El21 Handbook July 2005

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EL21 Writing up Research

EL21 WRITING UP RESEARCH This course is as an online resource at: http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/wur/content.htm

1. The Research Process: “Begin with the End in Mind” Graduate students conduct research to make an original contribution to knowledge. The thesis is a formal document that makes clear why your research topic was explored, how you conducted your research, and what has been learned from your research, i.e., your original contribution to knowledge. The thesis is an end product. With it you show the world that: • •

you have identified a worthwhile problem or question which had not been answered before, and you have solved the problem or answered the question.

Your research is judged by examiners who must be convinced that your question or problem is original and your answer or your solution is useful. The examiners read your thesis to find the answers to the following questions: • • • •

What is this student's research question? Is it a good question? (Has it been answered before? Is it a useful question to work on?) Did the student convince me that the question was adequately answered? Has the student made an adequate contribution to knowledge?

The Research Topic: the thesis – a proposition stated for consideration, especially to be discussed and proved or maintained against objections. •

•

The topic of your research may be given to you or may be an area that you have been interested in exploring for a long time. Much more important than a topic is the research question you pose or the research problem that you will explore. A very clear statement of the problem or a research question is essential to proving that you have made an original and worthwhile contribution to knowledge. This is a statement of the problem or thesis statement. To prove the originality and value of your contribution, you must present a thorough review of the existing literature on the subject, and on closely related subjects. Then, by making direct reference to your literature review, you must demonstrate that your question (a) has not been previously answered, and (b) is worth answering. You must present the methods you used to collect or to generate data and then to analyze the data. After this point, you present your results, you discuss them in light of your analysis and then you conclude. A complete list of references appears after the conclusion.

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EL21 Writing up Research

Good Academic Writing Research involves thinking and writing. The writing you submit should be your own; it should be concise; it should be consistent in style and format; it should contain no spelling mistakes; it should demonstrate your professionalism.

1.1 The framework for a thesis is well-established. In some cases, a researcher must add a special chapter or replace standard chapters with special ones. In some cases, the review of the relevant literature is part of Chapter 1. Such variations from the norm are worked out with your adviser. The Thesis Rubric Title page Acknowledgments Abstract Table of contents List of abbreviations List of tables and figures

Chapter # Page # Tense page i simple present & past simple present & past

Introduction Literature review

Chapter 1 Chapter 2

Methodology Results Discussion Conclusion

page 1

simple present & past present but mostly past mostly simple past mostly simple past simple present & past and present perfect simple present and present perfect

List of references (Appendices) WARNING

It is absolutely necessary that the introduction matches the conclusions; for example, if in the introduction three objectives are stated, then in the conclusion the reader must learn how the three objectives have been met. Research is a process that starts with a topic followed by a lot of thinking and writing. An early writing task is the research proposal.

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EL21 Writing up Research

The Proposal Rubric Title page Table of contents List of abbreviations List of tables and figures Introduction Literature review Methodology Timeline/work schedule /budget List of references

Chapter # Page # Tense page i

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3

page 1

simple present & future present but mostly past present but mostly future

Notice that the first three chapters of the thesis are different from the proposal’s chapters but they bear the same names. One tells what happened, the other what you plan to do. Understand the warning now? These are not always the same. When the proposal is accepted or approved, the process of implementing a method to find answers to questions begins. When it is finished, the process of rewriting the proposal can begin, as well.

1.2 Points to keep in mind 1.2.1 Your advisor / chairperson is your ally. When you go to the committee for reactions to your proposal make sure your major professor is fully supportive of you. Spend time with him/her before the meeting so that your plans are clear and you know you have full support. The proposal meeting should be seen as an opportunity for you and your major professor to seek the advice of the committee. Don't ever go into the proposal meeting with the feeling that it is you against them! Thesis research is directed research. Your advisor must give you advice. You must do the work. 1.2.2. Style Guides References and referencing APA – American Psychologists Association: http://www.apastyle.org/ Useful abridged versions of the APA: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPA.html http://webster.commnet.edu/apa/apa_index.htm http://www.wssu.edu/library/guides/apa.asp 1.2.3. On-line resources www.google.com Dictionary/Encyclopedia/Grammar Checker/Advisor Other schools and thesis proposal guidelines. E.g. http://theses.mit.edu/ 1.2.4. What method do you use for keeping track of all the journals articles, Webpages, etc. that you have been collecting or will collect for your research?

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EL21 Writing up Research

1.3 Good Academic Writing In academic contexts, whatever you are writing, be it an essay, a report, a research proposal, a dissertation or a thesis, the writing must be concise, clear and focused. There are conventions, disciplines and expectations that should be adhered to. The following suggestions are some of the dos and don’ts of good academic writing: Good Academic Writing Involves: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

originality, innovation, creativity, consistence logical development and linking of ideas discipline-based conventions balanced description and analysis evidence and examples in support of claims formal academic vocabulary gender-neutral language accepted grammatical constructions uncomplicated grammatical structures considered use of passive voice paraphrase and summary discreet use of direct quotes definition and clarification of symbols, words, phrases appropriate use of numbers and abbreviations appropriate use of text, tables, figures to present information signposts to guide readers through text claims supported by citations very careful referencing and citing a comprehensive works cited or bibliography.

Good Academic Writing Avoids: • • • • • • •

pompous proclamation long-winded esoteric discussion fascinating but irrelevant information lengthy convoluted sentences and paragraphs complicated words and phrases where simple ones will do slang, contractions, abbreviations, clichés use of the first person (I, we, my, our)

Based on a handout developed by Jenny Buxton, University of Auckland (2001).

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2. Editing and proofreading to achieve good academic writing Task 1

Look over the excerpt below from an AIT Thesis (Chapter 3) carefully. Pay attention to the lists. The object of this task is to learn to be consistent and to have someone else read your writing critically. Excerpt Source: An AIT thesis. TOPIC: Online Database and Expert System Development (This thesis was chosen because it is quite well written, but there is always room for improvement.) FROM: Chapter 3 Methodology

3.1 Methodology of Database Development A design methodology is generally based on a top-down approach going from the end users to machine implementation. The basic phases of a typical methodology is shown followings: • Capture and abstraction of user requirements. • Integration of external views. • Normalization of conceptual relations. • Optimization of internal schema. … 3.2 The Expert System Methodology and Development Lifecycle The process of expert system development can be compared with the traditional software lifecycle by identifying six phases in the expert system construction process. These phases are as follows: 1. Feasibility analysis 2. Conceptual design 3. Knowledge acquisition 4. Knowledge representation 5. Validation … 3.2.3 Knowledge Acquisition The knowledge required for performing the task is acquired from a human expert, case histories and reference sources. This phase deals with the task of obtaining knowledge and formalizing it so that it can be included in the expert system’s knowledge-base. Since expert systems rely heavily on the quality of the knowledge they possess, knowledge acquisition is a crucial part of the expert system construction process. Users’ views, expert opinions, or operational criteria are used to determine whether the expert system has achieved an acceptable degree of success. Intuitively, the aim of a validation effort for any system is to prove the system works properly. The concerns of validation • Validation should not be regarded as identical to verification. • Validation refers to building the right system, that is, determining whether the system does what it was meant to do and at an acceptable level of accuracy. Validating an expert system involves confirming that the expert system performs the desired task with a sufficient level of expertise. • Verification refers to building the system “right”, that is, determining whether the system implementation correctly corresponds to its specification. Therefore, verifying an expert system means confirming the program accurately implements the acquired expert knowledge as documented.

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Task 2

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EL21 Writing up Research

Paragraph 2.1 in the box below needs editing. It comes from a section on methodology. Most of the article reads well, but this paragraph clearly needs revision. Look it over carefully and find a way to improve it.

Towards the Efficient Communication of Knowledge in an Adaptive Multimedia Interface Gonzalez C. S., Moreno L., Aguilar R.M., Estévez J.I. 2- PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION

Knowledge acquisition is the process of elicitation, analysis, interpretation and transformation of a human expert’s knowledge to a machine representation or a program. However, the quality of an expert system depends on the quality of the knowledge acquisition and, thus knowledge acquisition is a crucial and critical stage in the development of an expert system. 2.1 Acquisition Knowledge Tool

We have developed a software application that helps in the acquisition of the expert knowledge. We have considered two simultaneous goals. a) To make easier for teachers, the construction of their own learning activities. b) To register what activities the teacher carries out in order to explain a particular concept to a specific student, what goals considers, what kind of media utilizes, and finally, what positive and negative reinforcements applies after the result of the activity has been obtained. Gonzalez C. S., Moreno L., Aguilar R.M., Estévez J.I. (2000). Towards the efficient communication of knowledge in an adaptive multimedia interface. Proceedings of the workshop on Interactive learning environments for children. Athens: European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics. Retrieved February 2003, from http://ui4all.ics.forth.gr/i3SD2000/Gonzalez.PDF

Write your edited version of the paragraph below:

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EL21 Writing up Research

Documenting your sources is crucial. Do you do it now? Plagiarism is a crime. Putting the work and words of other authors into your thesis or assignments without citing the source is called plagiarism. It is considered to be the same as stealing or theft. Start documenting your sources as you read. Keep a list of all the articles, books, webpages, etc. that you skim, scan or read as you plan your research. A list of these references must appear at the back of proposal, report or thesis. Each item that you read is an entry in your list of references. This is what an entry for a journal article should look like in the list of references:

Reference Bohez, E. L. J., & Thieravarut, M. (1997). Expert system for diagnosing computer numerically controlled machines: a case-study. Computers in Industry, 32, 233248.

Authors’ names [Surname, initials] Year of publication Title of article.

Bohez, E. L. J., & Thieravarut, M. (1997) Expert system for diagnosing computer numerically controlled machines: a casestudy. Title of journal, Computers in Industry, Volume number and page numbers. 32, 233-248.

This is how to document a journal article using the APA referencing system. Now it is time for you to try it.

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TASK 3

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EL21 Writing up Research

Read the information in the box below, and write a reference entry for the journal article. First fill in the table, then write out the reference list entry.

Authors’ names [Surname, initials] Year of publication Title of article. Title of journal, Volume number and pages.

Reference

[answer] Authors’ names [Surname, initials] Year of publication Title of article. Title of journal, Volume number and pages.

Kakati, M. 2003 Success criteria in high-tech new ventures Technovation 23, 447-457

Reference Kakati, M. (2003). Success criteria in high-tech new ventures. Technovation 23, 447457.

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EL21 Writing up Research

3. The Introduction 3.1 Subheadings A proposal / thesis introduction may contain the following headings: Background Rationale

Problem Statement (Statement of the Problem) Objectives Scope

Limitations Assumptions

Hypothesis Hypotheses

What is the context of this problem? In what situation or environment can this problem be observed? Why is this research important? Who will benefit? Why do we need to know this? Why does this situation, method, model or piece of equipment need to be improved? What is it we do not know? What is the gap in our knowledge this research will fill? What needs to be improved? What steps will the researcher take to try and fill this gap or improve the situation? Is there any aspect of the problem the researcher will not discuss? Is the study limited to a specific geographical area or to only certain aspects of the situation? Is there any factor, condition or circumstance that prevents the researcher from achieving all his/her objectives? In considering his/her method, model, formulation or approach, does the researcher take certain conditions, states, requirements for granted? Are there certain fundamental conditions or states the researcher takes to be true? What ideas are suggested as a possible explanation for a particular situation or condition and will be proved to be correct or incorrect by the research?

3.2 Checklist When you have finished writing your introduction, you can either work with a friend and read each other’s writing using the following questions to analyze each other’s texts OR work on your own and use the following questions to analyze your own writing. •

Does the writer establish the field of research/background?

•

Does the writer move from topics of greater generality toward a focus on a specific problem?

•

Does the writer situate her (his) research problem in terms of other researchers’ work?

•

What kind of research problem is defined?

•

Does the writer indicate clearly what she (he) will do, and how?

•

Does the writer give any indications of anticipated outcomes?

•

Is the structure of the research indicated?

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3.3 The objectives… should be expressed in such a way that the reader can determine whether the objectives have been achieved or not. The best way to achieve this is by writing objectives in the form of a list. For example:

1. To give a clear description of the mass transit attractiveness factors in developing countries like Indonesia 2. To develop a model for assessing the attractiveness of mass transit alternatives 3. To apply the model for assessing alternatives and discuss the implications of selecting the aeromovel transit system for Indonesia

Possible concrete, finite objectives of research might be, for example, −

to describe the analysis of a phenomenon

−

to find out new information about a subject through empirical study

−

to create a mathematical model, chart, algorithm, or some other corresponding description

−

to develop a new system, method, process, product, or service for fulfilling a defined need more effectively than before

−

to outline the information concerning the subject and presenting a new synthesis of this information through literature survey, interviews, or corresponding methods

−

to present practical instructions, methods, and recommended actions for more effective solving of problem situations

−

to present alternative solutions

−

to determine the validity criteria for the alternative solutions

−

to prioritize alternative solutions

−

to identify alternative concrete solutions and evaluate their universal applicability; to present the risk analysis for alternative solutions and a concrete action plan

The rest of the thesis should support the achievement of the objectives stated in the first chapter. If necessary, individual objectives can be repeated later in respective parts of the thesis.

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3.4 A schema for introductions to journal articles

Move 1

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Move 2

Step 1a Step 1b Step 1c Step 1d Move 3

Step 1a Step 1b Step 2 Step 3

Establishing a field

Claiming centrality and/or Movement from the general to the specific and/or Reviewing relevant items of previous research Defining a research problem

Counter-claiming or Indicating a gap or Question-raising or Continuing a previously developed line of inquiry Proposing a solution to the problem defined

Outlining purposes or Announcing present research Announcing principal findings Indicating structure of the research

Adapted from Swales (1990) Genre Analysis. Cambridge, CUP.

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Task 4

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EL21 Writing up Research

The paragraphs from the introduction in the box below are in the wrong order. Put the paragraphs back in order.

A/ In previous work [2-5], the author made progress toward solving these rather complicated problems by developing a window system that combines air-flow windows with built-in automated venetian blinds and an artificial lighting control system. The system includes techniques to measure and analyze the solar position, incoming direct and measure and analyze the solar position, incoming direct blinds and adjust the slat angle to cut direct solar radiation above a certain threshold level, to predict the illuminance distribution for incoming light, and to control and dim excess artificial lighting. B/ However, before solar shading and daylighting can come into widespread use for energy conservation, systems implementing these technologies need to become simple and relatively inexpensive. There is currently strong demand for systems that are simple and easy to introduce. C/ If day light entering through windows can be used appropriately, controlled and dimmed, not only will the energy expended for lighting be decreased, but the air conditioning load can be reduced by an amount equal to the decrease in heat produced by lighting. Therefore, a very large energy saving can be expected [1]. D/ TT glass is applied in the present study in combination with float glass as panes separated by an air gap and with one surface sputtered-coated with a low-emissivity (low-e) coating. The possible energy savings by solar shading and daylighting are estimated, improvements in the indoor environment are evaluated, and the appropriate control of heat and light throughout the year is verified. E/ This system conveys a reduction in energy consumption of approximately 20%, demonstrating that through the use of sensor, communications and control systems, it is possible to satisfy the complicated requirements of office windows. F/ It is widely known that in Japanese offices, the largest proportion of energy is consumed by air conditioning, followed by lighting. G/ However, in order for solar shading and daylighting to be accepted by the occupants of offices, it is necessary for the windows to meet a wide range of requirements relating to not only the thermal environment but also to the light and visual environment, such as a feeling of spaciousness and a view. H/ Here, attention is focused on a new material called autonomous response dimming glass, or thermotropic or TT glass. Although this type of glass has already been studied from the viewpoint of daylighting [6], it is examined here in the context of an advanced window system, focusing particularly on thermal and visual comfort and energy conservation.

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4. The Literature Review 4.1 Purpose of the literature review

The literature review is a critical look at the published research that is significant to the work that you are carrying out. Some people think that it is a summary: this is not usually so. Although you need to summarize relevant research, it is also vital that you evaluate this work, show the relationships between different work, and show how it relates to your work. In other words, you cannot simply give a concise description of, for example, an article: you need to select what parts of the research to discuss (e.g. the method), show how it relates to the other work (e.g. What other methods have been used? How are they similar? How are they different?) and show how it relates to your work (what is its relationship to your method?). So in summary – keep in mind that the literature review should provide the context for your research by looking at what work has already been done in your research area. It is not supposed to be just a summary of other people's work! Here are some of the questions a literature review should attempt to answer: 1. What do we already know in the immediate area concerned? 2. What are the characteristics of the key concepts or the main factors or variables? 3. What are the relationships between these key concepts, factors or variables? 4. What are the existing theories? 5. Where are the inconsistencies or other shortcomings in our knowledge and understanding? 6. What views need to be (further) tested? 7. What evidence is lacking, inconclusive, contradictory or too limited? 8. Why study (further) the research problem? 9. What contribution can the present study be expected to make? 10. What research designs or methods seem unsatisfactory? (Adapted from http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM)

This is what a former AIT professor wrote about the literature review:

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES/LITERATURE REVIEW Discuss key attempts made by others to address the problem, the conclusions these attempts led to, and their strengths and weaknesses. Your discussion should be coherent and given in your own words. You may cite the literature, but the reader should be able to tell which parts are your own and which parts come from the literature. Sum up the strengths and weaknesses found in the literature and previous attempts and state the incremental improvements your work will make. (Saeed, K. (Undated) Format for writing papers/theses/proposals, Asian Institute of Technology)

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4.2 How to write a good literature review? Remember the purpose: It should answer the questions mentioned above. Look at how published writers review the literature. You will see that you should use the literature to explain your research. Your aim should be to show why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out. Read with a purpose: You need to summarize the work you read but you must also decide which ideas or information are important to your research, and which are less important and can be covered briefly or left out. You should also look for the major concepts, conclusions, theories, etc. that underlie the work, and look for similarities and differences with closely related work. Write with a purpose: Your aim should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y's theory more convincing than Researcher X's? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own. In order to do this effectively you should carefully plan how you are going to organize your work. Some traps to avoid: Trying to read everything! As you might already have discovered, if you try to be comprehensive you will never be able to finish the reading! The literature review should not provide a summary of all the published work that relates to your research, but survey of the most relevant and significant work. Reading but not writing! It's easier to read than to write. However, writing can help you to understand and find relationships between the work you've read. Also, don't think of what you first write as being the final or near-final version. Writing is a way of thinking, so allow yourself to write as many drafts as you need, changing your ideas and information as you learn more about the context of your research problem. Not keeping bibliographic information! The moment will come when you have to write your references page . . . and then you realize you have forgotten to keep the information you need. To avoid this nightmare, always keep this information in your notes. Always put references into your writing. (Adapted from http://www.languages.ait.ac.th/EL21LIT.HTM)

Literature review checklist: • • • • • • • •

Do you need a separate section called “Literature Review”? If you do need such a section: Do you introduce it, explaining what you are going to discuss in it and how it is organized? [note: do not refer to the literature in this section] Are your different sections linked and logically organized? Do you end your section with a summary? [note: do not refer to the literature in this section] Do you mention only works that are directly related to your research problem? Is your referencing system consistent or not? Do all the documents referred to appear in the “References” section?

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EL21 Writing up Research

PRACTICE 7 Generally speaking, which of these sources do you think are most important as sources? Which are least important? The literature might be any of the following: Books on theory Textbooks Edited collections of papers Papers in international, peer-refereed journals Papers in national peer-refereed journals Papers published in refereed conference proceedings Paper published in un-refereed conference proceedings Paper presented at a conference Paper presented at a seminar or workshop Doctoral dissertations Masters theses Graduate level ‘research studies’ Undergraduate level theses or research studies Websites Newspaper articles Reports by international and national government agencies Dictionaries Laws

**** *** ** * -

Essential sources Usually important sources Relatively important sources Marginally important sources Usually unimportant sources

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Task 5

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EL21 Writing up Research

Examine carefully the following excerpt from an AIT Master’s thesis proposal. What do you think? Is this an effective way to present a literature review?

Thesis title: Leadership styles of Construction Managers and their Impact on Project Performance

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Defining Leadership

Leadership is a sophisticated concept. There are many different definitions of leadership. Most of the definitions depending upon the writers. Fiedler (1967) defined a leader as "the individual in the group given the task of directing and coordinating task relevant group activities or who, in the absence of a designated leader, carries the primary responsibility for performing their functions in the group" Gibb (1954) stated a group leadership is "a position emerging from interaction process itself'. Sherif and Sherif (1956) suggested that leadership is "a role within the scheme of relations and is defined by reciprocal expectations between the leader and other members". Cooley (1902) stated the leader is "always the nucleus of a tendency, and on the other hand, all social movements, closely examined, will be found to consist of tendencies having such nuclei". Gordon (1955) defined leadership as "an interaction between a person and a group or, more accurately, between a person and the group members". Stogdill (1974) defined leadership as "the process of directing and influencing the task-related activities of group members". Walker (1989) suggested that leadership is "an intrinsic part of management. It is the manner in which the manager conducts himself in his role in order to obtain the best performance from the people he is managing". Szilagyi and Wallance (1990) stated that the leadership is "a process in which one person attempts to influence another to accomplish some goal or goals". As we can see that there are many different definitions of leadership, but there are similarities among these definitions. After reviewing the different definitions of leadership, leadership can be summarized as the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals. From the definition above, we can see that leadership is not a one way process, but a reciprocal process of influence between the leader and the group. The process of leadership can be subdivided into four stages of influences. The first stage, assignment, consists of activities such as planning and direction. The second stages, implementation, requires leadership activities that guide, monitor, delegate, and support subordinates in their work.

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Task 6

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EL21 Writing up Research

Carefully examine the following excerpt from an AIT Master’s thesis proposal. What do you think? Is this an effective way to present a literature review?

Thesis title: Applying system dynamics methodology to the management of large construction projects. TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ 1 List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 111 List of Tables.................................................................................................................................................. iv CHAPTER 1.......................................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1 1. 1 Background .............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Objectives.................................................................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Scope of Work........................................................................................................................................... 3 1.5 Expected Contribution .............................................................................................................................. 4 CHAPTER 2.......................................................................................................................................................... 4 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Characteristics of Construction Industry .................................................................................................. 5 2.3 Construction Management ........................................................................................................................ 5 2.3.1 Important Elements of Construction Management ............................................................................ 5 2.3.2 Multiple Project Objectives and Their Trade-Off .............................................................................. 6 2.3.3 Characteristics of Traditional Approaches in Construction Management......................................... 7 2.3.4 Factors Affecting Project Performance .............................................................................................. 8 2.3.5 Causes and Costs of Rework .............................................................................................................. 9 2.4 Applications of System Dynamics in Management ............................................................................... 10 2.4.1 The Roles of System Dynamics........................................................................................................ 10 2.4.2 New Paradigms for Complex Projects.............................................................................................. 11 2.4.3 System Dynamics in Project Management....................................................................................... 12 2.4.4 System Dynamics in Construction Management ............................................................................. 14 2.5 Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 16 …

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 General This literature review consists of various aspects regarding to construction industry, construction management, and applications of system dynamics, especially in project management. Critical characteristics and other factors of construction industry as well as construction project management will be briefly identified so as to explain why system dynamics must be needed in construction management while traditional approaches have exposed inadequately. Moreover, previous studies and their applications of system dynamics will be outlined to advocate system dynamics as a promising approach for managing construction projects at strategic level. 2.2 Characteristics of Construction Industry It has been known that the construction industry is usually characterized by its complexities, reluctance to change and resistance to innovations (Oglesby et al., 1989, and Palaneeswaran and Kumaraswamy, 2000). Construction is inherently risky; its projects are generally unique and prototype (Wantanakom et al., 1999 and Kale and Arditi, 1999). Oglesby et al (1989) pointed out some constraints peculiar to construction. They include:

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a) b) c) d)

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EL21 Writing up Research

Construction operates differently from other industries. Most construction projects are unique, fast-moving. The contractual structure is seldom conductive to cooperation among participants. Traditional hierarchical management structure within each organization blocks free discussion and exchanges of ideas. The usual attitude of construction people is to get on with the job.

In addition, Kale and Arditi (1999) summarized several unique characteristics of the construction industry: (1) fragmented industry structure, (2) fragmented organization of the construction process, (3) easy entry to the construction business, (4) post-demand production, (5) uniqueness of projects, (6) high uncertainty and risk involved, (7) high capital required for constructed facilities, and (8) temporary nature of the relationships between parties. They all must hamper new philosophies for performance improvements in construction organizations. It therefore requires more commitment of time, effort, talent and money (Oglesby et al., 1989). 2.3 Construction Management

Practices and philosophies such as benchmarking, concurrent engineering, customer driven, supplychain management, integrated information systems, integrated performance measurement, just-in-time, lean production, reengineering, total quality management, and six sigma have played vital roles in manufacturing and business sector (Palaneeswaran and Kumaraswamy, 2000). To some extent, they have been also applied in constructional all levels: business, project or construction process. However, as mentioned earlier, due to the unique characteristics of construction industry, construction management must bear its own particular traits to cope with performance requirements and improvements. 2.3.1 Important Elements of Construction Management

Wang (1987) (cited in Chang, 1990) proposed important elements of construction management. They consist of (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3) motivating, (4) directing, (5) communicating, (6) controlling, (8) coordinating and (9) forecasting. Thanks to the elements, construction management transform input including materials, equipment, manpower and finance into the facilities in such a way as to meet stakeholders' satisfaction. Therefore, project performance evaluation has often included the satisfaction of parties involved as a criterion for measuring the success of a project (Ashley et al., 1987; Pinto and Slevin, 1988, cited in Liu, 1999). … 2.5 Summary

The literature has highlighted that construction industry bears its own several unique characteristics in comparison with other areas. Such uniqueness has been challenging construction management at any levels, from corporate to process levels. Many methodologies, techniques, tools, and initiatives as well as management styles have been created in the industry and/or adopted from manufacturing or business sectors to improve both organizational and project performance. They have played vital and indispensable roles to deal with the challenge. It has been, however, recognized that the traditional approaches have exposed their inadequacies in coping with complex dynamic systems such as largescale construction projects and uncertain and ever-changing today business environments. To solve the problem, many methodologies must have continued being created, among them, system dynamics has been generating its significant role since it can help executives, managers and academics in systems thinking and continuous learning. In the project management arena, system dynamics has been applied so as to improve project performance. Nevertheless. its applications have been limited and fragmented, in construction, for example. Further studies must be therefore needed to advocate and prove system dynamics as a promising approach in construction management as strategic and holistic overviews.

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EL21 Writing up Research

4.3 Examples of how authors refer to the literature Some examples using the APA

Gallent (1998) suggests that the decline in cycling reflects… A MORI survey (1999) found that people thought… Banister (1999) points out that women are likely to be targeted… Root and Schintler (1999a) suggest this is leading to an increase… Banister and Gallent’s (1998) analysis of the 1991 UK census demonstrates that… The British Medical Association (1992) states that journeys of less than 3 miles… In support of this, Jones et al. (1996) presented … Potter et al. (1999) found that UK employer attitudes were not entirely positive… McClintock and Shackloek (1996), however, suggest that cycle facilities have little impact on … Kale and Arditi (1999) summarized several characteristics… Thomas et al. (2002) identified that the availability of resources is … Wang (1987, cited in Chang, 1990) proposed … Rodrigues (2001) recommended that system dynamics … Chang (2000) developed a model … Ford (2002) constructed a system dynamics model … Some examples using the number system

Lee et al. [1] defined ‘diagnosis’ as … The goal of diagnosis was defined by Genesareth [2] as … Krishnamurthy [3] concludes that … Lee et al. [1] commented that … Reiter [8] presented a strategy based on Lee’s [3] framework … In previous work [2-5], the author made progress toward solving … Although this type of glass has already been studied from the viewpoint of daylighting [6], it is examined here in the context of … Reiter [8] carried out similar work …

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EL21 Writing up Research

5. Referencing 5.1 Which Referencing System to Use? Ask your advisor. Look at published works in your field and see which system they use. The following Web site gives a clear overview of the different referencing systems possible: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Documentation.html At AIT, the 2 most common systems are:

• •

the APA (American Psychological Association). See below. the number system (used in Prof. Bohez’s paper attached to this handbook.). For more information about this system, check this Web site: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocNumberedReferences.html

Whatever system you choose, follow those basic rules:

•

For journal articles: Family name(s) of author(s) followed by initials Date of publication Title of article Emphasized name of journal Volume number and issue number Page number

•

For whole books: Family name(s) of author(s) followed by initials Date of publication Emphasized title Place of publication and name of publisher

•

For documents found on the Internet: Family name(s) of author(s) followed by initials Date of publication Emphasized title Retrieval date Place it was retrieved from URL

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EL21 Writing up Research

5.2 APA Style Guide The list below includes entries for documents AIT students commonly referred to. If you cannot find how to reference a certain document from the list below, try these Web sites, they offer useful abridged versions of the APA style guide: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPA.html http://webster.commnet.edu/apa/apa_index.htm http://www.wssu.edu/library/guides/apa.asp Brief introduction to the APA style guide

In-text, the name of the author and the date of publication should always appear. The page number is needed in the case of a quote only. E.g. … globalization will “force the third world into serving as a cheap labor pool for the West” (Oster, 2000, p. 9). See below in this handbook the excerpt from DeAnne K. Hilfinger Messias (2001). Globalization, Nursing, and Health for All. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 2001; 33:1, 9-11.

All the works referred to in your text should be listed in a list of references at the end of your paper. Your reference list should follow a specific format: Title Spacing Indentation Capitalization Italics

Punctuation

Type the word “References” at the top of a new page, centered. All entries should be double-spaced. The second and following lines of each entry is indented. This is crucial for readability. Capitalize only the first word of titles of books and articles and the first word after a colon. Use italics for: • titles of books • titles of journals and volume number Use a comma to separate: • surnames from initials • a newspaper title from p. or pp. • a journal title from volume number • a volume number from page numbers • when given, an issue number from page numbers • (Ed.) from book title • city of publication from state

Adapted from The Writing Center. (2003). Create an APA reference list. Retrieved June 5, 2003, from University of Wisconsin-Madison, The Writing Center Web site: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPAReferences_Format.html

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Books Bathe, K. J. (1996). Finite element procedures. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Author (year) Title of book. Place of publication: publisher The Author is the publisher: Oglesby, C. H., & Howell, G. A. (1989). Productivity improvement in construction. Washington DC: Author. One chapter or article in an anthology: Little, S. E., & Sauer, C. (1997). Organizational and institutional impediments to a problem-based approach. In D. Boud, & G. I. Feletti (Eds.), The challenge of problem-based learning (pp. 81-88). London: Kogan Page. No place of publication: Peral, J. (1988). Probabilistic reasoning in intelligent systems: Networks of plausible inference. (2nd ed.). Morgan Kauffman. Corporate (organization not a person) is the author: Asian Development Bank. (2003). Asian Development Outlook 2003. New York: Oxford University Press.

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EL21 Writing up Research

Journal articles One author:

Davis, R. (1984). Diagnostic reasoning based on structure and behavior. Artificial Intelligence, 4, 347-409. Two authors:

Hmelo, C. & Myo, Z.N. (1998). Problem-based learning: Effects on the early acquisition of cognitive skill in medicine. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7 (2), 173-208. Six authors or more:

(If a work has six authors, cite all authors. When a work has seven or more authors, cite the first six followed by “et al.”) Thomas, H. R., Moloney, W. F., Horner, R. M. W., Smith, G. R., Handa, V. K., Sanders, S. R., et al. (1990). Modeling construction labor productivity. Journal of construction engineering and management, 116 (4), 705-726. Magazine article

Kanok-Nukulchai, W. (2002, December). Khlong Prapa: A bridge over raw drinking water [Electronic version]. Asian Infrastructure Research Review, 4 (2), 10-19.

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Lecture notes

Vongvisessomjai, S. (2002). Engineering mathematics. (Lecture notes, Course No CE01.11, School of Civil Engineering). Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology. Conference Proceedings

Edited proceedings: Millan, E., Perez-de-la-Cruz, J. & Suarez, E. (2000). Adaptative bayesian networks for multilevel student modeling. In G. Gauthier, C. Frasson & K. VanLehn (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 534-543). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Un edited proceedings (write ‘In’ before the title): Murray, W. (1999). An easily implemented, linear time algorithm for Bayesian student modeling in multi-level trees. S. Lajoie & M. Vivet, In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Education (AI-ED 99), (pp. 153-162). Amsterdam: IOS Press. Dissertations, Masters Theses or Research Studies Chang, C. L. (1990). Applying R&D project dynamics concepts to construction management. (Masters research study No IE-90-1, Asian Institute of Technology, 1990). Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology. Chritamara, S. (2001). System dynamics modeling for design-build construction projects. (Doctoral dissertation No. ST-01-1, Asian Institute of Technology, 2001). Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology. Electronic Information – Internet

Paper posted on a university web site: Urbain-Lurain, M. (1996). Intelligent tutoring systems: An historic review in the context of the development of artificial intelligence and educational psychology. Retrieved June 2003, from Michigan State University, Division of Science and Mathematics Education Web site: http://www.cse.msu.edu/rgroups/cse101/ITS/its.htm Internet-only journal: Quinlan, K. M. (2000). Generating productive learning issues in PBL tutorials: An exercise to help tutors help students. Medical Education Online, 5, 4. Retrieved June 4, 2003, from http://www.med-ed-online.org

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Task 7

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EL21 Writing up Research

This is what a list of references following the APA style guide should look like. For each entry, try to find out the type of document it is: book, journal article, dissertation, etc. References

Asian Development Bank. (1997). Emerging Asia: Changes and challenges. Manilla: Asian Development Bank. Barnett, O. (1995). Information technology and medical education. JAMIA, 2, 285291. Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem-based learning methods. Medical Education, 20, 481-486. Ha, V. & Haddawy, P. (2003). Similarity of personal preferences: Theoretical foundations and empirical analysis. Artificial Intelligence, 146, 149-173. Mackenzie, E. (1997). Combining distance learning & problem based learning with a multimedia approach. In J. Willis & D. Ritchie (Eds.), Technology and teacher education annual 1997 (pp. 155-157). Charlottesville: Association for the Advancement of Computing Education. Rich, E. & Knight, K. (1993). Artificial Intelligence. Singapore: McGraw-Hill. Sharples, M., du Boulay, B. Teather, B. A., Teather, D., Jeffrey, N., du Boulay G. H. & al. (1995). The MR tutor: Computer-based training and professional practice. In J. Greer (Ed.), Proceedings of AI-ED’95 (pp. 429-410). Charlottesville, VA: ACCE. Sivagurunathan, B., Ahmed, K. M. & Rajatheva, R. M. A. P. (2003). Integration of terrestrial and satellite based cellular systems for rural mobile communications. Electronic Journal of the School of Advanced Technologies, 3 (1). Retrieved June 2003, from http://www.sat.ait.ac.th/ejsat/ Ventana Systems. (1996-2002). Vensim PLE (Version 5.1b) [Computer software]. UK: Ventana Systems. Yue, C. S. (1985). The role of foreign trade and investment in the development of Singapore. In W. Galenson (Ed.), Foreign trade and investment: Economic development in the newly industrializing Asian countries (pp. 112-134). Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.

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Task 8

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EL21 Writing up Research

The list of references below needs proofreading and editing. Make corrections to the list; follow the APA style guide. References

Adam, L. (1993) Rural families and earthquake disasters. International Journal of Rural and Regional Development, 6(3):pp.253-279.

ATC, (1996). Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Concrete Buildings, ATC-40 Report Number, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, California:ATC.

Bartlette, P. 1995. Information in the New Age. Berlin: Mouton de Guyter

Garside, R. (1987). The CLAWS system in R. Garside, G. Leech and G. Sampson (Eds.), The Computational Analysis Applications Anthology, 30-41. Longman:London.

International Rubber Study Group .1998.RubberStatistic Bulletin. Vol 53 No.3 London, British: 60p.

Sampan, S. (1982). Engineering Geology of the City of Chiang Mai. (AIT Thesis. GT81-24, Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, 2001.) Bangkok:Thailand.

Tokimatsu, K. (1997). Geotechnical Site Characterization with Surface Waves. In Proc., 1st International Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, 3, pp 1333-1367.

Dellarocas C. (2003) Efficiency and Robustness of eBay-like Online Feedback Mechanisms in Environments with Moral Hazard. In Center for eBusiness at MIT Working Papers (Working Paper #170). Retrieved on June 11, 2003: http://ebusiness.mit.edu/research/papers/170_Dellarocas_Moral_Hazard.pdf

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6. Academic, scientific and technical writing: analyzing what is written 6.1 Standards There are literary standards of organization and precision that apply to all reports of and proposals for research work. Professional technical organizations specify the standards for research writers in their respective fields, but despite some variations, the standard journal format of published research reports is always reflected or detectible, i.e. the report format contains the following elements: title, abstract, introduction (often containing a literature review), method, results, discussion, and conclusion. The proposal format is generally restricted to a title, introduction, literature review, method, and research plan with a budget. A.

To help researchers critically evaluate their own and others’ research writing, the Journal of Prosthetics and Orthotics has provided a useful table at their website, which is adapted here:

Title

Abstract

Introduction

Method [field specific]

Results Discussion

Conclusion

Does the title give you insight as to what the article is about? Does the title tell you what, whom and how? Does the title entice you to read further? Does the abstract contain a brief statement about the purpose, method, results, conclusion and relevance? After reading the abstract did you learn the essence of the article without details? Is the problem clearly stated? Is the literature complete, current and appropriate? Did the author identify a gap? Is the purpose clearly stated? [clearly stated objectives] Is there a hypothesis? [proposal for a solution to the problem] Are the subjects well-described? How was the sample selected? How large was the sample? Was a control group used? Is the instrumentation well-described? Calibrated? Is the procedure laid out in detail? Could someone replicate the study? Is the data analysis well-described? Is there internal validity? Are the measured data summarized? Are results statistically significant? [How significant are the results for this field of research?] Was the hypothesis accepted? Rejected? Does the author identify the weaknesses of the study? Is further literature cited to address the findings? Are the results applicable in a real world situation? Are the results briefly restated? Do the conclusions follow from the results? To what extent have the objectives been met? What lies ahead? Are suggestions for further research indicated?

Table 1. Guidelines for evaluating a research article. B.

There are a wide variety of reasons to use literature from establishing a gap to supporting claims. Some claims are so general and widely accepted that there is no need to cite a specific source or sources. In addition to quotation where the citation is required, there are two other types of citations and these are illustrated below.

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6.2. Parenthetical vs canonical citations 1. Parenthetical citations • • •

Are used to support a claim made in a background or narrative (telling the story of…) sections. These claims are non-controversial ones, or ones the author wishes to be treated as uncontroversial. Therefore, can appear in all sections of a report but tend to occur in the early sections of an introduction or literature reviews. Are frequently used to support summary generalizations about several research reports. (See the second example below.)

E.g. i. … However, the millimeter-wave band spectrum is characterized by obstruction by buildings and other structures and by transmission loss in the air (Pl attner, 1994). ii. …To select the cutting parameters, properly, several mathematical models (Abuelnaga & El-Dardiry, 1984; Oxley, 1988; Chryssolouris & Guillot, 1990; Yao & Fang, 1992; Zhou & Wysk, 1992; and, Chua et al., 1993) based on statistical regression techniques or neural computing have been constructed to establish the relationship between the cutting performance and the cutting parameters.

2. Canonical citations • • •

Are used when discussing a research report itself, i.e. when presenting a definition, development, findings, etc. attributed to a particular study reported by an author or authors. Therefore, tend to occur less in introductions but more commonly in the later sections of literature reviews where one study’s findings are compared with those of another, or contrasted with the current study. Are a form of reported speech, which requires you as author to make a choice of verb to report on the research of others.

E.g. i. … Basically, the experimental design methods (Bendell et al.,1989) were developed originally by Fisher (1925). ii. …Under the assumption of deterministic demand, several authors have suggested iterating solutions that are not necessarily guaranteed to be optimal, and not easy to implement. Silver (1976) presented a simple alternative procedure, … based on a periodic ordering policy. …Goyal and Belton (1979) improved performance of Silver’s model (1976) by modifying the first step of his algorithm.

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