e a r wa r. But eve n whe r e wa r i s p reve n t e d a n d whe re confl i c t i s con t a i n ed , s t a t e of

peace m i g h t wel l e n t a i l t h e d ive rs io n i n to a r m a m e n t p roduct io n of vas t r esou rces t h a t coul d a t l eas t i n p a r t be us ed to p ro mote s us t a i n abl e fo r m s of develop m e n t . T h e l i n k a ges a m o n g e nvi ro n m e n t , developm e n t , a n d co nfl i ct s a r e com pl ex a n d , i n m a ny c as e, poo r ly u n de rs tood . But a com p r e h e n s i ve a p p roac h t o n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l s ecu r i t y m us t t r a n s ce n d t he t r a d i t i o n a l em p h a s i s o n m i l i t a ry powe r a n d a r m ed com pet i t i o n . A r m s com pet i t io n a n d a r m ed co nfl i ct c re a t e m ajo r obs t ac les to s us t a i n abl e develop me n t . T hey m a ke h u ge cl a i m s on sc a rce m a t e r i a l r esou rces . T hey p rom pt h u m a n r esou rces a n d wea l t h t h a t coul d be used t o comba t t h e col l aps e of e nvi ro n m e n t a l s uppo r t sys te m s , pove r ty, a n d t h e u n de r develop m e n t t h a t i n combi n a t i o n co nt r ibu t e so m uc h to con t em po r a ry pol i t i c al i ns ecu r i t y. T hey m ay s t i m u l a t e a n et hos t h a t i s a n t a go n i s t i c t owa r ds coope r a t io n a mo n g n a t i o ns whose ecologi c a l a n d econom i c i n t e r depe n de nce r eq u i res t h e m to overcom e n a t io n a l o r i deologi c a l a n t i p a t h i es . By m i s di r ect i n g sca r ce r esou r ces , a r m s r a ces co nt r ibu t e fu r t h e r to i ns ecu r i ty. T h e d i s to r t i n g effect s of t h e a r m s cul t u re a re mos t s t r i k i n g i n t he dep loyme n t of scie n t ifi c pe rso n ne l . Hal f a m i l l io n sci e n t i s t s a r e em p loyed on weapo ns r es e a rc h wo rl dwi de a n d t hey a ccou n t fo r a rou n d h a l f of a l l r e se a rc h a n d developm e n t ex pe n d i t u r es . T h i s exceeds t h e tot a l combi ned s pe n d i n g on developi n g t ec h nolo gi es for p roduct ivi ty a n d con t ro l l i n g pol l ut io n . M i l i t a ry r es e a rc h a n d develop m e n t cos t was $ 7 0 − 80b wo rl dwi de i n 198 4 − i s g rowi n g a t twi ce t h e r a t e of m i l i t a ry s pe nd i n g as a whol e. A t t he s a m e t i m e, t he r e i s a p auc i t y of r esou rces ava i l abl e for m o n i to r i n g globa l cl i m a t i c c h a n ge fo r su rveyi n g t he ecosys t em s of d i s ap pea r i n g r a i nfo res t s a n d s p re a d i n g dese r t s a n d for develop i n g a g r i cu l t u r a l t ec h no logi es a p p rop r i a t e t o r a i nfed t rop ic a l a g r i cu l t u re . T h e s i t u a t io n i n m a n y developi n g cou n t r i es p r ese n t s p a r t i cu l a r d a n ge rs i n t h e co nt ex t of e nvi ro n m e n t a l a n d pove r ty i n d uced s t res ses . La rge sc al e moveme n t s of r efu gees , com pe t i t i o n for sc a r ce wate r a n d fer t i l e l a n ds , depos i t s of r aw m a t e r i a l s a n d oi l , i l l − defi ned bou nd a r i es a n d so on a l l a dd t o t e n s io n s a n d i nc r e ase pos s ibi l i t i es for confl i c t . T he i m po r t a t io n of a r m a m e n t s by developi n g cou n t r i es h a s i n c r e as ed a l so beca use of t h ese r e a l or pot e n t i a l co nfl i ct s . 2. 10

T RANS PO RT AND E NVI RO N ME NT

I n t h e p rocess of h u m a n evol ut io n , r a p i d t r a n s po r t a t io n i s t ake n a s a n i n dex of develop me n t . It s i g n i fi es access ibi l i ty, bet t e r d i s t r ibu t i o n of goods a n d se rvi ces , h i g h e r q u a n t u m of com m e r ce & t r a de . T h e d iffe re n t modes of t r a ns po r t a t io n vi z ro a dways , r a i lw ays , i n l a n d wat e rways , a i rw ays , pi pel i n es h ave d iffe re n t i m p act on e nvi ro n m e n t . Fo r t u n a t el y o r u nfo r t u n a t e ly, t h e t r a ns po r t secto r i n I n d i a i s s t i l l a g rowi n g baby. Hence a p a r t from ro a d t r a n s po r t t he i r e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p ac t i s n e gl i gibl e. T he r efo re we a l so h ave a bet te r c h a n ce of pl a n n i n g a n d des i g n i n g i t i n a n ecologi ca l l y – wise fas h io n . I n ge n e r a l d i scus s io ns , e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p ac t of t r a n s po r t i s equ a t ed to pol l ut io n from ve h i cl es . In r e a l i t y t h e effect i s m u l t i pl ex a n d wide r.

I n t he I n d i a n co nt ex t , t r a n s po r t a t io n h i g h l i g h t s t he d u al i s m of ou r cou n t ry. I n r u r a l I n d i a bul lock ca r t s , bicycl es a n d a t m os t a few powe red ve h i cl es ex is t s . I n u rba n I n d i a a wi de r va r i et y i s vis ible . T he m ajo ri t y h e r e a l so depe nds o n wal k i n g bicycles a n d p ubl i c t r a n s po r t . T h e d i s t u rbi n g conc l us io n i s t h a t o n a ccou n t of t he r e i m m obi l i ty, l a rge sect io ns of ou r popu l a t io n i s u n ab le t o p a r t i ci p a t e m e a n i n gful ly i n developm e n t a l effor t s . So on i n h a n d , we n eed t o i m p rove t r a n s po r t a t i o n faci l i t i es for t h e u n de r p r iv i l e ged a n d on t h e ot he r h a n d , suc h faci l i t i es h ave to be r e l eva n t to t h e n eeds of t he peop le a n d no n - pol l ut i n g a t t h e s am e t i m e. A t t he s a m e t i m e, i t i s fel t t h a t t h e p res e n t r o ad t r a n s po r t ex ceeds ou r n ee d. At l e as t a q u a r t e r of i t coul d be m a de r e du n d a n t if t h e p r i nc i pl e of loc al i s m i s a d h e r ed to wi t h m e rc h a n d i s e on a s m a l l e r sca l e a n d n e a re r t o t he pl ace i t h a s to be sol d . E nv i ro n m e n t a l effect s of t r a n s po r t a t io n a r eLa n ds ca pe A n d Aes t he t i cs - i n c re as ed a m ou n t of r a i l t r ac ks , t oa d, a i r a n d bus t e r m i n i ca l l for a d d i t i o n a l l a n d . A l so p l ace for j u nkya r d s , t yre s hops , etc h a s to be fou nd , a t a r m a c ju n gl e i s em e rgi n g. T h e n eed i s to p r ese rve n a t u r a l l a n d sc ape a n d h i s t o r i c l a n d m a r ks . Soi l E ros io n - s to r m wate r d r a i n a ge , p reve n t i o n of r u n - offs i s a l so r e q ui r ed . T h ese h ave r es u l t ed f rom i nc re a sed t r a n s po r t t oo. Eco-sys t em – veh i cu l a r em i ss io n s a s ca rbo n m o nox i de , su l p h u r d iox i de , be nz opyre n e , l ea d ox i de et c h ave di s as t rous effect s on a q u a t i c as wel l a s t e r res t r i a l l i fe. S mog, GR EE NHOUS E E FF E C T, AC ID RAIN etc c a n a l l be t r aced to i t . Socio- E co no m i c As pect s i nvolves t h e ques t io n of r e h ab i l i t a t io n . Qu a l i ty of A i r a n d Wat e r – i s affected by pol l ut i n g fuel s . E n e rgy Co ns u m p t io n – depe n ds on p rovi d i n g e ne rgy effi cie n t m e a n s of t r a n s po r t . Noi se a n d Vib r a t io ns – i n I n d i a i t exceeds 90 decibel es peci a l ly i n t he m o r n i n g a n d eve n i n g . T he WHO s t a n d a r d fo r aci t y i s 45 decibel o nly. T h i s l e a ds t o s eve re h e a l t h p robl em s . (xi i )

E NVI RO N ME NTA L ALT E RNAT I VE S T RAT E GI E S

M ANA G E M E NT

AND

T h e over ut i l i s a t io n of n a t u r a l r esou rces fo r t h e benefi t of a g rowi n g human popul a t i o n and conc u r re n t apathy to e nvi ro n m e n t a l r e ge ne r a t io n a n d co nse rv a t i o n h ave begu n t o boome r a n g on t he wor l d popu l a t io n . A n eve r- i nc r e as i n g popu l a t i o n wi t h a s pi r a t i o n fo r a bet t e r qu a l i t y of l ife i s p l aci n g t r em e n dous s t res s on a l l t h a t t he e nvi ro n m e n t ca n p rovi de. Evi de n ce of t hes e p he no m e n a c a n be see n i n t he s p re ad of des e r t if ic a t i o n , soi l m a l a d i es , flood a n d d roug h t , u rb a n con ges t io n , ex t e ns io n of/o r t h r e a t t o cou n t l ess s pecies of p l a n t s . Eve n so, a l l i s n ot l os t a n d t he i m pe n d i n g doom c a n be ave r t e d i f r efo r m ed a p p roac h to r esou r ce co ns u m p t io n i s a dopt ed . T h e ce n t r a l t h e m e of e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a gem e n t i s t h us t he r e duc t i o n o r m i n i m i s a t io n of t h e i m p a ct of h u m a n ac t i vi t i es on t he p hys i c a l a n d ecologi ca l e nvi ro n m e n t . It i s a n e nde avou r to avoi d t he ove r use , m i s us e a n d abus e of t h e r esou rces i n t h e e nvi ro n m e n t . I n o rde r to m a n a ge t he e nvi ro n m e n t i n a r a t i o n a l m a n n e r i t i s n ecess a ry to as s es s t h e pote n t i a l of t he e nvi ro n m e n t for s uppo r t i n g t he l i fe p roces ses a n d for p rovi di n g

t he r e sou rces for develop m e n t . T h us t he re i s a l i m i t to t he popu l a t i o n t h a t ca n be sup po r t ed a n d i t woul d be u nwi se to go beyon d t h i s l i m i t . Popul a t i o n r e gu l a t i o n i s concom i t a n t n eces s i t y of e nvi ro n m e n t m a n a ge m e n t . T h e UNEP h a s h i g h l i g h t e d t h e i n t e r r e l a t io n s h i ps betwee n popu l a t i o n r esou rces , develop m e n t a n d e nvi ro n m e n t . Fo r r a t io n a l u t i l i s at i o n of t he r esou rces o n e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t , t h e fol lowi n g a r e t he r esou rces o n e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t ; t he fol lowi n g a r e t h e i m po r t a n t a s pects (x i i i ) M ai n t e n a n ce of ess e n t i a l ecologi c a l p roces ses a n d l i fe sys t em (x iv) P res e rv a t i o n of ge ne t i c d ive rs i t y a n d (xv) S us t ai n abl e u t i l i s a t i o n of s pecies a n d eco-sys t em . T h e cor n e r s to nes of e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t a r e(xvi ) E nv i ro n m e n t a l pl a n n i n g (xvi i ) E nv i ro n m e n t a l s t at us eva l u a t io n (xvi i i ) E nv i ro n m e n t a l i m p a ct a s sess m e n t (x ix ) E nv i ro n m e n t a l l egi s l a t i o n a n d a d m i n i s t r a t io n T h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l p l a n n i n g concept i s root ed i n t h e i n t e g r a t io n of e nvi ro n m e n t a l cons i de r a t i o n i n t h e develop m e n t of t he economy. It i s t he r efo re a m o re tot a l a p p roac h to pl a n n i n g soci a l ly des i r abl e p ro gr a m m es of develop me n t , a n d t a kes a cons cious view of lo n g t e r m go a l s i n p r efe re nce to t h e m o re s ho r t - t e r m eco nom i c go al s . T h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l p l a n n i n g p rocess h a s t o set pol i ci es , p r io r i t i es a n d t ec h n i q ues i n s uc h a m a n n e r t h a t i t ca n be r e a d i l y r eviewed a n d m odifi ed on a sys t em of a feedb ack . It h a s t he r efo re to be(x x ) F lex ibl e i n a p p ro ac h (x x i ) Se ns i t i ve t o ex ploi t a t io n of n a t u r a l r esou rces , i m p ac t s on E m p l oyme n t , p r i ces a n d q u al i t y of l i fe i n h u m a n set t l e m e n t s . (x x i i ) C a p ab le of i de n t i fyi n g a n d developi n g a l t e r n a t i ve develop m e n t Ave n ues . Fo r t h e m a n a ge m e n t of a sys te m , a sys t em s t a t us eval u at i o n i s a m us t . In a com p lex sys t em , l i ke e nvi ro n m e n t , t h e r e i s no s i n gl e p a r a m et e r i n dex of t h e s t a t us . Al so t h e de r iv at i o n of a n i n d ex by s ui t ab le com pu t a t io n a l t ec h n i q ues of us i n g seve r a l c r i t i c al p a r a m et e rs i s not onl y i m p reci s e but a l so fa r too com p l ex for cu r r e n t t ec h n i q ues t o h a n d l e . Un de r s uc h co nd i t io ns one a pp ro ac h woul d be to a t t e m pt eval u a t i o n of t he s t a t us of s ub-sys te m s . T he va r i ous s ub-sys t em s coul d be a i r, wat e r, l a n d , flo r a a n d fau n a et c. , a n d eve n i t i s q ui t e d iffi cul t to eval u at e t he s t a t us of t h e sys te m q u a n t i t a t ively. A not he r poss ibl e m ac ro-i n dex of t h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l s t a t us coul d be de r i ved f rom i n d i ces bas ed on r esou rce m e as u r e m e n t s . E s t i m a t es of av a i l ab le r esou rces s uc h as m i n e r a l r es e rve , fuel r es e rves , t i m be r etc . , woul d i n d i c a t e t h e r e duc t io n of r esou rce pot e n t i a l t h ro u g h us e a n d abus e a n d t h us ca n be used t o i n d i c a t e t he e nvi ro n m e n t a l s t at us . E nv i ro n m e n t a l i m p a ct a s sess m e n t ( E IA) i s o ne of t he p r i m a ry t ools i n deci s io n - m ak i n g. It i s a p rocedu r e for b ri n gi n g out t h e pot e n t i a l effects of h u m a n ac t i vi t i es on e nvi ro n m e n t a l sys te m . E IA c a n l ea d to t h e des i g n a n d i n co r po r a t io n of cos t effect ive e nvi ro n m e n t a l p rot ect io n m e as u res s uc h a s pol l ut io n ab a t em e n t m e as u r es . It a l so se rves to p rovi de a bas i s of com put a t i o n of

cos ts of i m p act , p r eve n t i o n a n d /o r aba t e m e n t s teps a n d t h e benefi t s of t h e s a m e for pe rfo r m i n g t h e cos t - be nefi t a n a l ys i s of t he p roject . To be ful ly effect ive, t h e E IA m us t i de n t ify, m e as u r e a n d eva l u a t e bot h t he be nefici a l a n d a dve rs e e nvi ro n m e n t a l effects of t he develop m e n t a l p roj ects . E nv i ro n m e n t a l l e gi s l a t io n sup po r t ed by wel l - d r af ted r e gul a t i o ns m e t i cu lous e nfo rce me n t sys te m a n d a d m i n i s t r a t ive m a c h i n e ry i s a n esse n t i a l com po ne n t of e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t . T h e l e gi s l a t ive scope cove rs a wi de r a n ge , i n cl ud i n g l a n d us e, wat e r r i g h t s , pol l u t i o n con t ro l a n d ab a t em e n t , fores t p rot ect io n , wi l d l ife co nse rv a t i o n , town pl a n n i n g a n d so o n . Le gi s l a t i o n by i t se lf i s n ot s uffici e n t fo r e nfo rci n g a n d i m pl e m e n t i n g e nvi ro n m e n t a l a ct io n . Pe rs u as io n a n d educa t io n a r e a l so equ a l ly i m po r t a n t . I n ce n t i ve a n d d i s i n ce n t ive p ack a ges a r e a l so to be cons i de red a s pe rs u as ive m e t hods to ac h i eve com pl i a nce wi t h e nvi ro n m e n t a l go al s . A lso i n or de r t o u n de r t a ke e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t p r a ct i ce, t he fol lowi n g s uppo r t sys t em s a re n ecess a r y(x x i i i ) E nv i ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t i nfo r m a t i o n sys t em ( E M IS ) (x x iv) E nv i ro n m e n t a l mo n i t o r i n g a n d s u rvei l l a nce sys te m ( E MS S ) (x xv) E nv i ro n m e n t a l r es ea r c h I n t h e p res e n t co n t ex t of t he developed m odel s t h a t h ave evolved h i s to r i c a l ly, i t m ay n ot be so eas i l y poss ibl e t o m a ke a vol te- face . Hence t he fol lowi n g t h r ee- fol d a p p roac h wi l l h ave t o be co ns i de re d: (x xvi ) S t re a m l i n i n g t he ex i s t i n g t ec h nolo gi es t h ro ug h i n nov at io n s i n e ne rgy & was te us e P a t t e r n s . (x xvi i ) Not ex te n d i n g t h e out - d at e d t ec h nol ogi es . (x xvi i i ) Goi n g for a l t e r n a t ive, u n co nve n t i o n a l t ec h no logi es a n d e ne rgy sou rces . Co ns i de r i n g t h e above as pect s a n a t t e m p t t o sync h ro n i se develop m e n t i n va r ious s p he res a t l owe r e nvi ro n m e n t a l cos t s h a s bee n m a de . ( a) A G RI CULT URA L DE VE L O PME T WI T H O U T E NVI RO N ME NTA L DE G RADAT I O N T h e fi rs t p h as e of t he g r ee n r evol u t i o n wi t h i t s a g r i cu l t u r a l p r a ct i ces d i rect ed towa r ds t he m ax i m i s a t io n of yiel ds i n t h e s ho r t r u n wi t h l i t t l e o r n o r e ga r d for t he p res e rv a t io n of l i fe s uppo r t sys te m s i s ove r r u n n i n g i t s pote n t i a l . I n orde r to ave r t com pl et e dea dl ock, i t i s h i g h t i m e t h e g r ee n r evol u t i o n was r e d i rec ted a lo n g a n ew p a t h wi t h woul d r eco nci l e econom i c a n d ecologi ca l de m a n ds . T h e go a l i s t h e pe r m a ne n t i m p roveme n t s i n t h e pe as a n t s i n com e, a cons i s t e n t h i g h yiel d over a p ro lo n ged pe r i od of t i m e t h rou g h a n opt io n a l combi n a t i o n of t he p roduct io n facto rs i n o rde r t o m i n i m i s e cost s a n d i de n t ifi ed cons t r a i n t s i n t he facto r s of p roduct i o n m us t be r e l i eved. Food p roduct io n t hou g h t t o be l ess e ne rgy i n t e n s i ve a n d m o re e ne rgy effici e n t . T h u s , r e ge ne r a t ive a g r i c ul t u r e based on t h e du a l a i m of conve rs a t i o n a n d p roduct ivi t y a s epi tom i sed i n ‘ Ecologic a l ’ o r orga n i c fa r m i n g i s t he a n swe r. C a refu l p r ese rva t i o n of ecosys te m i s a key object ive i n Ecofa r m i n g i n two r es pect s : fi rs t

conce r n i n g t he lo n g- t e r m eco no m i c r a t io n a l i t y of m a i n t a i n i n g a g r i cu l t u r a l p roduct ivi t y a n d seco nd ly, f rom a n et h i c a l s t a n d poi n t i n t e r m s of r es po ns i bi l i t y fo r t h e p res e rv a t i o n of a r i c h d ive r s i ty of p l a n t & a n i m a l speci es . T he ecofa r m i n g a p p roac h i s bas ed o n a sys t em a t i c u n de rs t a n d i n g of t h ese facto rs & t h e r ecogn i t io n t h a t i n t he com pl ex h u m a n - ecologic a l sys t em com pe t i n g a i m s m us t be h a r m o n i sed . T h e evi l cons eque nce of p res e n t d ay fa r m i n g h as to be comba t ed by t h e m e a n s of orga n i c fa r m i n g. O rga n i c fa r m i n g em pl oys t he fol lowi n g p r i nc i pl es . (1) Loca l i s m : as fa r a s poss ibl e orga n i c fa r m i n g i s r u n wi t h i n a closed sys t em , d r awi n g upo n loca l r esou rces i ns t e ad of r e l yi n g o n r aw m a t e r i a l s from outs i des . (2) Soi l i m p roveme n t : i t a i m s to m a i n t a i n & i m p rove n a t u r a l fe rt i l i ty of t he soi l a n d excl udes t h e use of a r t i fi ci a l fe rt i l i se rs . (3) Pol l ut i o n ab a t em e n t : t h i s ex cl udes t he use of a l l syn t h et i c bioci des a n d a r t i fi ci a l fe r t i l i s e r s to co n t rol pol l ut io n . (4) Qu a l i ty of p roduce: orga n i c fa r m i n g a i m s a t i m p rovi n g t h e q u a n t i ty as wel l a s t h e n u t r i t io n a l qu a l i t y i n t h e fa r m out p ut . (5) E n e rgy us e: us e of no n - r e new able sou rces of e ne rgy i s kept to a minimum. T h e s t r a t e gi es of orga n i c fa r m i n g i nvolve: (a) Reduci n g t he d a n ge r s of mo nocu l t u r e: m o nocul t u re m e a ns depe n de nce upo n o ne va r i e ty of a give n c rop . It i s vul ne r abl e to m a ny ecologi c a l di s as t e rs . To m i n i m i z e t he d i s a dv a n t a ges of t h i s o ne c a n r eso r t to polycul t u r e , whi c h m e a n s g rowi n g m a ny va r i et i es of a s i n gl e c rop. (b) Reduci n g t h e a g roc h em i c a l a d di c t i o n : ( i ) G ivi n g up “cos m et i c sp r ayi n g” whe re bioci des a re used s i m p ly t o i m p rove t h e a p pea r a n ce of a c rop by r e movi n g t he odd weed t h a t i s a ct u a l l y doi n g l i t t l e h a r m . It caus es u n neces s a ry pol l u t i o n . ( i i ) G ivi n g up cal e n d a r s p r ayi n g i .e . s p r ayi n g acco rd i n g to a fixed sc hed ul e r e ga r d l es s of wh a t i s h a p pe n i n g o n t h e g ro u n d . It oft e n r es u l t s i n bioci des bei n g used t o cou n t e r n o n - ex is te n t t h r e a t s . (iii) Biologi c al con t rol : i nvolves t he use of some m i c roo rga n i s m , wh i c h p r ed a t e upo n t h e ca us a l o rg a n i s m s . (a) Reduci n g t he use of a r t if ic i al fe r t i l i z e r s : i n o rde r to s ave m o ney a n d to l es se n t he i l l effect s of pol l ut io n we s houl d us e bio fe r t i l i z e rs i n s t e a d of c hem i c al fe rt i l i z e rs . Bio fe rt i l i z e rs e n h a n ce t h e p roduct ivi ty s ubs t a n t i a l l y a n d a t t h e s am e t i m e do n ot a d d up t o t h e pol l ut io n . T hes e a r e t h e fol lowi n g m a n n e rs i n wh i c h bio fe rt i l i z e rs m ay be used : ( i ) Use of n i t ro ge n fi x i n g bacte r i a i n no n - l e gu m e pl a n t s . ( i i ) By us i n g ge ne t i c e n gi n ee r i n g a n d i m p rovi n g t h e ca p abi l i t y of N IF ge ne i n Le gu m es . ( i i i ) By faci l i t a t i n g t h e n u t r i e n t up t ake by m i c roo rga n i s m s i n symbiot i c a s soci a t i o n wi t h t h e root s of p l a n t s . ( iv) Usi n g a biot ic n i t roge n fi x a t i o n . (a) Wat e r m a n a ge m e n t : fol lowi n g s teps s houl d be t a ke n for wate r m a n a ge m e n t : (b) D r i p o r t r i ckl e i r r i ga t i o n , whi c h i s a l so k now n a s bl ue r evol u t i o n m ay be used . T h i s type of i r r i g a t io n sys te m

r e duces wat e r use by a l mos t 50 % as com p a r ed to Co nve n t io n a l i r r i ga t i o n sys te m s . T h e d r i p l i n es m ay be i ns t a l l ed u n de rg rou n d . (c) P rope r d r a i n a ge sys te m s houl d be used fo r effici e n t use of wate r. ( d) Au tom a t i c s e ns i n g & mo n i t o r i n g devi ces s houl d be us ed to keep t r a ck of & h e l p Co nt ro l wat e r flows . (e) Li g h twei g h t a l a l loys m ay be us ed whi c h h a s r evol u t i o n a r i es t he s p r i n k l e r Ir r i ga t i o n . (f) A r e gi o n a l wat e r g r i d m ay be m a de to co n t rol wat e r s up pl y i n a n effi cie n t m a n n e r. I n a dd i t i o n to t h i s combi ne d use of g rou n d & su rface wat e r ca n i m p rove t he wat e r ava i l ab i l i ty & s t r et c h l i m i t ed wat e r s up ply. ( a ) I n t e n s ive us e of e ne rgy i n a g r i cu l t u re n ee ds to be r ed uced : Va r i ous a g r i c ul t u r a l ope r a t io n s , i r r i g a t io n , p roduct io n of fe rt i l i z e rs et c. a l l r e qu i re vas t a mou n t s of e ne rgy. Renewable sou rces of e ne rgy s houl d be used as m uc h a s poss ibl e. Sol a r e ne rgy m ay be us ed for i r r i g a t io n a n d biom as s for fe r t i l i z e r p roduct i o n . S ubs t i t u t io n of orga n i c fe r t i l i z e r by orga n i c m a n u r e s houl d be do ne wh i c h s aves e ne rgy equ iva l e n t to fou r l a k h k i l o c alo r i es pes t co n t rol devices s houl d be do ne a n d HYV m ay be s ubs t i t ut ed by m o re r es i s t a n t va r i e t i es s peci a l l y i n t rop i ca l areas. (f) App rop r i a t e t ec h nolo gy : It focus es o n l abou r i n t e n s i ve ope r a t io n s , s m a l l fa r m s , polycu l t u r e , l i t t l e or no fe r t i l i z e r s o r c he m i c a l s , biologi ca l con t rol s for i ns ect s & d i se ases a n d cons e rva t i o n of t i l l a ge . It em p h a s i s es on no n - pol l u t i n g dece n t r a l i s ed i n p u t s a n d i s defi ne d by i t s focus on e nvi ro n m e n t a l a n d h u m a n i s t i c a s pect s . Gove r n m e n t i n t e rve n t io n i n a g r i cul t u r e i n bot h i n dus t r i a l & develop i n g cou n t r i es h as to be r eo r i e n t e d so a s to ( g) Have ecologi ca l & lo n g- t e r m object ives . ( h ) Have a r e gi o n a l o ri e n t a t io n r eflect i n g diffe re n t r e gio n a l n eeds so a s to e ncou r a ge fa r m e r s t o a dopt p r a ct i ces t h a t a re ecologi ca l l y s us t ai n abl e i n t he i r own a r e as e. g. h i l l a re as m ay r eq ui r e i n ce n t ive p r i ces for fr ui t s & s ubs i d i sed s upp l i es of food g r a i n s to i n d uce fa r m e r s to s h i ft t owa r ds h o r t i c ul t u r e . ( i ) Has t o be r eo r i e n t ed towa r ds a n a pp rop r i a t e c roppi n g pattern. S t re n gt he n i n g food secu r i t y f rom a gl ob al poi n t of vi ew r e qu i res r e duc i n g i nce n t ives t h a t fo rce ove r p roduct io n a n d no n com pe t i t i ve p roduct io n i n t h e developed m a r ket econom i es a n d e n h a n ci n g t hose t h a t e ncou r a ge food p roduct io n i n developi n g cou n t r i es . At t he s am e t i m e, t h ese i n ce n t ives m us t be r edes i g n ed t o p ro mot e fa r m i n g p r a ct i s e t h a t e ncou r a ge & e n h a nce t h e a g r i cu l t u re r esou rce bas e. Gove r n m e n t pol ic ies t h a t p rot ect t h e r esou rces bas e a r e n eeded t o m a i n t a i n a n d e n h a n ce a g r i cu l t u r a l p roduct ivi ty & a n d t h e l ivel i hoods of a l l r u r a l dwel l e rs o n a lo n g- t e r m bas is . T h e i n i t i a l t as k i n e n h a n ci n g t h e r esou rce base wi l l be to del i n e a t e b roa d l a n d cat e go r i es acco r di n g t o bes t us e, us i n g s at e l l i t e m o n i to r i n g to det e r m i ne va r i a t i o ns i n i nf r as t r uct u re p rovis io n , s uppo r t se rvi ces , p ro mot io n a l m e as u res , r e gu l a to ry r es t r i c t i o ns , fisc al s ubs i d i es & ot he r i nce n t ives . T h e b roa d l a n d ca t ego r i es wi l l be * E n h a n ce m e n t a r e a s : whi c h a r e cap able of s us t a i n i n g i n t e n s i ve c roppi n g & h i g h e r popu l a t i o n & co ns u m p t io n t re n ds .

* P reve n t io n a r e a s : whi c h by com mo n co nse n t s hou l d n ot be developed fo r i n t e n s i ve a g r i cul t u r e . * Res to r a t i o n a re as : whe re l a n d s t r i p ped of veget a t i ve cove r h a s ei t h e r t ot al l y l os t i t s p rod uc t i vi t y or h a d i t d r a s t i c a l ly r ed uced . T h ese a r e as m i g h t wel l s uppo r t ce r t a i n ecologi c a l l y & econom i ca l ly s us t a i n abl e uses s uc h a s g r a z i n g, fuel wood p l a n t a t io n s , fr ui t fa r m i n g & fo res t ry. Sou n d fores t pol i ci es ca n be based b roa dl y o n a n a n a l ys i s of t he c ap aci ty of t h e fo res t s & t h e l a n d u n de r t h e m to pe rfo r m va r i ous fu nc t i o ns . P ro g r a m m es TP p res e rve fores t r esou rces m us t s t a r t wi t h t h e loc al peopl e who a r e bot h vi ct i m s & a ge n t s of des t r uc t i o n , a n d who wi l l bea r t he bu rde n of a n y n ew m a n a ge m e n t sc he m e. T hey s hou l d be a t t h e ce n t e r of i n t e g r a t ed fo res t m a n a ge m e n t , whi c h i s t he bas i s of s us t a i n abl e a g r i cu l t u re . P r i ces for fores t p roduct s n eed t o r efl ect t h e t r ue r esou rce val ue of t he goods . Fo res t ry ca n a l so be ex te nde d i n t o a g r i cu l t u re t o p roduce food a n d fuel . Hum a n r esou rces t o be u pg r a de d as t h e t ec h no logi ca l t r a n sfo r m a t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i cul t u r e wi l l be d iffi cul t wi t hou t m a t c h i n g effor t to i m p rove h u m a n r esou rces . Effor t s t o p romot e l i t e r acy s hou l d focus a t t e n t io n o n fu nct io n a l l i t e r acy cove ri n g t he effi cie n t us e of l a n d , wat e r & fores t s . Wome n ’s p a r t i ci p a t i o n s hou l d a l so be e ncom p as sed . T h e c h a l l e n ge of s us t a i n abl e a g r i cul t u r e i s to r a i s e n ot jus t ave r a ge p roduct ivi ty & i n com es of t hos e poo r i n r e sou rces . A nd food secu r i t y i s not jus t a ques t i o n of i n c re as i n g food p roduct i o n but of e ns u r i n g t h a t t he r u r a l & u rb a n poor do not go h u n g r y du r i n g t h e s ho r t t e r m o r m i ds t a l oca l food sc a r ci ty. Al l t h i s r e qu i res t he sys te m a t i c p ro mot i o n of equ a l i ty i n food p roduct i o n & di s t r i but io n . ( j)

FO R ES T M A NA G E M E NT S T RAT E G Y

T h e co nt i n uous ons l au g h t on fores t r esou rces a n d t h e cons eque n t m as s ive e nvi ro n m e n t a l de g r a d a t io n i n t e r m s of floods , soi l l oss , l a n ds l i des , l ives a n d p rope r t y etc . on t h e one h a n d , a n d t h e des i r ab i l i ty of s us t a i n ed yiel d of goods a n d se rvi ces on t he ot he r, ca l l for s t eps towa r ds r a t io n a l m a n a ge m e n t of fo res t r esou rces . In a s i m p l ifi ed ve rs io n , t h e m a n a ge m e n t of fo res t r esou rces i s bas i ca l l y t he m a n a ge m e n t of ecosys te m s . T he fores t m a n a gem e n t s t r a t e gi es s houl d be d i r ect ed towa r ds : a. M a n a ge m e n t of n a t u r a l e nvi ro n m e n t a n d b. Affores t a t io n M an ag emen t of Natu ral Envi ronmen t N a t u r a l e nvi ro n m e n t i s com posed of cl i m a t i c con di t io n s , soi l a n d wat e r s t a t us , veget a t i o n con di t io n s a n d l a n d c h a r a ct e r i s t i cs et c. It i s absol ut el y ess e n t i a l t o c re a t e s ui t abl e n a t u r a l e nvi ro n m e n t for pl a n t s t o g row. M a n a ge m e n t of n a t u r a l e nvi ro n m e n t i nc l u des i. M a n a ge m e n t of soi l e nvi ro n m e n t T h e fi rs t a n d fo remos t a i m of soi l m a n a ge m e n t i s t o c heck t he h e avy los s of soi l . Co nt ro l over r a p i d soi l e ros io n m ay be exe rc i sed t h ro ug h t e r r a ci n g, gu i ly c heck i n g a n d cons t r uc t i n g c heck d a m s .

Ap a r t f rom c hecki n g soi l e ros io n , n u t r i t io n a l m a n a ge m e n t of soi l i s ex t re m el y i m po r t a n t for i nc r e as i n g t h e fo res t p roduce . M a n u r i n g a n d c hem i c a l fer t i l i s at i o n a re us ed fo r t h i s pu r pose . Fe r t i l i se rs s houl d be us ed acco rd i n g to t h e n eed of t he soi l . ii. M a n a ge m e n t of s lope fai l u res S lope fai l u res a r e t h e bas ic p roblem s of t he Hi m a l aya n r e gi o n wh i c h a re ca uses m a i n l y by geologi c a l co nd i t i o ns , s lope a n d g r a d i e n t , h yd rolo gi c a l con di t io n s , biot ic ac t i va t es , a n d des t r uc t i o n of veget a t io n . S lope fa i l u r es ca n be c hecked cons i de r ably by con t ro l l i n g t h e h a p h a z a r d cons t r uc t io n of r o ad n e two rks wh i c h i s bei n g do ne wi t hout cons i de r i n g t h e l oca l e nvi ro n m e n t a l co nd i t i o ns , a n d by pl a n t i n g vege t at i o n i n affected a r e as . iii. M a n a ge m e n t of n a t u r a l r e ge ne r a t io n N a t u r a l r e ge ne r a t io n m e a ns p roduct io n a n d s ucces sful g rowt h of seedl i n gs of p l a n t s u n de r ex is t i n g s ui t abl e e nvi ro n m e n t a l con di t io n s wi t hou t i n t e rfe re n ce of m a n . Ge r m i n a t i o n of seeds depe n ds u po n ex is t i n g natural e nvi ro n m e n t . Fol lowi n g s t eps ca n a u gm e n t t h e p rocess of n a t u r a l r e ge n e r a t i o n : (x x i x ) P rotect i o n of seed l i n gs by co n t rol l i n g soi l e ros io n , m a i n t a i n i n g soi l n u t r i t io n a n d m oi s t u re a n d c heck i n g overg r a z i n g. (x xx ) G rou n d veget a t i o n t r e a t m e n t (x xx i ) Co n t rol over va r ious d i se ases affect i n g s eed out p ut a n d seed l i n g su rv iva l , a n d (x xx i i ) S t r i ct vi gi l a n ce o n fores t fi res Affores ta ti on Affores t a t io n i s a m ajo r m e a n s fo r r e s to r i n g a n d e n h a n ci n g t he fo res t weal t h i n va r ious cove r t a n d ove r t ways . It n ot on ly h e l ps i n e n r i c h i n g flo r a l wea l t h but a l so i n m a i n t a i n i n g fo res t e nvi ro n m e n t . I n t e ns ive p l a n t a t io n s houl d be do ne i n h i l l a re as as wel l a s i n p l a i ns . Tr ees m ay be p l a n t e d a l o n g t he r i ve r ca t c h m e n t a r e as , r o ad , r a i l , c a n a l s i des , on t h e vi l l a ge l a n d s a n d t h e pe r i p he ry of u rba n a re as . A ny affo res t at i o n s c hem e s hou l d be pl a n ne d p rope r ly a n d t he fol lowi n g facto rs s hou l d be co ns i de re d. i. Needs of l oca l / re gi o n a l peopl e ii. S ho r t a n d lo n g t e r m i n d us t r i a l n eeds , a n d iii. Eco nom i c a n d ecologi c al s ui t ab i l i ty of t he com pos i t io n of s pecies . We r eq u i re to m a i n t a i n not on ly t he eco nom i c equi l ib r i u m to m ee t t he s ho r t t e r m m a t e r i a l n eeds of n eeds of peop le , but a l so t h e ecologi ca l equ i l b r i u m for l o n g t e r m s u rviv al and s t abi l i ty. T he r efo re , s elect io n of n a t i ve m u l t i pu r pos e t ree s pecies i s ve ry es se n t i a l i n fores t m a n a ge m e n t p rog r a m m es . T h e select ed s peci es s houl d h ave a d a pt abi l i t y t o l oca l cl i m a t e a n d r es i s t a nce to loc al h a z a r ds . In a d di t io n , t he s pecies s hou l d h ave h i g h seedl i n g pote n t i a l . I n o rde r to select s ui t ab le s pecies for diffe re n t bio-cl i m a t e r e gio n s fo r t he pu r pose of pl a n t a t i o n t h e fol lowi n g va r i abl e s houl d be s t ud i ed p rope r l y: 1 . A re a cove r a ge 2 . N a t u r e of r ocks 3 . Ide a of s lope g r a d i e n t a n d s lope

4. 5.

Soi l s t a t us a n d C l i m a t i c con di t io n s s uc h as r a i nf a l l , t e m pe r a t u r e

Soci al fores t r y T h e soci al fo res t ry p rog r a m m es s hou l d be i m p l em e n t ed p rope r l y t o fulfi l t he n eeds of t he pove r ty—s t r i cke n m as ses . T h i s p rog r a m m e m ay boos t t h e econom y a n d m a i n t a i n t he ecologic a l bal a n ce . E m p h as i s s hou l d be gi ve n to t hos e s pecies whi c h c a n p rovi de fodde r a n d fi rewood on a s us t ai n ed bas i s . Cot t a ge a n d s m a l l sc al e i n dus t r i es l i ke t uss a r from A rj u n pl a n t a t io n , s i l k p roduct i o n f rom l e aves of m u lbe r ry t rees , cot t a ge- sc al e m a k i n g of p ape r pu l p f rom s ai j a no wood, oi l ex t r ac t io n from seeds of k a nj i r, n eem a n d m a h u a , hous e ho l d fu r n i t u re from t he t i m be r of s i soo, s i r es etc m ay be es t abl i s he d . Ap a r t f rom i m p rovi n g t he econom i c co nd i t i o n of peopl e , i t wi l l g re a t ly h e l p i n t h e p reve n t i o n of pol l u t i o n of t he a t mos p h e r e . T h e i n t e n s i t y of floods a n d d rou g h t s wi l l dec re as e. P roduc t ivi ty of a g r i cu l t u r a l l a n d wi l l i n c r e as e. A h ab i t a t fo r bi r ds a n d s m a l l a n i m a l s wi l l be c re a t ed . T he re wi l l be a defi n i t e i n c r e as e i n t he u n de rg ro u n d wate r r esou rces . P l a n t i n g a lo n g ca n a l ba n ks wi l l obvi at e t he p robl em of wat e r lo ggi n g, whi c h wi l l a l so r ed uce t h e i n ci de nce of m a l a r i a . P rope r m a n a ge m e n t of de g r a de d p as t u re l a n d i s a l so n eces s a ry. F as t g rowi n g fodde r s pecies s hou l d be i n t ro duced t o m eet t he g rowi n g dem a n d for fodde r. A po r t io n fo r co nt ro l l ed g r a z i n g s houl d be a dop ted a n d s t a l l - feed i n g e ncou r a ge d. Fo r p rope r i m pl e m e n t a t io n of fores t m a n a ge m e n t p ro g r a m m es , peop le ’s p a r t i c i p a t i o ns esse n t i a l . M as s m ed i a s hou l d be us ed ex t e n s ively to educ a t e t he people about t he u rge n t n eed for i m p rovi n g t h e fo res t weal t h . P ro gr a m m es s hou l d be m a n a ged by wel l -t r a i ne d a n d com pe te n t pe rso n ne l . Mo re fu n ds s hou l d be a l l oc at ed fo r fores t developm e n t . Fo res ts s hou l d be give n t he s am e i m po r t a nce a s a g r i cu l t u r a l c rops . Acco rd i n g ly, i n p u t s l i ke fe rt i l i se rs , seed i m p roveme n t s , wate r ; soi l p r ep a r a t i o n a n d p rope r p rot ect io n s houl d be p rovi ded. (b ) S US TAI NA B L E I NDUS T RI AL DE VE L O PME NT: Resou rce a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l co ns i de r a t io n s m us t be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e i n d us t r i a l pl a n n i n g a n d deci s io n - m a k i n g p rocess es . Fol lowi n g a r e t he m ajo r a r e as of i n t e r es t – (i ) Es t ab l i s h e nvi ro n m e n t a l go a l s , r e gu l a t io n s , i n ce n t i ves a n d s t a n d a r ds r e ga r d i n g a i r a n d wate r pol l u t i o n , was t e m a n a ge m e n t , occup a t io n a l , h e a l t h a n d s afety o r wor ke rs , e ne rgy a n d r esou rce effi cie ncy of p rod uc t or p rocesses a n d t h e m a n uf act u r e , m a r ke t i n g, t r a n s po r t a n d di s pos a l of t ox i c s ubs t a n ces . Regul a t i o ns to co n t rol t he i m p act of i n dus t r i a l ac t i vi t y a c ross n a t io n a l bou nd a r i es a r e a l so n eeded . ( i i ) Ce r t a i n m ajo r i nves t m e n t s a re s ubject to a n e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p act a s sess m e n t . T h i s e nvi ro n m e n t a l as s es s me n t s hou l d be a p pl i ed n ot o nl y to p rod uc t s a n d p roject s but a l so to pol ic ies a n d p rog r a m m es es peci a l ly m ajo r m ac ro eco no m i c , fi n a nce a n d secto r a l pol ic ies t h a t i n d uce s i g n i fi ca n t i m p ac t on t he e nvi ro n m e n t . ( i i i ) I n d us t r i es r e s po ns e t o pol l u t i o n a n d r esou r ce de g r a d a t io n h a s no t bee n a n d s houl d no t be l i m i t ed t o com pl i a nce wi t h r e gu l a t i o ns . It s houl d accep t a bro ad s e nse of soci a l

r es po ns i bi l i t y a n d e ns u r e a n aw a re nes s of e nvi ro n m e n t a l cons i de r a t i o ns a t a l l l evel s . ( iv) Becaus e of l i m i t ed r esou r ces s m a l l a n d m e di u m s i z ed i n d us t r i es ofte n fi nd i t u n ab le t o affo rd t he c h a n ges n ecess a ry t o m eet e nvi ro n m e n t a l r e gu l a t i o ns a n d p roduct con t rol . S m a l l sc al e bus i nes s suc h a s m e t a l wo rk i n g, m a c h i n e tool s , p r i n t i n g a n d t a n n i n g a n d dyi n g a re freque n t l y a mo n g t h e wors t offen de r of e nvi ro n m e n t a l r e gu l a t i o ns i n a ny cou n t ry. New t ec h n i ques es peci a l ly, m i c roel ect ro n i cs a l lows s m a l l i n d us t r i es i n ex pe ns ive m e a n s to con t rol t he e n t i re p roduct io n p roces s . E n e rgy s avi n g biologi c a l sys t em s m ay be wel l su i t ed to t he n ee ds of s m al l a n d m e di um s i z ed i n d us t r i es fo r pol l ut io n co n t rol or was t e d i s pos al . S m a l l a n d m e di u m sc al e e nt e r p r i se s hou l d be give n i nfo r m a t i o n a n d fi n a nc i a l a n d t ec h n i c a l a s s i s t a n ce fo r s uc h pu r pose by t he Govt . (v) T h e re i s a n eed to i nc r e ase t h e ca p aci ty to de a l wi t h t h e i n d us t r i a l h a z a r d s . Som e 70 , 00 0 – 80 , 00 0 c hem i c a l s a r e now on t he m a r ket a n d no t ox i ci t y d a t a ex i s t for n e a r l y 80% of t he c he m i c a l s us ed i n com m e r ci a l p roduct s . Mo re over a n u n k now n n u m be r of c hem i c a l s a r e wi t h d r aw n from cl ea r a n ce p roces ses eve ry ye a r. I n view of t h e se r ious nes s of t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e gove r n m e n t s of t he m ajo r c hem i c a l p rod uc i n g cou n t r i es s hou l d ( a ) Unde r t a ke t h a t no n ew c hem i c a l i s pl aced i n t h e m a r ke t u n t i l t h e h e a l t h a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p a ct s h ave bee n t es ted a n d a s sessed . (b) S t r i ct l y r e gu l a t e t h e expo r t of t hes e c hem i c al s for whi c h a u t ho r i s at i o n fo r dom es t i c s al e h a s no t bee n soug h t or gi ve n . (c) Co ns u m e r aw a r e n ess s hou l d be i n c r e as ed . I n o rde r to dea l wi t h t he p robl em of h a z a r dous was t e, t h e object ive m us t be to r e duce t he a mou n t of was t e ge ne r a t ed a n d t o t r a n sfo r m a n i nc re a s i n g a m ou n t i n to r esou rces for use a n d r e use . T h i s wi l l r ed uce t h e vol um e t h a t ot he rw i se m us t be t r e a t ed or d i s posed off t h rou g h i n ci ne r a t io n , l a n d di s pos a l o r d um pi n g a t sea . A lso n ew combus t io n t ec h n i q ues s houl d be developed whi c h woul d r es u l t i n r a i s i n g combus t io n effi cie ncy a n d r e d uct i o n of pol l u t i o n em i ss io n . (vi ) Effor t s a re n eeded t o m a ke m o re effect ive use of econom i c i ns t r u m e n t s e. g. a i r, wat e r, fores t etc . , e n t e r p r i s es m ay be e ncou r a ged to i nves t i n p reve n t ive , r es t o r a t i ve or com pe ns a to ry m e as u r es wi t h s ubs i d i es of va r i ous ki n ds . (vi i ) T h e developm e n t i n sci e nce a n d t ec h no logy wi l l con t i n u e t o c h a n ge soci a l , cul t u r a l a n d eco nom i c fab ri c of n a t i o ns a n d wor l d com m u n i ty. Wi t h ca refu l m a n a ge m e n t , n ew a n d em e rgi n g t ec h nolo gi es offe r e no r m ous oppo r t u n i t i es fo r raising p roduct i vi t y a n d l ivi n g s t a n d a r ds , fo r i m p rovi n g h e a l t h a n d fo r cons e rvi n g t he n a t u r a l r esou r ce base . So t h e re i s a n u rge n t n eed fo r i m m e n s e a d di t io n a l r e sou rces wh i c h ca n be us ed t o l a u n c h m as s ive r e se a rc h a n d developm e n t effor t s to p roduce n o n was t e, low cos t t ec h nolo gi es bas ed on cons e rva t i o n a n d r ecycl i n g of r e sou rces a n d on l es s e ne rgy utilisation. But n ew t ec h no logi es a re not a l l i n t r i n s i c a l ly be n i g n , no r wi l l t hey h ave on ly pos i t ive i m p ac t s o n e nvi ro n m e n t . He nce t he r e i s a n eed fo r c au t i o n i n i n t ro duci n g a n ew t ec h no logy. T h i s i s a l so r e i nfo rced by t h e ex pe r i e n ce of t h e g r ee n r evol ut io n , whi c h , des p i t e fo r m i d abl e a c h i evem e n t s , r a i s es conce r n s ove r

depe n de nce on r e l a t ively few c rop s t r a i n s a n d l a rge doses of a g ro c hem i c al s . A lso, n ew l ife fo r m s p rod uced by ge ne t i c e n gi nee r i n g s hou l d be c a r eful ly t es ted a n d a s sessed fo r t he i r pote n t i a l i m p a ct on h e a l t h a n d on m a i n t e n a n ce of ge ne t i c di ve rs i t y a n d ecologi c al bal a n ce before t h ey a re i n t rod uced i n t he m a r ke t a n d t h us to t he e nvi ro n m e n t . ( c ) M A NA GI N G T H E UR B AN C H AL L E N GE La rge , ci t i es by defi n i t io n a re ce n t r a l i s ed , m a n m a de e nvi ro n m e n t s t h a t depe nd m a i n l y on food, wat e r, e ne rgy a n d ot he r goods f rom out s i de . S m al l e r ci t i es by co n t r a s t c a n be h e a r t of com m u n i t y bas ed develop me n t a n d p rovi de se rv ices t o t he s u r rou n d i n g cou n t r ys i de. T h e n a t i o n a l u rb a n s t r a t e gy s houl d be ge a re d towa r ds i t . T he key to s ucces sful i n t e rve n t i o n i s t i m i n g, to e ncou r a ge deco nce n t r a t io n o nl y whe n t h e a dv a n t a ges of co nce n t r a t io n a r e d i m i n i s h i n g . Avoi d pol i cy i n t e rve n t i o ns t h a t i n c r e as e t h e a t t r a ct ive nes s of t h e m ajo r ci ty, p a r t i c ul a r l y s ubs i di es on food a n d e ne rgy, a n d exces s ive conce n t r a t i o n of a d m i n i s t r a t ive powe r i n t h e c ap i t a l . T he bes t way to e ncou r a ge t he g rowt h of seco nd a r y ce n t e r s i s t o bui l d o n t h e n a t u r a l econom i c a dva n t a ges of t he i r r e gi o ns , especi a l ly i n t h e r esou rce p rocess i n g a n d m a r ke t i n g a n d t he dece n t r a l i z ed p rovi s io n of gove r n m e n t se rvi ces . Ru r a l a n d u rba n develop m e n t s t r a t e gi es a n d a p p roac hes s hou l d be com p l em e n t a ry r a t h e r t h a n con t r a d i ct o ry. T he developm e n t of t he seco nd a r y ce n t e rs i s to t he d i r ect eco nom i c be nefi t of t h e r esou rce a r e as t hey se rve . T h e i n s t i t u t io n a l a n d l ega l s t r uct u r es of t he loc al gove r n m e n t s houl d be s t re n gt he n ed , p a r t i c ul a r l y i n t h e develop i n g n a t io n s , a s u rb a n developm e n t c a n be bes t h a n d l ed by a loca l body. P robl em s of u ne m p loym e n t s hou l d be solved loc al ly. S uppo r t a n d h e l p s houl d be give n by t h e gove r n m e n t a n d t he no n gove r n m e n t a ge n ci es to t he i nfo r m a l secto r. Self-r e l i a nce a n d l oca l gove r n a n ce s hou l d be e ncou r a ged . A s peci a l effo r t s houl d be m a de ro p rovi de h ous i n g fo r t h e poor a n d to el i m i n a t e s l u m s . Fo r a l l t h ese effor t s , a l ot of r esou rces a r e n ee ded . Hence, t he r e i s a n u rge n t n eed fo r a co nce r t ed effo r t a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l coope r a t i o n t o t ack l e t he m i n ce posed by u rb a n i s a t io n . T h e re a r e va r ious ways whi c h one ca n t a ke s t eps to r e m edy t he s i t u a t io n , one of t he m bei n g l a n d r ec l a m a t i o n : bas i c a l l y i t m e a n s t h e “ t r e a t m e n t of l a n d c re a t i n g con di t i o ns for p ut t i n g i t t o som e us e” . La n d a n d i t s soi l s hou l d be t r e a t ed a s n o n r e n ewabl e r esou rces a l t hou g h i t i s oft e n g ros s ly over used . La n d c a n be r ecl a i m e d i n va r ious ways I) a s m al l g r avel p i t s i n l i m es to ne q u a r r i es ca n be us ed for du m pi n g dom es t i c r ubbi s h f rom u rb a n a r e a s or for pu r poses of s a n i t a ry fi l l i n g . i i ) Deep p i t s f rom l a rge qu a r r i es ca n be us ed fo r r ock cl i m bi n g a n d fi re r a n ges . i i i ) Wet pi t s ca n be us ed for wate r s to r a ge i v) i n t he c as e of s t i l l deepe r p i t s l i ke coa l se a m s veget a t io n ca n be es t abl i s hed fo r ac h i evi n g s t abi l i ty. As fa r a s I n d i a i s conce r n ed a few m i n i n g com p a n i es l i ke Neyvel i l i g n i t e co. a n d mos t of t he com p a n i es h ave i n t he r ece n t p as t i nc l u ded l a n d r ecl a m a t io n m e as u r es i n t h e over a l l s c hem e of developm e n t of m i ne r a l depos i t s . Howeve r, effect ive l e gi s l a t io n to e ns u r e l a n d r ecl a m a t io n af te r com pl et io n

obt a i n i n g ope r a t i o ns m us t be e n ac t ed. Specifi c a m e n d m e n t s h ave r ece n t l y been m a de to t h e m i nes a n d m i ne r a l s ( re gu l a t io n & develop me n t ) a ct 19 57 , to e ns u r e t h a t m i n i n g ope r a to rs p ayd ay conce r n t o t he e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t of t h e m i n i n g a r e a s . E nv i ro n m e n t a l i m p ac t a s sess m e n t a n d r ec l a m a t i o n of l a n d i n ope n cas t m i n es m us t be m a de obl i ga to ry for p roject p ropos a l s - based on wh ic h deci s io n m a ke r s do t h ei r job i n r es pect of. Acc r u i n g be nefi t s a n d s ho r t t e r m a n d l o n g t e r m a dve rs e effects . Eve ry m ajo r com p a ny s hou l d h ave a s peci a l i s ed s t aff t r a i n ed i n e nvi ro n m e n t a l m a n a ge m e n t of m i n i n g a re as . M i n i n g com p a n i es u n de r t a ki n g l a n d r ec l a m a t i o n p ro g r a m m es m ay be ex te nde d fi n a n c i a l i n ce n t ives s uc h a s soft l oa ns , t ax c re di t s Resea r c h s houl d be ca r r i e d out t o es t abl i s h m et hodologi es of l a n d r ecl a m a t io n su i t ed to I n d i a n con di t io n s . T h i s s houl d a l so i nc l u de i de n t if ic a t i o n a n d developm e n t of va r i et i es of t r ees , s h r ubs a n d h e rbs , wh ic h a re r es i s t a n t to h i g h conce n t r a t i o n of m i n e r a l s i n t h e soi l . I n o rde r to e ns u r e t h e co n t i n ue d a n d s us t a i n ed p ro g res s of t h e m i n i n g i n d us t ry i n I n d i a , e nvi ro n m e n t a l d i m e n s i o ns s hou l d be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e p l a n n i n g, des i g n , develop m e n t , ope r a t i o n a n d wo rki n g of m i n es o n s cie n t i fi c a n d r a t io n a l l i n es . (d ) E NE R G Y: Va r i ous s t u di es s how t h a t t he g r ee n h ous e effect m ay l ea d to r i s e i n t he se a l evel a n d h e n ce i n u n d a t i o n of l ow l yi n g a r e as , c h a n ge i n r a i n f al l p a t t e r n etc . , but t h e r e i s no way to p rove t h a t a n y of t hes e wi l l h a p pe n u n t i l i t act u a l ly occu rs . So beca use of com pl ex i t i es a n d u nce r t a i n t i es i t i s n eces s a ry t h a t ce r t a i n s teps be t a ke n to avoi d h a p pe n i n gs of t hes e. Some of t h e s t eps coul d be( i ) Im m ed i a t e s t ep i nvolves r ed uct io n of c a rbo n- d i - oxi de out pu t gl ob al ly by e ne rgy effici e ncy m e as u res wi t hou t a n y r e duc t i o n i n t he g rowt h of GNP. Mo reove r, a p rope r m i x of e ne rgy sou rces s houl d be used . ( i i ) Im p roved mo n i t o r i n g a n d as s es s m e n t of t he evolvi n g p he no m e no n . ( i i i ) T he developm e n t of i n t e r n a t io n a l l y a g ree d pol i ci es fo r t he r e duc t i o n of ca us a t ive g as es a n d ( iv) Adopt io n of s t r a t e gi es n eeded to m i n i m i s e d a m a ge a n d cope wi t h t h e cl i m a t e c h a n ges a n d r i s i n g s ea l evel . Nucl ea r e ne rgy i s one of t he mos t i m po r t a n t sou rces of e ne rgy. A l t houg h se r i ous h e a l t h a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l r i s ks a re i nvolved i f a n y acci de n t occu r s yet t h e wo rl d ca n not do away wi t h t h e n uc l ea r e ne rgy. P robabi l i s t i c es t i m a t es of t h e r i s ks of com po ne n t fai l u re l e a di n g to a r a d io act i ve r e l e ase a re now ava i l abl e. T he mos t se r i ous c at e go ry of r e l e ase t h ro u g h con t a i n m e n t fa i l u r e i s yet a rou n d 1 i n 1 ,0 00 , 00 0 yea r s of r e act o r ope r a t i o n , whi c h i s a l m os t i m poss ible to occu r. Ye t r i s ks i nvolved a re ve ry h i g h i n t he r e l e as e of t h e r a d io act i ve r a d i a t i o ns . So a l l p rec au t io n a ry s t eps a n d s afety s t a n d a r ds s houl d be t a ke n i n t o accou n t i n t h e ope r a t i o n of t he n uc l ea r r e act o r. A lso n u cl e a r was t e d i s pos al c re a t es e nvi ro n m e n t a l p roble m a n d h e n ce n ew, s afe m et hods of was te di s pos a l s hou l d be developed .

Bec ause of pot e n t i a l t r a n s bou nd a r y effect s i n cas e of n uc l ea r fal l out , i t i s esse n t i a l t h a t gove r n m e n t s co-ope r a t e to develop i n t e r n a t io n a l ly a g r eed codes of p r a ct i ce cove r i n g t ec h n i c a l , econom i c, soci a l (i nc l u di n g h e a l t h a n d e nvi ro n m e n t a l a s pect ) , a n d pot e n t i a l com po ne n t s of n u cl e a r e ne rgy. T h e n eed fo r a s te ady t r a n s i t i o n t o a b roa de r a n d m o re s us t a i n abl e m i x of e ne rgy sou r ces i s begi n n i n g to become a ccept ed . P a r t i c ul a r l y wi t h n ew a n d i m p roved t ec h nolo gi es . But i t r eq u i res a subs t a n t i a l a n d sus t a i ne d com m i t m e n t t o fu r t h e r r es e a rc h . So r es ea r c h a n d develop me n t a n d de mo ns t r a t i o n p roject s s houl d com m a n d fu n d i n g n eces s a ry to e ns u r e t h ei r r a p i d developm e n t a n d de mo ns t r a t i o n . Effi ci e n t use of e ne rgy a n d co nse rv a t i o n of e ne rgy s hou l d be gi ve n top p r i o r i t y i n n a t io n a l e ne rgy pol ic ies . ( e ) M A NA G E M E NT O F WAT E R RES O URCE S (A ) Conven ti on al : 1 . Effi cie n t use of wat e r : i t i nc l u des c h a n ges i n wat e r use , c h a n ges i n a l l oca t io n , c h a n ges i n ut i l i s a t io n (e . g. c roppi n g p a t t e r n ) - t he fol lowi n g m et hods ca n be a dopt ed to p r eve n t h u ge wate r loosed a n d m i s di s t r i but io n of sup pl i es for i r r i ga t i o n ( a ) Sci e n t i fic l ayou t of fa r m d i s t r i but io n sys te m - by l i n i n g wate rcou rs es wi t h i m pe rv ious m a t e r i a l s o r u n de rg ro u n d p i pel i n es . (b) Ope r a t io n of del i ve ry sc hed ul e bas ed upo n vapou r t r a n s p i r a t io n val ues – h ypsom et e r m odel . (c) Need t o develop a u n i fo r m c ropp i n g p at t e r n - i t wi l l h e l p i n p l a n n ed sys te m a t i c r e gu l a t io n of wat e r. ( d) Op t i m i s a t io n of c rop p roduct io n wi t h ava i l abl e wate r sup ply. (e) Co nj u nct ive use of s u rf ace wat e r- t o m a i n t a i n wat e r t abl e bal a n ce a n d a t t he s am e t i m e m eet t h e n eed based wate r r e qu i r em e n t s of c rops f rom t i m e t o t i m e . (f) Wa t e r a p pl i c a t i o n sys te m i nvolves - S u rf ace i r r i ga t i o n - S ubs u rface i r r i ga t i o n - Ove r h e ad i r r i g a t io n A mo n g t hes e ove r he a d i r r i ga t i o n sys te m i s m os t effi cie n t . ( g) La n d g r a d i n g ( h ) P rovis io n of d r a i n a ge . 2 . D eman d con trol Eco nom i c- wat e r s houl d be us ed mo re wisel y to i m p rove t he econom y of t he whol e sys t em . T h i s ca n be ac h i eved by e ncou r a gi n g devices s uc h a s d ue l fl us h l av at o ry sys t em s , wh i c h gi ve a n equ a l pe rfo r m a n ce for l es se r co ns u m p t io n of wat e r. Al so l e ak a ge of wat e r t h rou g h di s t r i but io n sys te m s houl d be c hecked p rope r ly. I n s t i t u t i o n a l – t h e m u l t ifu n ct io n a l a u t ho r i t y r es po ns ibl e fo r p l a n n i n g a n d ope r a t io n wi t h i n a n a re a defi ned by n a t u r a l c at c h m e n t s s houl d be robus t a n d effect ive i n s t i t u t io n for wat e r m a n a ge m e n t . It offe rs t h e mos t di rec t way of r eco nc i l i n g t h e va r i ous com pet i n g a s pect s of wate r for t he va r ious se rvi ces . Tec h no logi ca l - t h e m o re ve rs a t i l e t ec h n i q ue for co nj u nc t i ve us e of s u rf ace a n d u n de rg ro u n d sou rces of wat e r h a s com e up . T he econom i c i m po r t a nce of us i n g u n de rg rou n d s to r a ge i n p r i n ci p l es

so fa r a s poss ibl e fo r no r m a l s up pl i es i s n ow wel l es t abl i s he d . It i s l i ke ly to be r e i nfo rced i n som e pl aces by a r t i fi ci a l r ec h a rge of u n de rg rou n d s t r a t a wi t h r i ve r wat e r i n t i m es of s u r pl us . T h us t he g ro u n d wat e r l evel ca n wel l be m a i n t a i n ed i n l ea n pe r iod us i n g i t fo r s m a l l p u r pos es . (A ) No conven ti on al ( 1) Re-use of wat e r : (e . g. sewa ge, d r a i n a ge , a n d was tewat e r ) u nfo rt u n a t ely, tod ay, wate r i n i t s n a t u r a l s t a t e i s t oo ofte n i n wro n g pl ace a t t he wro n g t i m e a n d i n wro n g qu a n t i t y a n d somet i m es of t h e wro n g qu a l i ty. Wi t h eve r g r a t e r cos ts a n d d iffi cul t i es - pol i t i c a l a s wel l as p hys i ca l – of developi n g n ew sou rce of r aw wate r or p rovi d i n g lo n g- t e r m s to r a ge , t h e poss ibi l i t y of us i n g s am e wate r mo r e t h a n once becom es i nc r e as i n g l y a t t r ac t ive . At t em pt s a r e bei n g m a de t o r eus e effl ue n t aft e r ce r t a i n a m ou n t of t r e a t m e n t s for va r ious pu r poses . i ) Reus e fo r pot abl e p u r pos es . Fo r ex a m pl e i i ) Reuse fo r m u n i c i p a l o r a m e n i t y pu r poses (s t ree t was h i n g, fi re fi gh t i n g et c i i i ) I n d i r ect use i n cl ud i n g r ec h a rge ( rec h a rg i n g t o g rou n d by m ak i n g bore hol es ) i v) Reus e fo r i n dus t r i a l p u r pos es ( m a i n l y for cool i n g) v) Ag r i cu l t u r a l r e use aft e r m a k i n g s u re t h a t no p a t ho ge ns i s t he r e . vi ) F is h fa r m i n g 2 ) Des a l i n a t i o n of se awa t e r, br ack i s h wate r T h e vas t pot e n t i a l of s eawa t e r t o fu r n i s h f res h wate r a n d “m a ke t he dese r t bloom ” h a s s t i r re d t he i m a gi n a t io n of m a n for ce n t u r i es . If econom i c a l ly vi abl e t ec h nol ogy i s developed, t he ocea n s wi l l solve t he p robl em of wat e r defi cie nci es wi t hou t fu r t h e r d a m a gi n g t h e biosp he r e Some m e t hods fo r des al i n a t io n a re a ) D i s t i l l a t io n (us ed i n a i r fo rce bases i n S a udi A r abi c Be r m ud a ) b) E l ec t rol ys i s – s uc h p l a n t s h ave been developed i n Net h e r l a n d s , J ap a n a n d USA. c) F r eeze – sepa r a t i o n – p i l ot p l a n t s h ave come up a t C a l ifo r n i a , Flo r i d a , a n d No rt h C a ro l i n a . (f ) C O PI N G WI T H T H E T RANS PO RT PRO B L E M 1 . S t r i ke a bal a n ce betwee n va r i ous modes of t r a ns po r t . 2 . Com m u n i ty t r a ns po r t sys t em s houl d be e ncou r a ge d i n p l ace of i n d ivi du a l t r a n s po r t . 3 . Tr affi c i n t r u s i o ns i n to t ow ns a n d a re as of n a t u r a l wi l dl i fe, h i s t o r i c h e r i t a ge etc s houl d be p reve n t e d. 4 . Resolvi n g confl i ct betwee n t ou r i s m a n d co nse rv a t i o n i n n a t io n a l p a r ks a n d ecologic a l ly vul ne r ab le a r e as . 5 . Co ns e rva t io n a n d effi cie n t use of e ne rgy a n d se a r c h fo r n ew a l t e r n a t i ve fuels . 6 . P reve n t i o n a n d co n t rol of pol l u t i o n fro m t r a n s po r t ve hi c l es t h i s c al l s for a ) E m i s s io n s t a n d a r d fo r d iffe re n t ve hi c l es t o bel i ed down . b) Tes t s fo r t h e above. c) E nfo r ce m e n t , l i ce n s i n g , & m o n i to r i n g. d ) Use of ca t a lyt i c co nve r t e rs i n ca r s , whi c h fo rces t h e ex h a us t g as es to r e ac t wi t h o ne a not he r t o n eu t r a l i z e t he h a r m fu l i m p a ct

e) New e n gi ne sys te m s for n ewe r fuels l i ke bio fuel s t h a t con t a i n bot h l i qu i d a n d ga s or h yd roge n a n d elect r i ci ty. T h ese a r e q ui e te r, effi cie n t , a n d no n - pol l u t i n g. f) App rop r i a t e l egi s l a t i o n t o p rovi de de te r r e n t s . g) Re-r e gi s t r a t io n of ve h i cl es above 15 yea r s a ge . h ) To p reve n t noi s e pol l ut io n p l a n t i n g of t rees , bet t e r t r affic m a n a ge m e n t & des i g n of ve hi c l es . 7 . Sociologi ca l aw a r e n ess , educ a t io n , & t r a i n i n g for t r a n s po r t m a n a ge r s a n d a l so co ns u m e r s i n or de r t o r e duce a cc i de n t r i s ks n oi s e a n d n u i s a nce . If we do n’t e ncou r a ge some i m a gi n a t i ve t h i n k i n g about a l t e r n a t i ve ways of ge t t i n g a ro u n d , we s h a l l e nd up l i ke t h e t h r ee qu a r t e rs of t he wo rl d who s t i l l h ave onl y one for m of t r a n s po r t : t he i r feet . 3 . 8 TO WARDS SE CURI T Y AND S US TAI NA B L E DE VE L O PME NT T h e fi rs t s tep i n c re a t i n g a m o re s a t i s facto ry bas i s fo r m a n a gi n g t he i n t e r re l a t i o ns h i p betwee n secu r i ty and s us t ai n abl e develop m e n t i s t o b roa de n ou r vis io n . Co nfl i c ts m ay a r i s e no t o nl y beca use of pol i t i c a l a n d m i l i t a r y t h re a t s to n a t i o n a l sove rei g n t y, t h ey m ay de r i ve a l so f rom e nvi ro n m e n t a l deg r a d a t i o n a n d t h e p re -em pt io n of developm e n t opt io n s T h e re a r e , of cou rs e , n o m i l i t a ry sol ut io n s to e nvi ro n m e n t a l i ns ecu r i t y a n d mode r n wa rfa r e c a n i t sel f c re a t e m ajo r i n t e r n a t io n a l ly s h a re d e nvi ro n m e n t a l h a z a r ds . Fu r t h e r mo re , t he i dea of n a t io n a l sove rei g n t y h a s been fu n d a m e n t a l ly m odifi ed by t he fact of i n t e r depe n de nce i n t he r e a l m of econom i cs , e nvi ro n m e n t a n d s ecu r i ty. Coope r a t i ve m a n a ge m e n t : T h e re i s n eed of gl obal coope r a t io n a mo n g n a t i o ns to t ac kl e i nc r e as i n g e nvi ro n m e n t a l s t ress es s uc h a s US - C a n a d i a n com m i ss io n fo r t he g r e a t l akes , UNEP It woul d be h i g h l y des i r ab le i f t he a pp rop r i a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l orga n i s a t i o ns we re to pool t h ei r r esou rces a n d d r aw o n t he mos t sop h i s t i ca t ed s u rvei l l a nce t ec h no logy av a i l ab le to es t abl i s h a r e l i abl e ea r l y wa r n i n g sys te m fo r e nvi ro n m e n t a l r i s ks a n d confl i c ts . Suc h a sys te m woul d m o n i to r i n d i c a t o rs of r i s ks a n d pot e n t i a l di s p ut es s uc h a s s a i l e ros io n g rowt h i n r e gi o n a l m i g r a t io n a n d us es of com mo ns t h a t a r e a pp ro ac h i n g t h e t h r es ho l ds of s us t a i n abi l i ty. Di s a r m a m e n t A n d Secu r i ty. A b roa de r a p p roac h t o secu r i ty a s sess m e n t s woul d be n o doubt fi nd m a n y c ases i n whi c h n a t io n a l , r e gi o n a l a n d gl obal s ecu r i t y coul d be e n h a nce d t h rou g h ex pe nd i t u r es q ui t e s m al l i n r e l a t io n t o l evels of m i l i t a ry s pe n d i n g . Fou r of t he mos t u rge n t gl oba l e nvi ro n m e n t a l r e qu i re m e n t s – r e l a t i n g to t ropi c al fo res t s , wat e r ; des e r t if ic a t i o n a n d popul a t i o n coul d m i l i t a ry s pe n di n g. S ubs t a n t i a l n u m be r of m i l i t a r y a g r eem e n t s a l r e a dy s how t he pot e n t i a l fo r n e got i a t ed m u l t i l a t e r a l sol u t i o ns . Na t io n s m us t t u r n ways f rom des t r uc t ive logi c a n a r m s cul t u re a n d focus on t he i r com mo n fut u re . T h e l evel of a r m a m e n t s a n d des t r u ct io ns t hey coul d b ri n g about bea r no r e l a t i o n to pol i t i c a l confl i c t s t h a t t r i gge r t h e a r m s com pe t i t io n . Na t io n s m us t no t become p r i so ne rs of t he i r ow n a r m s r a ce . T h ey m us t face t h e com m o n d a n ge r i n h e r e n t i n t he weapo n s of n ucl e a r a ge . T h ey m us t face t he com mo n c h a l l e n ge of p rovi d i n g for sus t a i n ab le develop m e n t

a n d a ct i n conce r t to r e m ove t he g rowi n g e nvi ro n m e n t a l sou rces of co nfl i ct .

4 . 0 PU B L I C AWARE NE SS M O VE M E NTS & L E G AL PO L I CI ES 4 . 1 Movemen ts A n i nc re as i n g n u mbe r of people a ccept t h i s p l a ne t was n ot jus t c re a t ed fo r t h e selfi s h e njoyme n t of ho mos a pi e ns , but t h a t ot he r c re a t u r es h ave a r i g h t to l ive on i t a s wel l . O ne ca n not ki ck t h e l a d de r of n a t u r e aw ay fro m u n de r us , fo r we a r e p a r t of n a t u re t oo. T h e r e a l i s at i o n t h a t pu t t i n g you r own ho us e i n o rde r, on i t s own , wi l l no t solve t h e p roblem s t h a t t he wo rl d faces . But doi n g t h i s , a l o n g wi t h t hous a n ds a n d m i l l i o ns of ot he r s a t t he s a m e t i m e act i n g on a bro ade r f ro n t by wei gh i n g e nvi ro n m e n t a l cos ts vers us so ca l l ed developm e n t a l cost h a s r es ul t ed i n t h e g rowt h of movem e n t s a l l ove r t he wo rl d . Som e of t h e i m po r t a n t m ovem e n t s a r e t h e Am e r i c a n B r i a r p a t c h m ovem e n t , t h e G ree n peace Movem e n t a n d i n In d i a t h e C h i pko Moveme n t wh ic h were s t a r t ed to comb at t he pol i ci es fo r ecologi ca l ly u n sou n d develop m e n t . T h e C h i pko m ovem e n t wh i c h s t a r t ed i n 19 73 i s a m a n i fes t a t i o n of a nc i e n t I n d i a ’s A r a n ya C ul t u r e , wh ic h s t r es ses t h e fu n d a m e n t a l h a r m o ny betwee n huma n b e i n gs an d na t ure . It bega n a ga i n s t wa n to n des t r uct io n of fores t s for s ho r t - t e r m com m e rci a l g a i ns . In i t i a l ly t hou gh i t bega n as a n eco nom i c m ovem e n t , i t soo n bec am e a s i g n if ic a n t ecologic a l m ovem e n t . T h e C h i p ko m ovem e n t h a s focussed on t h e devas t a t i n g cons eque nces of m ode r n Wes te r n t ype developm e n t pol ic ies bas ed o n h e avy i n dus t ry. It h as s t r ess ed t he r e l ev a n ce of develop m e n t based on t h e I n d i a n t r a d i t io n as des c r ibed by M a h a t m a Ga n d h i . As a t r ue Ga n d h i a n m ovem e n t , i t h a s r e l i ed o n t he p a r t i ci p a t io n of t h e peop le i n s avi n g t h e fo res t a n d t h e e nvi ro n m e n t a l . C h i p ko m ovem e n t ’s i m p act ca n be see n a l l ove r I n d i a , es peci a l ly i n fores t a r e as . It i s act i ve i n t h e sout he r n s t a t e of K a r n a t a k a , i n M a h a r as h t r a , i n D a rjeel i n g des t r uc t of Wes t Be n g a l , i n A r av a l i h i l l s of R aj as t h a n a n d i n 19 82 Ut t a r a k h a n d S am odaya b rot h e r hood h a d com e out wi t h a n a l t e r n a t ive p l a n of develop m e n t of t he a re a - “bl ue p r i n t fo r t h e s u rviva l of t h e hills”. C h i p ko ’s sol ut io n to t he p robl em i s : ( 1) Aus te r i ty ( 2) A l t e r n a t ives t h a t a re e nvi ro n m e n t a l l y vi able ( 3) Affores t a t i o n S i m i l a r l y t he Te h r i D a m Movem e n t h a s g a i ne d mo me n t u m . 4 . 2 L E G A L PO LI CI ES I n d i a i s o ne of t h e ve ry few cou n t r i es of t h e wor l d , whi c h e ns h r i ne d i n i t s co ns t i t u t io n a com m i t m e n t to e nvi ro n m e n t a l p rot ect io n a n d i m p rovem e n t . I n I n d i a se r ious a t t e n t io n t owa r ds e nvi ro n m e n t a l i ss ues bega n i n 197 2 , whe n gove r n m e n t of I n d i a s et up a com m i t t ee o n h u m a n e nvi ro n m e n t .

I n Novembe r 19 80 t he gove r n m e n t of In d i a set up a n od a l dep a r t m e n t of e nvi ro n m e n t a n d l a t e r t h e m i n i s t ry of e nvi ro n m e n t a n d fo res t was fo r m e n d i n 198 5 . Some of t h e r ece n t Act s e n act ed by t he p a r l i a m e n t a r e : 1 . Fo res t (co ns e rva t io n ) Act , 198 0 . 2 . T h e p r eve n t i o n of a i r a n d wat e r pol l u t i o n on Act , 19 74 – 81 . 3 . T h e a i r p r eve n t io n a n d con t rol of pol l ut io n Act , 19 81 . 4 . T h e e nvi ro n m e n t p ro tect i o n Act , 1 986 . 5 . T h e a m e n ded m oto r veh i c les a ct . Fl aw s O f T h es e Ac ts : ( g) A l l a u t ho r i t y i s vest ed wi t h ce n t r a l govt . ( h ) A re as of j u r i s d i ct io n h ave not bee n cl ea r l y de m a rc a t ed . ( i ) T h e re i s no cl ea r p rovi s io n for p ubl i c p a r t i ci p a t io n whi c h i s so Vi t a l fo r e nvi ro n m e n t p ro tect i o n . (j ) Rol e of vol u n t a ry bodi es n eeds to be e n h a nced . ( k) T h e re i s no m a n d a t o ry p rovis io n fo r t h e i n d us t r y t o p r ep a r e a n d s ubm i t t o t h ei r co nce r ne d a u t ho r i t i es a s ui t abl e e nvi ro n m e n t i m p act as s es s me n t r e po r t befo re t he l oca t io n i s a p p roved . T h e deci s io n - m ak i n g a n d e nfo rcem e n t a u t ho r i t i es u n de r wate r a n d a i r a ct s do n ot h ave a de qu a t e e nfo rce me n t powe rs . T h e re a r e no i n de pe n de n t o r ex pe r t bodi es . T he r e was t h u s l ac k of i n t e res t bot h fro m offici a l s a n d t h e publ ic . No wo nde r t he a ct s fai l ed m i se r abl y i n di s c h a rgi n g t he i r fu nc t i o ns . Judi c i a l Ac t ivi sm Mo re t h a n l e gi s l a t ive a n d execut ive m e as u res , i t i s t h e jud ic i al a ct ivi s m t h a t h a s h e l ped t he c aus e of e nvi ro n m e n t t h ro u gh t h e concept of publ ic i n t e res t l i t i g a t io n a n d t h e dyn a m i c i n t e r p re t a t i o n of a s i n gl e wor d, n a m ely, ‘l ife’ a s i t occu rs i n a r t . 2 1 of t he cons t i t ut i o n . T h e re i s a pl e t ho r a of c ase l aw. E . g. t . D a m oda r Rao Vs . S .O . M u n i ci p a l Co rpo r a t i o n , Hyde r ab ad A . I.R . 198 7 AP. A not he r case wh i c h dese rve rs m e n t io n i s M . C . Mel t a Vs Uni o n of In d i a , mo re popu l a r l y k now n as S h r i r a m Food a n d Fe r t i l i z e r i n d us t r i es c ase dea l i n g wi t h esc ape of ol eos ga s . T h e sp i r i t of publ ic i n t e res t Li t i ga t i o n co n t i n ues to be t he sole r e pos i to ry of t h e h i g h e r jud ic i a ry a n d i t h a s no t pe rcol a t ed down t o t h e s ubo rd i n a t e cou r t s . Eve n ot he r wi se, P. I. L. m ay be a n effect ive for u m ; i t ca n n eve r be a n a l t e r n a t ive r e m ed i a l fo ru m . He nce e nvi ro n m e n t a l cou r t s m us t be brou gh t i n t o ex i s t e n ces fo rt hw i t h . Some ot he r s u gges t i o n s a r e a s u n de r : ( 1) In d i a n eeds l egi s l a t i o n s i m i l a r to n a t io n a l e nvi ro n m e n t a l pol icy a ct of 19 69 of vs . to m a ke e nvi ro n m e n t a l i m p act a s sess m e n t a n d p ubl i c p a r t i c i p a t io n s t a t ut o ry r e qu i re m e n t s wi t h p rovi s io ns fo r go i n g sc r ut i ny. ( 2) I n s t e ad of goi n g to cou r t s , i t i s a dvis able t o ves t t h e e nfo rcem e n t a u t ho r i t i es wi t h powe r of i m pos i n g p rop i t i a t o ry pe n a l t i es fo r t h i s pu r pose , a n i n depe n de n t a ge n cy co ns i s t i n g of ex pe r t s i n t he co nce r ne d d i sc i pl i nes s uc h a s ecology, l aw, econom i cs a n d pl a n n i n g be cons t i t u t ed wi t h a de qu a t e fu nds a n d a s t ro n g i nf r as t r uct u r e of i n s pecto r a t e .

( 3) T he i n d us t r i a l u n i t s s houl d be s ubjected to t h e l e ga l r e qu i r em e n t of m ak i n g t he i r ba l a nce s heet ava i l abl e for soci al a u di t . Mo reove r, a n effect ive del ive ry s up po r t sys te m s houl d be c re a t ed to h e l p no t so r i c h i n d us t r i es i n con t a i n i n g t h e p robl em s of e nvi ro n m e n t a l deg r a d a t i o n t h rou g h l oa n , e n t e r p r i s es , s upe rvi s io n etc . But , i t m us t a l ways be kep t i n m i n d t h a t l e gi s l a t io n a lo ne i s n o sol u t i o n . It ca n on ly a ct a s a ca t a lys t whe n a l l t h e ot he r s upp l em e n t i n g facto rs a r e i n p rope r s h a pe a n d a r e fu nct io n i n g effect ively. CO NC L US I O N At p res e n t we l i ve i n a l i fe des t royi n g soci ety. We a r e l ivi n g o n n a t u re ’s cap i t a l i ns t e ad of i t s i n com e. In n a t u re , p rod uc t i o n ex act l y m a t c h es co ns u m p t io n . Eve ryt h i n g t h a t g rows eve n t u a l l y decom poses , t h e de a t h a n d dec ay of one bei n g becomes t h e p r e con di t i o n for t h e l i fe of a not he r. But ou r i n d us t r i a l ly, based l ife s t yle , o n t he ot he r h a n d , cons i s t s of loose e n ds . Raw m a t e r i a l s a r e conve r t e d i n t o cons um e r p rod uc ts a n d t hes e a r e no t r e cycl ed. I n s t e ad t h ey e n d u p a s sou rces of pol l u t i o n . O n ly by m a k i n g cons e rv at i o n a wo rl dwi de i ss ue c a n be c h a n ge ou r soci ety i n t o one wh ic h p rot ects a n d fi n a l l y r e n ews t h e e a r t h ’s l ivi n g r esou rces . We m us t not onl y cons um e l es s , but we m us t l e a r n t o co ns u m e d iffe re n t l y a n d we m us t pe rs u ade t he ot he r s to do so as wel l . P l a ne t a ry h ousekeep i n g i s a s ki l l , wh i c h we h ave t o u n de r s t a n d p rope r l y. P roject s wh i c h r e new t he e nvi ro n m e n t by u n doi n g p as t ho us ekeepi n g a r e ou r bes t ho pe for t he fut u r e . B I B I L I O G RAPH Y 1 . “Ou r Com m o n Fu t u r e ” ( T h e wo rl d com m i s s io n on e nvi ro n m e n t a n d developm e n t ) 2 . “E nv i ro n m e n t a l P rotect i o n a n d In d us t r i a l Developm e n t ” A n i l Ku m a r, Umes h P r a s ad S i n g h 3 . “E nv i ro n m e n t a l Co ns e rva t i o n a n d P l a n n i n g” R aje nd r a Menaria 4 . “Develop m e n t wi t hout des t r uc t i o n ” ( Evolvi n g e nvi ro n m e n t a l pe r cep t i o ns ) – M .K . Tolb a 5 . “ Eco nom i cs of E nvi ro n m e n t ” edi t ed by M a l com Adi s e hs a i h 6 . “ E nvi ro n m e n t a l Co nce r n s a n d S t r a t egi es ” T.N . K hos ho 7 . “Ag ro- Ecology for S us t a i n abl e Develop me n t ” – M i c he l Dove r & Lee M . Ta l bot 8 . “Bl ue P r i n t for a G ree n P l a ne t ” Jo h n Seymou r & Herbe r t G i r a r det 9 . “E nv i ro n m e n t a l Pol l ut io n co nse rv a t i o n & P l a n n i n g “ P. Na t h & S. Nath 1 0. “Ai r Pol l ut i o n ” - M .N . R ao 11 . “Ag r i c ul t u r e for 2 1 s t C e n t u ry” – S . H. Wi t twe r 1 2. “A gr i cu l t u re t owa r ds 200 0 ” Rome F.A . O . 1 3. “To Feed t he E a r t h ” M i c h a el J . Dove r 1 4. “T h e Ecology a n d Developm e n t i n 3 r d wo rl d ” – A . Gu pt a 1 5. “Ret h i n k i n g Developm e n t ” ( In se a r c h of a l t e r n a t i ves )R aj i n i Kot h a r i .