Economic Development Theory

2 # Economic Development

GarmÖkfa enAelIBiPBelakeyIgenH bBaaðcMbg nigcaM)ac;bMputsMrab;RbCaCatinImYy² nigCaBiessRbCaCatiénBiPBelakTIbIenaH KWbBaðaGPivDÆn_esdækic©. müa:geTot Baküfaesdækic©GPiDÆn_ rWBaküfaGPivDÆn_esdækic©enH eKEtgEtB¤BIRKb;mCÄdæan nigsßab½nTaMgGs; eRBaHEteKTaMgGs;enaHcg; nig)ancUlrYmedaypÞal; rWeday RbeyaledImI,CYyCMrujeGaymankarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTsrbs;xøÜn. etIehtuGVI )anCaeKTaMgGs;Kña cg;eGaymankarGPivDÆn_esdækic©?. ebIeyIgemIleTAelIBakü {karGPivDÆn_esdækic©} eyIgnwgKitfavamanlkçN³sμúKsμaj nigTUlMTUlayNas; kñuúgkarykmkRbtiþbtþiedIm,ICMrujeGayRbeTsenaHmankarGPivDÆn_esdækic©. TaMgenHvaCakarBiteRBaHfakarGPivDÆn_esdækic©mann½yfaeFVIeGaymankarrIk cMerInelIRKb;Epñk CaBiesselIEpñk esdækic© sgÁm nigneya)ayénRbeTs. dUecñHkarcat;viFankarN_edIm,ICMrujeFVIeGaymankarrIkcMerInénEpñkTaMgGs;enH KWCa bBaðalM)ak nigsμúKsμaj eRBaHTaMgGs;enaHCacegáaménbBaðad¾cak;eRsH. k¾b:uEnþ eTaHbIy:agNak¾eday eyIgGacyl;eXIjpgEdrfa FatuCamUldæanénkarCMruj rWelIksÞÜyeGaymankarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTsenaH KWkareFVIeGayrIkcMerIn rWk¾kareFVIeGaymankarGPivDÆn_ rWk¾karelIksÞÜyénkMritCIvPaBRKYsarnImYy²énsgÁm Cati rWk¾RbCaCatienaH eRBaHkMritCIvPaBRKYsarnImYy²enaHÉg k¾CaPsþútageBj smtßPaBsMrab;bgðajGMBIkMriténkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTsenaHÉg. dUecñHGVIEdlCakarGPivDÆn_esdækic© rWk¾kareFVIeGayRbeTsenaHmanesdækic© GPivDÆn_ KWmanEtEsVgrkenAbTbiesaFn_ rWk¾RTwsþIedIm,IykmkRbtibtþisMrab;edaH RsaybBðaaEdlCamUldæanenaH ehIyCakarBit KWCakaredaHRsayedIm,IelIkdMekIg kMritCIvPaBénRKYsarnImYy²énRbCaCati rWk¾sgÁmCatienaH. dUcenHesovePAesdækic©GPivDÆn_enH fVIt,itEtCacMeNHdwgd¾tictYcmYyebI eRbobeFobeTAnwgBaküfa :esdækic©GPivDÆn_}enaH k¾b:uEnþesovePAenH )anniyay

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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Bnül;nUvlkçN³CamUldæanénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©Edl)anbkRsayxagelI edIm,I CYyCacMeNHdwgkñúgkarCYyCMrujénkarGPivDÆn_ rWk¾CYyCMrujkñúgkarelIktMekIgkMrit CIvPaBRbCaCn rWk¾kMritCIvPaBRKYsarnImYy²enAkñúgRbeTsenaH. edayehtuenH ehIyenAkñugesovePAenH )anbgðajnUvkarviPaK nigkarbriyaynUvmUldæanRTwsþI nigbTBiesaFn_mYycMnYnénkarGPivDÆn¾esdækic©edIm,I;ykmkeRbIR)as;CamUldæanRKwH rWCaeKalKMnitedIm,ICMrujeFVIeGaymanRbsiT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTs. CadMbUgedIm,IkMNt;RBMEdnkñúgkarsikSarbs;xøÜn esovePAenH)ansakl,g Bnül;kñúg CMBUkTImYyrbs;xøÜnTak;TgnWgkarEsVgyl;BIGtßn½y nigGaMgDIkaT½rén karGPivDÆn_esdækic© RBmTaMgBnül;BImUldæanénkarcMNat;fñak;karGPivDÆn_esdækic© TUeTAénRbeTsTaMgGs;enAelIBiPBelak. CMBUkTI2 esovePAenH)anxitxMBnül;BI ktþa\T§iBlepSg²EdlTak;TgeTAnwgkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_na na RBmTaMg)anviPaKBIKuNsm,tþi nigKuNvib,tþiénktþa\T§iBlesdækic©TaMgenaHEdl Tak;TgnwgkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© nig)ancg¥úlbgðajnUvviFankarN_mYycMnYnsMrab; eFVIkarBicarNaedIm,ICMrujkarGPivDÆn_TaMgenHeGaymanRbsiT§PaBkan;EtekIneT,IgE fmeTot. CMBUkTI3 )anbkRsayBnül;nUviFankarN_neya)ayénma:RkUesdækic© sMxan;² nigbgðajBIKuNsm,tþi KuNvib,tþi nigRBMEdnénviFankarN_TaMgenaHcMeBaH karGPivDÆn_esdækic©pgEdr. minRtwmEtb:ueNÑaH k¾)anelIkyknUvviFankarN_mYy cMnYnsMrab;TukCaTunkñúgkarBicarNaedIm,IGPivDÆn_énma:RkUesdækic©eGay)ansmRs btameKalbMNgénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_nImYy²enAkñúgbc©úb ,nñPaBpgEdr. eyIg´GñkniBn§sgÇwmfaesovePAenH nwgpþl;dl;mitþGñkGan nigGñksikSa RsavRCavnUvcMeNHdwgCamUldæanénesdækic©GPivDÆn_ nigsUmEføgGMNrKuNya:g RCaleRCAcMeBaHRKb;mitþGñkGan nigGñksikSaRsavRCavcMeBaHkarGan nigsikSa esovePAesdækic©GPivDÆn_enH RBmTaMgsUmsVaKmn_edayPaBesμaHsμ½RKral;kar riHKn;EklMGr edIm,IeGayesovePAenHkan;Eteq
4 # Economic Development

can; b‘unnivtþn_ ma:sÞ½r viTüasaRsþesdækic©ksikmμ nig sgÁm

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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esckþIEføgGMNrKuN karerobcMnUvesovePAesdækic©GPivDÆn_enHeLIg KWTamTarnUveBlevla smtßPaB nigkarelIkTwkcitþCaeRcIn. ehtuenHeyIg´GñkniBn§ sUmeqøotyk»kas d¾viessvisalenH edIm,IsUmeFVIkarEføgGMNrKuNdl;GñkEdl)anCYyKaMRT nigxñH ExñgedIm,IeGayesovePAenHelcecjCarUbrageLIg. enAkñúgenHeyIg´CaGñkniBn§ sUmEføgGMNrKuNGs;BIdYgcitþ cMeBaHRksYgBaNiC¢kmμ sklviTüal½y ksikmμcMkardUg nigCaBiessmhaviTüal½yesdækic©ksikmμ nigGPivDÆn_CnbTén sklviTüal½yksikmμcMkardUg RBmTaMgviTüasßanGnþrCatiénkm<úCaEdl)anpþl; »kas nigkarelIkTwkcitþsMrab;karerobcMesovePAesdækic©GPivDÆn_rbs;eyIgxJMúenH eT,Ig. kñúg»kasenHEdr sUmEføgGMNrKuNya:gRCaleRCAcMeBaHPriyarbs;xJMú GñkRsI sIuy:anI Fa nigyuvsisS Ca rtn³ Edl)anCYyvayGtßbTTaMgmUlcUlkñúg kMBüÚT½r RBmTaMgelak b‘un huk mRnþIviTüasßanGnþrCatiénkm<úCaEdl)anCYyrcnabT nigepÞógpÞat;GtßbTenHeT,Igvij nigGrKuNCaTIbMputcMeBaHbgb¥Ún²mitþPkþiTaMgGs; Edl)anCYyeRCamERCgelIkTwkcitþRBmTaMgpþl;eBlevlad¾manGtßRbeyaCn_sMrab; karsikSarbs;xJúM. CaTIbBa©b;sUm]TÞwsesovePAenHCUn cMeBaHelak«Buk nigGñkmaþy RBmTaMg bgb¥ÚnTaMgGs;Edl)anEckzany:agGaeNacGaFm’kñugrbbRbl½yBUCsasn_. PñMeBj éf¶TI 02 Ex FñÚ qñaM 2005 can; b‘unnivtþn_

6 # Economic Development

matikaGtßbT ***************

CMBUk I: mUldæanRKwHTUeTA A rel="nofollow"> karBicarNaeTAelIktþaEdlTak;TgnwgkarGPivDÆn_ 1> mUldæanCasarB½n§sBÞ ........................................................................ 1 1>1 karGPivDÆn_ kMriténkarGPivDÆn_ nigdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_ ............... 1 1>2 niymn½yTUeTAénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ ...................................... 2 2> GaMgDIkaT½rsMrab;vas;EvgénkarGPivDÆn_ ............................................. 3 2>1> niymn½yénGaMgDIkaT½rsMrab;karGPivDÆn_ .................................. 3 2>2 GaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_Caesdækic© .................................................. 4 2>2>1> R)ak;cMNUlsMrab;RbCaCnmñak;² ..................................... 4 2>2>2> GaMgDIkaT½rénkarEbgEck ................................................ 8 2>3>karBicarNabEnßménGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_minEmnesdækic©............ 12 3> cMNat;fñak;esdækic©énRbeTsnanaenAkñúgPaBBit ............................. 16 3>1> karkMNt;RBMEdnénRkumRbeTs ................................................ 16 3>2> nimμitkmμénRkumkñúgcMeNamRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_....................... 17

CMBUk II: bMNkRsayEdlCaRTwsþIesdækic©GPivDÆn_ B. karGPivDÆn_ nigktþabrikça 1> karGPivDÆn_ nigbrikçaEdlCaFnFanFmμCati ...................................... 20 1>1> brikçavtßúFatuedIm nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©................................. 20 1>2> brikçadI nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©............................................... 22 1>3> GakasFatu nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©........................................ 23 1>4> brisßanxVHxat nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©.................................... 23

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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1>5> lT§pl................................................................................. 24 2> karGPivDÆn_ nigbBaðaTun .................................................................. 24 2>1> karbegáItTun nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© ....................................... 24 2>2> mUldæanRTwsþIénkarbegáItTun .................................................... 28 2>3> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlBMuRKb;RKan;mYy29 2>4> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarvinieyaKénplitkmμEdlBMuRKb;RKan; mYYy ...................................................................................... 31 2>5> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarxVHxatsßab½n............................. 33 2>6> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarhUrecjénTuneTAeRkARbeTs..... 34 3> Gnßn½yEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énlkç½NÐsgÁm nigneya)ay ......... 35 4> PaBRkIRkCalT§plénkarxVHxatktþabrikçaénRkumRbCaCnnImYy² ........ 37 C.

karGPivDÆn_ nigrcnasm<½n§sgÁmesdækic©EdlTVikniym 1> lkçN³vinicä½yénesdækic©TVikniym..................................................... 38 1>1> niymn½yénesdækic©TVikniym.................................................. 38 1>2> lT§plénkarekIneLIgxøÜnÉgénrcnasm<½n§TVikniym ................ 39 2> lT§plEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énTVikniym.................................... 41 2>1> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénPaBrIklUtlas; .......................... 41 2>1>1> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénRbsiT§PaB............................ 41 2>1>2> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénkarekIneLIg ....................... 43 2>2> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénkarEbgEck................................ 43 3> kareGaytMélCabBa©b; .................................................................... 44

D.

karGPivDÆn_ nigTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati 1 cMNab;GarmμN_CadMbUg .................................................................... 45 2 »naPivDÆn_CalT§plénBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati ? ................................... 47

8 # Economic Development

2>1> rcnasm<½n§BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_......... 47 2>2> \T§iBlénkarEbgEckGMNacEdlBMuesμIrKñaenAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμ GnþrCati ................................................................................ 49 2>3> \T§iBlénlT§pl Backwash GnþrCati.................................... 52 2>4> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénkarfycuHén Terms of Trade............. 53 2>5> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénPaBBMunwgnrénplcMNUlnaMecj ......... 60 3> »naPivDÆn_CalT§plénclnaTunGnþrCati ? .................................... 63 3>1> karvinieyaKTunedaypÞal;énbreTs nigcRkBtþiniym> .............. 63 3>2> KuNsm,tþi nigKuNvibtþiEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énkarvinieyaK TunedaypÞal;énbreTs ......................................................... 67 4> karBnül;én]naPivDÆn_edayRTwsþIénPaBBuMÉkraCü.............................. 73 4>1> eKalsMxan;énRTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCü............................................ 73 4>2> karbkRsay]naPivDÆn_edaysarPaBBMuÉkraCü....................... 75 4>3> karTieTonEdlCakitþiys ....................................................... 81 E.

PaBekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© 1> lT§plénPaBekIneLIgénRbCaCneTAelIkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© ............ 82 1>1> PaBekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigktþabrikça..................................... 82 1>2> karekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigesdækic©TVikniym .......................... 85 1>3> karekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati> .......... 86

CMBUk III: neya)aysklénma:RkUesdækic©sMrab;karGPivDÆn_ F.mUldæanénneya)ayfvika 1> viFankarsMrab;eFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßú 86

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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2> viFankarEdlCaneya)ayfvikarsMrab;KaMRTénkareRbugebobénkarvinieyaKTun ..................................................................................... 90 2>1> neya)ayénkarR)ak; ............................................................. 90 2>2> neya)ayénkarpÁt;pÁg;fvika ................................................... 94 2>3> dMeNIrkarénGtiprNaCalT§plénneya)ayfvikarEdlman ninñakarKaMRTkarvinieyaKTun.................................................... 97 3> viFankarEdlCaneya)ayfvikarsMrab;KaMRTénkarRbugeRbobsnSM ..... 108

mUldæanénneya)ayhirBaØvtßú

G.

1> karbgðajsucritPaBénviFankarEdlCaneya)ayhirBaØvtßú............... 112 2> viFankarEdlCaneya)ayénkarcMNUl .......................................... 113 2>1 RbB½n§énkarcMNUlenAkñúgRbeTs ......................................... 113 2>2 lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarBRgIkBn§edayRbeyal................... 116 2>3> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarBRgIkBn§edaypÞal; ........................ 122 2>4> RBMEdnénkarEkTMrg;énneya)ayBn§ ...................................... 126 3> viFankarneya)ayénkarcMNay .................................................... 133 3>1> rcnasm<½n§énkarcMNayénrdæ................................................ 133 3>2> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarkat;bnßyénkareRbIR)as;EdlCardæ ... 135 3>3> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarEkTMrg;énkarcMNayeTAelIkar vinieyaKTunEdlCardæ........................................................... 137 3>4> karcMNayénrdæ nigkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl.......................... 138 H.

mUldæanénneya)ayrUbIyvtßú 1> neya)ayrUbiyvtßú nigtulükarénkarbg;R)ak; ¬CBa¢IgTUTat;¦ .............. 139 1>1> cMNab;GarmμN_dMbUg ........................................................... 139 1>2> GRtabþÚrR)ak; nigsmtaénesdækic©eRkARbeTs....................... 142

10 # Economic Development

2> siT§ieRCIserIsneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;énRbeTsmYy ......................... 145 2>1> RbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; rWefr .............................................. 145 2>2> RbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþt ................................................. 148 3>karvaytMélCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;TaMgBIr ........... 149 3>1> GRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; ................................................................. 149 3>1>1> mUldæanénPaBTal;Rck; .............................................. 149 3>1>2> fñak;énPaBbt;EbnCalT§plénGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; .......... 151 3>2> GRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþt.............................................................. 155 4 > plénneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak; ....................................................... 160

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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1 mUldæanRKwHTUeTA karBicarNaeTAelIktþaEdlTak;TgnwgkarGPivDÆn_ 1> mUldæanCasarB½n§s½BÞ 1>1> karGPivDÆn_ kMriténkarGPivDÆn_ nigdMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_ edIm,IeFVIkarsikSaBIbBaðaesdækic©énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ eyIgRtUvEtcab;epþIm eFVIkarBinitüeTAelIsßanPaBGPivDÆn_énRbeTsenH. CamYynwg enHeyIgRtUvEteFVI kareGayniymn½yeTAelIRbeTsTaMgenaH edIm,IgayRsYlkñúgkarkMNt;RBMEdnén karsikSa. enAkñúgesovePAsikSaCaeRcInkarkMNt;niymn½yénBaküGPivDÆn_vaman karlM)akya:gxøaMg CaBiesscMeBaHBaküénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_dUcCa XøamYyEdl EføgenAkñúgsnñisiT§GnþrCati ³ {An underdeveloped country is like the giraffe, an animal difficult to define, but easy to recognize} XøaenHva)anbBa¢ak;c,as; GMBIPaBlM)akénPaBvinicä½ycMeBaHfaRbeTsNaCaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. dUc enH edIm,IeFVkI arkMNt;énBaküGPivDÆn_ rWkMNt;faRbeTsmYyCaRbeTskMBugGPivPDÆn_ eyIgRtUvcaM)ac;EsVgyl;eGayc,as;GMBGI tßny½ énBaküGPivDÆn¾enaH. CaTUeTAGtßny½ énBaküGPivDÆn_EdleKniymeRbIR)as;enaHmanBIr ³ - kalNaeKcg;niyay BIdMeNIrRbRBwtþrbs;vaeTAtameBlevla enaHeK Etgniyayfa {dMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_ (development's process) :. - kalNaeKcg;niyayBIkarGPivDÆn_enAcMeBlmYyenaH enaHeKeRbIR)as; Baküfa {zanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_ ( level of development) :. A.

12 # Economic Development

dUcenHPaBxusKñakñúgkareRbIR)as;BaküTaMgBIrenH KWvasßitenAelIeBlevla EdlCaktþakMNt;rbs;va. dMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_ KW{CaDINamIk} va)anbgðaj enAPaBpSarP¢ab;KñaCamYynwgzanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_EdlCa {CasþaTIk : enaH. dUc enHCMhandMbUgedIm,IQaneTAyl;dl;BIBaküdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_ rWdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_ énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_nimYy² eyIgRtUvEtcab;epþImsikSaBIzanPaBénkarGPiDÆn_ EdlCaTUrelxsMxan; edIm,IsMeyaKeGaydwgBIdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_enaH. CaTUeTAkMriténkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsnImYy² KWGacqøúHbBa©aMgedayeyaleTA elIkMriténvibulPaB rWkMritRTBüsm,tþirbs;RbCaCnénRbeTsenaH. k¾b:uEnþsBaØaN énvibulPaB CaTUeTAvaBi)aknwgkareGayn½yc,as;las;Nas; dUecñHeKEtgEtsnμt; eTAelIlkçxNÐénkarrs;enA rWniyayeGaycM KWkMriténkarrs;enArbs;RbCaCnén RbeTsenaHmkeFVICargVas;énzanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsenaH. kMriténkarrs;enArbs;RbCaCnénRbeTsnImYy² vakan;EtekIneLIg KWkal NatMrUvkarCamUldæanrbs;smaCikxøÜnRtUv)anbMeBjeGaykan;Etl¥eLIgEfmeTot. karpþl;ya:gRKb;RKan;sMrab;esckþIRtUvkarCamUldæanénmnusSmñak; KW)ann½yfa KWkarpþl;nUv rWkareFVIeGaymannUvlkçNHrs;enAEdlya:gticbMputnUvtMélCamnusS. tMélCamnusSya:gticbMput KWRtUvTamTarpþl;eGayeK nUvrUbsaRsþ citþsaRsþ nigsgÁménmnusS. eyageTAtamsmaKmn_GnþrCatixagkargar (ILO) eK)aneGayniymn½yén esckþIRtUvkarCamUldæanrbs;mnusSman ³ karmanmðÚbGaharhUbcukRKb;RKan; man pÞHsñak;GaRs½y mansMelokbMBak; ehIyeRkABIenH mansMParHpÞHsMEbg nigeRKOg tuTUekAGIERK ehIyTak;TgnwgsgÁm eKRtUvEtmankarpþl;eGay EpñksuxaPi)al EpñkGb;rM karpþl;eGaynUvTwks¥at karpþl;eGaysuxPaBnigGnam½y nigkarpþl; eGaynUvmeFüa)aydwkCBa¢ÚnsaFarN³. sMrab;kMNt;enAelIkMriténkarrs;enArbs;RbCaCn EdlCamUldæansMrab;kar eRbIR)as;énsBaØaNGPivDÆn_ eKGacrab;bBa©ÚlnUvesckþIRtUvkardéTeTotdUcCalkçxNÐkargarl¥RbesIr karQb;sMrak; nigkarBiPakSa snþisuxsgÁm esrIPaBrbs;

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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mnusS k¾dUcCaesckþIRtUvkarEdlcaM)ac;mYycMnYneTot. qøgkat;nUvkaryl;BIkMritén karrs;enA vapþl;lT§PaBeFVIeGayeyIgkan;EtgayRsYlBIGtßn½yénsBaØaNénkar GPivDÆn_TaMgsþaTIk nigDINamIk. zanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ nImYy² KWGacbgðajeGayeyIgeXIjenAkMritCIvPaBrs;enArbs;RbCaCnRbeTs enaHenAcMeBlmYy. cMENkdMeNIrRbRBitþénkarGPivDÆn_ KWvakMNt;faetIsmtßPaB énkarGPivDÆn_enAkñúgcenøaHeBlmYyvaERbRbYlya:gNa. 1>2> niymn½yTUeTAénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ enAkñúgenHeyIgyl;BIGtßn½yénzanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_ eyaleTAelIGtßn½y enHeyIgGaceFVIkareGay niymn½yeTAelIRbeTs EdlCaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ dUcCamankareRbIR)as;BakSCaeRcInsMrab;sMKal;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ nigRbeTs kMBugrIkcMerIn. CaTUeTAeKEtgEtcab;GarmμN_eRbIR)as;BaküsMrab;RbeTsnana EdlsßitenA eRkamesdækic©Gn;fy faCaRbeTsedIrfyeRkay edayeKeFVIkareRbobeFobeTAnwg RbeTsrIkcMerIn rWRbeTs]sSahkmμ mYycMnYn EteTaHCaya:gNakareGayniym n½ycMeBaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ eKBMueFVIkareRbobeFob eGayxøaMgkøaeTAnwgkMritén karrs;enArbs;RbCaCnénRbeTs]sSahkmμeLIy rWk¾eTAtamrebobrs;enArbs; RbeTselakxaglicenaHeT. lkçN³EdlCasþg;da KWsßitenAelIlT§PaBénsMPar³ EdlCaktþakMNt; nigbegáInenAlkçxNÐénkarrs;enA. lT§PaBénsMPar³ TaMgenH vaCatMélénkarvas;sÞg;EdlKYreRbIR)as;enAkñúgRbeTsmYyehIyvaGacERbRbYlBI RbeTsmYyeTARbeTsmYykñúgRbeTsénsklelakeyIgenH. dUcenH)ann½yfavaKμantMélrYmNamYyEdlRtUvGacykmkeRbIR)as; rWbgðaj eGayeRbIR)as;sMrab;vas;sÞg; nigeGaytMéleTARbeTsmYy faCaRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_BitR)akdeLIy. CaBiess KWkareGaytMéleTAelIsBaØaNénkMritCIvPaB KWeyaleTAelITMhMénsMParH²EdlRbCaCnénRbeTsenaHman ehIyEdlTak;Tg eTAnwglkçxNÐneya)ay nigsgÁménkarrs;enA. dUcenHkñúgkarRsavRCavGMBIzan

14 # Economic Development

PaBénkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsmYy eKRtUvTajrkeGayeXIjenATMhMénkarpÁt;pÁg;én sMParHEdlRbeTsenaH)aneFVIcMeBaHRbCaCnxøÜn. 2> GaMgDIkarT½rsMrab;vas;EvgénkarGPivDÆn_ 2>1> niymn½yénGaMgDIkarT½rénkarGPivDÆn_ sMrab;mUldæankñúgkareGayniymn½yénRbeTsnImYy²énRkumRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ nigRbeTs]sahkmμ KWvaRtUvmanlkç½NÐBIredIm,IbMeBj³ k¦ RtUvrkeGayeXIjnUvGaMgDIkarT½rsmRsbedIm,IGacvas;enAsßanPaBén karGPivDÆn_ ehIyEdleKeGayeQμaHfa GaMgDIkarT½rGPivDÆn_. x¦ RtUvelIkeLIg rWkMNt;enARBMEdntMélsMrab;GaMgDIkarT½rTaMgenaH edIm,IeFVI karEbgEcknUvRBMEdnrvagRbeTsTaMgBIr. GaMgDIkarT½rGPivDÆn_TaMgenHGacTaj ecjCaTMhMkMNt;mYyénkMritGPivDÆn_. kalNakareFVIecjCarUbmnþénGaMgDIkarT½rGPivDÆn_ EdlTukkMNt;lkçx½NÐ KuNPaBénkarBiesaFn_niym nigTuksMrab;eRbobeFobCalkçNHGnþrCati Gac RbRBwtþeTA)anenaH CMh‘anbMrugsMrab;karGnuvtþn_niymn½yénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ rW k¾RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_tictYc KWGacTajecj)aneBjelj. CakarBitGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_mann½yCakarsnμt;b:ueNÑaH dUcenHkarpSMpÁMuúén GaMgDIkaT½rTaMgenHCamYykarpþl;eGaynUvTUrelxCasþg;da KWGacbegáIt)anenA cenøaHRbehag. karkMNt;énktþasMxan;mYy rWk¾ktþasMxan;CaeRcInEdlTaMgGs; enaHmann½yCaGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_ EdlmanTisedApSarP¢ab;eTAnwgRbePTsþg;da rs;enAénsgÁm KWbgðajnUvniymn½yénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ rWk¾RbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_tictYcmYyd¾eBjelj. EtcMeBaHkarBiPakSaénsBaØaNGPivDÆn_ KW)ancg¥úlbgðajfa sBaØaNenaH Tak;TgeTAnwgvis½yesdækic© sgÁm nigneya)ay. eyageTAtamenHeKGacEbg EckGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_Caesdækic© CasgÁm nigCaneya)ay. TnÞwmnwgGaMgDIkaT½r CasgÁm manTMnak;TMngeTAelIsgÁm ehIyk¾dUcCaGaMgDIkaT½rCalkçNHneya

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)ay KWmankarTak;TgeTAnwgvis½yneya)ay GaMgDIkaT½rCalkçN³ esdækic©k¾man TMnak;TMngeTAnwgzanPaBesdæki©énRbeTsnImYy²enaH. 2>2> GaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_Caesdækic© 2>2>1> R)ak;cMNUlsMrab;RbCaCnmñak; 2>2>1>1>niymn½yénR)ak;cMNUlsMrab;RbCaCnmñak; CaGaMgDIkaT½rEdlmanPsþútageBjsmtßPaBkñúgcMeNamGaMgDIkaT½repSg² eTotEdlsMrab;vas;EvgénkMritGPivDÆn_Caesdækic© KWCaBiessR)ak;cMNUlkñúg RbCaCnmñak;. eKTTYl)annUvR)ak;cMNUlénRbCaCnmñak;RbcaMqñaMEdlenAkñúgenaH eKykcMNUlsrubénbuKÁlTaMgGs;EdlcUlrYmenAkñúgesdækic©mYy ¬R)ak;cMNUl Cati = national income¦EcknwgcMnYnRbCaCnénRbeTsenaH. R)ak;cMNUlCati KW GaRs½yCamYyenaHeTAnwgplTunCatisuT§énktþabg;tMél (net domestic product to factor costs) )ann½yfaesμIeTAnwgplTunCatisuT§énktþabg;tMélenaHÉg. NDP sMrab;ktþabg;tMélGacKNna)antamBIrRbePT edayTajecjBIkar KNnaTUeTAénesdækic©Cati ³ a) kareRbIR)as;énkarKNnaecjBIRbPBcMNUl (origin calculation) )an n½yfaTak;TgeTAnwgktþaR)ak;cMNUl nigcMeNjEdl)anekIteLIgedayKitCa Éktaluy karKNnaénRbPB ksikmμéRBeQI nigensaT + muxrbrEdlplitsMParH ¬]sSahkmμ ¦ + BaNiC¢kmμ nig KmnaKmn_ + shRKaspþl;esva:kmμ shRKasCasrub ¬minTan;TUTat;¦

16 # Economic Development

- kardkfvikarEdlBwgBak;GaRs½ysMrab;esvakmμFnaKar (payment in advance TaMgkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs¦ shRKassrub ¬TUTat;rYc ¦ + rdæ + pÞHsEm,gÉkCn rW esdækic©RKYsar nimitþkmμtMéldul (gross value of creation) CasrubEdlTUTat;rYc + Bn§énplcMNUl EdlminGacmansmtßPaBdkyk)an + cMNayénkarnaMcUl plTunCatidul (gross dosmetic product) + tulükarénR)ak;cMNUlBIkareFVIkargar nig RTBüsm,tþirvagGñkkñúgRsuk nigGñkeRkARsuk plTunCatidulsMrab;éføTIpSar (GDP to market price) - karsgrMlYs plTunCatisuT§sMrab;éføTIpSar (NDP to market price) _ karcMNaysuT§enAkñúgvis½yplitkmμ ¬= karbg;tMélTun – kar]btßmÖ ¦ plTunCatisuT§sMrab;ktþabg;tMél (NDP to factor cost = national income or national revenue)

enAkñúgRbeTsCaeRcInmankarCYbRbTHplvi)ak kñúgkarekþabkþab;eGay )anRtwmRtUvénR)ak;cMNUlTaMgGs;Edl)anekIteLIg sMrab;eRbIR)as;kñúgviFIsaRsþ énkarKNnatamRbPB (origin calculation). enAkñúgkrNIenH eKGaceGay dMbUnμankñúgkarRbRBwtþnUvviFIsaRsþKNnaeTAtamEpñkénkareRbIR)as; (calculation of consumption side) énkarKNnaTUeTAénesdækic©Cati ³ b).

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kareRbIR)as;énR)ak;cMNUlCati ¬KitCaÉktaluy¦ kareRbIR)as;CaÉkCn + kareRbIR)as;énrdæ + karvinneyaKdul kareRbIR)as;enAkñúgRbeTs + tulükarénkareRbIR)as;rvagGñkkñúgRsuk nigGñkeRkARsuk ¬= kareRbIR)as; eRkARbeTs ¬eyageTAtamTsSn³énkñúgRbeTs¦) plTunCatidul sMrab;éføTIpSar (GDP to market price) – karsgrMlYs plTunCatisuT§ sMrab;éføTIpSar (NDP to market price) – Bn§edayRbeyal + kar]btßmÖ (subsidy) plTunCatisuT§sMrab;ktþabg;tMél(NDP to factor cost=R)ak;cMNUlCati¦ 2>2>1>2 bBaðaénkarekþabkþab;énplTunCati cMeBaHkareGabRkesab rWkarsikSaénplTunCatielcecjnUvbBaðaEdlTak; TgeTAnwgcMnYnplitplEdlRtUvBicarNa. eRBaHfaCaTUeTARKan;EtCakarvaytMél CaRbmalemIleTAelIplitpl nigesvakmμEdlekIteLIgBitR)akenaH dUcenH vamankarxusKñaya:gxøaMgrvagcMnYnEdlbgðajenAkñúgTUrelx nigcMnYnplitplBit R)akd. CaBiessenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHEdl)anbgðajCamYynwgTMhMxøH énRbtibtþikarxusc,ab; ehIyk¾dUcCaCamYynwgsßab½nsßitiEdljwkjab;)anbgðaj eGayeXIjkarxVHxatya:gxøaMgenaH KW)anCYbRbTHnUvplvi)akenHya:gBit R)akd. eyageTAtamGñkCMnajkarEdl)anvaytMél KWPaBxusKñaBIkarBitenaHBMufaenA vis½yNaeTRbRBitþeTAenAkñúgtMél ±30%.

18 # Economic Development

CabBaðabnþeTAeTot KWecaTeTAelIéføEdlRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;føwgEføgénkar bMeBjkarplitEdlpþl;eGayCarUbFatuenAkñúgRbeTsmYy. enAkñúgkarKNna esdækic©Cati dUcCakarRsavRCavplTunCati KWéføTIpSarsßitenACamUldæan k¾b:uEnþéfø TIpSarenHBMu)anbgðajCanic©CakalCatMéltulüPaBeLIy KWGaRs½yeTAnwgtYnaTI GMNacénEpñkGñktMrUvkar nigEpñkGñkpÁt;pÁg;. CabBaðadUcKñaEdr KWkarminBicarNaeTAelIéføedIm (payment in advance) rbs;esdækic©RKYsar ]TahrN_ karbg;tMélénkareFVIdMeNIreTAkEnøgeFVIkarCaedIm enAkñúgplTunCatidul. eBlevlaQb;sMrak;EdlERbRbYledaysarkarkat;bnßyénkargar nigkar ERbRbYlénGayueFVIkargark¾BMuRtUv)anvaytMélenAkñúgplTunCatidulEdr nigman bBaðaCaeRcIneTotEdleyIgBMu)anrab;bBa©ÚlenATIenaH. 2>2>1>3> bBaðaénkarRsavRCavRbCaCn cMnYnRbCaCnRtUv)anrab;BMuBitR)akd rWk¾RtUvbenøIsEdlCaehtueFVIeGaykar KNnaR)ak;cMNUl kñúgRbCaCnmñak; BMu)ankøayCaPsþútagEdleBjsmtßPaB. enA kñúgRbeTsmYycMnYn)anbgðajnUvcMnYnRbCaCnRKan;EtCakarRbmaNEdlminl¥itl¥ n; dUcCa]TahrN_karKNnaBIrdgénGñkrs;enAkñúgTIRkugmYy k¾dUcCaenAkñúg RsukkMeNIt. müa:geToteTaHbIkarrab;cMnYnRbCaCn)anRtwmRtUvk¾eday k¾manlT§plepSgKñacMeBaHkarRsavRCavénzanPaBGPivDÆn_EdlkalNaGayuénRbCaCnma nPaBxusKñaya:gxøaMgenaH eRBaHfakUnekμg nigmnusScas;BMu)ancUlrYmviPaKTanenA kñúgplTunCatiduleT rWk¾)anEtbnþicbnÞÜcEtb:ueNÑaH.

2>2>1>4> bBaðaénkarvaytMélCafμIéncMnYnR)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbCaCnmñak; eTACarUbIyvtßúrYmmYy (W(R/US$) =3900(R/US$) cMeBaHkarvaytMélCafμIéncMnYnR)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbCaCnmñak;eTACarUbIyvtßúrYm mYy ¬]TahrN_ US$¦ elcecjnUvkarXøatq¶ayxusBIFmμta. mUldæanRKwHénkar KNnaCafμI ¬karbþÚrR)ak;¦ enH KWCasuBlPaBénPaBxusKñaénkMlaMgTij. RTwsþIenH (per capita)

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bgðajnUvtulüPaBénPaBxusKñaénkMlaMgTijenAkñúgRbeTsmYyedayqøgkat;GRtabþÚr R)ak;rvagrUbIyb½NÑEdlRtUvCYbRbTHenaH ( W(R/US$) = P (R)/P (US$). b:uEnþenAkñúgPaBBit GRtabþÚrR)ak;pøÚvkarBMuqøúHbBa©aMgnUvTMnak;TMngénkMlaMgTij eT. TaMgenHsßitenARtg;faGRtabþÚrR)ak;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcIn KWBMuERbRbYl {dUcRTwsþIsmPaBénkMlaMgTijeT} eRkABIenH KWvaefr. TaMgenH KWedaysarkar GPivDÆn_epSg²KñaénkMlaMgTijkñúgRsuk manRbtikmμyWtya:vBImUlehtuEdlelc ecjBIGRtaGtiprNaEdlxusKñakñúgRsuk nigedaysarkarekIneLIgénplTunCati BitR)akdEdlnwgERbRbYl. müa:geTotRTwssIþ mPaBénkMlaMgTijBuM)anBicarNaeTAelIkarcUlrYménclna TunGnþrCatiEdlCaktþakMNt;plEdrénGRtabþÚrR)ak;. GRtabþÚrR)ak;begáItecjBI El,grYménkarpÁt;pÁg;rUbIyb½NÑ EdlTMhMrbs;vaBMuRtwmEtRtUv)ankMNt;edaysar clnaénBaNiC¢kmμenaHeT eRkABIenHeTotedaysarclnaénTunpgEdr. dUcenH karERbRbYlénGRtabþÚrR)ak; nigCamYyenaHEdrkarrMkilenAkñúgrcnasm<½n§én per capitaCaGnþrCati )anbgðajeGayeXIjfaBMumankarBicarNaeTAelIkarrMkilEdl GaRs½yeTAnwgéfø rWcMnYnénlMhUrBaNiC¢kmμeLIy. k¾b:uEnþeTaHbImankrNItulüPaB énkarbg;R)ak; k¾dUccMeBaHkarelIkElgnUvkarBicarNaeTAelIkarTUTat;éntulüPaB Tunya:gNak¾eday k¾kareRbobeFobénkMlaMgTijCamYynwgkarCYyénGRtabþÚrR)ak; k¾sßitenAkñúgRBMEdnd¾ceg¥otEdr eRBaHfaplitpl nigesva:kmμxøHEdlsßitenAkñúg plTunCatidul KWBMuGacsßitenAkñúgtYnaTIéntulüPaBénkarbg;R)ak;énRbeTsenaH nigEdlCamYyenHkarGPivDÆn_énéfø nigplitkmμrbs;vaBMuman\T§iBleTAelIGRta bþÚrR)ak;eLIy. TnÞwmnwgenaHEdrrcnasm<½n§énéføCati KWmanPaBgakerq¶ayBIKñaya:gxøaMg edaymUlehtu edaysarPaBxusKñaénTMnak;TMngplitkmμ nigedaysarrcnasm<½n§ CaGtßiPaBk¾xusKñaEdr. müa:geTot edaysarlT§plénkarplitxusKña nigéføplit plxusKñakñúgRbeTsnImYy²eRkayBIkarKNnatamGRtabþÚrR)ak;TMnak;TMngenHk¾rit EtxusKña ehIyEdlCH\T§iBleTAelIplTunCatidulk¾dUcCaeTAelI per capita Edr. C 1

US

1

20 # Economic Development

2>2>1>5> cMeBaHPsþútageBjsmtßPaBénkareRCIserIskareRbobeFobzan PaBGPivDÆn_ edaysarmUlehtuénPsþútageBjsmtßPaBénkareRbobeFob per capita CaGnþrCatiRtUvmanRBMEdn GñkniBn§CaeRcIn)anBüayamEsVgrkenAGaMgDIkarT½rEdl RtwmRtUvsMrab;TMhMénplitpl nigesvakmμEdlsßit enAbMrugTukkñúgRbeTsmYy eCosCag per capita. enAkñúgkrNIenHktþanImYy² EdlBMumansßitenAkñúgsßiti plTunCati nigCamYyenaHenAkñúgkarKNna per capita rWk¾EdlBMMuRtUv)anelIkyk mkBicarNaenaH ¬eTaHbICaktþaTaMgenHvaman\T§iBleTAzanPaBGPivDÆn_esdækic© enHk¾eday¦ KWRtUvEtRbEmRbmUl rWEsVgrkeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIg. k¾b:uEnþeKal karN_TaMgenHvaeFVIeGayQWcab; eRBaHfakarTajecjCaRTwsþIBitR)akdmanEtbnþic bnþÜcEtb:ueNÑaH. dUcenH eKrkSanUv per capita-GaMgDIkarT½r sMrab;CaGaMgDIkarT½rEdlCa PsþútageBjsmtßPaBénTMhMplitplénRbeTsmYy eTaHbIPaBTn;exSayrbs;vaCa lkçN³TsSn³Tan nigCalkçN³sßitik¾eday. )ann½yfa per capita-GaMgDIkarT½r sßitenAsMrab;karsikSaRsavRCavBiesaFn_epSg²GMBIPsþútageBjsmtßPaBepSg²Kña én per capita nigsßitenACaskþanuBlénkarBnül;x<s;bMputénzanPaBGPivDÆn_ énRbeTsmYy. 2>2>2 GaMgDIkarT½rénkarEbgEck cMeBaHmUldæanénkarbkRsayxagelITMhMén per capita )anpþle; GayBt’man EdlmanRBMEdnGMBTI MhMBti R)adkénplitpl nigesvakmμEdlmansßti enAkñúgRbeTs mYy. k¾b:uEnþCamYyenHEdr KWrUbPaBCa aspect TaMgGs;énzanPaBGPivDÆn_Ca esdækic© KWBMuTan;ekþabkþab;)an. ecjBIGtßn½ydUcKñaenH KWTaMgGs;enHBuMTan;dwgfa etIEpñkénRbCaCnNaEdl)anTTYlBitR)akdenAkñúgkarRsUb rWkareRtkRtGalCa mYyplitpl niglT§plenH. CamYyenaHkarEbgEckCa per capita RtUv)aneFVIeTA

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elIsmaCikénsgÁmnImYy² KWmanPaBesμIr²KñaTaMgGs;énR)ak;cMNUl. EttamPaB BitkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrebobenHBMuekIteT,IgTal;EtesaH. enAkñúgRTwsþIénkarEbgEck eyabl;CaeRcInRtUv)aneFVIkarBicarNa dUcCaeK GaceRbobeFob nigvas;EvgCaBiesaFn_nyi mnUvrcnasm
22 # Economic Development

ExSekag lorenz I

viFIsaRsþdéTeTotsMrab;vas;EvgénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl)anpþl;eGayeda yelak Gini. Kat;)ansakl,gsgát;F¶n;eTAelIkarRbmUlpþMú (concentration) énR)ak;cMNUleTAelIGñkTTYlR)ak;cMNUlnImYy² CamYynwgkarCYyénemKuNEbg Eck (distribution coefficient) ehIyEdleKeGayeQμaHfa emKuN Gini (Gini coefficient). k¾dUcCa per capita Edl)aneRbIR)as; KWsgát;F¶n;eTAelIkMriténkar sMerc)anR)ak;cMNUl É Gini coefficient k¾qøúHbBa©aMgEtBIkarEbgEckénR)ak; cMNUlenaHEdr. cMeBaHelak Gini karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlepSg²KñabegáIteGay manemKuNepSg²KñaEdr TaMgenH mann½yfaeyageTAtamkareRbobeFobénemKuN Gini eKGackMNt;)annUvlMdab;lMedayCan;fñak;enAkñúgkarRbmUlpþúMR)ak;cMNUl. emKuN Gini eKGacTajecjBIExSekag Lorenz EdlenAkñúgenaHeKyképÞEdl CaRBMEdnrvagExSekag Lorenz bnÞat;Rtg;énkarEbgEckesμIKña OU ¬enAkñúg rUbPaBxagelI KWépÞBitR)akdEdl)anKUsqUt²¦ EcknwgépÞRbmUlpþúMCaGtibrima ¬enAkñúgrUbxagelI KWCaRtIekaN OUT). emKuN Gini mantMélesμI 1 cMeBaHkar

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EbgEckminesμIPaBkan;Etx<s;mYy TnÞwmnwgvamantMélesμInwg 0 cMeBaHkarEbgEck énPaBesμIPaBeBjelj. kalNaemKuN Gini kan;EtFMenaHR)ak;cMNUlEdl EbgEckeTAelIRkumGñkTTYlnImYy²kan; EtBMuesμIeLIg. viFIsaRsþEdl)anbgðajTaMgBIr )anbgðajeGayeXIjnUvKuNsm,tþi nig KuNvib,tþi. viFIsaRsþ Gini KWgaynwgGnuvtþn_eRBaHfaviFIsaRsþenHeGabRkesab cUlKñanUvrUbPaBTaMgmUlénsßanPaBEbgEckeTAkñúgEtemKuNEtmYyb:ueNÑaH va)an bgðajnUvKuNsm,tþiRbhak;RbEhleTAnwgrgVas; per capita EdlsMrab;kMNt;én kMritplitkmμenAkñúgsgÁmmYy. k¾b:uEnþKuNvib,tþirbs;va KWRtUv)anbkRsayenAkñúg rUbPaBxageRkam. enAkñúgrUbPaBxageRkam)anbgðajnUvExSekag Lorenz BIrEdl kat;Kña ehIyExSekag Lorenz TaMgBIrmanépÞesμIKñaCamYynwgbnÞat;BuHcMkNþalmuM Ekg OU (diagonal OU). krNITI1 )anbgðajfa karEbgEckenAkñúgR)ak;cMNUlEdlTabesIμPaB smrmüCagkrNITI 2 pÞúyeTAvijenAkñúgEpñkR)ak;cMNUlx<s; karEbgEckminesμI PaBsmrmüCagkrNITI2enaHeT,Iy. k¾b:uEnþépÞrvagbnÞat;BuHcMkNþal nigExSekag Lorenz nImYy² KWesμK I añ rWnyi aymüa:geTot ³ épÞEdl)anKUsqUt²TaMgBIrenAkñúg rUbPaBxageRkam KWmanTMhMesμKI añ . CamYyenHEdrkarEbgEckTaMgBIrnaMeTAeGayman emKuN Gini dUcKña ¬= snÞsSn_RbmUlpMþú Gini dUcKña¦ nigCamYyenHEdrnaMeTA eGaymanPaBxusKñaénR)ak;cMNUldUcKña. k¾b:uEnþlT§plenHelcecjCaeBj eljRtwmRtUv)aneBlNaEdlPaBxusKñaénR)ak;cMNUlEdldUcKñadac;xatenAkñúgTM hMénR)ak;cMNUlEdlepSg²KñaenaHTTYl)annUvGtßn½ydUcKña¬enAkñúgrUbxageRkamG tßn½yrbs;PaBxusKñakñúgR)ak;cMNUlenaHBMudUcKñaeT KWvabgðajnUvPaBERbRbYl karRbmUlpþMúénGñkTak;TgénR)ak;cMNUl ¬GñkTTYlR)ak;cMNUl¦¦. kñúgeBlEdleKkan;EtXøatq¶ayBIkarsnñidæanenH ¬>>>{nUvGtßn½ydUcKña}¦enaH eKBMuGacEfrkSabnþeTotnUvkardak;eGayesμIKñaenHénlT§pldUckarsnñidæan EdlCa nimiμtkmμCamYynwgkareRbIR)as;énkarbgðajrbs; Gini enaHeLIy.

24 # Economic Development

karEbgEckénR)ak;cMNUlKW enAkñúgkarBitCasBaØaNRbePTsμúKsμajEdl eKminGacpþl;eGaysBaØaNenaHeRscEtcitþenAkñúgcMnYnvas;EvgEtmYyb:ueNÑaH. dUcenHehIy Krelle )anEføgsMrab;karRbesIrbMput {eKRtUvbMeBjbEnßmeTotCamYy nwgkareRbobeFobCaEPñk (optical) énExSekag Lorenz epSg² nigRtUve)aHbg;kar sgát;FJn;eTAelIcMnYnelx EdlsMrab;kMritrgVas;énPaBminesμIénkarEbgEck} enaH. karviPaKeTAelIviFIsaRsþ Gini

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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k¾b:uEnþCamYynwgGaMgDIkaT½rTaMgenaH KWBMumanBt’manGMBITMhMsrubénGñkRkdac; xatenAkñúRbeTsmYyeLIy eRBaHfaEpñkénGaMgDIkaT½rnImYy²GacCYbEtrgVg;buKÁl epSg²Kña. dUcenHenAkñúgkarBiPakSaneya)ayGPivDÆn_ KWkarRbwgERbgeq3 karBicarNabEnßménGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_EdlCalkçN³minesdækic© cMeBaHkarRsavRCavsMrab;eGabRkesabbBa©ÚlKñaénGaMgDIkaT½resdækic©Edl xus²KñaeTACaGaMgDIkaT½rsarubmYy GñkesdæviTU)aneGaydMbUnμaneGaydak;bBa©Úl enArUbPaBénkarGPivDÆn_EdlmanlkçN³minesdækic©cUleTAkñúgGaMgDIkaT½rsrubena H. sMrab;bBaðaenH KWRtUvTamTarrkeGayeXIjnUvGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_EdlCa lkçN³sgÁm nigneya)ay.

26 # Economic Development

GaMgDIkaT½rTaMgenaHRtUvbgðajzanPaBGPivDÆn_CalkçNHsgÁm nigneya)ay nigRtUvpþl;Bt’man faetITMnak;TMngBitR)akdenAkñμúgEpñkminEmnesdækic©énsþg;da rs;enACalkçN³sgÁm nigneya)ayeFVIeGaycab;GarmμN_ya:gdUcemþc?. eRBaHfa karGPivDÆn_mni RtwmEteGabRkesabEpñkesdækci e© T müa:geTotvaeGabRkesabpgEdr nUvEpñksgÁm nigEpñkneya)ay dUcenHcMeBaHkarsßabna GaMgDIkaT½r srubmYyeK RtUveGabRkesabnUvrUbPaBCasgÁm nigneya)ayénzanPaBGPivDÆn_enAkñúgenaH Edr. TaMgenHekItmaneLIgedaysarkarBicarNaénGaMgDIkaT½r EdlmanlkçN³ CasgÁm nigneya)ay dUcCa]TahrN_smahrNkmμénbuKÁlnImYy² Rkum rWtMbn; enAkñúgkarrs;enACalkçN³sgÁm niglkçN³neya)ay. l. CaeKalkarN_sMxan;énkarBRgIkénRbBn§½GaMgDIkaT½rsMrab;vas;EvgénzanPa BGPivDÆn_CaTUeTAénRbeTsnImYy² eKGacemIleXIjenAkñúgkarsikSanImYy² edayRtUve)aHBum
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bBa©ÚledaypÞal;eLIy. sMrab;karTTYlnUvGaMgDIkaT½r Edlmanrcnasm
- GaMgDIkaT½rEdlCalkçN³sgÁmvb,Fm’ 1> TMhMénvis½yksikmμEdlCaRbéBNI 2> rgVas; rÍTMhMénTVIkniym (dualism) 3> rgVas; énTIRkugPavUbnIykmμ 4> RbePTénGgÁkarmUldæanEdlmanlkçN³sgÁm 5> Gtßn½yénRbCaCnvNѳkNþalénRbeTs 6> rgVas;énclnasgÁm 7> GRtaénGñkecHGkSr 8> karGPivDÆn_énmeF,a)ayTMnak;TMng 9> kMriténPaBsuT§ (homogeneity) énvb,Fm’ nig CatiBn§ 10>kMriténsmGRtakMeNIt 12>kMritTMenIbkmμénKMnit b¤karcUlrYm (mentality or engagment)

28 # Economic Development

- GaMgDIkaT½rEdlCalkçN³neya)ay 1> kMriténsmhrkmμCati nigénstism,CBaJ³Cati ¬mnsikaCati¦ 2> kMriténGMNacneya)ayEdlCamCÄwm 3> GnuPaB ¬smtßPaB¦ énsßab½nRbCaFietyü 4> kMriténesrIPaBénbkSRbqaMgneya)ay nigénBt’man 5> mUldæanBitR)akdénRbBn§½KNbkSneya)ay 6> kMriténkarRbkYtRbECgrvagKNbkSneya)ay 7> GnuPaB ¬smtßPaB¦ énclnakmμkr 8> Gtßn½yneya)ayén\sSrCn ¬vIrCn¦ EdlCaRbéBNI 9> Gtßn½yCaneya)ayénkgT½B 10> kMriténsmtßPaB ¬RbsiT§iPaB¦ rdæ)al 11> kMritkatBVkic©énGñkdwknaMneya)aysMrab;karGPivDÆn_esdækic© 12> rgVas; ¬TMhM¦ énesßrPaBneya)ay (polotical stability)

B

C–

GaMgDIkaT½r EdlCalkçN³esdækic© 1> R)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbCaCnmñak; nigplTunCatidulkñúgqñaM >>>. 2> GaRtaekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbCaCnmñak; nigplTunCati cab; BIqñaM>>>>> dl; >>>>>>> 3> vtßúFatuedImCaFmμCatiEdlman 4> GRtaénkarvinieyaKdul 5> kMritTMenIbkmμén]sSahkmμ 6> karERbRbYlénkMrit]sSaPavUbnIykmμ cab;BIqñaM >>>>>>>>> 7> GgÁkarénplitkmμksikmμ 8> kMritTMenIbkmμénbec©keTsksikmμ 9> karekIneLIg énplitPaBenAkñúgksikmμcab;BIqñaM >>>>>>>>>>> 10> KuNPaBénTunTaMgGs; CarUbPaB ¬mann½yfa ehdæarcnasm
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11> karERbRbYlénTunTaMgGs;CarUbPaB cab;BIqñaM >>>>>>>>>>> 12> kMritsmtßPaB ¬RbsiT§PaB¦ énRbBn§½Bn§ 13> karekIneLIgénRbsiT§PaBénRbBn§½Bn§ 14> kMritsmtßßPaB ¬RbsiT§PaB¦ énsßab½nhirjvtßú 15> karekIneLIgénRbsiT§PaBénsßab½nhirjvtßú cab;BIqñaM >>>>>>>>>> 16> GRtaekIneLIgénKuNPaBénFnFanmnusS 17> rcnasm<½n§énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs lT§plEdlTajecjBIrgVas;RsavRCavenH KWCaBt’manBitR)akdRtwmRtUv kalNaTaMgGs;enHbkRsayénsßanPaBBitR)akd nigRBitkiþ arN_. k¾bu:EnþvaCabBaða KWkalNaeKcg;bMeBjnUvkarTamTarEdlhYsBIkarGFib,ayEdlsuT§ description ]TahrN_dUcCakarTamTarEdlmann½y dUcCakareGaybgðajtamlMdab;lMeday énkarGPivDÆn_CalkçN³GnþrCati ¬=lMdab;lMedayénRbeTs¦. CakarBitcMeBaH bBaðaenH KWvaelcecjnUvkareRCIserIsénGaMgDIkaT½rnImYy²EdlsmRsb nig elcecjnUvkareRCIserIsxøwmsarrbs;vasMrab;karKNnaénGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_sru bmYy. enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn KWPaBGaRs½yKñaeTAvijeTAmkrvagRBwtiþkarN_Edl RtUv)anGFib,ayedayGaMgDIkaT½r-GPivDÆn_BMuRtUv)anBnül;. k¾b:uEnþkarminmancMeNHdwgénTMnak;TMngenH KWeFVIeGayBMumanlT§PaBénkar bRgYmcYlKñaeBjeljmYyénGaMgDIkaT½rnImYy²eTACaGaMgDIkaT½rsrubmYy³ kar vas;Evg nigkarbBa©ÚlKñaedayBMumancMeNHdwgGMBIEdlfa etIEpñkrUbPaBnImYy² manGtßn½yya:gNaenaH KWvamanRbeyaCn_bnþicbnþÜcEtb:ueNÑaH. karBMumanRTwsþI CamUldæan KWeFVIeGayeKBMuGacbgðajedImehtufaGVIEdlRtUvvas;EvgBitR)akd nig faetIlT§plénkarvas;EvgenHRtUvpþl;eGaynUvkarecHdwgNa. mUldæanRTWsþId¾exSayénRbB½n§GaMgDIkaT½renHRtUv)aneFVIeGaykan;Etc,as;ec jBIcariklkçN³énkarviPaKrbs; UNRISD edaysarGñkesdæviTU. karRsavRCav rbs; UNRISD BMu)anTajykmkeBjeljnUvmUldæanénRTwsþIGPivDÆn_BitR)akd EdlRtUvykmkeFVIkarsÞab;sÞg;emIlenaHeT k¾b:uEnþkarRsavRCavenH KWCa "within

30 # Economic Development

. bBaða lM)akbnþreTot)anbgðajeGayeXIjfa enAkñúgRbeTsCaeRcInsßab½n sþaTIsþik KWBMu sßitenAsßanPaBEdlpþl;eGaynUvTUrelxEdlKYreGayTukcitþ)aneLIy. k¾b:uEnþ McGranahan )anbgðaj]TahrN_nUvGaMgDIkaT½rEdl)aneRbIR)as;enAkñúgkar sikSarbs; UNRISD fa : by no means the ideal indicators of development, but they are perhaps the best than can be found , given the available data… :. kalNaeKsakl,gedaHRsaybBaðaénkarlM)akkñúgkarekþabkþab;sþaTIsÞIkenaH edayqøgkat;karsaksYreTAGñkCMnajdUcKMnitrbs; Adelman/Morris nigeRbI R)as;karsaksYrenaHsMrab;kMNt;énlMdab;lMedayénkarGPivDÆn_enaHvanwgekIteLI gnUveRKaHfñak;müa:geTotEdlfa GaMgDIkarT½renaHBMuqøúHbBa©aMgnUvsßanPaBGPivDÆn_ énRbeTsnImYy²eLIy KWvaqøúHbBa©aMgnUvPaByl;dwgénkarGPivDÆn_CalkçN³ Genþam½ténGñkCMnajnImYy²Etb:ueNÑaH. CaTIbBa©b;eKmankarbraC½yeBjelj cMeBaHkarsakl,gCamYynwgkarCYyénRbBn§G½ aMgDIkaT½renHsMrab;eFVkI areRbobeFobk arGPivDÆn_CalkçN³GnþrCati. karbegáIteLIgénRbBn§½GaMgDIkaT½rsarubEdleRbIR)as;edIm,Ivas;EvgénkarGPi vDÆn_enAkñúgRbeTsTaMgGs; RtUvmanlkçN³bMeBjCamunEdlfaRbeTsTaMgGs; RtUvmansßitenACaeRscnUvGtßiPaBdUcKñaebHbiTenAkñúgTMnak;TMngeTAnwgrUbPaBGPivD Æn_EdlRtUvekþabkþab;edayGaMgDIkaT½rGPivDÆn_TaMgenaH. k¾b:uEnþdrabNaenAkñúgPaB BitekIteLIgnUvPaBxusKñaénkarvaytMélCalkçN³CatienaH karvaytMélCarYmva kan;EtexSayeLIgsMrab;karpþl;nUvlT§plEdleBjeljenaH. dUcenH CamYynwg kareRbIR)as;enH KWBMumanpøÚvNaEdlRtUv)anbMPøWEdlfaRbBn§½GaMgDIkaT½rEdlRtUv)an pSMpÁúMCalkçN³esdækic©sgÁm nigneya)ayeFVIGnþraKmn_pþl;cMeNHdwgsMxan;enaH eLIy. k¾bu:EnþeKGackt;sMKal;eXIjCa]TahrN_fa etIcMENkpSMnmI Yy²énsþg;da rs;enACasgÁmenAkñúgRbeTsepSg² KW)ansMerckñúgTMhMb:uNaÑ. CalkçN³vinicä½y sMrab;eGayniymn½ynUvzanPaBGPivDÆn_TUeTAénRbeTsmYy b¤k¾ sMrab;eRbobeFob eTAnwgRbeTsmYyepSgeTot KWGaMgDIkaT½renHminGaceRbIR)as;)aneT,Iy. the framework of generally accepted components of development"

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3> karerob b¤dak;énRbeTsnanaenAkñúgPaBBit 3> 1> karkMNt;RBMEdnénRkumRbeTs CamYynwgkarbkRsayxagelIeFVIeGayeyIgsßitenAkñúgPaBTal;Rck ³ eTA elImüa:gkareGayniyménRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaRbeTsEdlzanPaBénkarGPivDÆ n_rbs;eKmkdl;eBlenH KWsßitenAeRkambTdæankMNt;mYyenAeLIy müa:geTot bgðajeGayeXIjkarBMumanlT§PaBsMrab;vas;EvgeGayTUlMTUlaysßanPaBGPivDÆ n_énRbeTsnImYy². edayeyagBImUlehtuenH eKeFVIkarbMEbktampøÚvKMnitecj BIviFIsaRsþkMNt;RBMEdnmYyenAkñúgRkbx½NÐGnþrCati. PaKeRcInedayeyageTAtam {karyl;TUeTA} ¬=RbeTsnImYy²bnSl;Tuk¦ eKkMNt;RkuménRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ edayQrelImUldæanrab;bBa©Úl (enumeration) edayBMubBa¢ak;BImUlehtuénkar EbgEckenaHbnþreToteLIy. eyageTAtamdMeNIrRbRBitþenH sßab½nGnþrCati rWk¾GgÁkarGnþrCati)anRBm eRBogKñasMrab;kMNt;nUvbBa¢IraynamCaGnþrCatirYmmYyénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_TaMg enH eTaHbIkarBitBMusMerc)aneT,Iy. sMrab;karkt;sMKal;CaGnþrCatiénlT§plCYy énkarGPivDÆn_ KW]TahrN_bBa¢IrayeQμaHRbeTsrbs; DAC (= development assistance committe = development help committe of OECD) pþl;Ca karsMerc. taragbBa¢IrayeQμaHenHRtUv)anbegáIteLIgCaelIkdMbUgkñúgqñaM 1960. DAC BicarNaCaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaTUeTAKW ³ a) enAkñúgTVIbGaRhVik KWRbeTsTaMgGs;elIkElgEtRbeTsGaRhVikxagt,Úg b) enAkñúgTVIbGaemrik KWRbeTsTaMgGs;elIkElgEtshrdæGaemrik nig kaNada c) enAkñúgTVIbGasIu KWRbeTsTaMgGs;elIkElgEtCb:un d) enAkñúgTVIbGWr:ub³ RbeTsRkic RbeTsCIR)aleFI (Gibraltar) RbeTs yUehÁasøavI RbeTsma:lta RbeTsTYKI nigRbeTs Cyprus.

32 # Economic Development

enAkñúgTVIbGUesGanI ³ KWRbeTsTaMgGs;elIkElgEtRbeTsGURsþalI nig NUEvlehSLg; CasrubbBa¢IrayeQμaHén DAC eGabRkesabnUvcMnYn 160 RbeTs nig tMbn;. enAkñúgrgVg;én UN eKeFVIkarCamYynwgbBa¢IrayeQμaHRbeTsepSg²vij. eKEbgEckenAkñúgsßitirbs;eKnUvRkumRbeTsdUcteTA³ fñak;TI1 ³ RbeTsxaglicEdl)anGPivDÆn_rYc ¬shrdæGaemrik kaNada GWr:ubxaglic GURsþalI NUEvlehSLg; GaRhVikxagt,Úg nigCb:un. fñak;TI2 ³ RbeTsénrdæBaNi¢kmμ rWRbeTsesdækic©Gnþr³kal (transition' s economics) ¬GtItrdækumμúynIsenAGWr:ubxagekIt nigGasIuxagekIt¦. fñak;TI3 ³ RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ ¬RbeTsEdlenAesssl;TaMgGs;¦ ecjBIkarEbgEckénBiPBelakenH eTAkñúgbIcMNat;fñak;énRbeTsenaH kñúg enaHk¾cab;epþImmanedImkMeNItnUvsBaØasMKal;énBakü {BiPBelakTI 3 = third world” EdleKeRbIR)as;sBVéf¶Cajwkjab;sMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. pÞúyeTAvij kalNaeKeGabRkesabcUlKñanUvfñak;TI 1 nigfñak;TI 2 enaH eKniyayfaRbeTs xageCIg = north countries bnÞab;mkRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWCa :RbeTsxagt,Úg = south countries nigTMnas;rvagRkumTaMgBIr eK[eQμaHfa {eCIg t,Úg bBaða northsouth-problem rWk¾ north-south-conflict”. karkMNt;RBMEdnRbeTsenH KWCaFmμtaBuM)anbMeBjcitþeT eRBaHfaRBMEdnenHBuM)andak;ecjnUvlkçN³vinicä½y EdlRtUv)anbkRsay eGayCaniymn½y CalkçN³Gnuvtþn_ rWk¾dUcCapþl;CaRTwsþIBit R)akdenaHeLIy. k¾b:uEnþdrabNalkçNHvinicä½yTaMgenHnUvxVHxatpøÚvenHsßitenACa pøÚvEtmYy ³ Ca {second best} éndMeNaHRsayEdleKGacTTYlyk)an. e)

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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3>2> nimμitkmμénRkumkñúgcMeNamRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn¾ CamYynwgkarEbgEckénRbeTsCabIRkumEdl)anerobrab;xagelIbBaðamYyeT otRtUv)anelIkeLIg. CakarBitTaMgenHekIteLIgnUveRKaHfñak;EdlfaRkumRbeTs TaMgenHRtUv)anemIleXIjCatMélesμIsac;suT§EtmYy (=quasi homogen unit). k¾ b:uEnþenAkñúgPaBBitTaMgGs;enH KWCabBaða ¬nigkarniyayCMTas;enHRbEhlCYbRbTH ya:gxøaMgeTAelIRkuménRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_¦ GMBITMrg;minesμIrsac; rWmindUcKña ]TahrN_RbeTs dUcCaRbeTs\NÐa nigRbeTss‘UrINam (Suriname) CaedIm KWminGacdak;cUlkñúgcanEtmYy)aneLIy nigdUcKñapgEdrCamYyRbeTseRbsIul nigRbeTsqad. dUcenH UN )aneGaymaneLIgnUvkardak;CaRkumrg (sub-group) bnþreTotenAkñúgrgVg;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. (1) CaRkumrgTImYyRtUv)anbegáIteLIgkñúgqñaM 1971 KWCaRbePTénRbeTs EdleKniymehAfaRbeTsEdlRtUv)anGPivDÆn_ticbMput (=least developed countries = LDC). sMrab;cMnuceBlénkarerobcMlMdab;lMedaydMbUgénRbeTseTA kñúgRbePT LDC enaH UN )andak;CamUldæannUvlkçN³vinicä½ybIya:g ³ - R)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbCaCnmñak;ticCag 355 US$ ¬KitkñúgTsSvtSn_ 80¦. - cMENkéntMélbegáItBIkarCMnYj nig]sSahkmμenAkñúgplTunCatidul ticCag 10%. - GRtaGñkecHGkSrenAkñúgRkumGayuelI 15 qñaM ticCag 20%. enAkñúgcenøaHeBlqñaM 1980-1982 TMhMtMélTTYlyk (swell value) sMrab; per capita RtUv)anEkERbxøH. cMeBaHkarsßitenAdEdlénlkçNHvinicä½yBIxagelI ¬GRta]sSahkmμ 10% GRtaGñkecHGkSr < 20% RbeTsmYyGacenAcat;TukCa LDC dEdl drabNa per capita énRbeTsenaHBMuelIsBI 427 US$. pÞúyeTAvij k¾mann½yCalkçxNÐ LDC EdrcMeBaHGRtaGñkecHGkSrsMerc)anelI 20% k¾b:uEnþ GRta]sSahkmμ nig per capita sßitenAeRkam 10% nig 355 US$. (2) CamYyRkumrgTIBrI RtUvkMNt;CaRbePTEdleKehAfa {RbeTsEdlCYbRbTH vib,tþiesdækic©ya:gxøaMgbMput} (most seriously affected countries = MSAC).

34 # Economic Development

karkMNt;enHeFVIeLIgeRkayBIkarRbCuMBiessrbs; UN CamYynwgkaredaHRsayGMBI karGnuvtþn_ {énkmμviFIskmμPaBmYysMrab;sßabnasNþab;Fñab;énesdækic©GnþrCati fμmI Yy}. karRbCMuenH)ansMercecjnUvesckþsI Merccitmþ YyEdlTamTarkmμviFIBiess mYysMrab;RbeTsNa EdlRtUv)anCYbRbTHya:gxøaMgedaysarvib,tþiesdækic©Bas eBjBiPBelak. sMrab;kMNt;énRbeTsenH lkçNHvinicä½ydUcteTARtUv)aneRCIs erIs ³ - per capita TabbMput. - karekInéføya:gelOnénéfønaMcUlénplitplcaM)ac; énkarrs;enAkñúgkar eRbobeFobeTAnwgcMNUlénkarnaMecj. - GRtaénkareRbIR)as;bMNulx<s; ¬pleFobénkarbg;tMélénkareRbIR)as; bMNuleTAnwgcMNUlénkarnaMecj¦. - rUbIyb½NÑbMrugTuk (currency reserve) ticbput rWk¾rUbIyb½NÑbMrugTukBMu manTMhMeyageTAtamtMrUvkar. - \T§iBlEdlCaKuNvib,tþiénkarbg;tMélx<s;énkardwkCBa¢Ún nigénkarqøg kat;. - PaBminsUvsMxan;énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTssMrab;dMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_ - cMNUlénkarnaMecjminRKb;RKan; nigmineGLasÞIc ehIyk¾dUcCakarxVH xaténkarcMeNjkMérEdlCasmtßPaBénkarnaMecj. (3) PaBBitCak;lak;CaRkumEdlpÞúyBI LDC nig MSAC Cajwkjab;RtUveGab RkesabbB©ÚalenARbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_Edl)ansMerc)anrYcCaeRscnUvzanPaBGPi vDÆn_mYyEdleRbobeFobeTAmankareCOnelOnxøaMg. RkumRbeTsenH RtUv)aneGay eQμaHCaRkum {RbeTscab;epþIm]sSahkmμ} (NIC = new industrialized countries rWk¾ SIC = semie-industrialized countries). DINamIkpÞal;xøÜnCalkçN³esdækic© rbs;RbeTsenaHRtUvGnuBaØateGayRbeTsenaHya:gqab;bMputsMrab;CMnHcariklkçN³ rcnasm<½n§énRbePTRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_kan;EteRcIneLIg². CakarBitCamYyenaH EdrebIRkelkEPñkemIleTAelIGVITUeTATaMgGs; KWTaMgGs;enaHBMumanTal;EtesaHnUv

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cariklkçN³énrcnasm<½n§EdlGacbgðajsMrab; {RbePTénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ mYy} enaHeT,Iy. edaysarfasBaØaNeQμaHEdleRbIR)as;enHRtUv)ankMNt;edayBMu)anRtYtBi nitüCalkçN³BiesaFn_niym (empirical) sBaØaNenaHsßitenAkñúgkarbkRsay cMhrCaeRcIn nigkøayeTACaviBaØatþiénPaBEdlKμanc,ab;eGaysmrmüNamYy. CMnYsbBaðaenHenAkñúgkarBiPakSaCalkçN³neya)ay RtUv)ancab;epþImecj eRkamkarBicarNanUvlkçNHvinicä½ybEnßmeTot ¬]TahrN_ cMENkén]sSahkmμ enAkñúgplTunCatidulenAkñúgRbeTs kareRbIR)as;famBl PaBecHGkSr Gayurs; enA. l.¦ eRkABITMhMén per capita cMeBaHkardak;lMdab;lMedayénRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_mYyCa {RbeTscab;epþIm]sSahkmμ}. k¾b:uEnþCaRbePTsMrab;RbeTsCa eRcInénRbeTsTaMgenH KWfakarGPivDÆn_sgÁm nigneya)ay KWsßitenAeRkayén karGPivDÆn_esdækic©. GñkesdæviTU)anBicarNa 30 RbeTsCa NIC ehIyEdlkñúg enaHRbeTskMBg;GPivDÆn_enAGasuIGaeKñX_ KWmanRbeTsswgðbUrIEtmYyKt;. (4) TnÞwmsMrab;karkMNt;én NIC LDC nig MSAC EdlRtUvTajecjBI lkçN³vinicä½yénlkçN³esdækic© KWenAmanRkumRbeTsepSg²eToténRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ EdlkMNt;eLIgedayeyageTAtamcMnucrUbPaBCalkçNHPUmisaRsþ suT§saF. RkumRbeTsenH eKeGayeQμaHfa {RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ edayBMuman Rck;Cab;smuRT : ( = land locked countries = LLC). CasrubmanRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ 60 EdlsßitenAkñúgRkummYy rWenAkñúgRkum TaMgBIr rWTaMgbIénRkumrg LDC MSAC nig LLC. enAkñúgcMeNamRbeTs 12 manenAkñúgenaHRbeTs 9 CaRbeTskñúgTVIbGaRhVik KWsßitenAkñúgRkumrgTaMgbIenaH. RbeTs 20 sßitenAkñúgRkumrgTaMgBIr nigRbeTsEdlenAsl; 28 sßitenAkñúg RkumrgEtmYy.

36 # Economic Development

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38 # Economic Development

2 bMNkRsayCaRTwsþIesdækic©GPivDÆn_ ]naPivDÆn_CalT§pl énkarxVHxatktþabrikça ? 1> karGPivDÆn_esdækic© nig birkçaCaFnFanFmμCati eyageTAtammtiénGñkniBn§sMxan;² (classical authors) skþanuBlGPivDÆn_ énRbeTsmYyRtUv)ankMNt;RBMEdnecjBIPaBmansßitenA (availability) rbs;eK GMBIFnFanFmμCati. eyageTAtamPaBCMnYs)anEdlmanRBMEdnrvagFnFanFmμCati k¾dUcCakargar ¬kMlaMgBlkmμ¦ nigTuneFVIeGaylT§plénkarGPivDÆn_EdlviC¢man Gacpþl;CalT§plecjmkBIsmac½y rWkarekIneLIgénTun nigénPaBekIneLIg énkargar ¬=kMlaMgBlkmμ¦ )anluHRtaEtkarERbRbYlénktþaTun nigktþakargarenaH sMerc)aneBjeljdl;cMeNamRBMEdnmYyEdlRBMEdnenaH KWTamTar rWpþl;eGay manPaBsßitenAénFnFanFmμCati. eyageTAtamniekçbTenH brikçavtßúFatuedImsMrab; sßanPaBcaM)ac;EdlCaesdækic©énkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsNaEdlmankarbgðajnUvmU ldæanvtßúFatuedImEdltwgrwg rWmFü½tmYy. ]TahrN_kñúgkrNIEdlfaRBMEdnx<s;bMputsMrab;dMeNIrRbRBitþénkarGPivDÆn_ rbs;RbeTsmYyKWsMerc)anrYcCaeRscCamYynwg per capita EdltictYcmYyenaH eKRtUvBicarNaelImUldæanvtßúFatuedImrbs;eK. CamYynwgPsþútageTAelIkarxVHxat brikçaFnFanenH enAkñúgkarBiteKGacBnül;nUvsßanPaBBitR)akdénRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_CaeRcInEdlminRtwmEtbgðajnUvkMrit per capita EdlTabenaHeT müa:geTot ekIneLIgya:gyWtpgEdr. RbeTsTaMgenHeyageTAtambMNkRsayénGñkniBn§ C.

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sMxan;² faRbeTsTaMgenaH)ansMerc)anrYcCaeRscnUvRBMEdnx<sb; MputénkarGPivDÆn_ rbs;xøÜn. cMeBaHkareFVIeGayritEtRbesIreLIg éneKalkarN_enHeKGacEbgEckeyag eTAtamfaetIRBMEdnx<s;bMputenaH KWbNþalmkBIbrikçaTunEdlRtUveRbIR)as;manRBM EdnCamYynwgvtßúFatuedImenAkñúgKMnitEmnETn rWk¾naMRtLb;eTAelIePaKplFmμCati kñúgdIEdlBMusUvman rWk¾naMRtLb;eTAelIGgÁehtuGakasFatuénRbeTsEdl)anCYb RbTHenaH. 1>1 brikçavtßúFatuedIm nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© mUldæanKMniténkrNIEdldak;eTAelIbrikçavtßúFatuedIm KWCakarsnñidæanfa dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_EdleGaypll¥ nigEdlsnüafasMerc)aneCaKC½y)anRtUv dak;eTAelIplitkmμedIm ¬=plitkmμdMbUg¦. plitkmμedImmann½yfa Cakarplitén plitplksikmμ k¾dUcCakareFVIGaCIvkmμ ¬=kareFVIeGaytic¦ énFnFanFmμCatién RbeTsmYy. kalNaRbeTsmYyxVHvtßúFatuedImenaHvanwg)at;bg;nUvlT§PaBsMrab; sßabnanUv]sSahkmμmYy EdlbegáItmkBIkarécñRbDitbnþBIplEdlTajecjBI vtßúFatuedImenaH. CamYyenHkarsg; ¬=rcnasm<½n§¦ énsaxa]sSahkmμmYyEdl sMxan;sMrab;dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_bnþRtUv)anraraMg. CalT§pleKTTYl)annUvlT§PaB énkarGPivDÆn_EdlminRKb;RKan;enAkñúgRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH. CakarBitkarTam TarnUvvtßúFatuedImEdlmancMNuHFMeFgsMrab;RbeTsmYy KWGacCakareRbIR)as;ya:g FM dUcCakarGPivDÆn_fμI²)anbgðajenAelITIpSareRbgBiPBelak. k¾b:uEnþeKBMuRtUvvaytMéleGayelIslb;GMBIPaBsMxan;énkarGPivDÆn_edaysar vtßúFatuedImeLIy. TaMgenaH)anbgðajnUvkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©énRbeTssVIs daNWma:k nighULg;d_. k¾b:uEnþk¾dUcCa étva:n; hugkug nigswgðbUrIpgEdr Edlfa RbeTsTaMgGs;enaH KWBMumanlT§PaBmannUvvtßúFatuedImeRcIneLIy EteKsMerc)an nUvkMritGPivDÆn_x<s;mYy. karxVHxatxagvtßúFatuedImRtUvGacP¢ab;edays
40 # Economic Development

kmμeRkARbeTsEdlsIuCMerA (intensiv) mYy CamYynwgvtßúFatuedIm nigplitpl Bak;kNþalsMerc. kan;Etc,as; KWkrNIRbeTsCb:un³ enATIenaHEr:EdkTaMgmUl KWEpñkya:gFMnaMcUlBIGURsþalI nig\NÐa k¾dUcCaEpñkya:gelIslb;ént,ÚgfμnaMcUl BIGURsþalI \NÐa nigshrdæGaemrik pÞúyeTAvij rWk¾b:uEnþkarplitEdkEfbén RbeTsenHRtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚleTACavis½y]sSahkmμsMxan;bMputénRbeTsenaH. kMritEdlelIkeLIgenATIenaH BuMtMrUvkareGaymankarERbRbYlpgEdreTeTAelI karBicarNakarpÁt;pÁg;énfamBl. rvagénGtßn½yénneya)ayGPivDÆn_énkarman bMrugTukGMBIfamBl nigénFnFanFmμCatid¾éTeTot KWBuMekItmaneLIgnUvPaBxusKña CamUldæaneLIy. krNIEdlRbesIrenaHRtUvGacbgðajeGayeXIjfa famBlRtUv karcaM)ac;ya:gsIuCMerAenAkñúgdMeNIrRbRBitþénplitkmμCaeRcIn. k¾b:uEnþTaMgenH KWCa lT§plénbBaðaplitEdlCaRbvtþisaRsþEdlfafamBl ¬CaBiesseTAelImUldæan éneRbgkat¦ CayUrmkehIyGacRtUv)annaMcUlcMeBaHéføEdlTabbMput. Tajecj BIenH elcecjnUvlT§pldMeNIrRbRBitþplitkmμEdlCalkçN³famBlsuICMerA (intensive energy using). k¾b:uEnþmanRbeTsxøHEdlmanPaBsm,ÚrénvtßúFatuedIm EtenAEtsßitenAeRkam karGPivDÆn_ TaMgenHmkBImUlehtu ³ RbeTsEdlsm,ÚrvtßúFatuedImCajwkjab; beg¥aneTAtamkarsakl,gsMrab;eFVIÉkeTsPavUbnIykmμ (specialization) eTAelI EtkarnaMecjénvtßúFatuedImTaMgenaH. lT§PaBEdlsMerc)angaynUvplcMNUl rUbiyb½NÑ nigedayqøgkat;bBaðaenHGaceRbIhirBaØvtßúenHeTAkñúgTMhMd¾FMénkarnaMcUl EtplitpleRbIR)as;EdlnwgeFVIeGaybnßynUvclnapþl;sMrab;karrIkraldalénp litkmμmYy nigCamYyenaHEdrenAkarsßabnaénesdækic©CatiEdlmansmtßPaB bMeBjkarplit. kñúgkrNINamYy RbeTsenaHnwgGskmμPaB nigminrIkcMerIn. TaMgenHpþl;eGaykñúgkareRbobeFobCamYynwgRbeTsdéTeTot KWsßitenAeRkamkMrit énkarGPivDÆn_.

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müa:geTotCajwkjab; KWmankarxVHxatnUvTunCasMPar³EdlcaM)ac;sMrab;kar eFVIGaCIvkmμEdlman lT§pll¥ (efficiency) nigcaM)ac;sMrab;karEkécñbnþr nigman karxVHxatnUvcMeNHdwgbec©keTs (know-how) EdlcaM)ac; nigsMrab;müa:geTot bBaðadwkCBa¢ÚnCabBaðamYyEdlRtUvedaHRsayedaylM)akEdr. dUcenHRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_xøH)andak;kareFVIGaCIvkmμeGayeTAshRKasmkBIbreTs. kñúgkrNIxøH énkargarrYmKñaenH )anpþl;eGayRbeTsenaHnUvKuNsm,tþiEtkñúgkrNIxøHeTotk¾ pþl;eGaynUvKuNvib,tþid¾FMpgEdr. dUcenH CasrubkarxVHxatnUvvtßúFatuedImBMuEmnCamUlehtuBti R)akdsMrab;PaB enAeRkamkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsmYyeLIy. 1 rel="nofollow">2> brikçadI nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© karBicarNadUcKñaenHEdr mann½ycMeBaHbrikçadI EdlbgðajfaCa {eCIgTIBIr : sMrab;plitkmμedIm tYy:agplitkmμksikmμ. cMeBaHbBaðaenH k¾eKeCOPaKeRcInfa RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xHø manTMhMdt¾ UcénépÞdEI dlmanCICatiEdlBMumanlT§PaB]btßmÖ ksikmμeGay)anlT§pll¥. kareCOCak;enaH vasmehtuplEdrEtkñúgTMhMEdl manRBMEdnmYy. PaKeRcIneKkt;sMKal;eXIjfa dIEdlsmRsbsMrab;plitkmμksikmμenAkñúg RbeTsRtUv)anRKb;RKgeFVIGaCIvkmμBMu)anlT§pll¥ (inefficient) eT,Iy. kare)as sMGat pSit CMgWrukçCatiEdlrIkraldalelIépÞdI nigkarpøas;bþÚrkardaMduH {shifting calculation} BMuRtUv)anGnuvtþn_enAkñúgneya)ayNamYyEdl KWTamTarsMrab;kar rkSaenA (preservation) tulüPaBbrisßan nigsMrab;rkSaTukénPaBmanCICatiéndI enaHeT,Iy. CakarBitTMrg;énkarRKb;RKgdIenaH BMu)anbgðajnUvcMnucsMxan;énksikmμCa lkçN³RtUBiceT,Iy. dUcCasMrab;kareFVIGaCIvkmμEdll¥RbesIrRtUvqøgkat;kareRbI R)as;dIeGay)anRtwmRtUv nigRbB½n§beBa©jbBa©ÚlTwkEdlnaMeGayGacsMerc)annUv Tinñplx<s;. k¾b:uEnþkareRbIR)as;énviFIsaRsþenH sßitenARbQmmuxCajwkjab;Tl;

42 # Economic Development

nwgkarxVHxaténTun k¾dUcCakMritecHdwgEdlBMuRKb;RKan;énRbeTsTaMgenaH. kan;Et q¶ayEfmeTotTMnak;TMngkmμsiT§EdlhYssm½y k¾dUcCaRbB½n§\NTanEdlBMuRKb; RKan;)anraraMgkareRbIR)as;EdlCalkçN³esdækic©énbrikçadIenaHpgEdr. qøgkat; bBaðaenHFnFanFmμCatiEdlmansßitenARtUv)aneRbIR)as;BMumanlT§pll¥ brikçadI EdlGaceRbIR)as;)anenAkñúgksikmμ)ansVitRseBannUvskþanuBlénplitkmμEdlm anTMhMrbs;va. CaTUeTAeKGnuBaØati karxVHxaténbrikçadItictYcdUcKñanwgkarxVHxaténvtßúFatu edIm ³ ktþaTaMgBIrman\T§iBlCaBitR)akdeTAelIlT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTs. k¾b:uEnþktþaTaMgBIrbgðajeGayeXIjfaKμankarraraMgEdlBMuGacCMnH)aneT,Iy eRBaH faktþaTaMgBIenAkñúgkrNICaeRcInGacRtUv)anTUTat;edaysarBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs CamYynwgvtßúFatuedIm nigplitplsMerc. 1>3> GakasFatu nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© CaBitR)akdRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_sßitenAtMbn;RtUBic nig subtropic TnÞwmnwg RbeTs]sSahkmμPaKeRcInsßitenAkñúgtMbn;GakasFatuRtCak;. kñúgcMeNam RbeTsTaMgGs;eKkMNt;fa karRbmUlpþMúénskmμPaBesdækic© KWsßitenAelItMbn; EdlmanGakasFatuKYreGaycUlcitþ. k¾b:uEnþecjBIkarrkeXIjEdlmanlkçN³ BiesaFn_niym (empirical finding) eKBMuGnuBaØatieGayeyabl;falkçx½NÐ GakasFatuEdlCak;c,as;NamYyman\T§iBlTb;sáat;énkarGPivDÆn_enaHeT,Iy Ca ]TahrN_RbeTsswgðbUrI nigRbeTsma:elsIuBuMsßitenAtMbn;GakasFatuEdlRbeTs ]sSahkmμnanaRbmUlpþMúenaHeLIy. CakarBitlkçx½NÐGakasFatuénRtUBic nig subtropic CH\T§iBllM)akeTAelI karsßabnaénksikmμEdlmansmtßPaBbMeBjkarplit. k¾b:uEnþlkçx½NÐenHbgðaj eGayeXIjfaKμankarraraMgEdlBMuGacCMnH)aneLIy. dUcKñanwgkrNIenHEdreKGac CMnH)annUvral;karekIteLIg nigEdlCYbRbTHenAkñúgtMbn;;RtUBiceTAelIrgVg;RbCaCn Edlya:gticbMputbNþalmkBIGakasFatuenaH TaMgenaHRtUvGacraraMg nigbnßy

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edaysarviFankarN_suxaPi)al nigviFankarN_neya)ayGaharUbtßmÖeRBaHCMgWxøH ekIteLIgEtBIGaharBMusmRsb. dUcenHCakarraraMgénkarGPivDÆn_TUeTA KWlkçxN ½ GÐ akasFatuGacRtUv)an sMGagtictYcdUcCakrNIénkarxVHxatbrikçavtßúFatuedIm rWk¾karxVHxatKuNPaBdIEdl BMu)anbMeBjcitþenaHEdr. 1>4> brisßanxVHxat nigkarGPivDÆn¾esdækic© bBaðabrisßanEdlF¶n;F¶renAkñúgbNþaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enAeBlbc©úb,nñ KW karbMpøajéRBeQI PaBFøak;cuHkan;EtGaRkk;eTAnwgkar)at;bg;énépÞdIdaMduH edaysar karhUreRcaHdI dIkøayeTACaéRb dIkøayCal,b;CaPk; k¾dUcCaviFankarN_énkar GPivDÆn_TIRkug nig]sSahkmμ dIkøayeTACaxSac; PaBmankan;EtticeTAénRbePTCa eRcInénrukçCati nigstVenAtamtMbn;CnbT. bBaðabrisaß nEdlekItmaneLIg CamYy nwgkareRbIR)as;famBl bBaðaykeTAe)aHecal dUcCaTwkEdlbgðÚrecal sMram lamk. k¾dUcCabBaðabrisßanEdlCamUlehtumkBIbBaðapÞHsEm,g ]TahrN_ CalT§plénkarpøas;bþÚr TIlMenAedayÉkÉgd¾eRcInelIslb;enAtamtMbn;TIRkug. bBaðabrisßansMrab;Epñkya:geRcIn KWGaRs½yKñaeTAvijeTAmk brisßanenHCakarBit enAkñúgtMbn;xøH)ansMercrYcCaeRsceTAdl;TMhMmYyEdlTMhMenaHnaMeTAeGaykarxUc xatEdlBMuGacEkrécñeLIgvij)ansMrab;mUldæankarrs;enACalkçN³mnusS. karBiPakSaEdlkan;EtekIneLIgénPaBBikarbrisßanenH )annaMeTAeGaykar yl;dwgGMBI bBaðakan;EtxøaMgeLIgenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_\LÚvenH. cMeNHdwg EdlTajecj)anRsbeBlCamYyenaH )anbegáItenAkñúgTMhMmYykan;EtekIneLIg sMrab;karEsVgrknUvviFankarN_brisßanepSg²eTAkñúgRckénkarBicarNaénkarsMer ccitþEdlCalkçN³neya)ayGPivDÆn_. qøgkat;viFankarN_TaMgenHvaekIteLIgnUv lT§PaBEdlsMrab;erobcMsMrYlTMnak;TMngénesdækic© nigbrisßan)anl¥RbesIrCag kalBImunkarsMerccitþ KWTaMgGs;enHPaKeRcInsßitenAelIEdlfa pøÚvénkarGPivDÆn_ CalkçN³ esdækic©RtUvEterobcMsMrYleTAtamlkçx½NÐRkbx½NÐbrisßan.

44 # Economic Development

enATIenHpgEdr lkç½NÐRkbx½NÐbrisßanénRbeTsmYyCaBitR)akdkMNt;nUv rcnasm<½n§éndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_Cati k¾b:uEnþeTaHbICaya:gNak¾edayvaBMuEmnRBMEdn x<s;bMputsMrab;sMerc)annUvdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_CatienaHeLIy. 1>5 lT§pl CalT§plénkarBicarNaenH eKTTYl)annUvPsþútagEdlfakarRsaybMPøW eTAelIkarxatbg;énFnFanFmμCatiénRbeTsnImYy² BMuEmnCamUlehtuCaGvsanþ rW CasBaØaePøIgRkhm sMrab;PaBminGPivDÆn_enaHeLIy. CaBitR)akdkarmansßitenA énFnFanFmμCati kMNt;nUvrcnasm<½n§énkarGPivDÆn_EdlmanlT§pll¥RbesIr k¾ b:uEnþvaBMukMNt;nUvkMrit (level) énzanPaBGPivDÆn_EdlGacsMerc)anGtibrimaeLIy. 2> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénkarxVHxaténkarbegáItTun 2>1> karbegáItTun nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© 2>1>1> lT§plénkarGPivDÆn_ecjBIkarbegáItTun eyageTAelIemeronxagelI eyIgeXIjfakarxVHxaténFnFanFmμCati BuMEmn CamUlehtuénkarEdlBMueGaymankarGPivDÆn_esdækic©eLIy. enAkñúgTMnak;TMngenH eKpþl;eGaynUvkarsnμt;fa ]naPivDÆn_esdækic© KWCalT§plénkarbegáItTunEdlBMu RKb;RKan;mYy CalT§plrbs;va)aneFVIeGaymannUvesdækic©CatimYyEdlCYbRbTH cMeBaHbrikçaénsnñiFimUlFn ¬= sþúkmUlFn = capital stock¦ d¾tictYcmYy. CakarBit RTwsþIGPivDÆn_EdlsMxan;TaMgGs; (classical development theory) cab;epþImecjBI cMeNHdwgEdlfakarbegáItTunbgðajCayanynþ (motor) énkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©. enAkñúgTMnak;TMngenH eKcat;TukfaTunCaEpñkNamYyén lT§plplitkmμkñúgkMlugeBlmun EdlEpñkenaHcUlrYmkñúgkarbMeBjkarbegáIt plitkmμ enAkñúgkMlugeBlEdlRtUv)anBicarNa. edaysarEtTun KWCasBaØaN x<s;bMputénmeFüa)ayplitkmμEdlRtUvcUlrYmplitTaMgGs; elak Adam Smith )aneGaydwgrYcCaeRscfaCacMbgkarbegáItsmac½yTun (= capital accumulation) CalkçN³EdlRtUvbMeBjCamun (prerequisite) sMrab;karBRgIkCMnajCati nigkar

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EbgEckkargarEdlnaMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgén per capita EdlRtUv)anRbwg xñHExñgenaH. kareRbobeFobRbeTs )anpþl;eGayeXIjfaTMhMénkarbegáItTunenAkñúg RbeTs]sSahkmμCamFümekIneT,IgeTVdg rWdl;RtIdg FMCagRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. eGLasÞIcplitkmμénTunRtUv)anvaytMéledayGñkesdæviTUCaviC¢man enaHmann½yfa karekIneLIgNamYysMrab;sþúkmUlFnEdlCalkçN³esdækic© KWmanCalT§plén karekIneLIgénplitkmμ. karGPivDÆn_mann½yCa]TahrN_fa dMeNIrkarplitkmμ EdlRtUvGnuvtþn_BImun ehIyEdldMeNIrkarenaHRsUbykEtTunbnþicbnþÜcenaHRtUv pþl;CaplRbeyaCn_dl;dMeNIrkardéTeTotEdldMeNIrkarenaHeFVIeGaymanCamYy nwgkareRbIR)as;Tunx<s;mYysMrab;Blkrmñak;. RBmCamYyenaHEdrplitPaBén kargarEdlx<s;enaHk¾RtUvERbRbYlpgEdr. CakarBitTaMgenH KWBuMrMBwgfaplTunCatiRtUvERbRbYlsmmaRteTAnwgkarERb RbYlénsþúkmUlFnenaHeT eRBaHfama:CInemKuN (marginal capital coefficient) CakarBitBMuesßreLIy. ecjBIkarbkRsayxagelIeKGacTajecj)anfa RbeTs EdlCamYynwgkarbegáItTunEdlBMuRKb;RKan;BMuGace)aHP¢ab;dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_Edls nüafaeCaKC½yCanic©enaHeLIy. enAkñúgRbeTsTaMgenHCalT§plénskmμPaB smac½yEdlBMuRKb;RKan;enaH PaKeRcIndak;kMhuseTAelIkarxVHxaténTunEdlkar xVHxatenH KWCakarTTYlxusRtUvsMrab;plitPaBkargarEdltictYcmYy. enAkñúg krNIenHkarGPivDÆn_RtUvGacsMerc)anCacMbgedayqøgkat;karbegáIneLIgénsmac½ yTun (capital accumulation). 2>1>2> TMnak;TMngrvagTunsMPar³ nigTunCaFnFanmnusS cMeBaHPsþútagCalkçN³esdækic©Cati rab;bBa©ÚlmeFüa)ayplitkmμEdlRtUv plitTaMgGs; nigCaBitR)akdBMuGaRs½yeTAnwgfaetIBak;Bn½ e§ TAnwgsMPar³ ¬]TahrN_ GaKar cegáamma:sIun TMnijsþúkTuk¦ rWeTAnwgsmtßPaBmnusSEdlRtUvbegáIteLIgenA kñúgcrnþénplitkmμ nigEdlbgðajnUvsmtßPaBEdlRtUvplit. smtßPaBmnusSrab;

46 # Economic Development

bBa©ÚlCaBiessnUvkMriténkarGb;rM nigkarsikSaénGñkeFVIkargar ehIyk_dUcCaskþa nuBlEdlCalkçNHRKb;RKg nigEpnkarénRbeTsmYy. sMrab;karEbgEckén RbePTTunTaMgBIr eKeRbIR)as;sBaØaNBakü {TunsMParH} ¬rWk¾TunBitR)akd rWTun CalkçN³sMPar³¦ nig {TunFnFanmnusS} ¬rWk¾smtßPaB Tun rWTunCalkçN³BuM sMParH¦. karbkRsayénsmtßPaBbMeBjkarplitrbs;mnusSfaCa {TunFnFan mnusS} KWmann½yfaBMumanpøÚvNaEdlfamnusSRtUvcat;TukCa]bkrN_ggitggl; énBaNiC¢kmμEdlmanlkçN³Caesdækic©enaHeLIy. eKalbMNgénskmμPaBesdækic©Nak¾eday KWCakarpÁt;pÁg;énmnusSCamYy nwgplitpl nigesvakmμ k¾b:uEnþmnusSk¾CaktþaplitkmμEdr. eyageTAtamkar BicarNaxagelI eyIgk¾Rbkan;ykcMeBaHkarBicarNaeTAelIktþaTunFnFanmnusS CalT§PaBmUlehtuén]naPivDÆn_. PaBsMxan;énktþaTunFnFanmnusSRtUv)anbk RsaytamryHkarRsavRCavrbs; Denison. Denison )anbgðajeGayeXIjfa cMeBaHkarkMNt;RBMEdnénsBaØaNTun eTAelIEtTunsMParH eKeXIjmanEtRbEhl 30-50% enAkñúgPaBrIkcMerInnImYy²EdlGacGacBnül;)anmkBITunsMParH. cMeBaH karEsVgrknUvcenøaHRbehagénkarBnül;enaH Denison )anCYbRbTHfaenAkñúg RbeTsTaMgGs;EdlelIkmkBicarNa)anekIneLIgnUvKuNPaBénkargarEdlRtUv)a neRbIR)as;enAkñúgdMeNIrkarplitkmμ ehIyGRtaekIneLIgEdleTAtamRbePTRbeT senaH KWGaRs½yeTAelIlT§plKuNPaB (qualitative effect) EdlepSg²KñaenaH. CakarBitlT§plénkarekIneLIgenH GacbkRsayCakarrIkcMerInCalkçN³ bec©keTsmYy. bnÞab;mkeKGackMNt;)anfakarekIneLIgénplitPaBenH ¬lkçN³bec©keTsenH¦ RtUv)anelcecjCacMbgBIkareRbIR)as;énkarGb;rM nigén karsikSak¾dUcCaBIlT§pl {learning by doing}. edaysarEtkareRbIR)as;enaH KW CalT§plénkarcMNay {eTAelImnusS} enaHvaCalT§plénkarcMNayénkarGb;rM TunCaFnFanmnusSmYy. CamYyenaHTunFnFanmnusSRtUvkøayeTACaktþabMeBjmYy énTunsMParH ktþaTaMgBIrenaH KWGacCMnYsKña)anEtenAkñúgrgVg;RBMEdnbec©keTs Edlpþl;eGayb:ueNÑaH. PaBCMnYsEdlRtUvmanRBMEdnénTunCaFnFanmnusSeday

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sarktþaTunepSg²eTotenaH KWenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ xøHvaCamUlehtuénzan PaBGPivDÆn_EdlBMuKYreGayeBjcitþ ³ RbeTsTaMgenH KWBMusßitenAkñúgsßanPaBsMrab; eFVIeGaymantulüPaBénkarxVHxatTunCaFnFanmnusSrbs;eK edayqøgkat;kareRbI R)as;eRcInEfmeToténktþaTundéTeTot. tamlT§plénkarRsavRCav)aneGaydwgfa brikçaTunCaFnFanmnusSén RbeTsnImYy²)ancUlrYmpþl;eGayenAkñúgTMhMya:gxøaMgkøasMrab;PaBxusKñaén per capita CagBIbrikçaepSg²eTot dUcCaTunsMParH nigFnFanFmμCati. karxVHxat enAGñkbec©keTs KWCamUlehtusMxan;Edlfacegáamma:sIunplitkmμEdlmanRtUv sßti enAmindMeNIrkarsMrab;EpñkxøH ehIyEpñkxøHeTotGacRtUvRbRBwteþ TACamYynwgPaB eRbIR)as;énvisalPaBsmtßPaBd¾tictYcb:ueNÑaH. GRtaénkarvinieyaKEdltictYc eTAelITunCaFnFanmnusSénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH ebIeRbobeFobeTAnwgRbeTs ]sSahkmμ)anbgðajCakarBitnUvcMnucd¾QWk,al (neuralgic point) sMrab;kar Bnül;én]naPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsTaMgenaH. müa:geTotPaBeCaKC½yd¾tictYcénkarepÞr rWk¾karkMlayTunsMParHenAkñúg RbeTsTaMgenaHRsaybBa¢ak;eGayeXIjpgEdrfa kareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIg mYyénbrikçaTunsMPar³ )anbgðajeGayeXIjBuMEmnCalkç½NÐEdlRKb;RKan;sMrab; CMrujel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_eLIy. PaBGacCMnYs)anEdlmanRBMEdnrvagTunsMPar³ nigktþaplitkmμepSgeTot dUcCaCacMbg KWbrikçaTunFnFanmnusSenaHTamTareFVI eGayPaKeRcIneGaymankarekIneLIgEdlmanlkçN³CakarbMeBjKñaénRbePTktþa TaMgenaH. 2>1>3> karxVHxatTun PaBKμankargareFVI nigPaBeFVIkarBMueBjelj kan;Etc,as;EfmeTot karxVHxatTunénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHRtUv)anBnül; bkRsayedayqøgkat;PaBKμankargareFVIEdllatsn§wgFMeFg nigPaBeFVIkarBMueBj elj. CamYyenHeKyl;faPaBKμankargareFVI KWCasßanPaBEdlenAkñúgenaHkMlaMg BlkmμEdlGaRs½yeTAnwgR)ak;Ex BMumankEnøgkargareFVIkñúgryHeBlkMNt; rWk¾BMu

48 # Economic Development

mankMNt;eTaHbIkMlaMgBlkmμTaMgenaH KWRbugeRbobrYcCaeRscsMrab;pþl;nUvkar bMeBjkarplitEdlCalkçN³plitkmμk¾eday. pÞúyeTAvijPaBeFVIkarBMueBjelj RtUv)anyl;fa kalNaCnTaMgGs;eFVIkarBMupþl;lT§pll¥ (inefficient) TaMgenaH mann½yfa GñkTaMgenaHKμancUlrYmkñúgkarbMeBjEdlpþl;sMrab;lT§plplitkmμ EdlmanlkçN³Caesdækic©enaHeT,Iy. ecjBIniymn½yénPaBKμankargareFVI eKGacEbgEckbnþeTotrvagPaBKμan kargareFVImYyryH nigPaBKμankargareFVIrhUt. enAkñúgTMnak;TMngénRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_RtUv)anbgðajeGayeXIjnUvniekçbTEdlfaPaBKμankargareFVIrbs;eK KW swgEtrhUt. PaBKμankargareFVIrhUtenH manmUlehtuedaysarkarsßitenAénktþa bMeBjKña ¬CacMbgKWTun¦ enAkñúgRbeTsenaHvaBMuRKb;RKan;sMrab;GacbegáIteT,IgeLIy nUvkEnøgkargarEdleyageTAtamGñkEdlcg;eFVIkargarTaMgGs;enaH. TMnak;TMngénktþabrikçaEdlBitR)akdrvagkargar ¬= kMlaMgBlkmμ¦ nigktþa (factor) EdlenAesssl; ¬]TahrN_ktþaTunsMPar³¦ KWFMCagTMnak;TMngénkareRbI R)as;EdlmanlT§pll¥GtibrimaénktþaTaMgenaH. ecjBIRbCaCnEdlelIsenaH pþl;nUvlT§plénPaBKμankargareFVIEdlCalkçNHbec©keTs. PaBKμankargareFVI EdlCabec©keTsenHmann½yfa TMhMCasktþanuBlénkMlaMgBlkmμEdlman lkçN³Caesdækci R© tUv)ankMNt;RBMEdnedaybec©keTsEdlmansßti enAkñúgRbeTs enaH. 2>2> mUldæanRTwsþIénkarbegáItTun enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH el,ÓnénkarbegáItTunBMuTan;RKb;RKan;sMrab; eFVIeGayGacmanenAzanPaBGPivDÆn_EdlKYreGayeBjcitþmYyeLIy ³ karxVHxatén Tunman\T§iBlCakarceg¥otsMrab;karGPivDÆn_. enATIenHeyIgelIkeLIgnUvsMnYrEdl CamUlehtuénkarbegáItTunEdlBMuRKb;RKan; enAkñúgRbeTsGs;TaMgenaH. sMrab;kar viPaKénmUlehtuenH eKeGaydMbUnμansMrab;bgðajPsþútagedayeyaleTAelITMnak; TMngRTwsþIEdlbgðajGMBIkarbegáItTun.enAkñúgRbB½n§énkarKNnasarubénplTun

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CatikarekIneLIgral;qañ MsMrab;súþkmUlFnesdækci C© atiRtUv)ankt;RtaCa {karvinei yaK suT§ net investments” ecjBIKNnIénkarERbRbYlRTBüsm,tþiCati ³ enAEpñkxagsþaM KWCalT§PaBhirBaØvtßúénkarbegáItRTBüsm,tþi ³ lT§PaB hirjvtßúenaH bgðajeGayeXIjfaGacecjBIRbPBkñúgRbeTs ¬ecjBIkareRbIR)as; énplitkmμEdlnaMeTAeGaykarbegáIténTunCaFnFanmnusS ehIyk¾dUcCaecjBI karsnSMEdlCaÉkCn nigrdæ¦ rWk¾ecjBIkarFanaén\NTanbreTs. enAEpñkxageqVgbgðajeGayeXIjkareRbIR)as;meFüa)ayhirBaØvtßúenH elx 3 nigelx 11 ¬taragxageRkam¦ GaRs½yeTAtamEdlfa karbegáItRTBüsm,tþi EdleyageTAnwgkarvinieyaK ¬elx 12 nig elx 2¦ Canic©Cakal KWmanTMhM dUcCaplbUkénkarsnSMkñúgRbeTs nigkarTTYl\NTanBIbreTs ¬rWk¾dUcCapl dkénkarbegáItkarsnSMkñúgRbeTs nigkarsg\NTansuT§eTAbreTs¦. k¾b:uEnþkarvinieyaKTaMgGs;BMunaMeTArkkarbegáItTunmYyenAkñúlkçNHbec©keT splitkmμenaHeT ³ RbePTénkarvinieyaKxøH ¬TaMgkarvinieyaKÉkCn nigkar vinieyaKrdæ¦ bgðajeGayeXIjBuMmanlT§plCasmtßPaB (capaciy's effect)eT,Iy. RbePTénkarvinieyaKenH mann½yEtCakarbegáIténRTBüsm,tiþEdlBMuEmnCaplit kmμ ¬TunGkmμ¦ nigRtUvdkecjBIrgVg;énkarKNnaénkarbegáItTun ¬tYy:ag elx 2¦. dUecñHkarbegáItRTBüsm,tiþmanEtkñúgelxerog 1 Edl)anbkRsaynUvkar ERbRbYlzanPaBTunEdlsMxan;sMrab;neya)ayGPivDÆn_énesdækic©CatimYy. eyag eTAtamkarbkRsayxagelIbgðajeGayeXIjfa kalNaeKdkecjnUvTMnak; TMng\NTanbreTsecjenaH karxVHxatTunEdlCYbRbTHenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_GacRtUvbNþalmkBIkarbegáIténkarsnSMBMuRKb;RKan;mkBIkarbegáIténRTBü sm,tþiEdlBMuEmnplitkmμenAkñúgTMhMya:gFM nigrWk¾mkBIkareRbIR)as;énplitkmμd¾ tictYcmYy.

50 # Economic Development

KNnIERbRbYlénRTBüsm,tþiCati Debit

karbegáItTun 1.1. karbegáItTunEdlGaRs½y nwgkareRbIR)as; 1.2. karbegáItTunEdlGaRs½y nwgkarvinieyaK 1.2.1. karvinieyaKénTunsMPar³ 1.2.1.1. karvinieyaKéncegáamma:sIun 1.2.1.2. karERbRbYlénkarmankñúgXøaMgEdl)an eRKagTukcMeBaHvtßúFatuedIm nig plitplBak; kNþalsMerc 1.2.2. karvinieyaKénTunFnFanmnusS 2.karbegáItRTBüsm,tþiEdlBMuEmnplitkmμ ¬lT§PaBeRCIserIssMrab;elxerog 5¦ 5a karpþl;RtLb;én\NTansuT§eTAbreTs 1.

Credit

kareRbIR)as;énplitkmμ 1 4. karsnSM 4.1 karsnSMCaÉkCn 4.2 karsnSMCardæ 5. karTTYlyk\NTansuT§BIbreTs 3.

2>3> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlBMuRKb;RKan;mYy karxVHxatEdlCanic©CakalRtUvGacnaMeTArkkarbegáIténkarsnSMEdlBMuRKb; RKan; kalNakarsnSMEdlecjBIEpñkÉkCn nigrdæBMuRKb;RKan;sMrab;GaceFVh I ri BaØvtßú énkarvinieyaKNamYyEdlkarvinieyaKenaH KWTamTarsMrab;karsMerc)ankarbegáIt TunEdlemIleXIjfal¥RbesIr. karbegáIténkarsnSMBMuRKb;RKan;enH GacmanmUl ehturbs;vamkBIsmtßPaBénkarsnSMEdlBMuRKb;RKan; nigrWk¾karRbugeRbobénkar snSMBMuRKb;RKan;.

1

pSarP¢ab;karbegáItTunFnFanmnusS³ ]TahrN_karGnuvtþn_kmμviFIénkareFVIeGayRbesIreLIgén mðÚbGahar karbg;tMélR)ak;Exkñúgvis½yeBTü nig Gb;rM viFankarN¾kñúgvis½ysßabnalMenAdæan. l. nig. l.

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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k¦ karxVHxatTunCalT§plénsmtßPaBénkarsnSMEdlBMuRKb;RKan; smtßPaBsnSMénRbeTsmYyRtUvGackMNt;CasMxan;edayTMhMénR)ak;cMNUl CatiEdleyalelITMhMénRbCaCn nigRBmCamYyenaHedayTMhMénkarEbgEckR)ak; cMNUlrvagbuKÁlmñak;². eRBaHfakarsnSM KWeGayniymn½yCakarlHbg;énkareRbI R)as; (consumption waiver) enaHsmtßPaBénkarsnSM KWRtUvmanlkçxNÐEdlfa RbCaCnTaMgGs; rWk¾EpñkxøHénRbCaCnrbs;RbeTsmYy KWRtUvmansmtßPaBsMrab; lHbg;kareRbIR)as;rbs;xøÜn. k¾b:uEnþCamYykarBiPakSaénbBaðaPaBRkIRkBitR)akdRtUv)anbgðajrYcCaeRsc fasMrab;karrkSaeGaysßitesßrénkarrs;Gb,rima KWeKRtUvkarR)ak;cMNUlGb,rima mYy. cMnYnR)ak;cMNUlenHeyageTAtammUlehtuCalkçN³rUbRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab; eKalbMngeTAelIplitpleRbIR)as; (consumption). CalT§plsmtßPaBénkar snSMCalkçN³esdækic© KWRtUvEtmanlkç½NÐEdlfa per capita énRbeTsenaHRtUv sßit enAelItMélNamYyEdltMélenaHqøúHbBa©aMgnUvbnÞat;PaBRkIRk(porverty line). dUcenHkalNa per capita énRbeTsmYy KWkan;EtTabeTAenaHsmtßPaBén karsnSMrbs;eKk¾kan;EtticEdr. CaTUeTAkarbegáIténkarsnSMBMuRKb;RKan;RtUv)anrk eXIjecjCaRTwsþIedayGñkesdæviTUmYycMnYnRTwsþIenaHTajecjBI {TMnak;TMngmUl ehtu} EdlRtUv)anrkeXIjeyageTAtameKalkarN_mUlehtuCargVg; ehIyeGay eQμaHCaRTwsþI {rgVg;KYreGayRBWRBYc} (= circuli vitiosi = vicious circles). mUl ehtuCargVg;enH mann½yenAkñúgTMnak;TMngEdlfakMlaMgEdlman\T§iBlGviC¢man eTAelIkarbegáItTunCaRbePTEdl]btßmÖKñaeTAvijeTAmk nigeFVIeGaykan;EtxøaMg eLIgnUvGVITaMgGs;EdlBMuGaceGaymankarbegáItTunenAkñúgtMélNamYyenaHeLIy.

52 # Economic Development

RkahVikénrgVg;KYrGayRBWRBYc

RbeTsEdl)anCYbRbTHenH KWBMusßitenAkñúgsßanPaBEdlGacTajxøÜnecj BIrgVg;kacsahavenHedaykMlaMgxøÜnÉg)aneT³ RbeTsTaMgenHnwgsßitenACaGñk eTasénTMnak;TMngrgVg;enH ebIsinNaCaRbeTsenaHBMumanCMnYyBIbreTseday TMhMNamYyeLIy. x¦ karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarRbugeRbobsnSMEdlBMuRKb;RKan; cMeBaHkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlxMRbwgERbg KWGacTTYl)ankñúgkal³eTs³ Edl RkumRbCaCnEdlmansmtßPaBsnSM bgðajpgEdrnUvkarRbugeRbobénkarsnSMEdl TamTarenaH. TaMgGs;enHeFVIeGayeKTaj)anfakarxitxMRbwgERbgénkarekNÐ RbmUlépÞkñúgBIRbeTsmYyeTARbeTsmYy KWxusKñaya:gxøaMgCamYynwglT§plénkar RbugeRbobsnSMepSg²Kña. karRbugeRbobsnSMGaRs½yeTAnwgfaetI {TMnak;TMngén tMél} NamYyEdlGñksnSMEdlmanskþanuBlemIleXIjrvagkareRbIR)as;bc©úb,nñ nigkareRbIR)as;GnaKt nigfaetI {lT§PaBénkarERbRbYlBitR)akdNamYyénkar snSMEdl)anekIteLIgenaH}. {TMnak;TMngtMél} xagelIRtUv)ansgát;F¶n;edayqøgkat;GTßiPaBéneBl nig ekItmaneLIgnUvTMhMEdlmanlkçN³føwgEføgnUvPaBesdækic©TUlMTUlay ¬metaecono-mics) pgEdr. rcnasm<½nrbs;va KWGaRs½yeTAnwgnimiμtkmμénTMnak;TMng tMélrbs;buKÁlmñak;² GaRs½yeTAnwgkarføwgEføgxøwmsarénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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rvagbuKÁl;mñak;² nigk¾dUcCaGaRs½yeTAnwgTMhMén {economic surplus}. pÞúyeTA vij {lT§PaBénkarERbRbYlEdlBitR)akd} RtUv)anbgðajedayqøgkat;GRta karR)ak;EdlGñksnSM)anTTYlcMeBaHkarsnSMrbs;eKenaH. 2>4> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarvinieyaKénplitkmμEdlBMuRKb;RKan; karmannUvénkarsnSMEdlcaM)ac;enaH mann½yfaBMuEmnCakarFanaEdlfaTun RtUv)anbegáItenAkñúgTMhMEdlTamTaredayneya)ayGPivDÆn_eLIy. kalNakar snSMRtUv)anERbkøaymineTAkñúgkarvinieyaKénplitkmμeTenaH karsnSMenaHCaBit R)akdenAeRkamrUbPaBénRTwsþIrgVg; KWnaMeTAeGaymankarbegáItEtRTBüsm,tþiGkmμ (= fix assets) Etb:ueNÑaH KWBMunaMeTAeGaymankarbegáIténTunskmμeLIy. enAkñúg krNIenHskmμPaBénkarsnSMGacman\T§iBlCa]TahrN_ KWkarekIteLIgénkar sþúkTukCamYynwgplitplsMercEdlBMuGaclk;)an ehIyEdlplitplenaH KWsMrab;BicarNaCakarvinieyaKEdlBuM)aneFVIEpnkarc,as;las;. ecjBIkarsþúkenHvaBMuRtwmEtpþl;lT§plénkarBMubegáItTuneT eRkABIenHCajwk jab;eTotbegáItnUvPaBGviC¢mandl;karvinieyaKsuT§sMrab;kMlugeBlbnÞab;mk eRBaHfakarekIteLIgénkarsþúkenH Gacman\T§iBlnUvkarlHbg;eTAelIkarvinieyaK sarCafμI. dUcenHkarxVHxatTunCalT§plminRtwmEtecjBIkarbegáIténkarsnSMBMu RKb;RKan;eT eRkABIenHk¾ecjBIskmμPaBkarvinieyaKplitkmμEdlBMuRKb;RKan;enaH pgEdr. skmμPaBkarvinieyaKénplitkmμEdlBMuRKb;RKan; GacmanmUlehturbs;va mkBI {smtßPaBénkarvinieyaKBMuRKb;RKan;mYy nigmkBIkarRbugeRbobvinieyaKBMu RKb;RKan; :. k¦ karxVHxatTunCalT§plénsmtßPaBénkarvinieyaKBMuRKb;RKan; smtßPaBénkarvinei yaKénRbeTsmYy kMNt;edayeyageTAtamfaetIlT§PaB énkarvinieyaKEdlekIteLIgGacRtUv)ankt;sMKal; nigGacRtUv)aneFVIeGayeTACa karBitedayGñkvinieyaK ¬GñkvinieyaKÉkCn nigGñkvinieyaKCardæ¦ enAkñúgTMhMNa mYy. eyageTAtamTsSn³énGñkesdæviTUCaeRcInkarbegáItTunEdlBMuRKb;RKan;enAkñúg

54 # Economic Development

RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ Cajwkjab;bNþalmkBIsmtßPaBénkarvinieyaKEdlxVHxat mYy. cMeBaHdMeNaHRsayenaHRtUv)anqøúHbBa©aMgeGayeXIjfaBMumancariklkçN³ shRKinÉkCn rWk¾BMumanrdæ)alsaFarN³Na)anbgðajnUvbTdæanénkarbMeBj karplitEdlbTdæanenaHRtUvCalkçx½NÐsMrab;kMNt;sMKal; nigsMrab;eFVIeGayeTA CakarBiténlT§PaBénkarvinieyaKEdlnwg]btßmÖénkarGPivDÆn_. eyageTAtam Hirsch karBMumanRKb;RKan;éncariklkçN³énshRKas bgðajeGayeXIjnUvmUldæand¾ceg¥oténkarGPivDÆn_sMrab;RbeTsCaeRcIn. karxVH xaténcariklkçNHénshRKas k¾dUcCaénrdæ)alsaFarN³ mann½yfaCakarxVH xatxagFnFnmnusS. karCMnHénkarxVHxatTunFnFanmnusSCajwkjab;CalkçN³ RtUvbMeBjCamunnUvkarpøas;bþÚrénsgÁmEdlenARTwgenaH. karpøas;bþÚrenHeFVIeGay mankarERbRbYlEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karpþl;énsßanPaBsmtßPaBénkarvinieyaKenAkñúg Gkb,kiriyaEdlCaRbéBNICati nigEdlCacariklkçN³Cati. k¾b:uEnþkarERbRbYl sgÁmenHRsbeBlCamYyKñavaCamUlehtu nigk¾CalT§plénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© Edr. dUcenHenAkñúgRbeTsNaEdlenAkñúgRbeTsenaH mkdl;bc©úb,nñBMuTan;)an mankarERbRbYlénsgÁmenaH RbeTsenaHnwgmankarxVHxatnUvsmtßPaBénkar vinieyaKEdlTamTarsMrab;begáItTun. x¦ karxVHxatTunEdlCalT§plénkarxVHxatkarRbugeRbobvinieyaK bEnßmBIelIkarxVHxatsmtßPaBkarvinieyaK karxVHxatkarbegáItTunk¾bNþal mkBIGñkvinieyaKEdlCaskþanuBlBuMRbugeRboberobcMsMrab;skmμPaBvinieyaKrbs; eKEdr. elak Nurkse nigelak Singer )anbgðajeGayeXIjrYcCaeRsc fargVg;KYreGayRBWRBYcénkarbegáItTunEdlBMuRKb;RKan;EdlCalT§plénkarsnSMd¾ti ctYcRtUv)anrMkilqøgkat;rgVg;KYreGayRBWRBYcTI 2 eTot. eyageTAtamkarrkeXIj rbs;Kat;Gñk]sSahkrenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWBMuRbugeRbobsMrab;kareRbI R)as;eGayGs;visalPaBénTMhMkarsnSMEdlmancMeBaHkartMrUvkarénplitplvinie

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yaKEdleyageTAtamenaHeLIy. edaysarTIpSarceg¥otenAkñúgRbeTsEdlCYb RbTHenaH TaMgenH)anpþl;eGaynUvsMNagd¾tictYcsMrab;kareRbIR)as;TunEdlCa lkçN³esdækic©eBjeljmYy. karrg;caMR)ak;cMeNjénvinieyaKinEdlCaskþa nuBl KWTuTidæi. qøgkat;bBaðaenHnwgekIteLIgKμankartMrUvkarTuneGayRKb;RKan; Edl CamYyenaHeFVIeGaykarbegáItTunEdleBjcitþCaesdækic©CatiBMuGacRtUvKNna)an. CamYykarsnSMEdl)anvinieyaKminmanCalkçN³plitkmμ ehIyeRkABIenH edaymUlehtuénlT§plénkarBMumantMrUvkarrbs;vaenaH eFVIeGayekItmankan;Et eRcIneLIgén {KMnrénkarsþúk} EdlKMnrenaHCakarraMgénkarGPivDÆn_. karxVHxat TunEdledaymUlehtu)anerobrab;enaH )ankøayeTACarwgdUcsuIm:g; nwg)anraraMg CafμIeToténkarekIneLIgplitPaBNamYyEdlRtUvcaM)ac;sMrab;BRgIkénTIpSar³ rgVg; nwgRtUvbiT eKGacemIlrgVg;KYreGayRBWRBYc (vicious circle) éntMrUvkarTunEdlBMu RKb;RKan;enAkñúgrUbxageRkam.

rgVg;kacsahavenHGacBMumansuBlPaB kalNaRbeTsenaHmanRbCaCn eRcIn ehIyeTaHbI per capita tictYck¾eday eRBaHfakartMrUvkarmanTMhMFMeFg. müa:gvijeTotrgVg;enHk¾mann½ytictYcEdr ebIsinNakarR)ak;épÞkñúgÉkCn (internal interest rate that is converted from the cashflow and public interest rate¦ én karvinieyaKsßitenAelIGRtakarR)ak;TIpSarrhUtenaH. eyageTAelIPaBviC¢manén

56 # Economic Development

lkçN³esdækic©enH vinieyaKinEdlCaskþanuBlnwgRbugeRbobsMrab;kardMeNIrkar énkarvinieyaKEdlmanlkçN³esdækic©enaH. 2>5> kgVHxatTunCalT§plénkarxVHxatsßab½n karRbugeRbobénkarsnSM nigénkarvinieyaK KWBitR)akdCakarcaM)ac;mYyk¾ b:uEnþk¾BMuEmnCalkçxNÐ EdlRKb;RKan;sMrab;karbegáItTunEdll¥RbesIrmYyeLIy. sMrab;karbegáItkarsnSMBitR)akd nigskmμPaBvinieyaKénplitkmμBitR)akd KWRkb x½NÐEdlmanlkçNHCasßab½n dUcCaRkbx½NÐehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúCaedImk¾ manmann½yya:gsMxan;Edr eRBaHfaluy rWTunEdlKitCaluyenaHvaBMuRtwmEtman Parkic©CameFüa)ayedaHdUreT eRkABIenHvaRtUvkarEfrkSaBaNiC¢kmμtMélrbs;va nigTMnukTukcitþpgEdr. ehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdlsMxan;enaH rab;bBa©ÚlnUv sßab½nTaMgGs;EdlbegáIt EdlGnþraKmn_ EdlTij nigEdllk;nUvRTBüsm,tþi hirBaØvtßúTaMgGs;. cMeBaHsßanb½nenaH KWRbB½n§FnaKarEdlmansßitenAkñúgRbeTs dUcCa FnaKarkNþal FnaKarBaNiC¢kmμ nigFnaKarGPivDÆn_ rWFnaKarshkrN_. eRkABIenHenAmanRkumh‘unFanara:b;rg karFanara:b;rgsgÁmkic© ebLaesaFnnivtþn_ k¾Caehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdlsMxan;enaHpgEdr .l. PaBcaM)ac;énehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdlmansmtßPaBbMeBjkarplit KW kan;EtFMeLIgkalNaRbeTsmYy KWkarGPivDÆn_kan;EtmankarekIneLIg. 2>6> karxVHxatTunCalT§plénkarhUrecjénTuneTAeRkARbeTs bEnßmBIelIGVIEdl)anniyayxagelI karxVHxatTunk¾GacCamUlehtueday sarEpñkmYyénkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlmanenAkñúgRbeTshUrecjeTARbeTseRkA. edaysarkarhUrTunecjeTARbeTseRkA lT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_enAkñúgRbeTsedIm RtUvrgkarlM)akya:gxøaMg TnÞwmnwgenAkñúgRbeTseRkAmanlT§PaBeFVIeGaykan;Et elOneT,IgénkarGPivDÆn_. krNIenATIenaH pøÚvd¾ceg¥oténkarGPiDÆn_RtUvGacbM)at; ecal.

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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CaTMrg;c,as;las;énkarhUrecjénTuneTAeRkARbeTs RtUv)aneXIjCamYy nwgkardkecjénplitkmμEdlelIselIkareRbIR)as;sMrab;karrs;enAGb,rma kñúg eBlEdlRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_kMBugsßitenAeRkamGaNaniKmniym. plitkmμEdl elIsenHBMuRtUv)anvinieyaKbEnßmenAkñúgRbeTsGaNaniKmenaHeT EtRtUv)aneRbI R)as;sMrab;hirBaØvtßúénkarBRgIk]sSahkmμenAkñúgRbeTsEdleFVIGaNaniKmenaH vij. qøgkat;bBaðaenHRbeTsenAeRkamGaNaniKmenaH KWBMumanlT§PaBsMrab;kar CMrujkarbegáItTunEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karGPivDÆn_esdækic©rbs;xøÜneT,Iy. dUcenHsßan PaBénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWEpñkxøHGacRtUvbNþalmkBIGtitkalGaNaniKmén RbeTsenaHÉgpgEdr. sBVéfJenHGaNaniKmRtUv)anbBa©b; k¾b:uEnþkarhUrecjén TunenAEtbnþredaymUlehtuénskmμPaBénRkumh‘unbreTsFM²enAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_TaMgenH. PaBGaNaniKm KW de facto BMuTan;RtUv)anlb;ecaleTeRkABIenH varMkileTAdl;épÞmYyepSgeTotEtb:ueNÑaH. eRkABIenHRbCaCnkñúgRbeTsxøÜnÉg)annaMecjnUvkarsnSMEdlxøÜn)anbegáIt eTAeRkARbeTsCMnYskareRbIR)as;sMrab;karbegátI TunCati. müa:geTotCalT§plTaj ecjBIkarCMBak;breTsd¾x<s;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH eFVIeGaymankarekIneLIg énkarhUrecjénTuneTARbeTseRkAEdr. karekIneLIgénkarhUrecjenH Gacman \T§iBlraraMgénkarGPivDÆn_. cMnYnEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karbg;tMélénkarCMBak;enaHeFVI eGaymankarxVHénkarbegáItTunkñúgRbeTs. CalT§plbgðajeGayeXIjkareFVI eGaykan;EtyWteTAéndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_. CaTIbBa©b;eKeXIjmankarpøas;TIlMenAEdleKkt;sMKal;fa {brain drain} énkMlaMgBlkmμEdl)ansikSaGb;rMenAkñúgTMhMmYyKYreGaykt;sMKal;ecjBIRbeTs TaMgenHpgEdr. enH KWCakarhUrecjénTunFnFanmnusS ehIyTajecjBIenHva bgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarraraMénkarGPivDÆn_ya:gx<s;bMputsMrab;RbeTsNamYyEdl karxVHxatTunFnFanmnusSrbs;eKGacCH\T§iBlCamUldæanénkarGPivDÆn_d¾ceg¥otr bs;eKenaH.

58 # Economic Development

3> Gtßn½yEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énlkç½NÐsgÁm nigneya)ay CakarBitkarerobcMbMrugeGay)anRKb;RKan;EtktþabrikçaEdl)anerobrab;xag elIbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarcaM)ac;mYy k¾b:uEnþvaBMuEmnCapøÚvlkçxNÐEdlRKb;RKan; éndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_EdlbMeBjcitþmYyeLIy. TnÞwmnwgkarBicarNaeTAelIktþa TaMgenaH eKBMuRtUvGnuBaØtieGaye)aHbg;ecalénlkç½NÐRkbx½NÐénsgÁm nigneya)ayeLIy. lkçxNÐenaHk¾GaccUlrYmsMrab;karGPivDÆn_énRbeTsnImYy²Edr. dUcCa RtUv)anrMlwkCaeRcIndgrYcmkehIyrvagkarGPivDÆn_énesdækic©sgÁm nigén neya)ay KWvaGaRs½yKñaeTAvijeTAmkya:gxøaMg. PaBGaRs½yKñaeTAvijeTAmkenH RtUvEtBicarNasMrab;karviPaKmUlehtuén]naPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH. dUecñHEpñkxageRkamenH BMuEmnCakarsakl,génkarbgðajrcnasm<½n§TaMg Gs;enaHeT KWRKan;Etcg;eGayyl;nUvPsþútag rWsBaØaNxøH eTAelIRckd¾ceg¥otén karGPivDÆn_énktþasgÁm nigénktþaneya)ay. CabBaðasMxan;karRbugeRbobbMeBj karplitEdlBMuRKb;RKan; KWbNþalmkBI\T§iBlsasna rcnasm<½n§RKYsar bBaðaCatiBn§ karxVHxatkarcUlrYm nigk¾dUcCasßanPaBneya)ayenAkñúgRbeTs EdlkMBugCYbRbTHenaH. PaKeRcInsasnaEdlCaRbéBNI)anKaMRT nigCMrujnUvTMrg;Gkb,kiriyaEdlBMu pþl;plRbeyaCn_Caesdækic© dUcCakarvinieyaKenAkñúgeKalbMngeRbIR)as;EdlCa RbéBNIEdlBMuEmnCaplitkmμ ]TahrN_dUcCa buNüGaBah_BiBah_ buNüdgVay sasna karbegáItvtßúmantMélCaÉkCn. karbBa©uHbBa©Úl rWkarpþl;clnaedayqøg kat;karcMeNjCasMParH rWk¾edayqøgkat;esckþIsgÇwm rWk¾karemIleTAelIkarQan eLIgénmuxrbrenAkñúgsgÁm dUcCaesckþIsgÇwm nigeCaKC½yEdlGacsßitenAkñúg Epñkesdækic©TMenIbedayqøgkat;karbMeBjkarplitenaH KWBMumankarKaMRTeLIy. PaBelcmuxelcmat;enAkñúgsgÁmenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH manEtRbkan;x¢ab; nUvkargarenAkñúgrdæaPi)al enAkñúgksikmμ rWk¾enAkñúgRbB½n§sasnaNamYy. eRkABI enHRbePTénkargarepSgeTotEdlCaKnøwHd¾sMxan;sMrab;karGPivDÆn_esdækic©BMuGacpþ l;eGayeKnUvPaBelcmuxelcmat;kñúgsgÁmeLIy.

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kargarTaMgenHPaKeRcInminRtwmEtBuMpþl;karKaMRTeT EfmTaMgCajwkjab;BuM mankarGt;Fμt; nigGnuBaØateGayeTotpg eRBaHfakargarTaMgenaHekIteLIgnUvkar RbkYtRbECg nigkarxUcxateTAelIsasnaEdl)anbkRsayfaCaRbéBNIenaH rW eTAelIRbB½n§tMélrbs;Rkum rWBYkeK. enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_sBVéf¶enHenAmanPaBRKb;RKg (dominated by clan) edayRbB½n§énGMNacRKYsar rWk¾ clan. TaMgGs;enH k¾GacraraMgpgEdrnUvkar begáInel,OnénkarGPivDÆn¾esdækic© eRBaHfaGMNacRKYsarenHman\T§iBleGayman karraraMgeTAelIkMlaMgcitþbMeBjkarplitEdlCalkçN³esdækic©énsmaCikRKYsar xøÜnnImYy². karcakecjBI clan GacmankarekIteLIg nUveBlkarrMBwgénR)ak;Ex xageRkAEdlx<s;rhUtCagplitplCamFüm rWplRbeyaCn_ rWR)ak;ExenAkñúgsm<½n§ PaBRKYsar (clan) enaH. k¾b:uEnþedaysarEtsMBaFRbCaCn enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn )anraraMgnUvkarekIneLIgénR)ak;ExEdlenARTwgénRbeTsenaH dUcenHlT§plxag elIBMuGacekIteLIg)aneLIy nigCamYyenaH kMlaMgcitþbMeBjkarpliténesdækic© EdlmanRBMEdncuHeRkam (fatalism) enaHnwgsßitenACadrabkñúgRbeTsenaH. enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn CnCatiPaKticdUcCaCnCatibreTsenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ TaMgCabuKÁl rWk¾CaRkumGaceRbIR)as; nigeFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgnUv smtßPaBEdlCaesdækic© nigbec©keTsrbs;xøÜnenAkñúg {RbeTskMeNItfμI} rbs; eKedayBMumankarKabsgát;eGayeKarBeTAtambTdæansgÁmenaHeT,Iy. PaKeRcIn PaBRbwgTb;Edlman (latent) eBareBjrbs;GñkRsukedIm rWRbCaCnedImTl;nwg breTskan;EtekIneLIg nigecjBIenHvaGacbgðajnUv aversion Tl;nwgkic©kar skmμPaB EdlRtU)anGnuvtþne_ dayCnbreTsTaMgenaH. eRBaHfaTaMgGs;enHTak;Tg CacMbgeTAelIkic©karskmμPaBEdleFVIeGayesdækic©ekIneLIgCalMdab;. dUcenH GñkRsukedIm)anXaMgTb;xøÜn nigbnþeTAeTotEteTAelIkic©karskmμPaBEdlCa RbéBNIrbs;xøÜn.

60 # Economic Development

TajecjBIenHpþl;nUvlT§plnUvkarRbugeRbobbMeBjkarplitEdlBMueBjcitþ enAkñúgTMnak;TMngeTAnwgkic©karEdleFVIeGayesdækic©ekIneLIgCalMdab; ³ karpøas; bþÚrsgÁmEdlTamTarsMrab;karGPivDÆn_esdækic©BMusßitmaneLIysMrab;Epñkd¾FMénRbCa CnkñúgRbeTs. GñkesdæviTUCaeRcIn)anR)ab;eGaydwgfa mUlehtuBitR)akdénPaBRkIRkBit R)akdsßitenACaEpñkénRbCaCnEdlRtUv)anCYbRbTHPaBRkIRkenaH ehIyEdlRtUv sßitenAbdiesdæecjBIdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_énesdækic©sgÁm. GñkEdlRtUvCYbRbTH enaHRtUveTACaKμantMél (marginalize). karGPivDÆn_EdlviC¢manmYyGacekItman luHRtaNaEtRkumEdlKμantMélenaHGaccUlrYmkñúgdMenIrkarGPivDÆn_CaskmμPaB (activ) mann½yfaCaGñkplit nigk¾CaGskmμPaB (passiv) mann½yfaCaGñkeRbI R)as;plitpl nigesv:akmμ. CakarBitkarbkRsayenH RtUvGacvaytMélCa GaMgDIkaT½rEdlfakarcUlrYmBMuRKb;RKan;bnþreTAeToténrgVg;RbCaCn KWsßitenACa eRKaHfñak;énkarbegáInel,ÓnéndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©Cati. CaTIbBa©b;eKRtUvEtBicarNapgEdreTAelIsßanPaBénneya)aykñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs eRBaHsßanPaBneya)ayenaH man\T§iBleTAelIbriyakasesdækic© énRbeTsmYy nigeTAelIkarRbugeRbobbMeBjkarpliténRbCaBlrdærbs;xøÜnenA kñúgTMhMmYyya:gFM. PaBBMumankarGt;Fμt; nigBuMGFüaRs½yeTAvijeTAmkrvagRkum sgÁm Rkumsasna rWk¾RkumCatiBn§nImYy²Edl)anbgðajeGayeXIjenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_xøHGaceFVIeGayhinehacdl;karRbwgERbgTaMgGs;EdlecjBIkmμviFIé nkarGPivDÆn_yUrGEgVg. PaBBMumankarGt;Fμt;enHraraMgCaTIbBa©b;nUvGarmμN_katBVkic©EdlcaM)ac;éns maCiksgÁmnImYy² EdlenaHmann½yfa eTaHbImankarsßitenArYcCaeRscénlkç xNÐsMParHk¾eday k¾dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_EdlenARTwgenaHBMumansnÞúHeLIy.

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4> PaBRkIRkCalT§plénkarxVHxatktþabrikçaénRkumRbCaCnnImYy² karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁlmñak;²RtUv)ankMNt;edayGgÁFatudUcxag eRkam³ - karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁlmñak;²eTAelIFnFanskþanuBlEdl GaceRbIR)as;)anCaplitkmμ. - karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁl;mñak;²eTAelITMhMénkareRbIR)as;Edl CaplitkmμBitR)akdénFnFanenaH. - éføEdlRtUvbg;tMélsMrab;kareRbIR)as;FnFanenaH. ecjBITMnak;TMngénGgÁFatuTaMgbIenH pþl;enAlT§plnUvkarEbgEckelIkTI 1énR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁlmñak;² ehIykarEbgEckenHqøgkat;viFankarN_rbs;rdæ k¾dUcCaÉkCnk¾GackøayeTACakarEbgEckTI2epSgmYyeTot. sMrab;cMnYnd¾eRcInén GñkRkIRk kmμsiT§énFnFanEdlGaeRbIR)as;)anCaplitkmμ PaKeRcInmanRtwmEt kMlaMgBlkmμpÞal;xøÜnrbs;eKEdlCaTUeTABMu)aneronsURtEtb:ueNÑaH. enAkñúgTMhM d¾tUcénGñkRkIRkGacmansiT§ikmμsiT§éndIFøI]hrN_dUcCaksikrtUctac nigTunsMParH ]TahrN_dUcCaeRKOgeRbIR)as;gay². sßanPaBénkarsikSaGb;rMEdlkMNt;Tun FnFanmnusSEdl)anGb;rMya:gTabbMputenaH mann½yfaecjBIrgVg;BYkeKBMuGacrg; caMkareFVIeGayRbesIreLIgéntYnaTIénBYkeKenaHeLIy. karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁlmñak; nigCamYyenaHTMhMénPaBRkIRk ¬TaMg absolute and TaMg relativ) KWGaRs½yeTAnwgEdlfaetIrdæ rWrdæaPi)alGackBaäk;yk viFankarN_EbgEckeLIgvij (re-distributive instruments) enAkñúgTMhMNamYy TaMgeTAelIneya)aycMNUl nigTaMgeTAelIneya)aycMNayénrdæEdlqøgkat; \T§iBledaypÞal; nigedayRbeyalrbs;va)anpþl;nUvGtßn½yya:gsMxan;sMrab;man nUvsßanPaBénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlTI 2 (second distribution of income) Edl )anniyayxagelIrvagbuKÁlmñak;².

62 # Economic Development

\T§iBldUcKñaenH k¾bNþalmkBIkarepÞrénkarbMeBjkarplitCalkçN³ ÉkCnEdr. dUcenH PaBRkIRkBMuRtUvGacbkRsaymkBImUlehtuEtmYyeT. TaMgGs; enHPaKeRcInTamTareGaybkRsaynUvkarmansßanPaBénTMnak;TMngRkIRknImYy²ed ayqøgkat;RTwsþImYyénkarGPivDÆn_sgÁmEdlenAkñúgenaH PaBkMNt;énPaBRkIRk enaH KWCaGBaØatiGefrEdlRtUv)anTTYl\T§iBledaysarktþaxagkñúg nig rWktþaxag eRkA ¬lkçxNÐRkbx½NÐEdlpþl;eGayénRbePTCati nigGnþrCati¦ enAkñúgpøÚvén dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_. k¾b:uEnþrhUtmkdl;eBlenH BMumanRTwsþIrebobenHRtUv)anrk eXIjeLIy. ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénrcnasm<½n§esdækic©EdlTVikniym 1> lkçN³vinicä½yénesdækic©TVikniym 1>1> niymn½yénesdækic©TVikniym eTAtamTsSn³esdæviTUCaeRcIn karBMuGPivDÆn_enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_Ca eRcInbNþalCaBiessmkBIesdækic©TVikniympgEdr eRBaHfaesdækic©TVikniymCa lT§plEdl)anb:HTgÁci eTAelIeKalbMNgrIkcMerIn nigeKalbMNgénkarEbgEck. TVikniymmann½yfaCaTMnak;TMng (constellation) EdlcMeBaHTMnak;TMngenaH sgÁm mYyenAkñúgdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_CaRbvtþsi aRsþrbs;xnøÜ RtUv)anEbgEckCaEpñkRbéBNI {primitiv} nigEpñkTMenIb {modern}. EpñkRbéBNI KWCalkçN³FmμCati nig)anrIkcMerInqøgkat;ry³eBlya:gyUr enAkñúgRbeTsenaHpÞal;. EpñkTMenIb rWeCOnelOnpÞúyeTAvijRtUv)annaMcUl. Epñk TMenIbenH)anekIneLIgsßitesßrenAkñúgdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_EdlTTYl\T§iBlBIxageRk A. k¾bu:EnþBMusißtenAkñúgsßanPaBEdlsMrab;smahrNkmμenAkñúgRbB½ne§ sdækci © nig sgÁménRbeTsEdl)anCYbRbTHenaHeLIy nigk¾BMurlayCamYynwgRbB½n§enaHeGay eTACaRbB½n§fμImYyeLIy. D.

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rcnasm<½n§TVikniym KWCarUbPaBelcecjEdlfaRkumsgÁmnImYy² nigRkum smaCiknImYy² KWmansmtßPaB nigRbugeRbobenAkñúgTMhMepSgKñasMrab;TTYlyk rlkGPivDÆn_BIxageRkA nigsMrab;smahrNkmμenAkñúgcitþKMniténkarGPivDÆn_rbs; xøÜn. qøgkat;bBaðaenHsgÁmmYy)anGgán;CaRkumCaeRcInCamYynwgkMrit nigel,Ónén karGPivDÆn_epSg²Kña. sMrab;karbgðajeGaygayRsYlmYy eKbkRsayTsSn³ TanTVikniymenHEtCaBIrEpñk KWEpñkTMenIb nigEpñkRbéBNI. TsSn³Tanénesdækic©TVikniym mann½yfaEpñkesdækic©BIrekIteLIgXøatBIKña ya:gq¶ayenAkñúgesdækic©Cati. tYnaTIplitkmμ ¬=GnuKmn_plitkmμ¦ énvis½yTaMgBIr epSgBIKñaTaMgRsug. eRkABIenHeTotmeFüa)ayplitkmμRtUv)andwknaMeyageTAtam lkçN³vinicä½yepSgKña ³ enAkñúgEpñkRbéBNIRtUv)anplitnUvplitpltMrUvkarkñúg Rsuk nigCamYynwgkarCYyénbec©keTsplitkmμEdlgayRsYl ehIyEdlman brikçaTunbnþicbnÞÜc. EpñkenHrab;bBa©ÚlnUvEpñkénksikmμ sib,kmμ ]sSahkmμ FuntUc² nigBaNiC¢kmμ ehIyk¾dUcCaénesva:kmμbuKÁlnana. enAkñúgEpñkenHRKb dNþb;edayeKalkarN_RKYsarCaFM (=clan) kargar KWmankarGb;rMtci tYc plitPaB énkargareyageTAtamenHtictYcEdr nigR)ak;ExénkargarBuMmann½yCasMxan;eLIy. pÞúyBIenHvis½yEdlCaTMenIbeFVIkargarPaKeRcInCamYynwgbec©keTsTMenIbEd lmYyEpñkénbec©keTsenH eRbIR)as;Tunya:geRcIn. vis½yenHplitnUvplitpl eRbIR)as;éntMrUvkarRbcaMéf¶ plitpleRbIR)as;ry³eBlEvg nigplitplvinieyaK. esdækic©EpñkenHrab;bBa©ÚlshRKasFunmFüm nigFunFM ehIyk¾dUcCaEpñkNamYy énksikmμEdlEpñkenaH manCMnajdaMdMNaMkñúgépÞdId¾FMPaKeRcIndUcCadMNaM]sSah kmμ rWke¾ nAkñúgEpñkénkarnaMecjFM². rcnasm
64 # Economic Development

1>2> lT§plénkarekIneLIgxøÜnÉgénrcnasm<½nÐTVikniym enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ PaBdac;ecjBIKñaénEpñkEdlRtUvEbkExJkBIKña manTMhMFMeFg. qøgkat;bBaðaenH clkrEdlRtUv)anekIteLIgedayEpñkDINamIk rWEpñkTMenIbBuMRtUv)anTTYlykedayEpñksþaTIk rWEpñkRbéBNIeLIy. TaMgenH mann½yfaenATIenaHBMumankarekIteLIgnUvlT§plénGñk {edIrtameRkay} rWk¾én {kareFVIRtab;tam} Edr. rUbPaBénkarEbkExJkenHBMu)ankat;bnßyedayxøÜnÉgeLIy eRkABIenHrUbPaBenHsßitenABMuERbRbYlenAkñúgdMeNIréneBlevla rWk¾kan;EteFVIeGay kan;EtekIneLIgEfmeTotedayxøÜnÉg. TaMgenHsßitenAkñúgTMnak;TMngénrgVg;KYr eGayRBWRBYcmYyEdldUcCasßanPaBénrgVg;KYreGayRBWRBYcEdl)aneXIjenAkñúgrc nasm<½n§esdækic©Edr. eyageTAtamrcnasm<½n§sgÁmEdlminbt;EbnénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH Gñk CMnajEdlmanKuNPaBenAkñúgEpñkRbéBNIBuMRtUv)anTTYlkarGb;rMenAkñúgRbeTsk¾ dUcCaenAeRkARbeTseT,Iy. cMeBaH\NTanvijedayBMumansnþisuxénFnaKareGay )ansmrmümankarlM)ak nigGacTTYl)ansMrab;lkçx½NÐEdlBMusmRsb ¬TVikniym énhirBaØvtßú¦ Etb:ueNÑaH. dUcenHEpñkRbéBNIkan;EtBi)akeTAenAkñúgdMNak;kalén esdækic©EdlBMumanclnamYy kalNaviFankarN_RTRTg;EdlCaRbePTesdækic© neya)aymYyc,as;las;BMumansßitenAenaH. bEnßmBIenHeTot mUlehtuEdlCa meta-economics k¾)ancUlrYmbegáIteLIgnUvPaBlM)akénsgÁmRbéBNIenaHEdr EdldUcCaPaBdac;ecjedaylkçNHPUmisaRsþ rWk¾vb,Fm’ ehIyk¾dUcCatMélyl; eXIjEdlkMNt;edaysasna BUCsaRsþ rWk¾CatiBn§énRkumnImYy². Cajwkjab; PaBpSarP¢ab;CaRbéBNIenAkñúgRkbx½NÐénRKYsarCaFM (clan) bgðajeGayeXIjnUv karraraMgCalkçN³sßab½nmYysMrab;karsMrbsMrYleTAnwgrcnasm<½n§TMenIb. lT§plénkarekIneLIgénesdækic©TVikniymenH k¾bNþalmkBIkarGPivDÆn_én karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagvis½yTaMgenH. R)ak;cMNUlCamFüménGñkeFVIkargarén EpñkTMenIbekIneLIgCamYynwgkarrIkcMerInya:gelOnenAkñúgeBlkMNt;mYyeTAdl;tMé

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lmYyEdlTajecjBItMélenaHeFVIeGaymankarfycuHéneGLasÞIcR)ak;cMNUleTAe lItMrUvkarénplitplrbs;EpñkRbéBNI. TaMgGs;enHGacelcecjnUvkarekIneLIgéntMrUvkareTAelIplitplEdlRtUv GacbkRsayfaCaplitplrbs;smaCikénEpñkTMenIbenAkñúgRbeTs ]TahrN_ dUcCa mentality of coca cola. pÞúyeTAvijR)ak;cMNUld¾TabenAkñúgvis½yRbéBNI bgðajnUveGLasÞIcR)ak;cMNUld¾x<s;eTAelItMrUvkarénplitplEdlecjBIvis½yrb s;xøÜn TnÞwmnwgeTAelItMrUvkarénplitpl]sSahkmμ rWvis½yTMenIbmanya:gGn; exSaybMput. müa:geTotshRKasénvis½yTMenIbsakl,gCanic©CakalsMrab;karfycuHén karbg;tMélplitkmμCMnYssMrab;karrIkraldalénplitkmμ edayqøgkat;kareRbI R)as;ya:geRcInmYyénkMlaMgBlkmμEdlecjBIEpñkRbéBNI. k¾b:uEnþkarrMBwgénkar lk;ecjrbs;eKenAkñúgTMnak;TMngkarekIneLIgénplitkmμ KWTuTdi .iæ dUcenHCalT§pl manninñakarekIneLIgénkarCMnYsénkMlaMgBlkmμedayTun rWma:sIunvijenAkñúgEpñk TMenIb. TaMgenHEdleFVIeGaykan;EtekIneLIgnUvTVikniym. lT§plénkarekIneday xøÜnÉgénTVikniymenH k¾edaysareTAelIEpñkcMeNHdwgbec©keTsEdr eRBaHfaEpñk esdækic©nimYy²TajykcMeNjenAkñúgTMhMepSg²KñaBIPaBlUtlas;énbec©keTs. elak Higgins )anbkRsayfakareRbIR)as;EdleCaKC½yénPaBlUtlas;bec©k eTs snñidæanfamkBIkMrityl;dwgénbec©keTsd¾x<s; ehIyk¾dUcCakMriténkarGPi vDÆn_EdlkMNt;mYy. sMrab;müa:geTotrcnasm<½n§énPaBlUtlas;énbec©keTsPaK eRcInbegáItCabBaðaénkarBMueRbIR)as;kMlaMgBlkmμeRcIn rWkarsnSMkMlaMgBlkmμ. Epñk]sSahkmμ rWEpñkTMenIbEdlRtUvRbkYtRbECgCamYynwgplitplbreTs enATIpSarGnþrCati rWk¾sßitenAelITIpSarkñúgRsukRtUvEtbgçMcitþedayeyageTAtam mUlehtuénsmtßPaBRbkYtRbECgCaGnþrCatiRtUvFaøk;eTAkñúgkarTTYlykPaBlUtl as;énbec©keTsEdlsnSMkMlaMgBlkmμenH. qøgkat;bBaðaenH EpñkTMenIbbgðaj eGayeXIjfamankarbgçMya:gxøaMgkøasMrab;karsnSMénkMlaMgBlkmμ rWk¾kareRbI R)as;kMlaMgBlkmμtic. k¾b:uEnþpÞúyeTAvij enAkñúgEpñkRbéBNIEdlenAkñúgenaH

66 # Economic Development

TMnak;TMngrvagTun nigkMlaMgBlkmμtictYcenaH KWPaBRbesIreLIgCalMdab;én lT§PaBplitkmμEdlmanlkçN³bec©keTsbnþicbnþÜcenH BuMRtUv)anTTYl\T§iBl eLIy rWk¾KμanTal;EtesaHEtmþg. CamYyenH eyageTAtamPaBlUtlas;énbec©k eTsEdltamRbePTénEpñkenH esdækic©TVikniymeFVIeGayekItmannUvsßanPaBén bec©keTsTVikniymmYyEdledIrtamKnøgénkarekIneLIgedayxøÜnÉgdUcCaesdækic© TVikniymEdl)anerobrab;rYcmkehIyEdr. 2> lT§plénneya)ayGPivDÆn_énTVikniym 2>1> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénPaBrIkcMerIn 2>1>1> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgén Efficiency enAkñúgTMnak;TMngéneKalbMNg efficiency eKGacniyay)anfa rcna sm<½n§TVikniymbNþaleGaymanenAlT§plénkar)at;bg;én efficiency. TMrg;én karTTYlR)ak;kMér nigTunepSgKñaenAkñúgEpñkTMenIb nigRbéBNIeFVIeGayekItman eLIgnUvPaBxusKñaénpleFobRBMEdnplitPaB (marginal productivity) rbs; meFüa)ayplitkmμEdlCaRbePTtamEpñknImYy²³ TaMgenH KWsßitenAkñúgTMnak;TMng xageRkam ³ (ΔXM / Δq2M ) : (ΔXM / Δq1M) > (ΔXT / Δq2T) : (ΔXT / Δq1T)

rWk¾

( Δq1M / Δq2M )> (Δq1T / Δq2T) (marginal rate of production possibility frontier) XM : Output from moderne side XT : Output from traditional side q2M and q1M : Production's factors of modern side q2T and q1T : Production's factors of traditional side

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TaMgenHmann½yfa pleFobRBMEdnplitPaBénmeFüa)ayplitkmμenAkñúg EpñkRbéBNItUcCagEpñkTMenIb. TMnak;TMngenHBMuEmnCalkçxNÐénrcnasm<½n§ plitkmμEdll¥RbesIreLIy (inefficiency). lkçxNÐEdl efficiency luHRta EtpleFobénRBMEdnplitPaBénmeFüa)ayplitkmμénEpñkTaMgBIresμIrKña³ (ΔXM / Δq2M ) : (ΔXM / Δq1M) = (ΔXT / Δq2T) : (ΔXT / Δq1T)

rWk¾

(Δq1M / Δq2M) = (Δq1T / Δq2T) (marginal rate of production possibility frontier)

kalNaeKP¢ab;cMnucplitkmμEdleyageTAtamkarBicarNaénrcnasm<½n§TVi kniymenaH eKTTYl)annUvRkahVik production possibility frontier (PPF) ASC dUckñúgrUbxageRkam. enAkñúgkareRbobeFobsMrab;RkahVik PPF EdlsMerc)an Gtibrma ABC RkahVki ASC sßti enAEpñkxagkñúg. EtcMeBaHplitkmμEdl efficient enAkñúgEpñkTMenIb nigEpñkRbéBNIcMnucplitkmμEdl effective enaH KWsßitenAelI RkahVik ABC. cMeBaHkarEbkExJksgÁmEdlCaTVikniymcMnucplitkmμEdlman TaMgGs;sßitenAelIRkahVik PPF én ASC EdlERbkøayBIedImkMeNItRkahVik PPF én ABC rbs;va. RkahVik ASC enHmann½yfaCakMhusTl;nwgeKalbMngén efficiency. Effectiv production possibility frontier of dualism Structur

68 # Economic Development

2>1>2> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénkarekIteLIg (Accumulativ Goal) lT§plGviC¢maneTAelIkareFVIeGay)anBitR)akdéneKalbMNgénkarekIne LIgk¾bNþalmkBITVikniymEdr. lT§plénkarraraMgPaBlUtlas;RtUvGacekIt eLIgedaysarTVikniymEdl)anGnuvtþn_bnþenAkñúgbec©keTs. kñúgkrNIEdlbec©k eTsTMenIbnaMeTAeGaymankarrujRcanecjénbec©keTsRbéBNIkñúgRbeTsedayBMu Tuk»kaseGayRbCaCnsMrbsMrYlxøÜnÉgpÞal; GacnaMeGayekItmanlT§pl dUcteTA³ kMriténcMenHdwgbec©keTsEdlRtUveFVIeGayeTACacMeNHdwgkñúgRbeTsnIyk mμedayRbCaCnkñúgRbeTsRtUv)anfycuHedaysarlT§plénkarrujecjénbec©ke TsEdl)annaMcUlenaH. TnÞwmnwgenaH PaBRKbdNþb;énbec©keTsbreTskan; EtekIneLIg. TaMgenHmann½yfa bec©keTsenHGacRtUv)aneRbIR)as;edayEpñkya:gtUcmYy énRbCaCnEtb:ueNÑaH nigEdlCajwkjab; KWTamTarshkarIbec©keTsEdlCaCn breTs. dUcenHeTAelIesdækic©kñúgRbeTsBMucab;epþImmanclkrénbec©keTseRcIn EfmeToteLIy edayel,ÓnénkarbNþúHbNþalTunFnFanmnusSkñúgRbeTsRtUv)an eFVIeGayyWtya:v ehIykalNaeKBMubkRtLb;cab;ykenAkñúgTMhMTamTarmYyénkar ]btßmÖbec©keTsBIbreTsenaH CalT§pleFVIeGaymankaryWtya:vénkarGPivDÆn_ esdækic©. 2>2> TVikniym nigeKalbMNgénkarEbgEck ¬R)ak;cMNUl¦ enAkñúgemeronmunRtUv)anbkRsayeGayeXIjfaenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ manTMhMBuMRKb;RKan;énbrikçaktþameFüa)ayplitkmμénkarbMeBjKñaEdlTamTarsMrab;e RbIR)as;énkargarEdl efficient. TaMgGs;enHeFVIeGaymanPaBKμankargareFVI nigPaBeFVIkarBMueBjelj. TMrg;énkarpþl;R)ak;kMérEdlepSgKñaenAkñúgEpñkRbéBNI nigEpñkTMenIb)aneFVIeGaymankarbkRsaynUvPaBKμankargareFVIenHeTAkñúgkrNIBIr ya:gepSgKña ³

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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mYyCaPaBKμankargareFVICacMhr nigBIrCaPaBKμankargareFVICalak;)aMg ¬=kM)aMg¦. kalNakMlaMgBlkmμRtUvGacdkecjBIvis½yplitkmμmYyeBjmYyqñaM edayBMueFVIeGayplitkmμenaHfycuH cMeBaHkrNIEdlbec©keTsplitkmμ nigkar erobcMcat;EcgénkareRbIR)as;énkargarBMumankarERbRbYl eKehAGñkEdlecjBI plitkmμenaHfa PaBKμankargarCalak;)aMg. enAkñúgkrNIenHRBMEdnplitPaBén kargaresμIsUnü. PaBKμankargareFVICalak;)aMgPaKeRcInmanenAkñúgEpñkRbéBNI. pÞúyeTAvijPaBKμankargareFVIenAkñúgEpñkTMenIb KWPaKeRcInCacMhr ³ eRBaHfa kMlaMgBlkmμEdlRtUveRbIR)as;RtUv)anbNþúHbNþal rWk¾RtUveronsURt dUcenHkMlaMg BlkmμenH)anpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgmeFüa)ayvinieyaK. enAkñúgplRbeyaCn_énkareRbI R)as;Edl efficient mYyénTunFnFanmnusSenH kMlaMgBlkmμnImYy²RtUvbMeBj kargarCaeBlevlaeBjelj TaMgenHmann½yfaPaBKμankargareFVIEdllak;)aMg enAkñúgkarBicarNaEdleGayniymn½yxagelI KWBMumansßitenAeLIy. esdækic©TVikniymGacpþl;eGaymankarpøas;bþÚrmYyEpñkénPaBKμankargareFVI Edllak;)aMgeTACaPaBKμankargareFVIEdlcMhr. kñúgenHmann½yfaGñkEdlKμan kargareFVIenAkñúgEpñkRbéBNIEdllak;)aMgenaH ehIyEdlelIsBItMrUvkarRtUvhUr mkkñúgEpñkTMenIb. lMhUrenHGacRbRBitþeTArhUtdl;R)ak;cMNUlCamFümenAkñúg vis½yTaMgBIresμIKña. EtedaysarenAkñúgEpñkTMenIbR)ak;bMNac;Gb,rimaEdl)anpþl; eGaysßitenAelItulüPaBR)ak;bMNac;EdlCaesdækic©srubenaH¬=tulüPaBR)ak;bMN ac;énvis½yTaMgBIr¦. dUcenHmanEtmYyEpñkénkMlaMgBlkmμEdlRtUv)anbMlas;TI enaH GacrkeXIjnUvkEnøgkargarenAkñúgEpñkTMenIb³ shRKasénEpñkTMenIbRtUv)an pÁt;pÁg;edaykMlaMgBlkmμ manPaBeRcInCagEdlshRKasenaHtMrUvkarcMeBaHGRta R)ak;bMNac;Edl)anpþl;eGaymYy. TaMgenHsßitenACaRBwtþikarN_én {unlimited supply of labour}. PaBKμankargareFVIedaycMhrenH naMeTAeGaymanPaBkan;EtGaRkk;eLIgén karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlrvagbuKÁl eRBaHfaTMhMénPaBRkIRkdac;xatnwgekIneLIg. kMlaMgBlkmμNaEdl)anpøas;bþÚreTAEpñkTMenIbenaH mann½yfaeKRtUv)ankat;pþac;

70 # Economic Development

BIkarFanara:b;rgénsgÁmEdlCaRbéBNIén clan rbs;xøÜnEdlCaGñk)anFanra:b;rg Cajwkjab;nUvkMritpÁt;pÁg;RKb;RKan;mYy. kalNakMlaMgBlkmμenaH BMurk)ankEnøg eFVIkarenAkñúgEpñkTMenIbeT enaHsßanPaBrbs;xøÜnkan;EtmanPaBGaRkk;F¶n;F¶reLIg. R)ak;cMNUlrbs;eKFøak;cuHya:geRcIneTAkñúgRBMEdnRkIRkdac;xat. dUcenHTVikniym k¾man\T§iBlpgEdreTAelIkarxUtxaténneya)aykarEbgEck. eRkABIenH\T§iBlEdlGviC¢maneTAelIeKalbMNgénPaBlUtlas;k¾bNþal mkBI kalNamankarcab;ykviFankarN_neya)ayGPivDÆn_Edlcg;bnßynUvlT§pl sgÁménPaBKμankargareFVIedaycMhrenaH. hirBaØbTanénkmμviFIenHsMerc)anecj mkBImeFüa)ayEdl)anbgðÚreTAelITisedAvinieyaK. cMeBaHTMhMEdlmanbMrugTuk énmeFüa)ayrdæedayqøgkat;TisedAvinieyaKenH eFVIeGayTMhMénhirBaØvtßúvinieyaK epSgeTotfycuHel,Ón nigkarbegáItTunRtUvBnüWtkñúgkrNIEdlBMuRtUvmankarTUTat; énkar)at;bg;vinieyaKenHedaykareRbIR)as;énplitkmμx<s;mYyenaH. drabNasmaCikRKYsarenAkñúgEpñkRbéBNIenAEtBuMRtUvTajecjedaypÞal; rWeday RbeyalsMrab;]btßmÖénsmaCikrbs;xøÜnEdl)anpøas;bþÚreTAEpñkTMenIb)anenaH kar]btßmÖénrdæelIPaBKμankargareFVIedaycMhrenaH naMeTAeGaymankarfycuH mYyénel,ÓnrIklUtlas; ³ dUcenHTVikniym bgáreGaymankarraraMgénPaBrIklUt las;. 3> kareGaytMélCabBa©b; KMnitEdl)anbkRsayfakarEbkExJksgÁm nigesdækic©EdlminGacERbRbYl )anenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mankarCMTas;eTAnwgcMeNHdwgénviTüasaRsþsgÁmfμI ² Edlyl;farcnasm<½n§sgÁmnImYy²GacrIklUtlas;CaRbvtþsaRsþ nigCamYy enaH k¾GacERbRbYl)anpgEdr. dUcenH rcnasm<½n§TVikniymBMubgðajeGayeXIjnUv éf¶ Ex EdlminGacEkERb)aneLIy eRkABIenHrcnasm<½n§enH)anbgðajeGayeXIj nUvPaBBit (fact) mYyEdlGacEkERb)an. rcnasm<½n§enH KWBMuEmncariklkçN³ FmμCatienAkñúgKMnti énPaBsμúksμaj (complexity) EdlBMuGacedaHRsay)anenaHeT.

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eRkABIenH vaKWCakarpSarP¢ab;bEnßmelIKñaénktþarcnasm<½n§EdlmanRckénkarERb RbYl)an. dUcenHehIyesdækic©sgÁmTVikniymBMuEmnCa {dMNak;kalbBa©b;} enaH eT,Iy. eRkABIenaHvaCa {dMNak;kalGnþrkal} énkarGPivDÆn_EdlCaBitR)akd nwgeFVIeGaymankarlM)akdl;karGPivDÆn_. k¾b:uEnþvaCadMNak;kalEdlGacRtUvCMnH )anCamUldæan. sMrab;müa:geTotkarEbkExJksgÁm nigesdækic©enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH BMusIuCMerAEdlfaskmμPaBeTAvijeTAmk rWskmμPaBGnþr³NamYyrvagEpñkesdækic© nImYy²RtUv)anbdiesdæenaHeT,Iy. CakarBitTMnak;TMngGb,rimaekIteLIgrvagEpñkén TVikniymEdlGaceFVIeGaymaneLIgnUvskmμPaBekIneT,Igénesdækci©Gnþr³enaH. skmμPaBGnþr³enH GacRtUveFVIeGayekIneLIgeTACasmahrNkmμesdækic©srub)an CamYynwgkareRbIR)as;viFankarN_sgÁm nigesdækic©smRsb. CakarBitRbeTs ]sSahkmμbc©úb,nñk¾)anqøgkat; nig)anCMnHnUvdMNak;kalGPivDÆn_CalkçN³ TVikniymenHEdr. neya)ayesdækic©mYyEdl)aneRbIR)as;sMrab;eKalbMNgCMnHénTVikniyme nHRtUvEtcat;EcgedaHRsayEpñkTMenIb nigEpñkRbéBNIepSgBIKña eRBaHedaymUl ehtufalkç½NÐrcnasm<½n§rbs;vaTaMgBIrmanPaBepSgBIKñaTaMgRsug. pÞúyeTAvij lT§PaBviFankarN_CamUldæanNaEdltMrg;TissMrab;RTRTg;énTMnak;TMngEdlCaEpñ kGnþr³BMuGaceFVIeGaymankarERbRbYlénTVikniymenaHeLIy. karGPivDÆn_ nigTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati 1> cMNab;GarmμN_CadMbUg CamYykarviPaKmkdl;;RtwmenH KW)anTajEtmUlehtuesdækic©kñúgRbeTs sMrab;karBnül;BIkarGPivDÆn_Etb:ueNÑaH. eyageTAtamKMniténesdæviTUCaeRcIn)an bkRsayeGayeXIjfaTMnak;TMngesdækicG© nþrCatimanGtßn½yya:gsMxan;cMeBaHka rbkRsayénkarGPivDÆn_. RbB½n§BaNiC¢kmμenHman\T§iBltYya:gCakarxMRbwgERbg énkarGPivDÆn_Edl)anGnuvtþne_ dayecjBIkMlaMgxønÜ ÉgpÞal;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ E.

72 # Economic Development

KWBMuRtwmEtRtUvbnßykarGPivDÆn_eT EtCajwkjab;EfmTaMgeFVIeGayexÞcxÞIénkar GPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsenHEfmeTot TnÞmw nwgpÞúyeTAvij RbeTs]sSahkmμGacbegánI el,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;eKbEnßmeTotedayTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatienH. sMrab;sikSarcnasm<½n§én\T§iBlEdlGacecjBITMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatie TAelIkarGPivDÆn_RbeTsmYy eKRtUvsegátemIleTAelItulükarénkarbg;R)ak;Edl RtUvcat;TukCamUldæanénkarsikSaenH. tulükarénkarbg;R)ak;enH eGayniymn½y Cakarkt;RtaénRbtibtþikaresdækic©TaMgGs; (all economical transactions) rvag RbCaBlrdæ rdæaPi)al nigsßab½nkñúgRbeTs rWGñkkñúgRbeTs nigRbCaBlrdæ rdæaPi)al nigsßab½neRkARbeTs rWCnbreTs sMrab;kMLúgeBlkMNt;mYy. tulükar enHbgðajdUckñúgrUbPaBxageRkam ³ tulükarénkarbg;R)ak; karnaMecjénplitpl nigesva:kmμ 2. karnaMcUlTun ¬=karekIneLIgén bMNulbreTs¦ 3. karfycuHénrUbIyb½NÑbMrug 1.

karnaMcUlénplitpl nigesva:kmμ 5. karnaMecjTun ¬= karekIneLIgéntMrUvkar ¬kMcI¦breTs 6. karekIneLIgénrUbIyb½NÑbMrug

4.

TUrelx 1 nig 4 qøúHbBa©aMgGMBITMnak;TMngBaNiC¢kmμCamYybreTs RBmCa mYyTUrelx 2 nig 5 qøúHbBa©aMgGMBITMnak;TMng\NTan. eyageTAtamenH eKeGab RkesabTUrelx 1 nig 4 CatulükarénkarbMeBjkarplit nigTUrelx 2 nig 5 CatulükarTun. eRBaHfatulükarénkarbg;R)ak;RtUv)anbegáIneLIgeTAtameKal karN_KNnItulükar nigCamYyenaHCanic©CakalRtUvmantulüPaB. dUcenH smtulüéntulükarénkarbMeBjkarplitnImYy²EdlBMuRtUv)aneFVIeGaymantulüPa BedaysarsmtulüEdlmanTMhMdUcKñamYyéntulükarTunenaH )anCH\T§iBleGay mankarERbRbYlénrUbIyb½NÑbMrugénRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH. kalNaeKeGab RkesabkarERbRbYlénrUbIyb½NÑeTAkñúgtulükarTun enaHeK)ansMrab;tulükarénkar

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bg;R)ak;nUvTMnak;TMngkarnaMecj (X) + karnaMecjTun (CM) = karnaMcUl (M) + karnaMecjTun (CX). rW k¾ CM – CX

smtulüén tulükarTun

= M-X

smtulüén tulükarbMeBjkarplit

eyageTAtamrUbmnþxagelI smtulüénEpñktulükarTaMgBIr Canic©CakalRtUv EtesμIrKña³ smtulüGkmμenAkñúgtulükarbMeBjkarplit (M > X) mann½yCasV½y RbvtþiCasmtulüskmμenAkñúgtulükarTun TaMgenHmann½yfakarTTYlyk\NTan suT§mYyBIbreTs (CM > CX). smtulüskmμmYyenAkñúgtulükarbMeBjkarplit (X > M) naMeGaymann½y CasV½yRbvtþiCasmtulüGkmμenAkñúgtulükarTun. TaMgenHmann½yfa karpþl;\N TansuT§eTAbreTs (CX > CM). dUcenHcMeBaHkareqøIytbénsMnYrEdlCaTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatiEdlfam an\T§iBlGviC¢maneTAelIdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsmYyenaH eKRtUvEbgEckrvag \T§iBlénBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatiEdlTak;TgeTAnwgRbtibtþikar (transaction) enAkñúg tulükarbMeBjkarplit nig\T§iBléncracrTunGnþrCati ¬=cracrTunenAkñúgtulükar Tun¦. 2> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati ? 2>1> rcnasm<½n§BaNCi¢kmμeRkARbeTsénRbeTsnImYy² 2>1>1> lkç½NÐBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati sMrab;kareqøIyénsMnYrEdlfa ]naPivDÆn_GacCalT§plénBaNiC¢kmμGnþr Cati KWlkçx½NÐcMbgCakarBnül;énmUlehtuNaEdltMrUveGayRbeTsmYycUlrYm pøas;bþÚrTMnijGnþrCati. dUcenH xageRkamenHRtUvbgðajnUvbMNkRsayEdlnaMeTA eGaysMrab;Bnül;énKuNsm,tþiénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs.

74 # Economic Development

karTTYlykénTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatibkRsayCaKuNsm,tþi kalNa RbeTsmYyedaysarmUlehtubrikçaFnFanrbs;eK KWBuMsßitenAkñúgsßanPaBsMrab; plitnUvplitplkMNt;mYy nigsMrab;karbMeBjkarplit eTaHbICatMrUvkarén plitplenaHekItmank¾eday. BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsbMerICamYyenaHnUvkarbM)at; ecalénkarpÁt;pÁg;d¾ceg¥ótenaH³ plitpl nigkarbMeBjkarplitEdlmansßitenA kñúgRbeTsmYyelIslb;edaymUlehtuénPaBpþac;muxénkarmanbMrugTukGacRtUv)an naMecj nigpøas;bþÚrTl;nwgplitpl nigkarbMeBjkarplitenAkñúgRbeTsmYy Edl xVHxatrbs;Gs;TaMgenaH eRBaHedaysarmUlehtukarxVHxaténkarmanbMrugTukenaH. CamYynwgkarCYyénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsenH karGPivDÆn_k¾)anbM)at;nUv PaBd¾ceg¥ótenHya:gticbMput)anxøH²Edr kalNakarCYyenH)anCYbRbTHnUvplit pl nigkarbMeBjkarplitEdlGaceFVIBaNiC¢kmμ)an. lT§plenHkan;EtekIneLIg kalNaeKBicarNaeTAkñúgcMenHdwgcat;Ecg nigbec©keTsEdlpSarP¢ab;eTAnwg plitplCaeRcInenaH. karepÞrenHGacBRgIklT§PaBénplitkmμénRbeTsmYyEdlenAkñúgenaHvapþl; nUvlT§PaBkarekgcMenj rWkareRbIR)as;l¥RbesIrmYyéncMnYnktþaplitkmμEdl manbMrugTuk. PaBKuNsm,tþiénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsBMumanRBMEdnRtwmEtkarpøas; bþÚrTMnijEdlekIteLIgedaysarPaBmanpþac;muxénkarbMrugTukenaHeT. bEnßmBIelI enHeTot BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTspþl;pgEdrsMrab;RbeTsEdlcUlrYmnUvKuNsm,tþi kalNaplitplEdlRtUveFVIBaNiC¢kmμRtUvGacplitenAkñúgRbeTsTaMgGs;)an. enAkñúgkrNIqøgkat;CMnajnIykmμGnþrCatiEdlekIneLIg PaBrIklUtlas; rWPaBrIk cMerInénédKUrBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsTaMgGs;GacRtUvekIneLIg. sMrab;bBaðaenH RbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH RtUvnaMcUlnUvplitplNaEdlenAbreTs KWefakCag enAkñúgRbeTsrbs;xøÜn ehIyCakarRbtibtþiTl;vij KWplitplNaEdlsMrab;naM ecjTal;EtéføenAkñúgRbeTssßitenAeRkaméføenAeRkARbeTs enaHebIsinNaCa eKcg;eFVIkareRbobeFob.

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dUcenHRbeTsnImYy²eFVICMnajnIykmμeTAelIplitplNaEdléføkñúgRbeT srbs;vamuneBlTTYlykénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTssßitenAeRkaméføEdleRbobeFo benAelITIpSarbreTsenaH. karcMeNjénPaBlUtlas; rWPaBrIkcMerInEdlCa lT§plecjBICMnajnIykmμGnþrCatienH TajeGayeXIjfa lT§PaBénkareRbI R)as; rWcMnucénkareRbIR)as;GacRtUveFVIeGayBitR)akd)an edayeGaysßitenA eRkAénRkahVik rWrcnasm<½nénlT§PaBplitkmμrbs;Cati ¬=karbgðajénrcnasm<½n§ plitkmμEdll¥RbesIrCamYy nwgplitplGnþrCati¦. PaBBuMRsbKña (discripancy) rvagrcnasm<½n§énkareRbIR)as; nigénplitkmμenH GacbM)at;ecaledaysar BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs ³ TaMgGs;enHeFVIeGaymankarekIneLIgénPaBlUtlas; rW PaBrIkcMerInenAkñúgRbeTsenaH. P¢ab;CamYyenHBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatik¾GacekIteLIgpgEdr kñúgkrNIénplit plEdlmindUcKña ¬EdlminesμIsac; = heterogeneity¦ kalNaBMumanPaBxusKñaén éførvagRbePTplitplEdl)anKitKUrenaH. cMeBaH subjects esdækic©CaeRcInkar sMerccitþénkarTijGaRs½yeTAnwgTMhMénPaBxusKñaénKuNPaBCaBitR)akd rWk¾ edaykarsnñidæan. eyageTAtamPaBxusKñaénKuNPaBenH plitplbreTsk¾RtUv )anTijpgEdr kalNaplitplenaH KWéføCagplitplkñúgRbeTsEdldUcKña enaH. dUecñH esdæviTUeGaydMbUnμanfa ³ cMeBaHkarBnül;bkRsayénTisedA nigTMhM énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsCamYynwgplitplenH PsþútagénbMNkRsayk¾RtUvpSMpÁMú CamYynwgkarviPaKénRTwsþIéføpgEdr. eyageTAtamcMeNHdwgEdlmanrhUtmkdl; eBlenH karBicarNaeTAelIKuNPaBénplitplEdleFVIBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatienH elcecjnUvGtßn½ykan;EtxøaMgCamYynwgPaBlUtlas;kan;EtekIneLIgénesdækic© eRBaHfarcnasm<½n§tMrUvkarGnuBaØatikan;EtminesμIsac; (heterogeneus) nigPaBxus Kñaénplitpl k¾dUcCakarTamTarénKuNPaBGnuBaØatikan;EteRcInEfmeTot kal NaR)ak;cMNUlénRbCaCnmñak;² (per capita) enAkñúgRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaHkan; Etx<s;.

76 # Economic Development

2>1>2> karbkRsayedayRTwsþIBiesaFniym (empirical finding) TIenHelIkeLIgenAkarecaTsYreTAelIkarrkeXIjedayBiesaFniyménlkçx½ NÐénBaNiC¢kmμGnþr³CatiTaMgbIEdl)anbgðajxagelI. TaMgenHRtUv)aneFVIkarviPaK eTAelIcMENktMélénRbeTsTaMgbIRkumenAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμBiPBelakedayGaRs½ye TAtamRkumTMnijsMxan;²Edl)anEbgEckeTAtam UN standard international trade classification (= SITC). cMeBaHkarbkRsayBnül;énrcnasm<½n§naMecj énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_manPaBelIslb;eTAelIbMNkRsayénkarmanbMrugénFnF anFmμCati]TahrN_dUcCakarnaMecjFnFanFmμCati. eTAelIPaBxusKñaénéfø rWk¾ PaBxusKñaénplitplGacTajecj)anEtCaEpñkya:gtUcmYuyénkarnaMecjénRbeT skMBugGPivDÆn_TaMgenaH. pÞúyeTAvijPaBpþac;muxénkarbMrugTukenaH manGtßn½ytictYckñúgkarbkRsay énkarnaMecjénRbeTs]sSahkmμ. enATIenHmanPaBelIslb;nUvéføxusKñaeday eyageTAtamlkç½NÐéntMrUvkar nigénkarpÁt;pÁg;xusKña k¾dUcCakartMrUvkareTAtam karpÁt;pÁg;énplitplEdlxusKñamYy. eyageTAtamkarviPaKrbs;esdæviTU )an eGayeXIjfaTMnak;TMngBaNiC¢kmμrvagRbeTsTaMgbIRkum kt;sMKal;)anfaCakar bMeBjKña ³ RbeTsTaMgbIRkumenaH eFVIBaNiC¢kmμCamYyKñaeTAvijeTAmkCaBiess CamYynwgplitplNaEdlédKUrxøÜnÉgpÞal;BMuGacplit)an rWk¾BMuGacplit)anenA kñúgKuNPaBEdlcg;)an. eyageTAtam SITC–goods groups eK)anbgðajeGay eXIjfa rhUtmkdl;eBlenHBMumankarERbRbYlFMduMénrcnasm<½n§CMnajnIykmμenH enAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatieLIy. karrkeXIjedayBiesaFniymenH )anbgðajeGayeXIjya:gBitR)akdfa BaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati)annaMeGayekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlBiPBelak. k¾b:uEnþBaNiC¢ kmμenHRtUv)anCUndMeNIredayviFIsaRsþmYyénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlGnþrCatiEdl viFIsaRsþenaH)aneFVIeGayekIteLIgnUvkarepÞrénR)ak;cMNUl (transfer of income) BIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_eTARbeTs]sSahkmμ. CaTIbBa©b;BaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatienAkñúg TMrg;sBVéf¶rbs;vaenH eGayRbeyaCn_EteTAelIRbeTs]sSahkmμb:ueNÑaH. pÞúy

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eTAvijRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUv)anraraMgedayBaNiC¢kmμEbbenH cMeBaHkarxitxM RbwgERbgkarGPivDÆn_rbs;xøÜn. 2>2> \T§iBlénkarEbgEckGMNacEdlBuMesμIKñaenAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati eyageTAtamelak Perroux \T§iBlEdlraraMgkarGPivDÆn_énBaNiC¢kmμeRkA RbeTssMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ekIteLIgedaysarkarEbgEckGMNacEdlBMuesμI KñamYyenAkñúgBaNi¢kmμGnþrCati. mUldæanénRTwsþIrbs;Kat; KWCaGVIEdlehAfa {lT§plénGMNaceKobsgát;} (effect of the domination). elak Perroux )an eGayniymn½yénlT§plénGMNaceKobsgát;Ca\T§iBlGsmb,maNEdlBuMRtLb; )an (= asymmetrical irreversible influence) mYyEdlesdækic© A mYyGnuvtþn_eTA elIesdækic©epSgmYyeTot B. sBaØaNénGsmb,maN nigPaBBMuRtLb;)anenH mann½yfa lT§plénGMNaceKobsgÁt; KWRbRBwtþeTAtamEtmYyTisedA tYya:gBI RbeTs A eTARbeTs B nigBMuGacRtLb;vij)aneLIy. elak Perroux kt;sMKal; A Caesdækic©EdlmanGMNaceKobsgát;eTAelI B EdlCaesdækic©RtUvrgGMNac eKobsgát;. lT§plénGMNaceKobsgát;GacekIteLIgrvagesdækic©CatiBIr³ a- rvagshRKasénRbeTs A nig B b- rvagrdæ A nig B c- rvagrdæ A nigshRKasenAkñúgrdæ B edayqøgkat;karcat;Ecgrvag shRKasénrdæ A rWénrdæ B. eyageTAtamelak Perroux esdækic©CatiEdlmanGMNaceKobsgát;eday GaRs½yeTAelIlT§plénkareKobsgátE; dl)ancab;epþmI BIxnÜø eFVeI GaymanmYlehtué nPaBBuMmansmtaenAkñúgTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati. PaBBuMmansmtaenHbk RsayeGayeXIjenAkñúgtulükarénkarbg;R)ak; (balance of payment) énRbeTs kMBugCYbRbTHenaH. tulükarénkarbg;R)ak;énRbeTsenaH BuMmantulüPaB)aneLIy eRkAEtmankarbgðajnUvPaBelIslb; nigPaBxVHxat eRBaHfaesdækic©Edlman

78 # Economic Development

GMNaceKobsgát;eRbIR)as;lT§plénGMNaceKobsgát;rbs;xøÜn sMrab;raraMgén tulüPaBenaH. sMrab;CaviFankarN_ (instruments) eKobsgát;enHRbeTsEdlman esdækic©GMNaceKobsgát;GacERbRbYlnUvTMhMénkarnaMecjTun k¾dUcCakarnaMcUl énplitplrbs;eK. karERbRbYlenHeFVIeyageTAtamrgVas;énkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©pÞal;xøÜnrbs;eK . karERbRbYlenH)anepÞrPaBBMumanesßrPaBenAkñúgkarGPivDÆn_énesdækic©Edlman GMNaceKobsgáte; GayeTAesdækci E© dlRtUv)anrgnUvGMNaceKobsgát; TnÞmw nwgkar epÞrRtLb;mkvijeyageTAtamniymn½yénesdækic©EdlmanGMNaceKobsgát;enH KWBMuGaceFVIRtT,b;eTAvijekIt)aneT,Iy. Gsmb,maNcMeBaHéføeGLasÞIcCalT§plTajecjBIkarTTYlykénTMhMEd lnaMcUlEdlrwgqáwgmYyénesdækic©EdlmanGMNaceKobsgát;. cMeBaHkarBnül; GMBImUlehtuénkarTTYlykénTMhMnaMcUlEdlrwgqáwgenHelak Perroux )anbk RsayfasMrab;RbeTsEdlmanGMNaceKobsgát;karnaMcUlPaKeRcInEteTAelIvtßúFa tuedIm nigplitplksikmμ eRBaHfaRbeTsenHsMrab;plitpl]sSahkmμ KWman ]tþmPaBesdækic©Cabec©keTsd¾elIslb; EdlCaehtueFVIeGayGñkpÁt;pÁg;breTsBMu manP½BVsMNagénkarlk;plitpl]sSahkmμenAelITIpSarkñúgRbeTsrbs;eKeLIy . ehtuenH GñkpÁt;pÁg;breTs ¬RbeTs B¦ KWBMusßitenAkñúgsßanPaBsMrab;sMerc )annUvkarfycuHénkarbg;tMélkñúg 1 ÉktaplitplEdlCaktþaTamTarsMrab; smtßPaBRbkYtRbECgGnþrCati edIm,IeFVIkarBRgIkTIpSarrbs;xøÜnenaH)aneT,Iy. cMeBaHvtßúFatuedIménRbeTsEdlRtUvrgGMNaceKobsgát;EdlRtUv)annaMcUledayRb eTsmanGMNaceKobsgát;éførbs;vaBMuERbRbYleLIy eRBaHvapSarP¢ab;eTAnwgTMhM plitkmμEdl)aneFVIEpnkarrYc nigCaBiessmankarRbkYtRbECgBIRbeTsEdlRtUv rgGMNaceKobsgát;epSgeTot. dUecñHemkanicénéføplitplTaMgenaHBMumandMeNIr kareLIy.

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cMeBaHemkanicénR)ak;cMNUlsMrab;RbeTs B k¾BMuekItmantulüPaBEdr. PaBnaMecjelIslb;enAkñúgkMlugeBlmYy CH\T§iBlCaBitR)akdnUvkarekIneLIg énR)ak;cMNUlCati nigénTMhMénkargar. k¾b:uEnþpÞúyeTAvijTMhMénkarnaMcUlEdl GacbgármkBIkarekIneLIgenH BIRbeTsesdækic©EdlrgGMNaceKobsgát;GaRs½y EteTAnwgGRtanaMcUlEdlmancMnYntictYceTAkñúgesdækic©Catirbs;RbeTsEdlmanGM NaceKobsgát; ¬RbeTs A¦ Etb:ueNÑaH eRBaHedaysarEtRbeTs A eKmanTIpSar sMrab;kñúgRbeTsd¾FM nigkarpÁt;pÁg;xøÜnÉgd¾x<s;rbs;eKrYceTAehIy. dUcenHTnÞwm nwgPaBKμanénemkanicéfø rWk¾PaBKμanénemkanicGRtabþÚrR)ak; tulüPaBénR)ak;cMNU lk¾KμanEdrsMrab;RbeTs B. CaTIbBa©b;emkarnicénkarR)ak;k¾BMu)anekIteLIgEdr eRBaHfaRbeTsEdlman GMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;CaFmμta)anbgçaMgnUvlMhUrénrUbIyb½NÑeGayenAEtkñúgF naKarkNþalrbs;eK. TaMgenHGnuBaØatieGayeKrkSa)anenAkñúgédnUvlT§plKuN sm,tþiEdlfaTunRtUv)anvinieyaKenAkñúgesdækic©CatipÞal;xøÜnrbs;eK. edaysar bBaðaenH karnaMecjénTunEdlsVyt½ BIesdækci E© dlmanGMNaceKobsgátR; tUv)an raraMg ehIyCalT§PaBeTot karvinieyaKeRkARbeTsxøHk¾RtUv)anehARtLb;mkvij nigRtUv)aneRbIR)as;CameFüa)aysMrab;RbtibtþikarénkarvinieyaKkñúgRbeTsrbs;eK vij. etIlT§plNamYybgðajecjBITMnak;TMngenH? eRBaHvaBMumanRbtibtþikar CMnYjsVy½tnaMeTAeGaymandMeNaHRsayénPaBsmtaeT,Iy ehtuenHnaMeGay RbeTsEdlmanGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;EdlCaGñkTTYl)ankareRbIR)as;l¥Rbe sIrBIrcnasm<½n§esdækic©BiPBelakenH RtUvTTYlyknUvRbtibtþikarCMnYjEdlRtUv bgáreLIgenH eTAbMeBjnUvcenøaHRbehagGviC¢manEdl)anerobrab;xagelIenaH. manEtkarRbtibtþidUcya:genHeT eTIbBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsenAkñúgTMrg;EdlRbeTs manGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;xitxMRbwgERbgcg;)anenaH GacsßitenAKg;vgS)an nigenAkñúgTMrg;enHeTotesatRbeTsmanGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;GacbnþnaMcUlen AkñúgTMhMcaM)ac;énvtßúFatuedIm k¾dUcCaGacnaMecjnUvplitpl]sSahkmμrbs;xøÜn

80 # Economic Development

bnþeTot. CaRbtibtþikarCMnYjEdlRtUvbgáreFVIeLIgenH CacMbg KWCaclnaTunEdl Cajwkjab;RtUv)aneFVIeLIgCaTMrg;énCMnYyéntulükarénkarbg;R)ak; rWk¾CaTMrgén CMnYyGPivDÆn_ (= development aids) edayRbeTsEdlmanGMNacesdækic©eKob sgát;eFVIeTAelIRbeTsEdlRtUvrgGMNaceKobsgát;. RbtibtþikarenH manParkic©rkSaeGaynUvnwgnrénsmtßPaBénkarbg;R)ak;én RbeTsEdlRtUvrgGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;enaH. CamYyenaH TaMgenHGacmanCa TMrg;énR)ak;kMcIEdlmankarR)ak;tictYc rWk¾KμankarR)ak;. k¾b:uEnþTaMgGs;enHsMrab; RbeTsEdleGayx©I dUcya:gCaRbeTsEdlmanesdækic©eKobsgát;enaH nUvEtGac cMeNj)anCanic©. TinñplBitR)akdrbs;eKsßitenAelIkarTukeGayenAdEdlén rcnasm<½n§BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsEdlmkdl;eBlenH k¾dUcCakarTukeGayenAkñúg sßanPaBdEdlénkarekIneLIgénGMNacesdækic©rbs;RbeTsdéTeTot³ rcnasm<½n§esdækic©BiPBelakEdl)anekIteLIg RtUvkøayCarwgqáwgdUcsIum:g; ebIsinNaRbeTsEdlrgGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;enaHBMumankarEkrTMrg;NamYye nAkñúgrcnasm<½n§BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsrbs;xøÜn. 2>3> \T§iBlénlT§pl Backwash GnþrCati TnÞwmnwgelak Perroux )anbkRsayRTwsþIrbs;xøÜneTAelITisedAKuNvib,tþi énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTssMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ eTAelIkarTTYlykénkarEbg EckGMNacBMuesμIKñamYyenAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCati elak Myrdall )anbkRsay KuNvib,tþienH eday\T§iBlénlT§pl Backwash. kalNaeKbkRsayRTwsþIrbs;Kat; eTAelI\T§iBlénTMnak;TMngesdækic©Gnþr CatienaH RTwsþIenaHmann½yfakarhUrecjktþaplitkmμGnþrCatiecjBIRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_eTARbeTs]sSahkmμ. qøgkat;bBaðaenH skþanuBlénkarGPivDÆn_én RbeTsGñkmankan;EtrIkFMFat; TnÞwmnwgenaHkarTMlak;bnÞúkeTAelIRbeTsRkIRkk¾ ekIteT,IgEdr. dMeNIrkarenH manninñakarEdlBMuGaceFVIeGaymantulüPaBxøÜnÉg

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)aneLIy eRBaHedaysarkarekIneLIgénPaBep¥ógeRTténkarGPivDÆn_EdlbNþal mkBIclnaktþaplitkmμ nigclnaplitplGnþrCatienH. ninñakarenHkan;EteFVIeGayekIneLIgéndMeNIrkar tYya:gPaBkan;EtlUtlas; enAkñúg]sSahkmμ nigPaBkan;EtedIrfyeRkayenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. TnÞwmnwgdMeNIrkarenH bgðajnUvlT§plviC¢mansMrab;RbeTs]sSahkmμ dMeNIrkar enHk¾pþl;eGaysMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_nUvlT§plGviC¢manEdlCaGVI EdleKehA fa {backwash effect}. CacMbgmankarhUrecjnUvRkumRbCaCnNaEdleCOfa edayeyageTAtamsmtßPaBbMeBjkarplitrbs;xøÜn eKGacmansmtßPaBRbkYt RbECgenAkñúgRbeTsEdlnwgbnøas;TIlMenAeTAenaH. k¾b:uEnþRkumenHk¾RtUvcaM)ac;pg EdrsMrab;karGPivDÆn_enAkñúgRbeTsedImkMeNItrbs;xøÜnenaH. clnaénTunGnþrCatik¾lMeGogpgEdrsMrab;karRTRTg; nigbegáItEfmeTotnUv dMeNIrkarén (= backwash effect) enH. TaMgenHmann½yfa enAkñúgmNÐlcMnuc kNþalénkarpÞúHénkarlUtlas;esdækic© kartMrUvkarplitplEdlekIneLIg)aneFVI eGaymankarCMrujkarvinieyaKenAkñúgTMhMd¾x<s;pgEdr. lT§plénkarekIneLIg EdlekIteLIgmkBIbBaðaenH eFVIeGaykan;EtFMEfmeTotnUvR)ak;cMNUl nigtMrUvkar. edaysarbBaðaenH karekIneLIgénkarvinieyaKbEnßmeTot RtUvbNþaleGaymankar vieyaKekInmaneLIgEfmeTot ehIynwgeRcInEfmeTot. ehtuenHehIyTunRtUvhUr eTAkñúgtMbn;EdlmankarpÞúHénkarlUtlas;esdækci e© naH dUctYya:gkñúgRbeTs ]sSahkmμCaedIm. dUcenH karbegáInel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTs]sSahkmμ k¾RtUv)anCYyErkBn§edayRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_EdlenAnwgfál;enaHEdr. eyagtamelak Myrdall cracrTMnijGnþrCatik¾begáInkarcMeNjeTARbeTs ]sSahkmμeRcInCageTARbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_pgEdr. TaMgenHmann½yfakarBRgIk énTIpSarEdlbegáItedaysarkarTTYlyknUvBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs eFVIeGaykan;Et xøaMgeLIgCadMbUgRbeTsEdlmankarrIkcMerIn niglUtlas; ehIyEdl]sSahkmμ rbs;eKbgðajnUvPaBEdlmaneRbobénkarGPivDÆn_enaH. RbeTsRkIRkBuMmansgÇwm sMrab;)anenAPaBman]tþmPaBénkarGPivDÆn_dUcRbeTs]sSahkmμedayqøgkat;nUv

82 # Economic Development

karbegáInkarGPivDÆn_]sSahkmμmYyrbs;xøÜnenaHeLIy. PaKeRcInsMrab;RbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_ekIteLIgeRKaHfñak;Edlfa ]sSahkmμFuntUcrbs;eK k¾dUcCasib,kmμ RtUv)anbBaÄb;edaysarkarRbkYtRbECgénTMnijnaMcUlBIRbeTs]sSahkmμ kal NaeK BMu)ankarBarvaedayviFankarN_énkarkarBarBaNiC¢kmμNamYyenaHeT. lT§plviC¢manEdlecjBIBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatieTAelIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ekI teLIgBIkarnaMecjénplitpldMbUgEdlecjBIvis½yEr: nigksikmμ. plitplenH GPivDÆn_eTACaEpñkya:gsMxan;énkarnaMecjrbs;xøÜn. k¾b:uEnþkarBRgIkbnþeTotén ]sSahkmμenH manRBMEdnya:gceg¥otCag]sSahkmμnaMecjénRbeTs]sSah kmμ. k¾b:uEnþkarekIneLIgéntMrUvkarplitpldMbUgEdlecjBIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWmancMnYntictYceT eRBaHvaeyageTAtamc,ab;rbs;elak Engel “Engel’s theory” KWeGLasÞIcénR)ak;cMNUléntMrUvkareRKOg]bePaK nigbriePaKEdlecjBIksikmμ eTAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμmantictYcNas;. k¾mancMnYnnaMecjdUcKñaenHEdr sMrab; ]sSahkmμsMelokbMBak; nigvaynþP½NÐEdlplitecjBIvtßúFatuedImksikmμ. eRkABIenHtMrUvkarénvtßúFatuedImdéTeTot eTaHbImankarekIneLIgénvis½y ]sSahkmμenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμk¾eday tMrUvkarrbs;vak¾fycuHEdr eRBaHeday sarPaBrIklUtlas;énbec©kviC¢aEdlmanenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμ. qøgkat;PaB rIklUtlas;enH Gacpþl;lT§PaBeGayeKeRbIR)as;vtßúFatuedImnaMcUlenaH eday sniTankmμ ]TahrN_kareFVI recycle énplitpleRbIR)as;cas;² nigeKGac begáItnUvlT§PaBCMnYsCaeRcInénvtßúFatuedImFmμCatiedayvtßúsMeyaKBIKImIenAkñúgRbe Ts]sSahkmμTaMgenaH. ehtudUcenH eGLasÞIcR)ak;cMNUlsMrab;vtßúFatuedIm KW EpñkxøHtictYcCageGLsÞIcsMrab;plitplsMercEdlplitecjBIvtßúFatuedImenaHeT AeTot. 2>4> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénkarfycuH {terms of trade}? 2>4>1> Prebisch-Singer-niekçbTénPaBkan;EtGaRkk;én {terms of trade} TaMgRTwsþIGMNacesdækic©eKobsgát;rbs;elak Perroux k¾dUcCaRTwsþI backwash effect rbs;elak Myrdall )anBnül;enAkñúgPaBBitnUvKuNvib,tþién

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BaNiC¢kmμGnþrCaticMeBaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. dUcenH karTieTonCakitþiyseTAelI RTwsþITaMgBIrRtUvEtcab;epþImCamYynwgkarRtYtBinitüeLIgvijedayCaBiesaFniym (empirical controlling) énbMNkRsayrbs;Kat;TaMgBIrGñkenaH. enATIenHeK TamTarsMrab;karvas;nUvlT§plénGMNaceKobsgát; k¾dUcCa backwash effect nig sMrab;kareRbobeFobCamYynwgel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_Edlel,ÓnenaHGacRtUvKitCas nÞsSn_CaTUrelx)an edayqøgkat;karekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlsMrab;buKÁlmñak; (per capita). k¾b:uEnþ karRtYtBinitüCaBiesaFniymenH BMuGacmanlT§PaB)aneLIy TaMgenAkñúgRTwsþIénlT§plénGMNaceKobsgát;EdlCaRTwsþIrbs;elak Perroux k¾dUcCa backwash effect EdlCaRTwsþIrbs;elak Myrdall. d¾rabNalT§pl (effect)EdlCasñÚlénRTwsþIrbs;GñkesdæviTUTaMgBIrBuMGacvas;)anenaH dUcenHRTwsþI TaMgBIrk¾BMuRtUvGaceFVIkarRtYtBinitü)anEdr. TaMgenH)ann½yfaRTwsþIenaHBuMman Gtßn½yCaBiesaFniymeLIy. elak Prebisch nigelak Singer )ansakl,gbM)at;karxVHxatTaMgenH. karxitxMrbs;GñkesdæviTUTaMgBIr KWkarxitxMRbmUlpþMúén\T§iBlEdlCaKuNsm,tþi énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTscMeBaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CamYynwgkarCYyénGaMgDIkaT½r EdlGacvas;EvgCalkçN³BiesaFn_niym)an nigRsbCamYyKñaenH k¾manGtßn½y esdækic©eBjeljEdr. CaGaMgDIkaT½rEdlsmRsbsMrab;vas;EvgénkarcUlrYm GPivDÆn_énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsenaH GñkesdæviTUTaMgBIr)anBicarNaeTAelI snÞsSn_énBaNiC¢kmμ {terms of trade (=ToT)”. ToT CaplEckrvagsnÞsSn_ (=index) éføénplitplnaMecj (=P ) nigsnÞsSn_ (=Index) éføénplitpl naMcUl (=P ) énRbeTsmYy ³ X

M

ToT = PX / PM

)anbgðajeGayeXIjfa etIcMnYnÉktab:unμanénplitplnaMcUlEdl RbeTsmYyTTYl)anenAkñúgkarpøas;bþÚrTl;nwgmYyÉktaénplitplnaMecjénRbeT senaH. enAkñúgRkahVikxageRkam)anbgðajeGayeXIjnUvExSekag production possibility frontier (=PPF) BCD énRbeTs A. PPF BCDenH )anb:HeTAnwg ToT

84 # Economic Development

bnÞat; ToT ¬=bnÞat;éføTIpSarGnþrCati¦ Rtg; C. C bgðajnUvcMnucplitkmμrbs;Cati rWrbs;RbeTsmYy TnÞwmnwgcMnuctMrUvkarrbs;Cati rWrbs;RbeTsmYyenaHsßitenARtg; cMnucEdlbnÞat; ToT b:HnwgcMnucGb,rimaénExSekag indifference curveénsgÁm (social indifference curve rW social utility curve) enARtg;cMnuc V. PaBxusKñarvagcMnucplitkmμ C nigcMnuctMrUvkar V tMrUveGayRbeTsenaHeFVI BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs edaynaMecjnUvÉktaCGénplitpl X nigpøas;bþÚrvaeday eyageTAtam ToT Tl;nwgÉkta GV énplitpl Y (= naMcUlénplitpl Y). RbQmTl;nwgsßanPaB autarky RbeTsenaHGacsMerc)anRtwmEtExSekag indifference curve J . ehtuenHeyIgsegáteXIjfaenAkñúgkrNIEdlman BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs eFVIeGayRbeTsenaH mankarcMeNjénPaBrIklUtlas; y:ageRcIn. TaMgenH KWkarTTYl)anya:gBitR)akdnUvniTsSn_eRbIR)as;d¾x<s; (high utility-index) énExSekag J (indifference curve J ). RKb;karERbRbYlén ToT CH\T§iBlEdlfa ¬emIlrUbxageRkam¦cMnucplitkmμ k¾dUcCacMnuctMrUvkar rWeRbIR)as;RtUv)anrMkil ³ cMnucEdlERbRbYlenHRtUvkt;sMKal; edayeyageTAtamTMnak;TMngénRBMEdnkarbg;tMél (marginal cost) rWk¾TMnak;TMng RBMEdneRbIR)as; (marginal consumption) énplitpl X nigplitplGaRs½y eTAnwg ToT. dUcenHkarERbRbYlén ToT CH\T§iBleGaymandMeNIrkarsMrbsMrYl eTAelITaMgépÞ ¬rW sector¦ énGñkplit rWplitkr k¾dUcCaépÞ ¬rW Sector¦ énGñktMrUvkar rWGñkeRbIR)as;. kalNa ToT Ca]TahrN_BMuRtUv)anbgðajCabnÞat; FE Et RtUv)anbgðajCabnÞat; LM Edl)anKUsCacMnuc²enaHvij ¬emIlkñúgrUbxageRkam¦ enaHTaMgenH )anbgðajeGayeXIjfa cMnucplitkmμénRbeTsRtUvpþÚrmkRtg;cMnuc N nigcMnuctMrUvkarénRbeTsRtUvpþÚrmkRtg;cMnuc K EdlsßitenAelIExSekag indifference curve J . cMnuc K enH bgðajeGayeXIjnUvniTsSn_eRbIR)as;Edl ticCagniTsSn_eRbIR)as;Rtg;cMnuc V. CalT§plkarERbRbYl ToT mann½yfa lT§plénPaBrIklUtlas;RtUv)ankat;bnßy. karERbRbYlenHbNþalmkBIkarekIn 1

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eT,IgéføénplitplnaMcUl Y ¬rWk¾karFøak;cuHénéføénplitplnaMecj X ¦CagbnÞat; FE én ToT mun. dUcenHkarfycuH ToT enH manGtßn½yCakar)at;bg;énPaBrIklUtlas; ³ eKGacniyayfaCa :PaBkan;EtGaRkk;} én ToT. karekIneLIgén ToT RtUv)anbk RsayCakarcMeNjénPaBrIklUtlas; ³ eKGacniyayfaCa {PaBkan;Etl¥} én ToT.

cMeBaHkarbkRsaymUlehtuénPaBkan;EtGaRkk;én ToT sMrab;RbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_elak Prebisch nigelak Singer )anbkRsayeTAelIkarGPivDÆn_én tMrUvkar nigkarpÁt;pÁg;EdlepSgKña³ edaymUlehtuénsm
86 # Economic Development

mann½yfaeKepþateTAelIKuNPaBén primary products enaH EdlsMrab;KuNPaB enaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHBMuGaceFVIeGaysMerc)aneLIy). eyageTAtamelak Prebisch KWmankarKYreGaycab;GarmμN_eTAelIktþa plitkmμCaeRcInenAkñúgEpñkénkarpÁt;pÁg;énRbeTs]sSahkmμ. ecjBIRTwsþIEdlfa qøgkat;karrIklUtlas;énbec©kviTüaeFVIeGayEpñkplitplsMercEdlCa]sSahkmμ FMCagEpñkénkarpliténplitpldMbUg ¬=plitplksikmμ rWFnFanFmμCati¦. ehtu enH karGPivDÆn_énéføedayeyageTAtamTMhMénkarERbRbYlplitPaBGacnaMeGay manninñakarcuHefakénéføplitplkñúgEpñk]sSahkmμ. k¾b:uEnþkarvivDÆn_ rWk¾kar GPivDÆn_enH k¾RbQmmuxTl;nwgninñakard¾x<s;énPaBpþac;muxnIykmμ (monopolize) eTAelITIpSarplitpl nigTIpSarktþaplitkmμénRbeTs]sSahkmμEdr ³ TaMgenHva BMuRtwmEtraraMgnUvkareGaymanbnþrnUvPaBrIklUtlas;énplitPaBeTAelIéføplitpl b:ueNÑaHeT KWEfmTaMg ¬eTaHbImankarfycuHénkarbg;tMélEdlbNþalmkBIPaB rIklUtlas;énbec©keTs¦ CH\T§iBleGaymankarekIneLIgénéfø EdlbBaðaenHeFVI eGayshCIBEdlmanGMNacrbs;eKsßitenAkñúgsßanPaBeFVIkarbMElgénkarekIne LIgénplitPaBenHeTACakarekIneLIgénR)ak;bMNac;RbcaMExsMrab;Blkrrbs;eKvi j. qøgkat;bBaðaenH CaTIbBa©b;BMuekItmanekIteT,IgnUvkarfycuHénkarbg;tMéleT eRkABIenHvabnþreGaymannUvkarbg;tMélplitkmμEdlefrteTAeTot ehIyEdlrYm KñaCamYynwgkarekIneLIgénPaBpþac;muxnIykmμénTIpSarplitpl KW)anbegáIutnUv lT§plninñakarénkarekIneLIgénéføplitplenaHdEdl. pÞúyBIenHeTAvijplitpl]sSahkmμnaMecjénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ )ansßit enAkñúgsßanPaBsm
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CalT§plénTMnak;TMngGsmb,maNenH bgðajeGayeXIjnUv {PaBkan;Et l¥ : én ToT sMrab;RbeTs]sSahkmμ TnÞwmnwgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_man {PaBkan; EtGaRkk;} én ToT. ecjBI ToT EdlBMuGnueRKaHenaH bgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarBicarNaBIrya:g énlT§plGviC¢mansMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ ³ • tamryHbBaðaenH smtßPaBnaMcUld¾resIbénRbeTsenH RtUveFVIeGayTn; exSay. smtßPaBenH GacTaj)antYya:genAkñúgkarvivDÆn_éneBlCamYynwgTMhMén plitplnaMecjdMbUgEdlkMNt;mYy nwg)anmkvijnUvcMnYnd¾ticeTA²énplitpl naMcUlEdlecjBIRbeTs]sSahkmμ kalNaeKKuNplEck ToT Edl)aneRbI R)as;rhUtmkdl;eBlenH CamYynwgniTsSn_éncMnYnnaMcUl (index of export quantity) Q enaH eKTTYl)anR)ak;cMNUl-ToT (= {income of terms of trade}= x

I – TOT) I – TOT = Px* Qx/Pm

CacMbgenAkñúgRbeTsEdlrgTukçlM)akeRkamkarxVHxaténTun KWRtUv)an bgðajeGayeXIjfalT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsenaHEdlGaRs½yya:geRcIn eTAelIEdlfa etIRbeTsenaHGacTijnUvTMhMnaMcUl ¬plitplCaTun rWplitpleRbI R)as;Edlman\T§iBlplitkmμ¦ b:unμan CamYynwgplcMNUlénkarnaMecjénkMlug eBlkMNt;mYyenaH. PaBkan;EtGaRkk;én ToT edaymUlehtuénkarFøak;cuHéføén plitplnaMcUlnaMeTAeGaymankarfycuH I-ToT nigCamYyenaH naMeTAeGayman karkat;bnßyénsmtßPaBnaMcUlénRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH. karfycuHénéføcMeBaHplitpldMbUg (primary products) naMecj)aneFVI eGayRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_BMumanlT§PaBsMrab;begáInénR)ak;cMNUlénktþaplitkmμ ¬CaBiessR)ak;cMNUlénkmμkrbuKÁlik¦ enAkñúgvis½yplitkmμénplitpldMbUgenA kñúgCMh‘anesμIKñaCamYynwgPaBrIklUtlas;Cabec©keTsénplitPaBrbs;vis½yenaH eLIy. qøgkat;bBaðaenH vis½ynaMecjenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_BMuGacbMeBj nUvlT§PaBcUlrYmsMrab;karekIneLIgénPaBrIklUtlas;eLIy eRkABIenHvij vis½y

88 # Economic Development

naMecjenHRtUvepÞreTAeRkARbeTsnUvEpñkmYyén {karcMeNjénplitPaB} rbs; xøÜn. pÞúyeTAvijRbeTs]sSahkmμGacrkSa)aneGayenAkñúgRbeTsxøÜnnUv {kar cMeNjénplitPaB} xøÜnedayqøgkat; (via) karekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlénktþa plitkmμ CaBiess KWR)ak;cMNUlénkmμkrbuKÁlik. kalNaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_cg;BRgIknUvTMhMénplitkmμplitpldMbUg (production of primary products) sMrab;k®nÞb;cab;mkvijnUvtulüPaBén karfycuH{plcMNUlénkarnaMecj}EdlbNþalmkBIkarFøak;cuHéføénkarnaMecjr bs;xøÜnenaH CaBitR)akdlT§plénesßrPaB (stability effect) GacbgðajeGay eXIjkñúgryHeBlxøImYy)an. EtenAkñúgryHeBlEvg edayqøgkat;bBaðaEdl)an bkRsayxagelIeFVIeGaysßanPaBénkmμkrbuKÁlikrbs;xøÜnkan;EtGaRkk;eTAenAkñúg TMhMkan;EtekIneLIg eRBaHfaviFankarN_enH BMu)aneRbIR)as;eGaycMeTAelImUlehtu Edl)anemIleXIjenAkñúgrcnasm<½n§énBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatiEdlmansßitenAsBVéf¶e nHeT. drabNarcnasm<½n§enH ¬eyageTAtamTsSn³énesdæviTUTaMgBIr Prebisch nig Singer¦ BMuRtUv)anERbRbYlenaH karbkRsayEdlCaRbéBNItulüPaBén cMeNjecjBIBaNiC¢kmμGnþrCatienaH KWBMu)anCYbRbTHenAkñúgTMnak;TMngénBaNiC¢ kmμeRkARbeTsrvagRbeTs]sSahkmμ nigRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_PaKeRcInenaHeT. TaMgenHmann½yfa RbeTs]sSahkmμenAEt)ancMeNjecjBIkarpøas;bþÚrTMnijCa GnþrCatienHeRcInCagRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. 2 rel="nofollow">4>2> karTieToneTAelIkarbkRsayEdlCarUbmnþsßitirbs;esdæviTUTaMgBIr cMeBaHkarsakl,génkarTieTonCaktiþyssMrab;niekçbT Prebisch –Singer k¾dUcCasMrab;lT§plEdl)anTajecjmk eKbgðajeGayeXIjCadMbUgnUvcMnuc TieTonmYyEdldak;eTAelIkarbkRsayEdlCarUbmnþsßitirbs;Kat;. CaTUeTAcMeBaH karRsavRCavénniTsSn_éfø (price index) manviFIsaRsþsMxan;BIrsMrab;eRbIR)as; ³ viFIsaRsþrbs; Laspeyres EdleRbIR)as;rcnasm<½n§plitplén {kMlugeBldMbUg} ¬=kMlugeBlmUldæan¦ CaktþasMxan;. ÉviFIsaRsþrbs; Paasche EdleRbIR)as;rcna

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sm<½n§plitplén {kMlugeBlEdldMeNIrkar} CaktþasMxan;vij. RKb;énkareRCIs erIsénviFsI aRsþTaMgBIrenH GacsRmYleGaymankarvivDÆn_ ToT epSgKña. TaMgGs; enHGaceGayKiteXIjfaniTsSn_mYybgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarekIneLIg ÉniTsSn_ (index) epSgeTotpÞúyeTAvijbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarfycuH. eRKaHfñak;enH KWkan;EtFMeLIg kalNaqñaMEdlCamUldæan nigqñaMEdleRbob eFobenH KWkan;EtXøatKñaq¶ay eRBaHfaPaBmannIyPaB (probability) énkarERb RbYlrcnasm<½n§BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsekIteLIgCamYynwgcenøaHeBlEdlkan;EtFMe T,IgeTA. cMENkKuNPaBénplitplEdleFVIBaNiC¢kmμRtUv)anERbRbYleTAtam eBlevlapgEdr. TaMgenHmann½yfa plitplEdleFVIBaNiC¢kmμmkdl;eBlenH RtUv)an)at;bg; nigRtUvCMnYsedayplitplfμIvij. CaBiesscMeBaHTMnij]sSa hkmμRtUvBicarNaEdlfaTMnijenaHCajwkjab;RtUvEtdwgfamankarekIneLIgénKuN PaBya:gxøaMg nigCalT§plvamanPaBrYmCamYynwgplitplénqñaMCamUldæanCajwk jab;manEteQμaH nigtYnaTI ¬kñúgkrNIxøHebIsinGacman¦ Etb:ueNÑaH. pÞúyeTAvijcMeBaHplitpldMbYg (primary products) BMubgðajeGayeXIjnUv RbePTénkarpøas;bþÚrKuNPaBd¾FMdMueT. dUecñHeKGackt;sMKal; rWniyayfaEpñkmYy ya:gticbMputén ToT Edlkan;EtGaRkk;CarUbqøúHénkarvivDÆn_énKuNPaBEdlepSg KñaenaH nigminEmnCaRbePTplitplEdleFVIeGaymankarFøak;cuHénéføeLIy. Ca lT§plénbBaðaekþabkþab;EdlCasßiti (statistic) enH eKGacbkRsayEtCakarERb RbYlén ToT EdlmanlkçN³cMnYnkñúgTMhMFMCagkarERbRbYlénéføEdlfaBitenaH. karbkRsaydUcKñaenH k¾mann½ysMrab; ToT EdrEdlenATIenHmanEtkarERb RbYlya:gxøaMgRtUv)anemIleXIjfaCakarTMlak;Tm¶n;énkarrMkilénéførvagplitpl naMecj nigplitplnaMcUl.

90 # Economic Development

2>4>3> karTieToneTAelIkarbkRsayénkarviPaKrbs;esdæviTUTaMgBIr TnÞwmnwgkarTieToneTAelIkarbkRsayEdlCaBiesaFniym rWCasßitirbs; elak Prebisch nigelak Singer k¾mankarRsavRCavfaetI karbkRsayénlT§pl EdlecjBIninñakar ToT EdlRtUv)ankMNt;enaHRtwmRtUvEdrrWeT? CadMbUgTamTar cab;epþImecjBIrkarbkRsayEdl)anbgðajén ToT EdlRtUv)anERbRbYl. kar TTYlykRsbKñaénkarfycuHén ToT EdlpSarP¢ab;CamYynwgkarbkRsayxagelI nigkar)at;bg;énPaBrIklUtlas;GacRsbc,ab; rWTTYlsÁal;)anluHRtaenAkñúg RbeTskMBugCYbRbTHenaHlkçx½NÐénplitkmμ k¾dUcCalkçxNÐéntMrUvkarBMuRtUv)an ERbRbYleT,Iy. enAkñúgkrNIenH mann½yfakarERbRbYlénTMnak;TMngéføGnþrCati KWbNþalmkBIkarERbRbYlEténTUrelx rWlkç½NÐEdlecjBIbreTsBitR)akdEmn. k¾b:uEnþdrabNaenAkñúgRbeTsbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarERbRbYlénlkç½NÐplitkmμ niglkçx½NÐéntMrUvkar enaHkarfycuHén ToT GacRtUvkt;sMKal; {RKan;EtCaRbmux} EdlfaPaBkan;EtGaRkk; nigk¾dUcCakarekInén ToT faCaPaBkan;Etl¥énPaBrIk lUtlas;Etb:ueNÑaH. kalNakñúgRbeTs ekIteLIgdMeNIrRbRBwtþénPaBrIklUtlas;EdlnwgBRgIk éntMrUvkareTAelIplitplnaMcUlenAkñúgRbeTsenaH ¬nigCamYyenaH cMeBaHéføTIpSar GnþrCatiEdlBMuERbRbYl k¾BRgIkénkarpÁt;pÁg;plitplnaMecjkñúgRbeTsenaHEdr¦ lT§plecjBIenaH TajecjmknUvPaBkan;EtGaRkk;mYyén ToT sMrab;RbeTs rbs;xøÜnenaH. eyaleTAelIkrNIEdl)anelIkeT,IgenH eKBMuGacrkSa)annUvkar BicarNaEdleTAelIEtEpñkénkarERbRbYlénéføeLIy PaKeRcIneKRtUvEtBicarNa bEnßmeToteTAelIlT§plénPaBrIklUtlas;EdlnaMeTAeGaymankarcMeNjénes ckþIcMerIn (prosperity). TaMgGs;enH GaRs½yeTAelIGnuPaBTMnak;TMnglT§plén PaBrIkcMerIn niglT§pl ToT EdlfaetIkarqøgkat;karTYTat; ¬smtulü¦ énPaBrIk cMerInesdækic©RtUvvaytMélCaviC¢man rWk¾GviC¢man. TaMgGs;enHCaBitR)akdGacsßit enAkñúgsßanPaBEdlfa cMeBaHsßanPaBenaH lT§plén ToT EdlnwgbnßyénPaB

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rIklUtlas;TUTat;elIslb;eTAelI {lT§PaBrIklUtlas;EdlnwgekIneLIgénesckþI rIkcMerIn :. k¾b:uEnþkrNIxusBIFmμtaEdlmaneQμaHl,Il,ajfaCa {immiserizing of enHekIteLIgEtenAkñúgsßanPaBEdlRtUv)ankt;sMKal;edaysarPaBrIk growth} lUtlas;xøaMgénninñakarnaMecj k¾dUcCaRbtikmμya:gxøaMgén ToT eTAelIkarrIkral dalénkarnaMecjenaH. enAkñúgkrNICaeRcInlT§plén ToT EdlGviC¢man exSayCaglT§plénPaBrIkcMerInEdlviC¢man TaMgenHmann½yfa sMrab;RbeTsEdl CYbRbTHenaHeTaHbICamanPaBkan;EtGaRkk;én ToT EtvabgðajeGayeXIjmankar cMeNjénesckþIrIkcMerIn. dUcenHecjBIkarbkRsayenH eFVIeGayeyIgeXIjfa drabNa\T§iBlén ToT RtUvbNþalmkBIedaysarRbeTsxøÜnÉgpÞal;enaH PaBeFVI tMrUvCaTUeTAénniekçbTrbs;elak Prebisch nigelak Singer BitCaBMuGaTTYlsÁal; )aneLIy. ecjBImUlehtuenH RtUvTamTarCMnYsbBaðaenaHnUvkarrkeGayeXIj énmUlehtusMrab;ninñakarvivDÆn_yUrGEgVgén ToT nigRtUvTajykmkkñúgkarviPaK eGay)anhμt;ct;³ karBicarNaén ToT Edldac;edayET,kEtÉgmYydUckrNI elak Prebisch nigelak Singer enaHBMupþl;nUvlT§plEdlCaesdækic©eBjelj )aneLIy. 2>4>4> lT§pl sMrab;sMnYrEdl)anelIkeLIg faetITMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatiGaceRbIR)as; CamUlehtuén]naPivDÆn_enaH tamkarbkRsayénniekçbTrbs;elak Prebisch nig elak Singer BMumankarpþl;nUvcMelIyEdlbMeBjcitþ)aneLIy ³ eRBaHfaRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_xøHkarGPivDÆn_)anRbRBitþeTAedayqøgkat;dMeNIrkarénPaBrIkcMerInkñúg RbeTsrbs;eKpÞal; eTaHbIkñúgTMhMEdlBMubMeBjcitþmYyk¾eday. dUcenHkarERb RbYlén ToT énRbeTsenaH BMuRtUvGacCamUlehtuEtCamYynwgbMNkRsayeTA elIkarERbRbYlénTUrelx rWk¾lkç½NÐeRkARbeTseLIy. karERbRbYlén ToT RtUvbNþalmkPaKeRcInedaykarERbRbYlénTUrelx niglkç½NÐxagkñúgRbeTsEdr

92 # Economic Development

nigdUcenHRtUvEtRsavRCavenAkñúgKMnitEdleyageTAtamkarERbRbYlenaH nigRtUvEt elIkykmkbkRsayvapgEdr. Ca]TahrN_sMrab;PaBRtwmRtUvénniekçbTEdlfaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUvCYb RbTHPaBGviC¢manedaysarEtTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatisBVéf¶enaH kareRbIR)as; énkarERbRbYl ToT Edl)anbkRsayxagelIedayelak Prebisch nigelak Singer BuMGacRtUv)aneRbIR)as;)aneT. 2>5> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénPaBminnwgnrénplcMNUlnaMecj \T,ÚvenHRtUv)anbkRsayfa RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUv)aneFVIeGaylM)akenA kñúglT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;xøÜnedaysarplcMNUlénkarnaMcUlrbs;xøÜnsßitenA kñúgsßanPaBminnwgnrya:gxøaMg. bBaðaénPaBminnwgnrénplcMNUlnaMcUlenHsßit manenA ¬edayBMuGaRs½yeTAnwgkarGPivDÆn_d¾yUrGEgVgdUc ToT eT¦ elIplitplEt b:ueNÑaH eRBaHfaPaBminnwgnrénplcMNUlenHTajecjedayeBjeljBIkarvivDÆn_ énéfø. karpþl;eGayCaBiesaFniym)anelcenAkñúgkarBitCaPsþútagfaTMhMénPaB minnwgnrénplcMNUlnaMecjsMrab;RbeTskMBugGPiDÆn_ KWFMsem,ImCagsMrab; RbeTs]sSahkmμ. CamYyenaHPaBGesßrPaBénkarnaMecjmanninñakarkan;EtxøaMg eLIg kalNaRbeTsenaHkan;EttUc (emIleTAelIGDP) TMhMTaMgmUlénkanaMecj kan;EttUc per capita kan;EtTab nigGRtaekIneLIgén GDP kan;EttUc. cMeBaHPaBBMunwgnrénplcMNUlnaMecj sMrab;plitpldMbUg (primary products) RbeTsnImYy² RtUv)anCYbRbTHkan;EtxøaMg kalNakarrYmcMENkkan;Et x<s;énplitplnaMecjenaH enAkñúgplcMNUlnaMecjsrubénRbeTs. dUcenH cMeBaHRbeTsnaMecjCaÉkvb,kmμnImYy² ¬=KWCaRbeTsEdlkarnaMecjrbs;eKman PaBelIslb;edayplitpleTalmYy rWk¾RkumplitpleTalmYy. BMunaMecjnUv plitplcMruHmuxeT,Iy¦ EdlnaMecjenAplitpldMbUgBMuRtUv)anvaytMélya:gTab nUveRKaHfñak;énPaBBMunwgnrénplcMNUlnaMecjenaHeLIy. mUlehtuénkarfycuH éføplitplnImYy²RtUv)ansegáteXIjTaMgenAelIEpñkpÁt;pÁg; k¾dUcCaEpñktMrUvkar ³

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mUlehtuEdlkMNt;enAEpñkxagpÁt;pÁg; KWCaPaBGaRs½yénplitkmμeTAnwglkçx½NÐ FmμCatiEdlmanryHeBlEvg TinñplénplitkmμBuMbnþbnÞab; nigk¾dUcCarcnasm<½n§ énkarpÁt;pÁg;EdlelcecjCacMENktUc²TaMgfñak;Cati nigfñak;GnþrCati. mUlehtuEdlkMNt;enAkñúgEpñktMrUvkar KWCaBiesskarpSarP¢ab;ya:gxøaMgCa mYynwgsßanPaBesdækic©enAkñúgRbeTsEdlTTYlyk ehIyEdlsßanPaBenaH ¬dUcCaeKalkarN_BenøÓnénesdækic© = principle of economical acceleration¦ GacvaypþÜleTAelIkarekIneLIgéntMrUvkarnaMcUlrbs;eK. eRBaHfaTaMgkarpÁt;pÁg;én Gñkplit k¾dUcCakartMrUvkarénGñkEdleRbIR)as;manRbtikmμeTAtaméføBMueGLasÞIc ¬éføeGLasÞIcsßitenAcenøaH –1 nig 0¦ enAkñúgryHeBlxøIenaH. EtPaBBMuman tulüPaBenAelITIpSarGnþrCatiRtUvGackat;bnßy)anEtCamYynwgkarCYyénkarERbRbY lénéfød¾xøaMgmYy. qøgkat;bBaðaenHnaMeTAeGaymankarFøak;cuHéføya:gxøaMgenAelI TIpSarvtßúFatuedIm nigTMnijGnþrCati nignaMeTAeGaymanPaBBMunwgnrénplcMNUl sMrab;RbeTsnaMecjCaÉkvb,kmμenaHEdlBMuRtUvGackat;bnßy rWk¾BMuRtUvGaceFVIeGay mantulüPaBedaysarkarERbRbYlénplcMNUlEdl)anmkBIkarnaMecjénplitp ldéTeToteLIy. PaBBMunwgnrenHvaydMueTAelIel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHena Hkan;Etc,as; kalNaGRtanaMecjrbs;eKenAkñúg GDP kan;EtFM nigkalNa RbeTsenaHepþateTAelIkarnaMcUlkan;EtxøaMgsMrab;karrkSaéndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_rb s;xøÜn. kalNaeKcab;epþImecjBIrUbmnþénkareRbIR)as;EdlsMxan;rbs; GDP³ Y=C+I+X–M

= kareRbIR)as; , I = karvinieyaKdul X = karnaMecj , M = karnaMcUl C

94 # Economic Development

nigkalNaeKBicarNabnþeTotedayTajecj C nig I eTACa C, I kñúg RbeTs (= C , I ) nig C , I naMcUl (= C , I ) enaHeK)anTMnak;TMngsmIkarxag elIeTACa³ d

rWk¾

d

m

m

Y = Cd + Id + X + (Cm + Im – M) Y = Cd + Id + X

PaBBMunwgnrnImYy²énplcMNUlnaMecjvaydMuedaypÞal;eTAelI GDP nig CamYyenaHeTAelIR)ak;cMNUlRbcaMqñaMénRbCaCnmñak; per capita kalNakar cMNaysMrab;plitplkñúgRsuk C + I BMuRtUv)anpSarP¢ab;eTAkñúgvicarNBaØaN BitR)akdmYy rWk¾CaBaNiC¢kmμEdlCaesdækic©c,as;las;mYy. lT§plenHkan; EtekIneLIg kalNa X kan;EtFMenAkñúgkareRbobeFobCamYynwg C + I . cMeBaHtulükarénkarbMeBjkarplitEdlmantulüPaBtMélénkarnaMcUl nig tMélénkarnaMecjERbRbYlenAkñúgrebobdUcKña³ d

d

d

d

X = M = Cm + Im

karekIneLIgénplcMNUlnaMecj begáInsmtßPaBsMrab;karbg;tMélénkar naMcUl ÉkarfycuHénplcMNUlnaMecjbnßynUvlT§PaBsMrab;karbg;tMélénkar naMcUl. karsMerccitþsMrab;bkRsayEdlCaRTwsþIGPivDÆn_énPaBBMunwgnrénpl cMNUlnaMecj KWepþatCaBiesseTAelIniekçbTEdlfa C nig I CaTUeTARtUv b:HTgÁicepSg²Kña. cMeBaHkarfycuHénplcMNUlnaMecj eFVIeGaymankarCYbnUv PaBP½yxøacEdlfakarvinieyaKRtUv)anraraMgya:gxøaMgCagkareRbIR)as; eRBaHfa R)ak;cMNUlCaR)ak;bMNac;RbcaMExEdlkMNt;kareRbIR)as;vaCakarTUTat; rWCaR)ak; cMNUlmanlkçN³Cakic©snüaedayBMuGaRs½yeTAnwgTMhMERbRbYlénplcMNUlnaMe cjeLIyenAkñúgryHeBlCamFüm. edaysabBaðaenH karbnßyénplcMNUl naMecjnwgvaydMedayeBjeljeTAelIR)ak;cMNUlénTunEdlkMNt;sMrab ;Etkarvi nieyaK ³ dUcenHdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_RtUvEtcab;RhVaMg rWk¾RtUvBnüWt. m

m

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pÞúyeTAvij kalNaplcMNUlnaMecjRtUv)anekIneLIg mann½yfaeyageTA tamkarbkRsayenaH mankarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlsMrab;Tun. k¾b:uEnþecjBIenaH Taj)anecjnUvlT§pld¾kMrénkarbegáInel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_edayeyageTAtamen aH ³ edaysarmUlehtuénrcnasm<½n§esdækic©épÞkñúgKaMgsþÚk rWs<wkRsBn; rWk¾dUcCa smtßPaBbt;Ebnénrdæ)al nigshRKin rWkarRKb;RKgEdlmanRBMEdn KWvaeFVI eGaymankarxVHxatPaKeRcInénEpnkarénkarvinieyaKEdl)anRbugeRbobTuk. TaMg enHmann½yfa karBMuGacsßitenAkñúgCMhrénkareFVIEpnkarEdltMrUvkarryHeBlEvg mYy. sMrab;eBldak;cuH rWbBa©b;énkareFVIEpnkarvinieyaK KWCajwkjab;karnaMecj RtUvfycuHmkvijrYceTAehIy enaHmann½yfakarvineyaKeBlenaHFøak;eTAeRkam edaymUlehtukarrMBwgénkarcMeNjEdlTuTidæi. CMnYsbBaðaenH karcMeNjénkar naMecjEdl)anekIneLIgenH RtUv)anhUreTAkñúgkareRbIR)as;énshRKin ¬=eTACaRTBü EdlBMuEmnCaplitkmμ KWCaRTBüGkmμ¦ eRBaHfa karcMeNjenHRtUv)anemIleXIj faBMusißtesßr eRkABIenaHRtUv)anemIleXIjfaRKan;EtCakarcMeNjécdnü (windfall profits) Etb:ueNñaH. CabBa©b;karnaMecjEdlnwgekIneLIgenAkñúgEpñknaMecjEdl Gacpþl;»kassMrab;ekIneLIgénR)ak;ebovtSn_EdlGacekIneLIgenaH BMuGaceFVIeGay ekIneLIgeToteT,IyedaysarEtPaBkan;EtGaRkk;énsßanPaBnaMecjenaH. 3> ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plénclnaTunGnþrCati 3>1> karvinieyaKedaypÞal;énbreTs nigcRkBtþiniym karbkRsayrhUtmkdl;eBlenH)aneGabRkesab CacMbgCamYynwgrcna sm<½n§énkarbþÚrTMnijrvagRbeTs]sSahkmμ nigRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. CamYyenaH CaBitR)akdEdl EpñkEdlsMxan;bMputénTMnk;TMngesdækci G© nþrCatiRtUv)anBicarNa. k¾b:uEnþTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatiRtUveGabRkesabbnþeTot ³ TnÞwmnwgkarpøas;bþÚrén TMnijGnþrCati TMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCatimann½ybEnßmeTotCaclnaénTunGnþr CatiEdlfaTidæPaB (aspect) mYyEdlRtUv)ankt;RtanUvpøÚvepSg²énkarhUrecjén

96 # Economic Development

TuneTAeRkARbeTs. cMeBaHelak Perroux nigelak Myrdall k¾)anbgðaj ]naPivDÆn_RtUv)anTTYl\T§iBledaysarclnaénTunGnþrCatiEdr. niekçbTén\T§iBlEdlCavivaTnwgkarGPivDÆn_énclnaTunGnþrCatiRtUv)anbegáI teLIgya:gTUlMTUlayedayGñkRTwsþIéncRkBtþiniymfμIEdlCalkçN³ ma:kSniymfμI Edl)anecaTCacMbgeTAelIRkumh‘unbreTsEdlmanskmμPaBkñúgRbeTskMBugGPiv DÆn_ ¬enAkñúgRbeTsePJovrbs;xøÜn¦. elak Baran ¬GñkRTwsþIcRkBtþiniymfμIEdl l,Il,aj¦ CaGñkdMNagnUvniekçbTEdlfa cRkBtþni yi melakxaglic)anbNþalCa dMbUgnUv]naPivDÆn_énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_edayqøgkat;karraraMgénlT§PaBGPivDÆn_pÞa l;xøÜnrbs;RbeTsTaMgenaH. sMrab;bMNkRsayénniekçbTrbs;Kat; Baran )an RsavRCavnUvmUlehtuEdlkMNt; eyageTAtamkaremIleXIjrbs;Kat;sMrab;kar Gn;fyénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ EdlKat;eCOfaGacrkeXIjEtenAEpñkéncRkBtþni yi m (imperrialism). cMeBaHbBaðaenH Baran )anRsavRCavrvag\T§iBlénkareRCotcUl énmUlFnniymelakxagliceTAkñúgGaemricxageCIg GURsþalI nigNUEvlhSWLg; d_CaEpñkmYy nig {karebIkcMhr} GasIu GaRhVik rWk¾GWr:ubxagekIt edaysacRkBtþi niymelakxaglicCaEpñkepSgeTot. kñúgkarBnül;krNITI 1 rbs;Kat; ¬kareRCotcUleTAkñúgGaemrikxageCIg>>>¦ CnGWr:ubxaglic)anruleTACYb rWeRCotcUleTAelItMbn;EdlBMumanRbCaCn rWman bnþicbnþÜc. qøgkat;bBaðaenH eFVIeGayeKsMerc)ansMrab;karsßabnanUvRbB½n§sgÁm pÞal;xøÜnrbs;eKedayeyageTAtamBYkeKenAelITwkdIEdlmanCICati nigEdlBMuTan; eRbIR)as;enaH. eTaHbImankarlM)akya:gFMya:gNak¾eday k¾eKGacbegáIt)annUv RbB½n§neya)aymYyenAkñúgRbeTseRkAenaHEdlmanesckþIGnueRKaHcMeBaHkarGPiv DÆn_énmUlFnniymrbs;eK. eRBaHfaenATIenaH de facto BMumanRbB½n§sgÁm EdlCamUlFnBImunGacRtUv)ansßitenA rWk¾RbB½n§enaHGacRtUv)anrMelIgecjGs; rWk¾ RtUvGacbMElg. dUcenHenATIenaH lT§plGPivDÆn_EdlGviC¢manedaysarcRkBtþi niymBMuRtUv)anCYbRbTHeLIy.

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pÞúyBIenHTaMgRsug sßanPaBenAkñúgRbeTsesssl;énBiPBelak ¬stvtSTI 17 –19¦ ³ enATIenaH CnGWr:ub)anRbQmmuxTl;nwgsgÁmEdl)anbegáIteLIgrwgmaM CamYynwgvb,Fm’sm,ÚrhUrh‘a nigcMNas;dUcCa cin nig\NÐa Edl)ansßitenAkñúg dMNak;kalénmunmUlFnenAeLIy rWk¾EdlBMuTan;)anCMnHenAeLIynUvkarcab;epþIm dMbUgénkarGPivDÆn_EdlCamUlFnniympÞal;rbs;xøÜn. enAkñúgkrNITaMgBIrenH ¬cin nig\NÐa¦ CnGWr:ubxaglic)anTajykRKb;lT§PaBcMeNjd¾FMecjBIRbeTsTaMgBIr ¬EdlCaRbeTsePJovrbs;eK¦ nigepÞrkarcMeNjenaHeTARbeTsxøÜn. TaMgenH mann½yfamankarekIneLIgnUvkarepÞrEtmçagmYyénPaBsm,ÚrN_edayRTBüFnecj BIRbeTsEdlBMuEmnGWr:ubeTARbeTsGWr:ubxaglic. etIkarepÞrEdlmanEtmçagman\T§iBlya:gNaeTAelIRbeTsEdl)anepÞr enaH? eRBaHfaEpñkmYyya:gFMénplitkmμelIslb;EdlRtUveFVIeGayekIneLIgmk dl;eBlenaH ¬EdlelIsBIesckþRI tUvkarpÞal;xnÜø ¦ RtUv)annaMecjeTAbreTs dUcenH karfycuHEdlRBYy)armÖmYyekIteLIgsMrab;karekIneLIg (accumulation) EdlCa dMbUg KWTun (= marcantile phase of capitalism) enAkñúgRbeTsTaMgenaH ³ RbeTs EdlCYbRbTHenaHsßti enACaBitR)akdenAeRkamGMNacénmUlFnniym. k¾bu:EnþsMrab; RbeTsxøÜnÉgpÞal;BMumankarekIneLIgénTunpÞal;xøÜneLIy. elak Baran )anelIkyk\NÐaCa]TahrN_sMrab;niekçbTrbs;Kat;. RbeTsenaH RtUv)anekgRbv½Ba©dl;rWsKl;cab;taMgBIkarbegáIteLIgénkgBl\NÐa xagekIt. elakBaran )ansakl,gsMrab;karbkRsayedayRbeyalnUvbBaðaenH EdlenAkñúgenaHKat;)anelIkykkarepÞógpÞat;rvagkarGPivDÆn_enA\NÐaTl;nwgkar GPivDÆn_enACb:unEdlCaRbeTsEtmYyKt;eyageTAtamTMhMGaceFVIkareRbobeFob)a n ehIyEdlBMu)anERbkøayenAeRkamGaNaniKm nigEdlCamYyenaHmanlT§PaB sMrab;Rbtibtþineya)ayGPivDÆn_CatimYyEdlÉkraCü. ecjBIkareRbobeFobenaH elak Baran )anTajnUvlT§plEdlfamUlFn niymelakxaglicbNþaleGaymannUv]naPivDÆn_énBiPBelakTI 3 (third world) EdlenAkñúgmUlFnniymenH raraMgRbeTsTaMgenaHkñúglT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_pÞal;

98 # Economic Development

xøÜnrbs;eK. cRkBtþiniymelakxaglic)anCH\T§iBleTAelIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ sBVéf¶eGaysßitenARTwgenAkñúgdMNak;kal rWkñúgkMritén feudalism rWk¾énmUlFn niymBaNiC¢kmμ mann½yfakarqøgkat; rWkarpøas;bþÚreTACamUlFnniym]sSahkmμ EdlnwgRTRTg;karGPivDÆn_RtUv)an)aMg rWraraMgedaysarcRkBtþni yi melakxaglic. kalNaeKgakmkeRbobeFobTMrg;bc©úb,nñéncRkBtþiniym CamYynwgTsSnH vis½yrbs;eKEdl)anmansBlPaBsMrab;edImstvtSn_enH enaHeK (Baran k¾Ca GñktMNagEdr¦ )ankMNt;facRkBtþni iymsBVéf¶)anbgðajnUvRbB½nE§ dlkan;EtTMenIb nigkan;EtmanvicarNBaØaNEfmeTotmYyénkarekgRbv½Ba©EdlCalkçN³cRkBtþini ymenaH. CaviFankarN_sMrab;karCH\T§iBlénGMNaccRkBtþiniymsBVéf¶enaH CacMbgesva:kmμénRkumh‘unbreTsEdlCaGñkraraMgkarGPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTskMBugGPi vDÆn_. eyageTAtamelak Baran TaMgenHhuclT§plya:gxøaMgkøaedaysarfa Rkumh‘unTaMgenaH)anBRgwgnUvGMNacénmUlFnniymBaNiC¢kmμ nig)anBnüWtkar pøas;bþÚrrbs;RbeTsTaMgenaHeTArkmUlFnniym]sSahkmμ rWk¾GaceTAdl;karraraMg Etmþg. \T§iBléncRkBtþiniymsBVéf¶ k¾dUcCamunstvtSenHEdr \T§iBlenHraraMg karqøgkat;eTArkkMritGPivDÆn_Edlx<s;mYyénRbeTsTaMgenH. Baran )andak;Rkumh‘unbreTsCacMnucmUldæanénRTwsþIcRkBtþiniymfμI (neoimperialism theory) rbs;Kat;. CakarBitKat;)anEbgEckRkumh‘unTaMgenH rvag Rkumh‘unEdlpÁt;pÁg;pSarkñúgRbeTs nigRkumh‘unEdlplitplitplnaMecj. k¾b:uEnþ eRBaHfaRkumh‘unEdlpliténplitplnaMecj suT§EtCaEpñkk,alma:sIunénRkúmh‘un breTs ¬eKeRbobeFobenATIenH ]TahrN_karcMraj;énFnFanFmμCatiCasrub¦enaH Baran )anRbmUlpþúMkñúgkarRsavRCavrbs;Kat;eTAelI\T§iBlénRkumh‘unTaMgenaH eTA elIkarGPivDÆn_énRbeTsEdlCaePJovenaH. CamYyenaH Kat;)anTTYlnUvcMeNHdwg GviC¢manya:geRcIn ³ - cMeBaHkarvaytMélénkarvinieyaKEdlRtUv)aneFVIeGayRkumh‘unbreTs Baran )anrkeXIjfaEpñknImYy²énkarvinieyaKEdlRtUvbg;éføenAkñúgTMrg;énkar GnuBaØatCapøÚvkarsMrab;TTYlFnFanFmμCatiEdlcaM)ac; nigEdlRtUvhUrcUleTAkñúg

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100 # Economic Development

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102 # Economic Development

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104 # Economic Development

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eTAelIBaküTaMgBIrenaHeT,Igvij. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgkarsikSaenATIenHeyIgBMueFVIkarERb RbYlénkarEbgEckenaHeT. KuNsm,tþiEdlCamUldæanénkarvinieyaKedaypÞal;EdlmanTMnak;TngbreT s)anbgðajfa karcUlrYmcMENksuT§rbs;eK cMeBaH GDP rbs;RbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ rWrbs;RbeTsEdleK)anvinieyaKenaH. TaMgenHmann½yfa karhUrcUlén rUbIyb½NÑenAkñúgTMhMmYyya:gFMkñúgRbeTsenaH kalNaeKBicarNaeTAelIlT§pl TIBIr (secondary effect) cMeBaHplitkrkñúgRsuk eRBaHfaplcMNUlénkarvinieyaK edaypÞal;EdlmanTMnak;TMngbreTsenH edayeyaleTAelIniymn½yxagelI KW ecjBIvis½y rWxÞg;naMecj. dUcenHplcMNUlenH ya:gticbMputkøayCarUbIyb½NÑén RbeTsEdlCaePJovenaH. CamYyenHlT§plrbs;rUbIyvtßúénRbePTkarvinieyaKenaH KWsMrab;RbeTsEdlCaePJóvBitc,as;las;CaviC¢man. TaMgenHeFVIeGayrUbIyvtßúbMrug rbs;RbeTsenaHRtUv)anekIneLIg. enAkñúgkal³eTs³xøHlT§plsuT§énrUbIyvtßú EdlviC¢manenaH GacFMCagkarcUlrYmcMENksuT§sMrab;PaBrIkcMerInrbs;GñkvinieyaK KinRbePTenH kalNaenAkñúgdMeNIrénkarsMrbsMrYlrcnasm<½n§TIpSarkñúgRbeTs EdlRtUv)anvinieyaKenaH plitkmμEdlRtUvnaMcUlsuICMerA (intensiv importing productions)mkdl;eBlenHRtUv)ankat;bnßy. qøgkat;lT§plsuT§énrUbIyvtßúenH RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUv)anpøas;eGayenAkñúgsßanPaBeRbIR)as;plitplTunbreT ssMrab;naMeTArkkarsßabnaén]sSahkmμkñúgRbeTs nigsMrab;begááInsnÞúHénel,Ón rIkcMerInenAkñúgRbeTsrbs;xøÜn. kñúgkrNIénkarvinieyaKedaypÞal;EdlmanTMnak;TMngkñúgRbeTs eKTTYl )anlT§plepSgBIxagelI. eRBaHfakarvinieyaKTunRbePTenH pSarP¢ab;ya:gs¥it rmYteyaleTAelIniymn½yBIxagelI GacelcecjnUvKuNsm,tþi nigKuNvib,tþi ya:geRcInCamYynwgTIpSarkñúgRbeTsénRbeTsEdlRtUvvinei yaKenaH. edaysar plitplEdlRtUvnaMcUlmkdl;eBlenHeFVIeGayCadMbUgmankarsnSMrUbIyvtßúEdlTu ksMrab;naMcUlplitplenaH lT§plénkarsnSMénrUbIyvtßúenH CaTUeTAticCag lT§plénkarsnSMrUbIyvtßúEdlecjBIkarvinieyaKedaypÞal;EdlmanTMnak;TMngbre

106 # Economic Development

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{technological and managerial gap} GacRtUvCMnH)an rWya:gticbMputGacRtUv raraMgnUvcenøaHRbehagkan;EtFMrbs;vaenaH. karGPivDÆn_enHkan;EtekIneLIg kalNakarGnuBaØatikarvinieyaKTuneday pÞal;enHGacpSarP¢ab;CamYynwglkçx½NÐEdleyageTAtam tYy:agdUcCakarsßabna nigrkSaénkEnøgbNþúHbNþalpÞal;xnÜø k¾dUcCakarTTYlykkMlaMgBlkmμkúñgRbeTs eTAkñúgtYnaTIdwknaMCaedIm. eRkABIenHeKRtUvEtRbugRby½tñpgEdrfa kñúgkrNIxøH KWvaBMuekIteLIgnUvP½BV sMNagEdlfacenøaHRbehagénbec©kviC¢arvagRbeTs]sSahkmμ nigRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_RtUv)anpSarP¢ab;Pøam²enaHeT,Iy eRBaHfatYya:gkMlaMgBlkmμEdlRtUv bNþúHbNþaledayRkumh‘unbreTs GacRtUv)ancUlrYmtictYcbMputsMrab;PaBRbesIr eLIgéncMeNHdwgbec©keTsEdleRbIR)as;d¾manRbsiT§iPaBenaH cMeBaHshRKas kñúgRsukeT,Iy. k¾b:uEnþtamkarRsavRCavCaeRcInbgðajeGayeXIjfa BuMmanbBaða bec©keTsTVikniymenH rvagRkumh‘unbreTs nigRkumh‘unkñúgRsukFMdMueT. CamYyenHEdr Rkumh‘unbreTsCamYynwgbec©kviC¢aTMenIbrbs;xøÜnkñúgkar eRCotcUleTAkñúgTIpSarrbs;RbeTsEdlxøÜnvinieyaK Edlmkdl;eBlenaHGñkpÁt; pÁg;kñúgRsukRtUv)anRKbdNþb;edaybec©keTsburaNenaH rWBMuTan;sm½yenaH vaekIt eLIgnUv {lT§plénkarrujRcanecj} ³ )ann½yfaRkumh‘unkñúgRsukEdlmanbec©k viC¢aTabRtUvxÞatecjBITIpSar. lT§plénkarrujRcanenH kan;EtxøaMgeLIg kalNa plitkmμRbRBitþeTAkan;EteRcIneLIgenAeRkamlkç½NÐénkarfycuHénkarbg;tMélsMr ab;mYyÉktaplitplsMrab;viFIsaRsþTMenIb ³ eRBaHfakarcMeNjCajwkjab; ekIneLIg over-proportional eTAnwgcMnYnénkarlk;. kalNakarfycuHénkar bg;tMélxøaMgCaglT§PaBénkarfycuHénéføEdlRtUvRbkan;yksMrab;karBRgIkénkar lk;enaH mann½yfakarRbwgERbgya:gxøaMgénEpñkxagRkumh‘unbreTsRtUv)anekIt eLIgsMrab;sMerc)annUvcMENkTIpSarGtibrimamYy. karRbwgERbgenHnaMeTAeGayCajwkjab;nUvkarrujRcanecjénGñkRbkYtRbEC gkñúgRbeTs rWk¾Rkumh‘unkñúgRbeTs. kalNabBaðaenH BMuRtUv)anrkeXIjGVI

108 # Economic Development

epSgeTotenaH CalT§plecjBIkarrujRcanenH KWkaredjecjénkMlaMgBlkmμ. eRBaHfakMlaMgBlkmμenHRtUvrujRcanecjBIEpñkplitkmμEdlCamYynwgbec©kviC¢aE dlmanlkçN³suICMerAénkM;laMgBlkmμ dUcenHlT§plénkaredjecjenaHnwg ceteris paribus FMCagkaredjecjEdlbNþalmkBIRkumh‘unbreTs. Casmtulü bgðajeGayeXIjecjBIbBaðaenH mankarekIneLIgéncMnYnGñkGt;kargareFVIenAkñúg RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enAkñúgkrNIEdlBMumankarTUrTat;énkareRbIR)as;kMlaMgEdlti ctYcenaH RtUv)ansMercedaysarkarekIneLIgénTMhMplitkmμEdleyageTAtam. CamYyenHskmμPaBénRkumh‘unbreTsenAkñúgRbeTsCaePJovenaH GacnaMeTA eGaymankarekIneLIgénGñkGt;mankargareFVI nigCamYyenaHnaMeGayman\T§iBlén karEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl EdlpÞúyBIeKalbMNgEdl)anelIkeLIgénneya)ay EbgEckenAkñúgRkbx½NÐéntYnaTIsñÚlénsgÁm. k¾b:uEnþebIsinNaCabec©kviC¢aenaH RtUv)aneRbIedayRkumh‘unkñúgRsukenaHeKsnμtf; a )anTTYlnUvlT§pldUcKñaenHEdr. dUcenHlT§plEdl)anbgðajxagelI )anR)ab;CakarBitfaCalT§plén karmanlT§PaBkargar rWk¾kMlaMgBlkmμepSg²KñaenAkñúgRkbx½NÐénbec©kviC¢aEdl TMenIb nigEdlRbéBNI eCosCagCalT§plEdlTMlak;bnÞúkEteTAelIRkumh‘un breTsEtmYymux. bEnßmBIenHeTotkarsþIbenÞasEdl)anelIkeLIgPaKeRcInénkar epÞrkarcMeNjd¾x<s;eTARbeTsedImkMeNItGñkvinieyaK k¾ekIteLIgecjCamUlehtu epSgmYyeTot. eKBMuRtUvGnuBaØatiBicarNaEteTAelItYya:gTUrelxénkarcMeNj BitR)akdenaHeLIy eRkABIenHCanic©Cakal eKRtUvemIleTAelIkarbegáItTMnak;TMng sMrab;TunEdleRbIR)as;enaH. CamYynwgkaremIleXIjeTAelIGRtaénkarcMeNj x<s; nigEpñkya:gFMénR)ak;cMeNjEdlRtUv)anepÞrenaH eKBMuGnuBaØatieGaybk Rsay)anfakarvinieyaKTunedaypÞal;énbreTsBMu)anelIksÞÜy rWk¾cUlrYmtictYc bMputsMrab;R)ak;cMNUlénRbeTsEdlCaePJovenaHeLIy. eTaHbIfakarcMeNjén Rkumh‘unbreTsRtUv)anbgðajeGayeXIj 100% k¾eday nigedaysarkarbg;én karGnuBaØatiEpñkcMeNjenaHRtUv)anhUreTAbreTsk¾eday k¾EpñkdéTeToténkar cMeNjk¾sßitenAkñúgRbeTsEdlCaePJovenaHCaGñkTTYl nigCamYyenaHGacekIn

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eLIgnUvR)ak;cMNUlkñúgRbeTs. dUcEdl)anniyayBIxagelIrYcmkehIIy TMhMenH GaRs½yeTAelIsmahrNkmμrbs;eKeTAkñúgesdækic©énRbeTsEdlCaePJovenaH k¾ dUcCakareFVIsmahrNkmμénRbeTsEdlCaePJovenaHcUleTAkñúgesdækci é© nRkumh‘unb reTsenaH. müa:geTotesÞIrEtRKb;krNITaMgGs; GRtaénkarcMeNjd¾x<s;EdlRtUv sMerc)an nigRtUvepÞreTARbeTsedImkMeNIténGñkvinieyaKKin GaceFVIeGaymankar ekIteLIgnUvkarP½yxøaccMeBaHkardkBn§cMeNjEdlBMuRtUv)anTUrTat;eLIgvij. dUc enHkarepÞrénkarcMeNjenHbgðajeGayeXIjCaBitR)akdnUvkarnaMcUlmkRbeTsE dleKvinieyaKenaHvij. dUcenH edaysareKBMuGacmanlT§PaBpþl;BinÞúeTAelIKuNsm,tþi nigKuN vib,tþién\T§iBlkarvinieyaKTunedaypÞal; rbs;breTsmkelIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ enaH dUcenHekIteLIgnUvmtiepSgKña ³ TnÞwmnwgGñkRTwsþIcRkBtþiniymfμIvaytMélfa karcMeNjCakarekgRbv½Ba©énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ edaysarRkumhu‘nGnþrCatiFM² enaH GñkKaMRTénRkumh‘unbreTs)anbkRsaykarcMeNjCaTUeTACalT§plRtLb; mkvijcMeBaHkarpþl;énsmtßPaBshRKin nigcMeNHdwgbec©keTsrbs;xøÜn. enaH mann½yfa karcMeNjenAkñúgTMnak;TMngenHRtUv)anbgðajfaCaR)ak;cMNUlénktþa plitkmμsuT§saF eRBaHfasMrab;karvaytMélénlT§plRtLb;mkvijEdlCash RKinenaH {BMumanbTdæantMélEdlCarUbPaBBitR)akd} eT,Iy. dUcenH karkMNt; TMhMcMeNjEdlGactMNagGtibrimamYy KWmann½yeTAtamkarvinicä½yéntMélEdl eyageTAtamedImkMeNItmenaKmviC¢aénGñkBicarNaenaHEdlnaMeTAeGaymanlT§p lepSg²Kña. niyaymüa:geTot sMnYrecaTeTAelIkarEbgEckR)ak;cMeNjEdl esμIPaBenaHBMuRtUvGaceqøIy)aneLIy drabNaBMumanlkçN³vinicä½yEdlCa objectiv sMrab;karEbgEckenaHeLIy. CamYyenH CakarBitBMumandMeNaHRsayénbBaðaesμI PaBénlT§plTaMgenaHRtUv)anrkeXIjeLIyenATIenH. TIenHCakarBit RKan;EtCa karbkRsaynUvlT§plEdlRKbdNþb;edayneya)aysuT§saFEtb:ueNÑaH. CasarubTMnak;TMnglT§plkarGPivDÆn_énkarvinieyaKTunedaypÞal;rbs;bre TsRtUv)anvinicä½yCaviC¢man k¾dUcCaGviC¢man dUcEdlkarvaytMélénEpñknaMecj

110 # Economic Development

Edr ³ TaMgenH Gacman\T§iBlEdl]btßmÖkarGPivDÆn_pg ehIyk¾Gacman\T§iBl EdlraraMgkarGPivDÆn_pg. TaMgenHmann½yfaeKRtUvEtcab;yknUvlkçx½NÐénkrNI nImYy²sMrab;karvaytMéledIm,IeGaykarvinicä½yQaneTArkPaBsmrmü. 4> karBnül;én]naPivDÆn_edaysarRTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCü 4>1> eKalsMxan;énRTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCü cMeBaHkarviPaKRTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCüenH eKRtUvEbgEckCaeKalsMxan;BIr ³ RTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCüEdlCaCatiniym nigRTwsþIénPaBBuMÉkraCüEdlCama:kSniym. 4>1>1> RTwsþIénPaBBuMÉkraCüEdlCaCatiniym edayeyaleTAelITisedACatiniym ¬GñktMNag KWelak Juguaribe, Sunbel, Furtado nigelak Pinto¦ PaBBMuÉkraCüRtUv)anyl;faCaplbUk rWCalT§plénktþaxageRkATaMgGs;. kñúgnamCalkçx½NÐéndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_ CatimYyEdr ktþaxagkñúg (domestic factors¦RtUv)an)anraraMgnUvcenøaHsEmþgénkar sMerccitþsMrab;rdærbs;xøÜnnImYy² nigedaysarbBaðaenHeFVIeGaykan;EtdundabnUv lT§PaBénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsenaH. eRBaHfa {dependency} bgðajBI sBØaaNrYmsMrab;cMnYnCaeRcInmYyénkarekIneLIgPaBBMuÉkraCüBitR)akdenAkñúges dækic© neya)ay vb,Fm’ nigeyaFa. PaBBMuÉkraCüenHe)aHCMh‘an TnÞwmnwgkarkMNt;CalkçN³épÞkñúgéndMeNIrkar GPivDÆn_pgEdr. Et]naPivDÆn_RtUvbNþalkñúgeBlCamYyKñaedaysarktþaxageRkA EdlBMuTajecj)aneBjeljeTAelITisedARTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCüenaHeLIy. CMnYsbBaðaenHPaBBMuÉkraCüepþImecjBIkarkMNt;eTAvijeTAmkdUcrgVg;KYreGayRBWRBY cmYy (vicious circle) énRkumktþaTaMgBIr. 4>1>2> RTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCüEdlCama:kSniym TisedAEdlsgát;F¶n;eTAelIma:kSniyménRTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCü ¬GñktMNagsM xan;²manelak Cardoso, Cordova, Dos Santos nigelak Frank¦ pSarP¢ab;eTA

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nwgRTwsþImUlFnniymrbs;ma:kS. mUldæanénRTwsþIEdlniymma:kS nigCamYyRTwsþIén PaBBMuÉraCüenH ekIteLIgBITMnas;vNѳEdlnaMeTAeGaymanTMnak;TMngekgRbv½Ba© mann½yfakarlMeGogén {tMélx<s;} edayvNѳEdlmanGMNac. CamYyenH RbB½n§énvNѳEdlmanGMNacsBVéf¶ KWCamUlFnniyménBiPBelak. eyageTAtam enHTMnak;TMngekgRbv½Ba© KWCakarekgRbv½Ba©mUlFnniym. vilmkvijPaBBMuÉkraCü bgðajCaEpñksMxan;mYyénRbB½n§mUlFnniymBiPBelakEdlnaMeTAeGaymankar]n aPivDÆn_énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ ³ TaMgenHmann½yfa PaBBMuÉkraCüCacariklkçN³ CaRbB½n§kMNt;mYyEdlsßabnaeLIgedaysgÁmpÞal;xøÜnénRbeTsenaH. sMrab;karviPaKén»naPivDÆn_RtUv)anTajecjeyageTAtamenaH karEbgEck én {tMélx<s;} BIRkumepSgénvNѳGPiCnkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs k¾dUcCaeRkam karCYy]btßmÖBITMnak;TMngGñkmanGMNacenAkñúgRbeTs. eRBaHfa]naPivDÆn_RtUv bNþalmkBI\T§iBlénRbB½n§mUlFnniymBiPBelakenaH ktþaEdlCamYlehtuTaMg Gs;KW }ktþaxagkñúg” ¬dosmetic factors¦ énRbB½n§enH. k¾b:uEnþkarBnül;énTMnak; TMngrvagktþaxageRkA nigxagkñúgelcecjepSg²KñaenAkñúgRTwsþIénPaBBuMÉkraCü Edlsgát;F¶n;eTAelIma:kSniym. EtCarYm eKalkarN_TaMgGs;énRTwsþIbgðajeGay eXIjfaTMnak;TMngrvagktþaxagkñúg nigxageRkAkt;sMKal;CaTMnak;TMngpøas;bþÚr EdlBMuesμIPaB. cMeBaHbBaðaenH)ann½yfaktþaxagkñúgRtUv)ankMNt;edayktþaxag eRkA. edaysarTMnak;TMngenHRbeTs]sSahkmμ (= metropolis rWk¾mCÄmNÐl kNþal¦ RtUv)anTTYlplRbeyaCn_ ehIypÞúyeTAvijRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH (= periphery) RtUvTTYlkarxatbg;. CaBitR)akdkarkMNt; rWkarebþCJaeTAvijeTAmkmYyrvagktþaxagkñúg nig xageRkABMuRtUv)anbdiesFeT. k¾b:uEnþCasmtulü\T§iBlEdlxøaMgsßitenACanic©elI EpñkEdlTn;exSay mann½yfaeTAelIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. CamYyenHEdrCakarBit karTajecjénRBMEdnrvagktþaxagkñúg nigxageRkAenAkñúgépÞxagkñúgénRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ BMuTan;)anbkRsayBnül;enAeLIyeT eRBaHfarcnasm<½n§épÞkñúgsBVéf¶én RbeTsenaHbeBa©jeGayeXIjrab;stvtSmkehIynUvktþa\T§iBlxageRkA.

112 # Economic Development

karbkRsayepSg²énPaBBMuÉkraCü k¾dUcCakarkMNt;RBMEdnBMuc,as;las; rvagPaBBMuÉkraCüenaHeFVIeGaymankarlM)akya:gxøaMg cMeBaHkaryl;énTsSn³Tan énPaBBMuÉkraCü. sMrab;karCMnHénbBaðaEdlelceLIgmkenH GñkniBn§xøH)aneGay eyabl;nUvkareRbIR)as;énkarcgRkgEdlmanlkçN³CaRbtibtþiénPaBBMuÉkraCüEd lkñúgenaH karKitCaTUrelxmYyénTMnak;TMngPaBBMuÉkraCüRtUvTTYlyk)aneday kareRCIserIsGaMgDIkaT½rénkarTak;TgbreTs dUcCakarcUlrYmTunrbs;Rkumh‘un breTs TMhMén\NTanbreTs bTdæanbreTs kmμsiT§ibBaØa nigGnuBaØatkarepÞr énR)ak;cMeNj .l. k¾b:uEnþ dMeNIrRbRBwtþrebobenHmkdl;eBlenHelcecjEtCa sMnYrEtb:ueNÑaH dUcenHTMhMEdlCabirmaNénkarviPaKPaBBMuÉkraCüxagelIsßitenA elIpøÚvbnþeTAeTot. dUcenH karRsavRCavenHRtUvemIlya:gBinitSBic½yedayGñkRTwsþI esdækic© k¾dUcCaGñkRTwsþIGPivDÆn_neya)ayesdækic© CamYynigkarTieTonya:gxøaMgBI mCÄdæanepSg². 4>3> karbkRsay]naPivDÆn_edaysarPaBBMuÉkraCü kñúgeBlenHkarsakl,gBnül;énRTwsPIþ aBBMuÉkraCüepSg²cMeBaH]naPivDÆn_ énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUvbkRsaybgðaj. CamYyenHEdr eKRtUvEbgEckrvag \T§iBlxageRkA nigxagkñúg tYya:gkarekgRbv½Ba© nigkarEkrTMrg;énrcnasm<½n§. 4>3>1> ]naPivDÆn_ nigkarekgRbv½Ba¢ TisedAénbMNkRsayTImYykñúgcMeNaménPaBBMuÉkraCü cat;Tukkarekg Rbv½Ba©énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_edayRbeTs]sSahkmμEdlCamUlFmniym Cacarik lkçN³EdlkMNt;énPaBBMuÉkraCü. eyageTAtamenH ]naPivDÆn_CalT§plén TMnak;TMngekgRbv½Ba©enH. CamYyenHEdr KWRtUvEbgEckrvagTMrg;énkarekgRbv½Ba© edayRbeyal nigkarekgRbv½Ba©edaypÞal;. • enAkñúgkarekgRbv½Ba©edayRbeyalenAkñúgcMnucmUldæanénRTwsþIPaBBMuÉkr aCüEdlCatiniym eK)anelIkeLIgnUvniekçbTénPaBkan;EtGaRkk;énRbPB (secular deterioration) {term of trade (ToT)} CaGMNHGMNag ¬emIlkñúgemeronxagelI¦.

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eyageTAtamkaryl;dwgénRTwsþIPaBBuMÉkraCüEdlCaCatiniym RbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_EdledaysarEtPaBkan;EtGaRkk;Cab;rhUtén ToT RtUvbgçitbgçMsMrab; plitplnaMecjrbs;xnÜø nUvkarekIneLIgCabnþbnÞab;énkarpliténplitplnaMecje naH edIm,IGachirBaØvtßúsMrab;EfrkSaéndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_rbs;xøÜn k¾dUcCaénTMhM naMcUlEdlTamTarsMrab;karsMerc)anénsþg;dars;enAEdlmkdl;eBlenH. CamYynwgPaBkan;EtGaRkk;én ToT KWRsbeBlCamYyenaH manPaBTak;Tg nUvkarepÞrR)ak;cMNUleTAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμ. karepÞrenHRtUvbgçMedaysarkar Føak;cuHénR)ak;ebovtSénkMlaMgBlkmμkñúgRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH nigCamYyenaH KWkarmkdl;én {karekgRbv½Ba©}. eyageTAtamRTwsþIma:kSniym ¬GñktMNagman elak Kohlmey, Emmanuel nigelak Marini¦ karekgRbv½Ba©edayRbeyal KWCaGVIEdleKehAfa {karepÞréntMél}EdlRtUv)anviPaKedayRTwsþIén {karbþÚrEdlBMu esμIPaB}. karviPaKenHsakl,gsMrab;bkRsaynUvmUldæanRKwHénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNU leTAkñúgsgÁmmUlFnniym nigkarEbgEckeLIgvijénplitkmμBiPBelak edayqøgkat;emkanicénTIpSarBiPBelak rWTIpSarGnþrCati. karEbgEckEdlBMuesμI Kñaénplitkmμesdækic©BiPBelakeTAelIRbeTsnImYy²RtUvbNþalmkBIPaBxusKñar vagéføénplitplEdlRtUvbþÚrenAelITIpSarGnþrCati nigkarbg;tMélrbs;va ¬mann½y faCakarbg;tMéltMélénkarbMeBjkarplitEdlcUlrYmenAkñúgplitplnImYy²enaH ¦. karKaMBarénkarbþÚrEdlBMuesμIrKña KWCaGVIEdlTMnijrbs;eKRtUv)anlk;elItMél ehIykarEdl)at;bg;EdleyageTAtamenaH KWCaGVIEdlTMnijrbs;eKRtUvlk;eRkam tMélsMrab;karGaccUlrYmenAkñúgBaNiC¢kmμBiPBelak. karbþÚrEdlBMuesμIrPaBTajecjeGayeXIjeBjelj ]TahrN_ cMeBaHkar bþÚrénplitplrvag metropolis ¬RbeTs]sSahkmμ¦ nig periphery ¬RbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_¦ kalNacMeBaHkMritplitPaBesμIrKña plitplén periphery EdlRtUv vaytMélTabedaymUlehtuénkarbg;tMélTab sMrab;kMlaMgBlkmμRtUv)anbþÚrTl; nwgplitplEdlvaytMélx<s;énRbeTs]sSahkmμ. TnÞwmnwgrcnasm<½n§esdækic©

114 # Economic Development

nigsgÁmenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμGnuBaØatieGayekIneLIgCabnþrbnÞab;énkarbg;tMé lBlkmμedaysarTIpSarEdlpþac;muxnIykmμ nigshCIBEdlmanGMNacenaH enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_edaymUlehtuénrcnasm<½n§esdækic© nigsgÁm EdlRtUv EkTMrg;eFVIeGayR)ak;ebovtSn_sßitenAkMBs;efrd¾tictYc nigTaMgenHCakarTTYlyknUv PaBxusKñaénR)ak;ebovtSn_cMeBaHkarbþÚrEdlBMuesμIrPaB. RTwsþITaMgBIrenH rhUtmkdl;eBlenHBMuRtUv)anbkRsayCaBiesaFniymenA eLIy ¬emIlkñúgemeronBImunGMBIkarTieToneTAelIGaMgDIkarT½r ToT nigkarTieToneTA elIRTwsþIma:kSniym¦. edaymUlehtuenH RTwsþITaMgenHRtUvcab;epþImniyayGMBItMél énPsþútagsMrab;karviPaK EdlCaBiesaFniyméndMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©sgÁm. PaBTn;exSayénRTwsþITaMgBIr)ancUlrYmcMENkya:gsMxan;sMrab;karCMnYsd¾TUlMTUla yrbs;eKedayeKalkarN_epSgeTotenAkñúgkarBiPakSaEdlRbmUlpþMúeTAelIPaBBMuÉ kraCü nig]naPivDÆn_. eKalkarN_enHmanninñakarCadMbUgeTAelIkarekgRbv½Ba© edaypÞal;. • karekgRbv½Ba©edaypÞal; ³ eyageTAtamkaryl;dwg TaMgGñkRTwsþIénPaB BMuÉkraCüEdlCaCatiniym k¾dUcCaGñkRTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCüEdlCama:kSniym TMrg; énkarekgRbv½Ba©edaypÞal;bgðajecjBIkarepÞrénR)ak;cMeNjEdlecjBIkarbg;tMé lénkmμsiT§ibBaØa nigkarGnuBaØatEdlx<s;elIslb; k¾dUcCaecjBIkarbg;tMélén karepÞrbec©kviC¢aénkumh‘uncMruHCati rWk¾énRkumh‘un transnational company eTAkñúg RbeTs]sSahkmμrbs;eK. Rcvak;énkarbkRsayEdleRbIR)as;enATIenHRbRBitþeTAdUcteTA ³ karxitxM RbwgERbgén]sSahPavUbnIykmRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_)anKaMBarnUvkarsßabnaénRku mh‘unbreTsenAkñug]sSahkmμEkécñ eRBaHfaPaKeRcInmanEtRkumh‘unTaMgenaHeT EdlbMBak;eTAedaybec©kviC¢aEdlRtUvtMrUvkar nig{know how}. k¾b:uEnþ Rkumh‘un EdlmansaxabreTsTaMgenaH )anCH\T§iBleTAelIkMriténR)ak;cMNUlCatiCa GviC¢man eRBaHfaR)ak;cMeNjEdlRtUv)anepÞreTARkumh‘unkNþalenAkñúgRbeTs ]sSahkmμCaTYeTAekIneLIgelIslb;elIFnb,maNénTunEdlRtUvvinieyaKeTAeTot

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. TaMgenHmann½yesμInwgkarmkdl;nUvkarlMeGogd¾xøaMgmYyénplitplcMruHsgÁm enAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμedaysarvNѳEdlmanGMNacenaH. edaysarkarhUr RtLb;mkvijénTunEdlcMhrenH KWFMCagkarepÞrénFnFan ¬dUcCa]TahrN_kar vinieyaKTunCasaFarN³ nigÉkCn nigkarCYy rWeGayeday\tKitéfø .l.¦ ecjBIRbeTs]sSahkmμTaMgenaH. dUcenHbgðajeGayeXIjfamankardkTunecj (decapitialize) BIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_EdlCYbRbTHenaH. karfycuHénTunenHRtUvkan;EtekIneT,Ig edaysarkarhUrecjénTunEdl lak;kM)aMgEdlRtUvTajecjeGayeXIjeBjeljkñúgRkbx½NÐénkarEkøgbnøMenAkñug karkt;RtaelxnBn§ (accounting) enAkñúgkarbegáItéføenAkñúgkarbg;Bn§ k¾dUcCaBI karbg;tMélEdlx<s;elIslb;eTAeGaykMlaMgBlkmμénelakxaglic. lT§PaBén karekIneLIg (accumulation) d¾tictYcEdlCalT§plecjBIkardkTunBIRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_enaH)anraraMgmüa:gnUvkarekIneLIgénplitPaBkargar nigCamYyenaH Edr)anraraMgnUvkarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlTUlMTUlaymYyenAkñúgRsTab;RbCaCnén RbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH EdlGacnaMeTAeGaymannUvkarBRgIkénTIpSarkñúgRbeTs d¾ceg¥otmYy nigCamYyenaHnaMeTAeGaymanninñakareTArkPaBsuT§ (homogeneity) énrcnasm<½n§esdækic© nigsgÁm. eRkABIenHRkumh‘unCatiepÞrTaMgenaH RtUv)ansMrYleGayTTYlykKMrUplitpl eRbIR)as;elakxaglic. k¾b:uEnþsMrab;plitkmμénplitplEdlRtUvpliteday bec©keTselakxaglic CaTUeTAcaM)ac;manenAviFIsaRsþEdlCaTunsIuCMerAEdlBMu GacsRmbsRmYledayTMnak;TMngénktþabMrugTukenAkñúgRbeTsxøÜnEdlCaRbeTskM BugGPivDÆn_)aneLIy. ktþaTaMgBIr ¬karnaMmkenAplitpleRbIR)as;EdlCaelak xaglic nigkareRbIR)as;viFIsaRsþEdlCaTunsIuCMerA¦ eFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvtMrUvkar énrUbIyvtßú nigCamYyenH nUvPaBcaM)ac;énkarTTYlyk\NTanBIbreTs EdlCa GVInwgRtLb;mkvijnUvkarKaMBarénkarepÞrTuneTARbeTseRkAdEdledaytamryHkar bg;tMélénkarR)ak;enaH.

116 # Economic Development

pÞúyBIGñktMNagénRTWsþIénkarekgRbv½Ba©edayRbeyal GñktMNagénbMNk RsaykarekgRbv½Ba©edaypÞal;enH )anxitxMRbwgERbgyUryarYcCaeRscsMrab;RtYt BinitüCaBiesaFniymmYyénniekçbTrbs;eK. CakarBitkarsikSamYycMnYnGacbgðaj eGayeXIjfa enAkñúgRbeTsnImYy²karpÁtp; ÁgT; unrbs;Rkumhun‘ breTsenAelITpI Sar TunénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ RtUv)anTajeGayeXIjeBjeljnUvlkçx½NÐEdlRtUv TamTareGaymankarRTRTg;y:agxøaMg. TaMgenHk¾mann½yesμIrnwgCamYyeTAnwgkar hUrecjénTund¾tictYcmYyBIRbeTseRkA nigkarrujRcanEdlmanskþanuBlmYy rbs;GñktMrUvkarTunkñúgRbeTs. eRkABIenH karRsavRCavbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkar Gnuvtþn_PaBelIsénvik½yb½Rt (over invoice) énkarnaMcUlenAkñúgsaxa]sSahkmμ xøHpgEdr. sMrab;karRbtibtþikarénkarvinieyaKbnþeTot CakarBiteK)anbgðajnUvkrNI CaeRcIncMeBaHkrNIkarhUrecjénTunral;qñaMEdlCalT§pl énkarbg;tMélcMeNj eTARkumh‘unkNþalenAbreTs KWFMCagkarhUrecjTunrbs;eKeTAsaxaRkumh‘unenA kñúgRbeTsEdlCaePJov. k¾b:uEnþPsþútagenHmansuBlPaBcMeBaHEtRkumh‘unenAkñúg EpñkcMraj;FnFanFmμCatiEtb:ueNÑaH. eTaHbIkaryl;RBm EdlrkeXIjmYyEpñkénbMNkRsaykarekgRbv½Ba©eday pÞal;k¾eday k¾b:uEnþvasßitenAcMhrfaetIdMeNIrRbRBitþEdl)anbgðajenaHcUlrYmBit R)akdcMeBaHkardkTunecjBIRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaHEdrrW nigbEnßmBIelIenHeTA eTotcMeBaHkarbegáInénPaBBMuÉkraCü nig]naPivDÆn_énRbeTsenaH. 4>3>2 ]naPivDÆn_ nigkarEkTMrg;énrcnasm<½n§ (structural deformation) TnÞwmnwg bMNkRsayénPaBekgRbv½Ba©rMkileTArkTMnak;TMngénesdækic©Gnþr CatirvagRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ nigRbeTs]sSahkmμenAkñúgrUbPaBEdl)anbkRsay xagelI sMrab;TsSn³TanénkarEkTMrg;énrcnasm<½n§bgðajCadMbUgeTAelIlT§plén esdækic© ¬=TIpSar¦ nigCaBiessBitR)akdeTAelIbBaðaénkarekIneLIg (problem of

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k¾dUcCaTidæPaBbIya:gEdlpSarP¢ab;KñaeTAvijeTAmkEdlenAkñúg enaHmanCaPsþútagdUcCa ³ - Structural interlocking of the production enAkñúgRbeTsEdlBMuÉkraCü nigEdlsV½yy½t - Structural characteristic of the production enAkñúgRbeTsEdlBMu ÉkraCük¾dUcCa - rcnasm<½n§sgÁmnImYy²

the accumulation)

TidæPaBTaMgenHKaMRTPaBBMuÉkraCüénrcnasm<½n§ rWk¾vayRbharPaBBMuÉkraCü énrcnasm<½n§. • ]naPivDÆn_ nigbunplitkmμEdlBMuÉkraCü (dependently reproduction) TidæPaBén structural interlocking of production rvagRbeTs]sSahkmμ nig RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUv)anBiPakSaCaBiessedayelak Samir Amin enAeRkam sBaØaNEdlehAfa {bunplitkmμEdlBMuÉkraCü (dependent reproduction)} eyageTAtamenH RbB½n§esdækic©énRbeTsmYyEbgEckeTAkñúgvis½ybYn ³ naMecj plitplsMrab;kareRbIR)as;RTg;RTayFM (products for mass consumptions) plitplsMrab;kareRbIR)as;RbNit nigplitpléneRKOg]bkrN_brikça ¬plitpl vinei yaK¦. visy½ TaMgenHpSarP¢ab;Kañ eTAvijeTAmkenAkñúgTMhMepSg²Kña. karGPivDÆn_ énmUlFnniymEdlCaRbeTs]sSahkmμkt;sMKal;eXIjnUvkarGPivDÆn_RsbKñaénvi s½yplitplénkareRbIR)as;RTg;RTayFM nigvis½yplitplénkarvinieyaK EdlCa mUldæaneTAelIkarekIneLIgénplitPaBEdlnwgeFVIdMeNIrmun nigEdlnwgCUndMeNIr énvis½yksikmμ. PaBbMeBjKñarvagplitkmμénplitpleRbIR)as; nigplitpl vinieyaK mann½yCaBiesssMrab;BRgIkénrcnasm<½n§plitkmμEdlxus²Kña. karekIneLIgénplitPaBEdlekIneLIg edaysarkaeRbIR)as;Tunkan;EtxøaMg eLIgmYy nigedaysarkareRbIR)as;énmeFüa)ayplitkmμTaMgenH mann½yfakar ekIneLIgéføénkMlaMgBlkmμedayGMNacshCIB nigedaysarkarfycuHmYy

118 # Economic Development

énkarpÁt;pÁg;kMlaMgBlkmμ ¬fycuHénPaBKμankargareFVI¦ CaTUeTAbNþaleGayman karekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlEdlBitR)akd (real income) EdlEp¥keTAelIkarekIn eLIgenH naMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgéntMrUvkarénplitpleRbIR)as;RTg;RTayFM. karekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) edaybgáredaysarbBaðaekIneLIg éntMrUvkarxagelIenH CH\T§iBleGaymankarrIkraldalbnþeTotmYyénplitkmμ plitplvinieyaK EdlCaGVInaMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgénplitPaBRtLb;eLIgvij nigecHEtRtLb;eLIg nigRtLb;eLIgvijrhUt. pÞúyeTAvijmUldæanpSarP¢ab;enAkñúgmUlFnniyménRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KW cariklkçN³edaykarpþMúKñaénvis½yplitpl énkareRbIR)as;RbNitEdlCa]sSahkmμ nigvis½ynaMecj. karxVHxatvis½yvinieyaK nigvis½yplitpleRbIR)as;RTg; RTayFMEdlCarbs;xnÜø ÉgpÞal;mYy eFVeI Gaykan;EtekIneLIgénPaBBMuÉkraCüénbec©k viC¢aénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_BsI MNak;R; beTs]sSahkmμ. eRBaHfaedIm,ItYnaTIsnþsi ux rWPaBekIneLIgBitR)akdénbunplitplsgÁm (social reproduction) enAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_TaMgenaH meFüa)ayplitkmμ nigplitplénkareRbIR)as;RtUvcaM)ac; PaKeRcInsuT§EtnaMecjBI Metropoly rWk¾RbeTs]sSahkmμ. karGPivDÆn_EdlxVH xat rWk¾EdlyWtya:vsMrab;karGPivDÆn_edaypÞal;xøÜnmYyénvis½yTaMgBIrenHbNþal eGayekIteLIgnUvR)ak;cMNUlepSgKñaya:gxøaMgenAkñúgRbeTs Edlcab;epþImmUlFnniym Periphery enaH. karekIneLIgnUvplitPaBEdlRtUv)ansMercenAkñúgvis½ynaMecj )anpþl; lT§PaBnUvkarpliténR)ak;cMNUld¾x<s;. R)ak;cMNUlenHRtUv)anERbkøaycMeBaH EpñkmYyya:gFMeTAkñúgtMrUvkarénplitpleRbIR)as;RbNit. pÞúyBIenHeTAvijtMrUvkar énplitpleRbIR)as;RTg;RTayFMBMumankarcMerIneTAmux (= stagnation)eT eRBaHEpñk d¾FMénvis½yksikmμ nigCamYyenaHRbCaCnpgEdrBMu)ancUlrYmenAkñúgkarGPivDÆn_ EdlekIneLIgénplitPaBTaMgenaHeT. cMeBaHtMrUvkarénplitplvinei yaKkarcMenj PaKeRcInEteTAelIRbeTs]sSahkmμ TnÞwmnwgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_edaymUlehtu karTTYccg;)anénbec©kviC¢aelakxaglic k¾)ancab;yviFIsaRsþplitkmμEdlCaTun

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sIuCMerA eTaHbIRbeTsTaMgenaH)anbgðajeGayeXIjkarxVHxaténbirkçaTunk¾eday. müa:geTotviFIsaRsþplitkmμenH CMTas;ya:gxøaMgeTAnwglkçN³FmμCatiCaRbéBNI énRbeTsTaMgenaH. dUcenHTaMgGs;enH k¾BuMGacsMerc)anedIm,IeGayEpñkya:gFMénRbCaCneFVI smahrNkmμenAkñúgdMeNIrkar]sSahPavUbnIykmμ (industrilization) nigedIm,I sMerc)annUvlkç½NÐsMrab;plitkmμénplitpleRbIR)as;RTg;RTayFM edaysarEt karekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlenaHeT,Iy. PaBxusKñaénvis½yTaMgenHenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_eFVIeGayekIneLIgvijnUvkarEbgEckkargarGnþrCatiEdlCaburaNenaH (classical) nigCamYyenaHeFVIeGaymankarsuICMerAénPaBBMuÉkraCüénrcnasm<½n§BI Metropoly ¬RbeTs]sSahkmμ ¦. edayBicarNaeTAelIkarekIneLIgplitkmμénplitplvinieyaKenAkñúgRbeT skMBugGPivDÆn_ k¾elcecjeLIgnUvsMnYrEdlfa {bunplitkmμEdlBMuÉkraCü (= dependently reproduction)} BuMRtUvbgðajCadMMNak;kalGnþrkalenAelIpøÚveq
120 # Economic Development

TMnak;TMngenH RtUv)ansakl,gviPaKCamYynwgkarCYyénsBaØaNénPaBBMu suT§énrcnasm<½n§. PaBBMusuT§énrcnasm<½n§enHRtUv)anbriyayCakarekIteLIgkñúg eBlCamYyKñaénplitkmμEdlCamUlFnniym nigEdlCaBMuEmnmUlFnniymenAkñúg rgVgé; nsgÁmmYy rWkT¾ Mnak;TMngénrcnasm½
esdækic©GPivDÆn_

" 121

énPaBBMuÉkraCüénrcnasm<½n§ EdlbgçMnaMeTAeGayman]naPivDÆn_ (underdevelopment) nig]naPivDÆn_Canirn_þ (sustainable under-development). 4 rel="nofollow">4> karTieTonCakitþiys tamkarBiteKalkarN_énPaBBMuÉkraCü RtUv)anTTYlkarTieTonya:geRcIn. TaMgenaHmann½yfa karTamTarénPaBBMuÉkraCüsMrab;CaRTWsþIEdltMrUvkarsMrab; Bnül;énPaBBitenaH RtUv)anTieTonedayGñkRTwsþIénkarGPivDÆn_faCaTsSn³eKal karN_EdlBMumannUvsmtikmμEdlxus. kñúgkrNIenH eKGacyl;)annUveKalTsSn³ énPaBBMuÉkraCüfaCa paradigma ¬=]TahrN_KMrU¦ mYyenAelIépÞr)aykarN_d¾x<s; mYyenaH)an luHRtaeKalTsSn³enaHRtUvbMeBjnUvkarRtYtBinitüCaBiesaFn_niym bEnßmeTot. CakarBitGñkniBn§RTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCü eRcInlMeGogecjBIkarGegáteTAelIkar TajecjnUvkrNInImYy² EdlvaytMélCaGviC¢mantamryHkarvinicä½yCarYmya:g elOnmYy. TaMgGs;enHeFVIeGayeXIjya:gRtwmRtUvfa enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ xøH ecjBIkarsMucUlrYmrbs;xnÜø enAkñúgRbB½né§ nkarEbgEckkargarGnþrCatienH )an bgðajeGayeXIjnUvlT§plEdlraraMgkarGPivDÆn_ k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgenaHk¾man]Tahr N_CaeRcInEdlfaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHeTot )anTTYlcMeNjecjBIkareFVIsmahrNkmμrbs;eKeTAkñúgkarEbgEckkargarGnþrCatienaHEdr. cab;taMgBIedImTsvtSn_qñaM 80 edayeyageTAtamcMeNHdwgenHeFVIeGay RTwsþIénPaBBMuÉkraCü KWenAnwgfál; ³ Psþútagd¾tictYc KWRtUv)anykmkeFVICatMNag edayGñkRTWsTIþ aMgenaH ebIeRbobeFobCamYynwgkarTamTarTaMgT,ayEdlfaBitrbs; BYkKat;CadMbUgenaH. dUcenHRTwsþIenH kñúgeBlbc©úb,nñRtUvTTYlykRtLb;eTAvij edayGñktMNagRTwsþITaMgenaH. CaTIbBa©b;RTwsþIenHk¾GacCatMNagpgEdrkñúgkar TTYlxusRtUvpÞal;sMrab;]naPivDÆn_énRbeTsCaeRcInénBiPBelakTIbIEdr eRBaHfa RTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCüenH )aneFVIGnþraKmn_eKobsgát;EdlfaRbeTsTaMgenaHBMuGac GPivDÆn_)anTal;EtesaH edaysarmUlehtuénkarpSarP¢ab;eTAkñúgRbB½n§énkarEbg

122 # Economic Development

EckkargarGnþrCatienH. qøgkat;bBðaenH eFVeI GaylT§PaBénviFankarN_ds¾ kþanuBl EdlRTRTg;karGPivDÆn_RtUvlickb;)at; rWBMuRtUv)aneGIeBIeT,IyenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_TaMgenaH. TaMgGs;enHRtUv)aneXIjCa]TahrN_rvagRbeTskñúgGaemrikLaTInEdl)anbgðajeGayeXIjmankarekIneLIgnUvbec©kviC¢atictYc TnÞwmnwgenA kñúgRbeTsGasIuGaeKñy_mankarkt;sMKal;nUvkarsMerc)anénkarGPivDÆn_edayKYreGa ycab;GarmμN_mYy. TaMgenHedaysarRTwsþIPaBBMuÉkraCüekItecjBIGaemrikLaTIn ehIysBVéf¶enHenAkñúgTVIbenHenARtUv)anecaTRbkan;Cajwkjab;GMBIPaBBMuÉkraCüBIR beTs]sSahkmμ TnÞwmnwgecjBIRbeTsGasIuGaeKñy_BMuRtUv)aneXIjelIkeLIgnUv karsþIbenÞasEdleyageTAtamenaHcMeBaHRbeTs]sSahkmμeLIy ³ enAGasIuGaeKñ y_eKTajecj)annUvesckþsI gÇwménBaNiC¢kmμEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_BitR)akd. PaBekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© 1> lT§plénPaBekIneLIgénRbCaCneTAelIkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© 1>1> PaBekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigktþabrikça 1>1>1> mUldæanRKwH karviPaKén\T§iBlénPaBekIneLIgénRbCaCneTAelIktþabrikça KWbEgVTiseTA rkeKalbMNgénGnuKmn_plitkmμkñúgRbCaCnmñak; F.

X/P = f (L/P, C/P, R/P)

= plitpl, L= kMlaMgBlkmμ, C= Tun, R= vtßúFatuedIm, P= RbCaCn

X

kalNaeKTajecjedaypÞal;BIniymn½y per capitaenaH eyageTAtam rUbmnþxagelIbgðajeGayeXIjfamankarfycuHén per capita kalNaRbCaCn ekIneLIgelOnCag GDP. kalNaGRtaénkarekIneLIgénRbCaCn KWkan;Etx<s; enaH KWkarmaneRKaHfñak;kan;EtFMEdlfaTaMgGs;enHnwgnaMeTAeGaymankarfycuH én per capita Edl KWCaGtþsBaØaNenAkñúgkrNICaeRcInEdlCamYynwgenaHman karQanfyeRkayénesdækic©kñúgRbeTs.

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cMeBaHlT§pldUcKñaenH eKTTYl)anCamYynwgrUbmnþdUcxagelIEdr ³ ebIsin NaRbCaCnekIneLIgkan;EtelOnenaH P¢ab;CamYykarekIneLIgkan;EtyWt ¬rWk¾kar fycuHkan;EtelOn¦ énbrikçakñúgRbCaCnmñak;CamYynwgkargar ¬lT§pleTAelIktþa Blkmμ¦ CamYynwgTun ¬lT§pleTAelIktþaTun¦ nigCamYynwgFnFanFmμCati ¬lT§pleTAelIFnFanFmμCati¦. 1>1>2> \T§iBleTAelIktþakargar enAkñúgTMnak;TMngeTAelIktþakargar KWCadMbUgkMNt;CalT§plénkarekIn eLIgénRbCaCn)anbnßykñúgryHeBlxøInUvbrikçakargarkñúgRbCaCnmñak;. EteRkay eBlryHeBl 10-15 qñaM karekIIneLIgénRbCaCnnaMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgén skþanuBlénkMlaMgBlkmμ ¬kñúgkrNIGRtakMeNItx<s;CagGRtasøab;¦. EtfaetIkar ekIneLIgenHnaMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgmYy rWkf¾ ycuHmYyénbrikçakñúgRbCaCnmñak; enaH KWGaRs½yeTAnwgcMnYnya:geRcInénktþadéTeTot dUcCa]TahrN_ Gayukalrs; enACamFüm k¾dUcCaDINamIkénkarGPivDÆn_GRtakMeNIt. EtTaMgenHBMuEmnCaPsþú tagEdlCaTUeTAeT vaRKan;EtCalT§PaBPsþútagEdlTak;TgkrNIxøHEtb:ueNÑaH. kalNaeKBMuTak;TgeTAnwg per capita KWRKan;EtTak;TgnwgbrikçakMlaMg Blkmμdac;xatenaH ecjBIkarekIneLIgénRbCaCn eK)anCalT§plenAkñúgkar emIleXIjCaryHeBlmFümrhUtdl;yUrGEgVgenAkarekIneLIgya:gc,as;énskþanu BlkMlaMgBlkmμ drabNaBMumankarbgðajnUvkarrMkilEdlxøaMgkøaenAkñúgTMnak; TMngeBleFVIkargar nigeBlva:kg rWsMrakenaHeT. etIlT§plénplitkmμNaEdlCalT§plecjBIkarekIneLIgenH? TaMgGs; enH GaRs½yeTAnwgplitPaBplitkmμénkMlaMgBlkmμenaH ³ kalNaTaMgGs; enaHviC¢man enaHGDPnwgekIneLIg. k¾b:uEnþkalNalT§plénplitPaBplitkmμ enaH RbRBwtþeTAesμIrsUnü enaHGDP nwgsßitenAesßrTaMgGs;. enHmann½yfa per capita fycuH. 1>1>3> \T§iBleTAelIktþaTun

124 # Economic Development

enAkñúgTMnak;TMngelIlT§pléncMnYnTun cMeBaHkarekIneLIgénRbCaCn CadM bUgRtUv)anbkRsayeGayeXIjfakarekIneLIgénRbCaCnya:gelOnenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_xHø RtUv)anelcecjCacMbgmkBIkarfycuHénGRtakUnekμgsøab; CamYy nwgGRtaekItEdlrMkileTArkPaBefr. CalT§pl KWkarekIneLIgénGRtabnÞúkrYm ¬GRtaénPaBBMuÉkraCü rWénGaRs½y¦. CaBiessEpñkénekμgCMTg;eRkamGayu 15 qñaM ekIneLIgya:gxøaMgenAkñúgRbCaCnsarub. TajecjBIenHmannUvlT§plénPaBcaM )ac;sMrab;karcMNayya:gFMEdlCaÉkCn nigrdæ cMeBaHmðÚbGahar karGb;rM nigkar bNþúHbNþalénekμgTaMgenaH. edaysarbBaaðenH FnFanEdlRtUv)anrkSaTuksMrab; eKalbMngdéTeTot k¾RtUvkat;bnßypgEdrnUvlT§PaBsMrab;karbegáItTunenAkñúg vis½yepSgeTot. müa:geTotkarvinieyaKFnFanenHeTAelIekμgCMTg; edIm,ICYyGnþraKmn_eGay eKmansmtßPaBedIm,IbMeBjkarplitNaEdlTamTarsMrab;rYmcMENkenAkñúgdMeNIr karénplitkmμenaH plrbs;vaGacRtUv)anraraMgEdlfayuvCn nigyuvnarITaMgenaH GacraraMgkñúgkareRbIR)as;d¾manRbsiT§iPaBCalkçN³plitkmμ eRBaHedaysarEt karxVHxatTunénRbeTsTaMgenaH. EpñkmYyénkarvinieyaKGb;rMbNþúHbNþalenH bgðajeGayeXIjCamYyenaH enAkñúgkaremIleXIjénesdæækic©CakarvinieyaKxVHxat ¬rab;bBa©ÚlTaMgGñkEdl)anGb;rMbNþúHbNþalehIyEtsßitenAkñúgPaBKμankargar rWk¾søab; rWk¾karBMue)aHbg;karemIleXIjEdlTak;TgeTAnwgCatiBn§ nigsIlFm’¦. edaysarkarvinieyaKxVHxatenH TMhMénkarbegáItTunEdlCaplitkmμRtUvFøak; cuH nigkarxVHxatTunénRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaHkan;EtRsYcRsav. dUcenH\T§iBl RtLb;EdlGviC¢maneTAelITMhMénkarbegáItkarsnSMenAkñúgRbeTsmYy k¾epþImecj BIkarrIkraldalénRbCaCnEdr. eyageTAtamemeronxagelIEdl)anbkRsayrYc GRtaénkarsnSMénesdækic©CatiGacekIneLIgCamYynwgkarekIneLIgén per capita. k¾b:uEnþcMeBaHkarrIkcMerInén GDP Edl)anhuceGaymYy KWkarekIneLIgén per capita kanEtticeTA kalNacMnYnRbCaCnekIneLIgkan;EtelOneLIg. CalT§pl GRtaénkarsnSMk¾kan;Ettic eRBaHfakarekIneLIgén GDP GaRs½yeTAnwgTMhMén

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GRtasnSMenaHeLIgvijCamYynwglT§PaBTunEdl)anhuceGayenaH. karrIkraldal énRbCaCn)anbnßyCamYyenaH nUvkarekIneLIgén GDP edayqøgkat;lT§plén GRtasnSMEdlGviC¢manrbs;va nigskmμPaBénkarvinieyaKEdlpSarP¢ab;CamYyd¾tic tYcenaH ¬d¾rabNaTMhMénkarekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) RtUv)ankMNt; RBMEdn EtedaysarkarbegáIténkarsnSMkñúgRbeTs¦. TaMgenHmann½yfa GRtaekIn eLIgén per capita RtUv)anbnßyedaysarBIrEpñk ³ karekIneLIgén GDP Edltic tYc nigkarekIneLIgénRbCaCnd¾x<s;. karBnüWténkarekIneLIgcMnYnRbCaCnGac cUlrYmcMENksMrab;karekIneLIgénGRtasnSMmYy nigedayqøgkat;bBaðaenHGacrYm cMENksMrab;karbegáInsnÞúHénel,ÓnGPivDÆn_. 1>1>4> \T§iBleTAelIktþaFnFanFmμCati CamYyenH eK)anbgðajeGayeXIjfaCakarBitenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ BMuEdlmankarekIteLIgénkarrIkcMerInFnFanFmμCatiEdlbNþalmkBIRbCaCnenaH eT,Iy k¾b:uEnþCajwkjab;mankarfycuHénFnFanFmμCati EdlbNþalmkBIRbCaCn )aneRbIR)as;vaeTAvijeT. kñúgkrNIEdlFnFanFmμCatienaH RtUv)aneRbIR)as;Ca plitkmμenaH CalT§plEdlecjBIenaH KWkarfycuHén per capita. cMeBaHkarbBa¢ak;karBiténTidæPaBenH KWbgðajCadMbUgeTAelIbBaðaénkarkab; éRBeQI. TaMgenH müa:gbNþalmkBI ¬CalT§plénkarekIneLIgénRbCaCn¦ tMrUv karénfamBlBIéRBeQIRtUv)anekIneLIg ¬Gusdut¦ müa:geTotmkBIkarranéRBeQI sMrab;BRgIkénépÞdIeRbIR)as;EdlCaksikmμ .l. nig.l. k¾b:uEnþkarkab;éRBeQI mann½yenAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn KWCakarsMBgya:gxøaMgkøamYyeTAkñúgkarRKb;RKgén FnFanTwkenAkñúgtMbn;enaH nigeFVIeGaymankarkan;EtGaRkk;nUvlkçx½NÐplitkmμ sMrab;éf¶GnaKt edaysarmUlehtuénkarbMpøicbMpøajbrisßanEdl)anpSarP¢ab;Ca mYyenaH dUcCakñúgRbeTsmanTwkCMnn;ekIneLIg nigkarhUreRcaHdI .l. 1>1>5> eyabl;bBa©b;

126 # Economic Development

sMrab;karRsavRCavnUvlT§plplitkmμsrubénkarekIneLIgRbCaCn TaMgGs; enHTamTarnUvkareGabRkesabrYmKñanUvlT§plénEpñkTaMgbIénktþaBlkmμ énktþaTun nigénktþaFnFanFmμCati. \LÚvenH eK)anbgðajeGayeXIjTak;TgeTAnwgktþaTun nigFnFanFmμCati nUvlT§plénkarGPivDÆn_Edlc,as;las;CaGviC¢man TnÞwmnwgkar Tak;TgeTAnwgktþaBlkmμGacpþl;eGaynUvsßanPaBlT§plEdlCaGviC¢man k¾dUc CaviC¢man. ehtuenHeKGacbgðajeGayeXIjpgEdr cMeBaHkarvinicä½yCarYmnUvkar eGaytMélEdlCaviC¢man k¾dUcCaGviC¢manénlT§plGPivDÆn_esdækic©CatiecjBIkar ekIneLIgénRbCaCnd¾x<s;mYy. eyageTAtamenaHGñkniBn§ ¬dUcCaelak Clark¦ )anTieTonpgEdrnUvCMenO smBaØ {myth} énkarrIkraldalRbCaCn faCakarraraMgkarGPivDÆn_. CMh‘rtTl; rbs;elak Clark KWmanmUldæaneTAelIkarRsavRCavEdlCaBiesaFniymmYy (empirical research) EdlenAkñúgenaHGRtaénkarekIneLIgén per capita nigén RbCaCnRtUveFVIkareRbobeFobCamYyKñaeTAvijeTAmkenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mY ycMnYn. kalNaeKcab;epþImecjBIkarrIkraldalénRbCaCnfaCa\T§iBleTAelIkarr araMgénkarGPivDÆn_mYyenaH RbeTsCamYynwgGRtaekIneLIgd¾tictYcmYyénRbCaCn RtUvbgðajeGayeXIjfamankarekIneLIgénGRta per capitarbs;xøÜn KWx<s;CagRb eTsdéTeTotEdlmankarekIneLIgénRbCaCnd¾elOnmYy. k¾b:uEnþkarviPaKCasßiti (statistical analysis) bkRsayeGayeXIjBMumanshTMnak;TMng (correlation) c,as;las;énRbePTEdl)anBnül;xagelIenaHeLIy. mann½yfaecjBItaragsßiti Edl)ankt;RtaGMBIGRtaekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigénGRtaekIneLIgén per capita enA kñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mYycMnYn GaceGayeKemIleXIjCakarBitBMumanshTMnak; TMng (correlation) EdlnwgsMGageTAelIPaBRtwmRtUvtamc,ab;EdlCaBiesaFniym rvagkarekIneLIgénesdækic© nigkarekIneLIgénRbCaCnenaHeT,Iy. 1>2> karekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigTVikniym

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lT§plGPivDÆn_CaGviC¢man k¾GacepþImecjBIkarrIkraldalénRbCaCneday sarEtkareFVIeGayF¶n;F¶reLIgénrcnasm<½n§TVikniym. Ca]TahrN_elIkarbgðaj enATIenH KWCalT§plEdl)anBiPakSaenAkñúgTMnak;TMngCamYynwgPaBKμankargar eFVI. PaBKμankargareFVIenH CasMxan;minRtwmEtCabBaðasklniymenaHeLIy eRkABI enHk¾CabBaðarcnasm<½n§neya)ayépÞkñúgmYyénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcIn ¬emIl kñúgemeronTVikniymbEnßm¦. 1>3> karekIneLIgénRbCaCn nigTMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati CaTIbBa©b;ecjBIkarekIneLIgénRbCaCnd¾x<s;mYyGacbNþaleGaymanTaMg lT§plviC¢man k¾dUcCaGviC¢maneTAelIrcnasm<½n§ nigTMhMénTMnak;TMngesdækic© GnþrCatiénRbeTsmYyEdlecjBIenaHGacbgðajeGayeXIjRtLb;mkvijnUv\T§iB lRtLb;eTAelIdMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_épÞkñúgvij. enATIenHbMNkRsayya:g xøImYyRtUv)anpþl;eGayeTAelIlT§PaBénRcva:k;TMnak;TMngBIr³ • cMeBaHTMnak;TMngTImYykarekIneLIgénRbCaCnd¾x<s;mYy Gacelcecj eLIgnUvKuNsm,tþiRbkYtRbECgEdlkan;EtxøaMgsMrab;;plEdlCakMlaMgB lkmμsuICMerA drabNarhUtmkdl;eBlenaH Blkmμ KWenAEtCaktþaEdl kMritRBMEdnmYysMrab;RbtibtþikarénplitkmμEdlCaRbePTenaH. • cMeBaHTMnak;TMngepSgeTotedaysarkarekIneLIgénRbCaCnx<s;eFVIeGay ekIneLIgya:gGenknUvkareRbIR)as;kñúgRbeTsénplitplEdlRtUvvinicä½y Camun ¬=yl;Camun¦ cMeBaHeKalbMngnaMecjpgEdr. edaysar bBaðaenHeFVIeGaymanlT§PaBbnßynUvskþanuBlénRbeTsmYycMeBaHkare FVIesdækic© rWkarTajykénrUbIyb½NÑEdlRtUvcaM)ac;sMrab;Tijénplit pl]sSahkmμbreTs nigplitplTuncMeBaHdMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_Cati.

128 # Economic Development

3 neya)aysklénma:RkUesdækic© mUldæanénneya)ayfvikar 1> viFankarsMrab;eFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirjvtßú cMeBaHkarbkRsayviFankarN_EdlCaneya)aysklénehdæarcnasm<½n§ hirBaØvtßúEdlviFankarN_enaHGaccUlrYmcMENk sMrab;sMerc)anéneKalbMNg esdækic©Edlkan;EtRbesIreLIgenaH CacMbgeKRtUvcab;ykneya)ayénfvikar {money policy}. enAeRkamsBaØaNénneya)ayfvikar eKeGabRkesabenAkñúg TMnak;TMngnUvviFankarN_TaMgGs;EdleRbIR)as;edIm,ICH\T§iBleTAelIlkç½NÐEdlCa fvikaénesdækic©CatimYy. lT§PaBcMeBaHkareRbIR)as;énviFankarN_neya)ayfvika sßitenA nigbeg¥anxøÜneTACamYynwglkçx½NÐEdlCaehdæarcnasm<½n§énneya)ay fvika. CakarBitkarbegáIténRkbx½NÐehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdlmansmtßPaB bMeBjkarplitmYy bgðajnUvlkç½NÐkMNt;mYysMrab;eFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIg énkarbegáItTunenAkñúgRbeTsmYy. TaMgGs;enH BMuRKan;EtsMxan;sMrab;karRbmUlpþMú d¾sniTan (rational) nigd¾manRbsiT§PaB (efficient)énskþanuBlsnSMénRkum RKYsarÉkCnb:ueNÑaHeT eRkABIenHvak¾sMxan;pgEdrsMrab;ENnaMbBa¢ÚnkarsnSMenH eTACaskþanuBlvinieyaKsMrab;BRgIknUvRkbx½NÐEdlCalkçN³PUmisaRsþ niglkç N³tYnaTIénsßab½nhirBaØvtßú ehIyk¾dUcCasMrab;GPivDÆn_nUvviFankarN_hirBaØvtßú EdlRtUvsmRsbcMeBaHkic©karenaH. G.

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TaMgGs;enHCYbRbTHenAkñúgTMhMdUcKña nUvkarepÞrfvikaEdlkMNt;eBl (time karepÞrfvikaEdlCacMnYncUlrYm nigkarepÞrfvikaEdl transformation) CahaniP½yénkarsnSMeTAkñúgkarvinieyaKTun EdledaysarkarvinieyaKTunenHeFVI eGayskmμPaBénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúkan;Etlatsn§wgeT,Ig. kalNaeK BicarNa ]TahrN_eTAelIrcnasm<½n§Edl)ankMNt;eLIgedayBiesaFniyménkar snSMénRkumRKYsarÉkCnenaH eKkt;sMKal;eXIjfacMeBaHkarsßitenAénRkbx½NÐ ehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdleyageTAtamkarcg;)anmYy RkumRKYsarÉkCnCa TUeTA)anepIJelIsBI 50° énR)ak;snSMrbs;eKkñúgTMrg;CaluysuT§ (money) nigTMrg; CaesovePAepJIrR)ak;enAFanaKar (bank book or cheque book). Epñkya:gFMénkar snSMÉkCnenHk¾sßitenAkñúgtMrUvkarénsßab½nhirBaØvtßúEdr enHmann½yfaenAkñúgkar snSMénhirBaØvtßú. pÞúyBIenHedaymankarelIkElgtictYc karsnSMmanTMrg;Ca tMrUvkaredaypÞal;énvis½yBMuEmnCahirBaØvtßú ¬=énsßab½nBMuEmnCahirBaØvtßú¦ RtUv)an BicarNafaElgsUvsMxan; kalNarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúd¾mansmtßPaBbMeBjkar plitmYyRtUv)anekIteLIg. karGPivDÆn_RbRBwtþeTAc,as;las;eTAkñúgTisedA énrcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúmYy luHRtaEtkñúgrcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúenaH karbegáItkarsnSMenAkñúgTMrg;CatMrUvkarén sßab½nhirBaØvtßúsMerc)anCanic©CakalnUvGtßn½yya:gsMxan; Tl;eTAnwgesckþItMrUv karedaypÞal;énrdæ nigshRKas ¬GñkvinieyaKTun¦. RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUvEtKaM RT rW]btßmÖnUvkarvivDÆn_enHedayqøgkat;viFankarN_ehdæarcnasm<½n§EdleyageTA tamenaH edIm,IeFVIeGaykan;EtFMeLIgnUvTMhMénkarsnSMEdlCahirBaØvtßúenaH. man EtrebobenHeT KWGacFana)anEdlfarcnasm<½n§énkarsnSMénRkumRKYsarÉkCnRtUv )anERbRbYlsMrab;CaplRbeyaCn_énkarmand¾l¥énhirBaØvtßúkñúgRbeTs. viFan karN_rebobenH ¬dUcCaeyIg)anbkRsaykñúgemeronmun {karbegáItTun}¦ GaceFVI eGaykan;EtekIneLIgminRtwmEtGRtaénkarsnSMeT eRkABIenHeFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIr eLIgénplitPaBénkarvinieyaKTun.

130 # Economic Development

cMeBaHneya)ayRbePTmYyenH CadMbUgsMrab;RtYtBinitüfaetIPaBxusKñaEdl Caehdæarcnasm<½n§énvis½yfvikar nigén\NTanNamYyénRbeTsmYy KWman lMnaMsmrmü. pÞúyBIGVIEdlCaRbvtþisaRsþénRbeTs]sSahkmμ EdlCamYyenaH FnaKarkNþal)anbegáItCadMbUgenAeBleRkaymk enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWmanenAFanaKarkNþal rWk¾]TahrN_enAkñúgkrNIRbeTstUc KWmanenAkariya l½yrUbIyvtßúEdlTak;TgKñamYyrYcCaeRsc enAkñúgkarcab;epþImrIkduHdalénsßab½n enH. TnÞwmnwgenaHk¾manenAFnaKarCMnYj ¬=FnaKarBaNiC¢kmμ¦ EdlbNþajsaxa rbs;vaRtUvCanic©CakalrwgmaMeLIgCamYynwgkMriténrUbIyvtßúnIykmμ. CamYynwgkar CYyrbs;FnaKarenH RsTab;d¾TUlMTUlayénRbCaCnRtUv)anTajeGaymanTMnak; TMngeTAkñúgcracrénfviikar nigén\NTan. enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIneTot mankarbBa©ÚlbEnßmrYcCaeRsceTot nUvFnaKar GPivDÆn_. Parkic©sMxan;rbs;FnaKarenH sßitenAkñúgkarCYy]btßmÖnUvskmμPaBNa EdlCaBitR)akdbMeBjenAParkic©EdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_enAeRkamTidæPaB Edl Caesdækic©Cati k¾b:uEnþmüa:geTotEdlRtUv)ane)aHbg;ecaledaysßab½nhirBaØvtßú epSgeTot. enAkñúgkarBitenAeBlbc©úb,nñ KWswgEtKμanteTAeTotnUvRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_ EdlBMumanbMrugnUvFnaKarGPivDÆn_pÞal;xøÜnmYy eTaHbIPaBmansßitenArbs; vaBMubNþaleGaymankarP¢ab;RtLb;eTAnwgkarcUlrYmcMENkBitR)akdrbs;vaeTAnwg karGPivDÆn_esdækci C© atike¾ day. CamYykarekIneLIgénsarsMxan;énFnaKarGPivDÆn_ PaKeRcInkarpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgkarBRgIkCMnajnIykmμrbs;va. TaMgGs;enaH KWkarekIn eLIgFnaKarGPivDÆn_én]sSahkmμ nigFnaKarGPivDÆn_énksikmμ k¾dUcCaviTüasßan CMnaj ¬]TahrN_ sMrab;RTRTg;vis½yeTscrN_¦EdlCMnYjCamUldæanrbs;vasßit nUvsMrab;karpþl;én\NTanryHeBlyUr. pÞúyBIenH FnaKarBaNiC¢kmμCaeRcIn RbmUlpþMúEteTAelIkarFanara:b;rgenAkñúg\NTanryHeBlxøI nigryHeBlmFüm.

esdækic©GPivDÆn_

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CamYynwgkarsßabnabEnßmeToténvis½yfvikar nigén\NTansßab½nEdl nwgRbmUlpþMúénkarsnSM dUcCasßab½nénkarsnSM (saving bank) nigsßab½nsßabna karsnSM (building and loan association) k¾ekIneLIgnUvsar³sMxan;pgEdr. Rsb eBlCamYyenaH k¾elcecjnUvshkrN_\NTan TnÞwmnwgFnaKarBaNiC¢kmμEdr. sMrab;kal³eTs³Biess ®tUvEtbegáIteGay)annUvmUlniFi\NTan rWk¾FnaKar BiesssMrab;GnuvtþénkarEkTMrg;dIFøI. dUcKñaenHEdr \T§iBlénRkumh‘unFanara:b;rg nigRkumh‘unvinieyaKk¾RtUvbegáIteLIgEdr. pÞúyBIenHkarFanara:b;rgBIsgÁm (social insurance) enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH k¾rIkraldalKYrsmEdr. CacugbBa©b; karrIkduHdalénsßab½nenHk¾ekItmaneLIgpgEdr PaKeRcIn nUvkarbegáItnUvpSarPaKh‘un (stock exchange) mann½yfasßab½nnIykmμénTIpSar TunmYy. PaBrIklUtlas;éntMrUvkaresva:kmμénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúRtUv)an kMNt;CasMxan;edayPaBrIkcMerInénplitplsgÁmBitR)akd (real GDP) k¾dUcCa énkarTajeGaymanTMnak;TMngénEpñkCIvRBitþ (subsistence sector) EdlmanenAkñúg esdækic©EdlCalkçN³fvikarmkdl;eBlenHEdr. lT§plTaMgBIrCMrujeGayman kartMrUvkarénGnþraKmn_BITunbreTs nigPaKxøHecjBIcMnYnénkarsnSMsMrab;hirBaØ bTaneTAelIkarvinieyaKTun. Canic©Cakal karrMkilénlT§plsaxa]sSahkmμnImYy²enAkñúgdMeNIrkar énPaBrIklUtlas; KWmanGtßn½y ¬rWmann½yfakarpøas;evnén {leading sectors} BImuneday sector epSgeTot¦ caM)ac;EdrnUvPaBmankarrMkil (shiffting) énkareRbI R)as;karvinieyaKTunEdlrhUtmkdl;eBlenH. karsßabna rWkareFVIeGaykan;Et RbesIreLIgénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúenAkñúgTMnak;TMngenH KWGaceTACa {demand following} rWk¾ {supply leading}. CamYyenHEdrmankarelIkeLIg nUvsMnYrCaeRcIn faetIdMeNIrRbRBwtþNamYynaMeTAeGaymanlT§plénkarGPivDÆn_ EdlRbesIrenaH.

132 # Economic Development

enAkñúgkrNI :demand following} ehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúsMrbsMrYleTA tamkarTamTarBIGñktMrUvkarhirBaØvtßúnImYy² Edl)anbgðajrUbragd¾BiesscaM)ac; enAkñúgdMeNIrRbRBwtþénkarGPivDÆn_mkdl;eBlenH. enAkñúgdMeNIréndMeNIrkar GPivDÆn_BitR)akdénesdækic©Cati bgðajeGayeXIjCanic©CakalnUvtMrUvkarén hriBaØvtßúfμI². drabNatMrUvkarenaH KWvac,as;las; (articulate) tMrUvkarenaHRtUveFVI eGayeBjcitþedayehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßú. EtkñúgkrNIenH vis½yhirBaØvtßúman tYnaTIGkmμ (passiv) enAkñúgdMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_. lT§PaBénvis½y rWEpñkEdl RtUvrMkli rWepÞrGaRs½yeyageTAtamsmtßPaBénehdæarcnasm
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lykedaykarcat;EcgBIsßab½nhirBaØvtßú ]TahrN_kñúgTMrg;CakareGayeyabl; nigkarecjnUvkatBVkic©cMeBaHkarFanaén\NTan. EpñkhirBaØvtßú ¬edayqøgkat;nUv \T§Bi lEdlCakarEckrMElkrbs;va¦ RtUv)aneTACavisy½ naMmuxénkarGPivDÆn_esdækci © EdlsßitenAEtkñúgRkbx½NÐCaGñkpþl;én\NTanpg k¾dUcCaskmμPaBénneya)ay shRKaspg. EtdMeNIrkarshRKas KWBMusMerc)aneCaKC½yeRkamTidæPaBénesdæ kic©nimYy²enaHeT eRkABIenH KWk¾sßitenAeRkamTidæPaB rWlkçx½NÐénesdækic©rYmEdr. k¾b:uEnþenATIenH sßanPaBBitR)akdénRbeTsCaeRcIn KWekIteLIgnUvkaresak sþaybnþci bnþcÜ eRBaHfaskmμPaBénehdæarcnasm
134 # Economic Development

RtUv)anbkRsayedaykarRsavRCavCaBiesaFniymepSg². kalNaCakarBitTMhM énkarbegáIténkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCn bgðajnUvPaBceg¥óténmUldæanGPviDÆn_enaH neya)aymYyEdlmanTisedAsßabnaénehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúGaccUlrYmcMEN kcMeBaHkarnUvRTwgénkarbegáInsnÞúHénel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_rbs;RbeTsenaH. 2> viFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayfvikarsMrab;kar]btßmÖ rWKaMRTkarRbug eRbobénkarvinieyaKTun 2>1> neya)ayénkarR)ak; dUcCaRtUv)anbkRsayenAkñúgemeronmun karxVHxaténTunenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_CaeRcIn)anbgðajCamUldæannUvPaBd¾ceg¥oténkarGPivDÆn_. karkat;bnßy karxVHxatTunenH KWCalkçx½NÐRtLb;eTAeGaymanskmμPaBénkarvinieyaKEdl kan;EtxøaMgkøamYy. eyageTAtambMNkRsayrbs;GñkesdæviTUr Keynes skmμPaB énkarvinieyaKTunEdlkan;EtxøaMgkøaénRbePTmYyenH GacRtUvGnuvtþn_)anpgEdr kalNakarxVHxaténkarsnSMEdlCalkçN³CatimYymanenArYcCaeRsc. Gñk tMNagénRTwsþITaMgenH cab;epþImecjtYya:gEdlfa karvinieyaKTunnimYy²begáIt (ex-post = realized) nUvkasnSMBitR)akdEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;hirBaØvtßúrbs;xøÜn ³ qøg kat;TMhMénkarvinieyaKTunEdlRtUvekIneLIg ehIyedaydMeNIrkarTaMgGs;enH eyageTAtamdMeNIrkarénkarbegáIncMnYn (process of multiplication) GacnaMeTA eGaymankarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlBitR)akd (increasing of real income) Edl RtUvcaM)ac; (ex-post = realized) sMrab;hirBaØbTanénkarvinieyaKTun ¬ecjBIR)ak; cMNUlekIneLIgenH karsnSMnImYy²GacRtUvbMEbkecj)an¦. GVIEdlCYbRbTHTaMgenaH KWfa (ex-ante = planed) hirBaØbTanénkarvinieyaK Tun BMuRtUv)anGnuBaØatbMeBjbEnßmeTotedaykarTTYlyknUvfvika nig\NTanenaH eT,Iy. karsMerccitþsMrab;TMhMénkarbegáItTun KWcMeBaHeKalTsSn³enHCasiT§ipþac; muxénkartMrUvkarénGñkvinieyaKTun. TaMgenHmann½yfaneya)ayfvikaRtUveRbIR)as; CaplRbeyaCn_énkar]btßmÖénskmμPaBvinieyaKTun. edaysmtßPaBénkar

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vinieyaKTunERbRbYl)anedayxøÜnÉgEtkñúgryHeBlEvgenAkñúgdMeNIrRbRBwtþ én dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_ enaHviFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayfvikaRtUvEtEsVgrkCacMbg cMeBaHkareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgsMrab;karRbugeRbob énkarvinieyaKTunrbs;Gñk skþanuBlvinieyaK. karRbugeRbobénkarvinieyaKTunrbs;skþanuBlvinieyaKKin GaRs½yeTAtamkarrMBwgénkarcMeNjEdlCakarpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgbMNg rWectnaén karvinieyaKTun Edlk¾nwgbnþreTAdl;sMrab;karsMerccitþrbs;eK. eyageTAtamkarKNnaénkarvinieyaKEdlCaRbéBNI eKeFVIkarvinieyaK drabNaGRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúg ¬Ca¦ ÉkCn (= r = GRtakarR)ak;enAeBltMélTunén karvinieyaKTunmYydak;eGayesμIsUnü2¦ sßitenAelIGRtakarR)ak;énTIpSar (= i ). tulüPaBénkarvinieyaKTun KWsMerc)anCamYynwgPaBEdlRsbKña rWRtUvKñaén r nig i (r = i ). k¾b:uEnþeyageTAtambMNkRsayrbs; Keynes karxVHxatTunenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_kt;sMKal;edaysarfaGRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúgsgÁm ¬=CasgÁm¦ (= r ) sßitenAelIGRtakarR)ak;Fmμta ¬GRtakarR)ak;EdlkMNt;edayFnaKarkNþal¦. TMnak;TMngenH CalT§plénkarBitEdlfaGRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúgénÉkCn r EdlRtUv )anrMBwgedayshRKin rWvinieyaKKin KWticCag r . CalT§pleKRtUvEtvinieyaK ticCagkarcg;)anrbs;esdækic©Cati ³ TaMgenHnaMeTAeGaymankarxVHxatTun. TMnak;TMngEdl)anniyayenH )anbgðajenAkñúgrUbxageRkamenH. eK)an kt;RtaGRtakarR)ak; i enAelIG½kSG½rDINaT½r ÉenAelIG½kSGab;sIus KWCakartMrUvkar énTun (CD) nigkarpÁt;pÁg;énTun (CS). kareFVIeGayeTACagayRsYl KWsnñidaænfa CS ekIteLIgecjBIkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCn rWrbs;ÉkCn. É CD ecjBIkartMrUvkar énkarvinieyaKTunEdlCaÉkCn rWrbs;ÉkCn. kartMrUvkar\NTannImYy²Edl bgðajBIkareyaleTAelImUlehtuénGRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúg EdlCaÉkCnénTunRtUv p

p

p

p

p

p

S

p

S

tMélénTun, I : TuneRbIR)as;dMbUg, R : R)ak;cMNUl, E : R)ak;cMNay, t: niTsSn_énkMT,úgeBlvinieyaK ¬t: 0, 1, 2,…n), rp: karR)ak;CaÉkCnKitCa %. 2

C0 = -I0 + ∑ (Rt – Et ) * 1/(1+rp)t , C0 :

0

t

t

136 # Economic Development

bgðajedayRkahVik CD [p] (CD [p]-Curve) TnÞwmnwgRkahVik CD [s] (CD [s]Curve) bgðajnUvkartMrUvkarén\NTanNamYyEdlsMercykCamYynwgGRtakar R)ak;sgÁm. karbegáItTunEdlCaesdækic©RbesIrbMputRtUv)ankMNt;enAkñúgrUbPaB xageRkamenH edaycMnuckat; F énRkahVik CS nig CD [s]. karbegáItTunEdl RbesIrbMputenaHRbRBwtþeTAenAelI OC nigbgðajnUvkarR)ak;énPaBkMrmYy (=i ) enAkñúgTMhMén Oi . k¾b:uEnþtulüPaBénTIpSarTunBitR)akdsßitenARtg;cMnuc B ¬cMnuc én CS RkahVik (CS-Curve) nig CD [p] RkahVik (CD [p]-Curve). enARtg;cMnuc enaHsMrab;GRtakarR)ak; Oi (=i ) RtUvbegáIt)annUvTunenAkñúgTMhM OC . CalT§pl karbegáItTun KWenAeRkamPaBRbesIrbMput (= sub-optimal) (OC < OC ). 1

S

2

0

p

0

0

1

karbegáItTunEdlenAeRkamPaBRbesIrbMputenH eyageTAtambMNkRsay rbs; Keynes GacbM)at;ecal)an kalNaGRtakarR)ak;)ankMNt;cuHeRkamtMél éntulükarrbs;vaedayviFankarN_rdæ)al (administrativ instruments). enAkñúg krNIenH karR)ak;Edlnwgpþl;cMeBaHkarvinieyaKTun (= i ) KWtUcCagkarR)ak;énPaB kMrénTunEdlnwgbegáItenAelITIpSarénTun. TaMgenHmann½yfaTMhMénkarbegáItTun GacRtUveFVIeGayRbesIreLIg. PaBRbesIrbMputGacsMerc)an drabNaPaBxusKña rvag r nig r EdlRtUvGacbgðajeGayeXIjCamYykarbegáItTunEdlRbesIrbMput p

S

p

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enaH RtUvpþl;bkmkvijenAkñúgTMhMeBjeljedayPaBxusKñarvagkarR)ak;én PaBkMrénTun (=i ) nigGRtakarR)ak;EdlRtUvkMNt;;eT,Ig i enaH. CamYyPaBRbesIr bMputenaH tulüPaBénkarvinieyaKTunEdl)aneFVIeGaysMerc)anbnÞab;mkenaH nwg sßitenACaTMnak;TMngdUcteTA ³ S

p

rS > rp rS = iS rp = ip

TMnak;TMngenHRtUvsMerc)an drabNakarR)ak;énTIpSarTunRtUvkMNt;sßitenA elI i . enAkñúgkrNIenH kartMrUvkar\NTanBitR)akd (CD [p]) GaRs½yeTAtamGVI EdlCakarTamTarsMrab;eFVIeGayeTACaBitR)akd énkarbegáItTunEdlRbesIrbMput OC . karkMNt;enARtg;karR)ak; i GacsMerc)an]TahrN_qøgkat;karRTRTg; én karR)ak;EdlCalkçN³rdæ (government subsidies interest rate) rWk¾qøgkat;kar ecjviFankarN_én {karR)ak;x<s;} EdlRtUvrMkileRkamGRtakarR)ak;Edlmkdl; eBlenH. cMeBaHviFankarN_EdlCameFüa)ayrbs;rdæenH karTUrTat;karxatbg; mYyRtUvsMerc)anCamYynwgehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßú. CamYyviFankarN_RbePT enH eyageTAtamkarbkRsayrbs; Keynes el,ÓnénkarbegáItTunGacbegáInsnÞúH nigtamryHenH karxVHxatTunGacRtUv)ankat;bnßy. CamYyenHGacRtUvsakl,gpgEdredayviFankarN_rdæ)al dUcCa]TahrN_ qøgkat;kardkBn§CavKÁ²eTAelIkarcMNayénkareRbIR)as; ¬eRBaHkalNaTMnijéfø naMeTArkkarekIneT,IgénkarsnSMeRcIn¦ edIm,IeGayrMkileTAsþaMmYyénGunKmn_ CS. CamYyenHEpñkénneya)ayfvikasuTs§ aFxagelIGaccakecal)an nigCMnYs bBaðaenH karpSMpÁMúmYyénneya)ayfvika nigénsareBIBn§dUcEdlkarpSMpÁMúenHRtUv)an eXIjCaFmμtaenAkñúgkarGnuvtþn_enaH nwgRtUvcab;epþImTTYlykmkbkRsaybnþr. 1

1

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138 # Economic Development

2>2> neya)ayéncMnYnfvika kalNaneya)aykarR)ak;EdleyageTAtam Keynes RtUv)andak;eday ELkBIeKenaH mann½yfaneya)ayenaH naMeTAeGayEdlfakarpÁt;pÁg;\NTan EdlCaKMerag (ex-ante) KWpþl;eGayCaFmμtaBMuRKb;RKan;sMrab;hirBaØvtßúénkar vinieyaKTuneLIy. enAkñúgrUbPaBxagelItMrUvkarTun i D EdlcaM)ac;cMeBaHkarbegáIt TunEdlRbesIrbMputenaH KWedaysarEtskmμPaBsnSMEdlCaÉkCnBMuTan;RKb;RKan; mYy vaRtUvsßitenARbQmeTAnwgEtkarpÁt;pÁg;enARtg; i C Etb:ueNÑaH ¬emIlrUbxag elI¦. eyageTAtamkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCnkarvinieyaKTunrebobenH RtUv GacmanskmμPaBEtenAkñúgTMhM i C Etb:ueNÑaH. TaMgGs;enaHeFVIeGaysßitmanenA karelIslb;énkartMrUvkarvinieyaKTunkñúgTMhM CD. karelIslb;éntMrUvkarenHpþl; sBaØaminRtwmEtkarbegáItTunEdlBuMRKb;RKan;Etb:ueNÑaHeT PaKeRcInPaBelIslb; éntMrUvkarenHCajwkjab;ErkBn§CamYyenaHpgEdr EdlfakarvinieyaKTunEdlRtUv )anekIteLIgBitR)akdBMubgðajeGayeXIj nUvPaBEdlGacrkplcMeNj)anén esdækic©CatiEdlCalT§PaBGtibrimaenaHeLIy. eRBaHfa karEbgEck\NTan cMeBaHTMnak;TMngEdlbgðajenATIenHRtUv)anbMeBjenAelIpøÚvén {non-price rationing} ¬TaMgenHmann½yfa BMuRtUv)anbMeBjedaysarkarEbgEckEdlTak;Tg nwgéfø¦ enaHeT,Iy. lkçN³vinicä½yrbs;vapþl;eGayRtUvEtCamUldæanepSgeTot. TaMgGs;enH KWGacBMumanbBaða kalNaGñkpþl;\NTanRtUv)ansMerccitþcMeBaHkar sMerccitþénkarEbgEck\NTanrbs;Kat; edayeyageTAtamcMnucCamUldæanén PaBEdlGacrkcMeNj)anEdlCalkçN³esdækic©CatirYmmYy. k¾b:uEnþCamYyenaH enAkñúgPaBBitBMuRtUv)anKitKUreLIy. PaKeRcInGñkpþl; \NTanmanninñakarCadMbUgeTAelIPaBCak;lak; rWPaBsnþisuxEdlRtUv)anpþl; eGayedayGñktMrUvkarén\NTan. enAkñúgbBaðaenHTMnak;TMngRTBüsm,tiþbuKÁlCa nic©CakalRtUvsßitenACamUldæan. enAkñúgkrNIenH P½BVsMNagEdlsMrab;TTYl)an nUv\NTanEdlcaM)ac;cMeBaHkarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUl KWkan;EtFMkalNaGñktMrUv kar\NTanmanRTBüsm,tþikan;EteRcIn. enAeRkamTidæPaBTajecjBITMnak;TMng 1

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Edl)anbgðajenATIenH KWCalT§plBMuRtwmEtkarEbgEckedayELkénktþaEbgEck EdlBMuRKb;RKan;enaHeT eRkABIenHecjCalT§plénPaBkan;EtGaRkk;énkarEbgEck R)ak;cMNUlEdlCarvagbuKÁl. sMrab;karraraMgén\T§iBlEdlGviC¢manenH neya)aykarR)ak;TabRtUvbMeBj edayneya)aycMnYnfvikarEdlERbRbYl (elastic money policy) eyageTAtam mYy. qøgkat;bBaðaenHkarpÁt;pÁg;\NTanEdlCaÉkCnGacRtUvBRgIkedaynimiμtkmμ énfvika (money creation). edaysarnimiμtkmμénfvikaenH RkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg; \NTanEdlmanlkçN³Caesdækic©CatiGacRtUvkac;eLIgRtg;eTAelIRtg;cMnuc C nigsMrab;GRtakarR)ak;EdlRtUvkMNt;eLIgEdlERbRbYlKμankMNt;. TaMgenHman n½yfa ecjBIEpñkénkarpÁt;pÁg;\NTanBMumannUvkarraraMgbnþreTotsMrab;skmμPaB énkarvinieyaKTuneT,Iy. cMeBaHkarKaMRTénbMNkRsayenHRtUv)anbkRsayCajwk jab;eTAelIkarrkeXIjEdlCaBiesaFniymEdlfa rvagGRtaekIneLIgéncMnYnfvika nigR)ak;cMNUldMbUg (nominal income) ekItmanenAshTMnak;TMng (correlation) EdlviC¢manx<s;mYy ³ kalNacMnYnfvikaekIneLIgelOnenaH bgðajeGayeXIj GRtaekIneLIgx<s;énR)ak;cMNUldMbUg (nominal income) nigRtLb;mkvij (et vice verse). CaBitR)akdshTMnak;TMng (correlation) enHBMumansBlPaBxøaMgkøasMrab; karviPaKEdlCaryHeBlxøImYyeLIy k¾b:uEnþkñúgryHeBlEvgshTMnak;TMng (correlation) enHbgðajya:gc,as;las; eRBaHfakarERbRbYléncMnYnfvikaCH\T§iBleTA elI nominal income CadMbUgeRkayBIkarBnüaeBlkñúgryHeBlBI 6 eTA 9 Ex. k¾b:uEnþeRBaHfaplRbeyaCn_ EdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_pþl;plRbeyaCn_Cakar GPivDÆn_EdlCaryHeBlyUrEdr dUcenHTidæPaBEdlCaryHeBlxøIenAkñúgemeronenH RtUvBMucaM)ac;elIkykmkBicarNaeLIy. karviPaKeTAelIKMnitEdl)anbkRsayxagelI KWmanenAkñúgsmIkarrbs; Fisher : M*V=P*X=Y

140 # Economic Development

EdlCaplKuNecjBIéfø P nig real income X (= real transaction volumen = real consumtions TaMgGs;¦ KWGaRs½yCanic©CakaleTA nwgcMnYnfvikaEdlmanRbsiT§PaBeTAelIesdækic© “ M * V ”, M bgðajCacMnYnfvika dMbUg (nominal money)3, V bgðajCael,Óncracrén nominal money enaH. dUcenHehIykarekIneLIgén M * V naMeTAeGayCanic©CakalsMrab;karekIneLIg énR)ak;cMNUldMbUg (nominal income). shTMnak;TMngEdl)anbgðajxagelI rvagGRtaekIneLIgéncMnYnfvikadMbUg (nominal money) nig nominal income mann½yEdlfael,Óncracr V sßitenA kñúgTMnak;TMngEdlefr. dUcenH karekIneLIgén M BMuRtUvGnuBaØateGayTUrTat;eday karfycuHén V eLIy ebIkalNaTajecjBIenaHRtUvecjCalT§plnUvkarekIn eLIgéncMnYnfvikarEdlmanRbsiT§iPaBeTAelIesdækic©Cati. manEtdUcenHeT eTIbman\T§iBlenAkarekIneLIgén nominal income. pÞúy eTAvijebIfvikaEdlbEnßmRtUv)ansþúkEfmeTotenaH mann½yfakarekIneLIgén M eFVIeGayman\T§iBlenAkñúgkarfycuHEdlRtUvTUrTat;mYyénel,Óncracr V. kñúg krNIenHel,Óncracr V fycuH. TaMgenaHmann½yfa ryHeBlCamFüménkarrkSar fvikarenAkñúg cash (cash in hand) ekIneLIg. bnÞab;mkfvikaEdlmanRbsiT§i PaBelIesdækic©CatiiBMumanERbRbYlcMnYneT,Iy. TaMgGs;enHERbRbYlEtGgÁFaturbs; vaEtb:ueNaÑH. tamkarBitenAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn eKGaccab;epþImEdlfael,Óncracr V ERb RbYlyWtya:vcMeBaHmUldæankMNt;EdlmanTMnak;TMngyUrGEgVg. CaBitR)akdeyag eTAtamkarBiesaFniym (empirical analysis) rbs; Ezekiel nig Adekunl enAkñúg kareRbobeFobénRbeTsCalkçN³GnþrCatimYy)aneGayeXIjfa el,Óncracr V fycuHCamYynwgkarekIneLIgén per capita. k¾b:uEnþdMeNIrkarénel,ÓncracrEdl kan;EtyWtenaH BMuTajeGaymanelcecjnUvlT§plénkarrMxanCabnþbnÞab;én nominal income Y

cMnYnfvikadMbUg manluysuT§ luyenAkñúgesovePAFnaKar rw kñúgkMBüÚT½rFnaKarluydak;TukenA FnaKar kñúgkMNt;eBlmYy nig luysnSM. 3

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neya)aycMnYnfvikareT,Iy. kalNakarERbRbYléncMnYnfvikadMbUgRtUv)anbMeBj enAkñúgTMhMya:gFMenaHTajecjBIenaH nigCaTUeTApgEdr KWmannUvlT§plénkarERb RbYlEdlmanTisedAdUcKñaéncMnYnfvikaEdlmanRbsiT§PaBeTAelIesdækic©Cati ( M * V). CakarBitcMeBaHehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúEdlBMuRKb;RKan;mYy karsakl,g edayqøgkat;karekIneLIgénkarTTYlyk\NTanrbs;vis½yÉkCn edIm,IsMerc)an nUvkarrIkraldaléncMnYnfvikar Edl)aneRKagTukBMuTTYl)anlT§plKYreGay bMeBjcitþeLIy. enAkñúgkrNIrebobenH rdæGacsakl,gxÜønÉgpÞal;edIrtYCaGñk tMrUvkar\NTansMrab;ykmkeRbIR)as;enAkñúgEpñk Edlrdæ)anxkxanvinieyaKeday sarEtkarcMNayxVHxatrbs;rdæenaH (Defecit Spending) ³ rdæTTYlyk\NTan edIm,IGaceFVIskmμPaBeTAelIkarcMNayRbePTenaH EdlcMeBaHhirBaØbTanBImun rbs;vaBMuTan;sMerc)annUvcMNUlEdlsmrmümYy. hirBaØbTanén\NTanenaH naMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgéncMnYnfvikaEdl manRbsiT§PaBeTAelIesdækic© kalNa\NTanenaHmanedImkMeNItecjBInimiμt kmμfvika rWk¾dkecjBIsþúkrbs;RbB½n§FnaKar rWk¾BIvis½yÉkCn rWk¾ecjBIkarhUrcUl énfvikabreTs nigRtUveRbIR)as;sMrab;hirBaØbTanénkarTijTMnijkñúgRbeTs. pÞúy eTAvij kalNakarpþl;\NTanRtUveFVIeGayekItmaneT,IgedaysarEtkarpþl;\N TaneTAeGayÉkCnRtUv)ankat;bnßykñúgTMhMdUcKña rWk¾karcMNayEdlCaÉkCnRtUv )anraraMg ¬edaysarkardkBn§énkarcMNay¦ TaMgenHmann½yfakarnaMmknUv\N TanBMumann½yfakarekIneLIgéncMnYnfvikaeLIy eRkABIenH KWRKan;EtCakarepÞrmYy énmeFüa)ayfvikarecjBIvis½yÉkCneTACavis½yénesdækic©EdlCardæEtb:ueNÑaH. ecjBIkarbgVli RtT,b;rebobmYyenH énmeFüa)ayfvikaGacbgðajnUvlT§pl (effect) EdlCalkçN³rYj rWrYm (contractiv) k¾dUcCalkçN³TUlay (expansiv). k¾b:uEnþlT§plenH BMuEmnCalT§plénneya)aycMnYnfvikaEdlCaTsSn³Taneyag eTAtameKalKMnitén Keynes nig post-Keynes eLIy. eRkABIenHvabNþalmkBI

142 # Economic Development

karrujRcanecj (crowding out) énskmμPaBesdækic©ÉkCnedaykNþab;édEdl CasaFarN³ (public hand) ¬=viFankarN_rdæ)al¦. RbePT crowding out enHGacRtUvelcecj kalNaR)ak;cMNUlénrdæd¾x<s; enaHRtUvbNþalmkeBjeljedaysarkarkat;bnßyénkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCn ¬kar ykBn§BIkarsnSM¦ eRkABIenHk¾bNþalmkedaysarkarkat;bnßyénkareRbIR)as; EdlCaÉkCnpgEdr ¬karykBn§eTAelIkarcMNay¦¦. enAkñúgkrNIenH eKehAfa crowding out edaypÞal;. kareFVIeGaymankarERbRbYlénGRtakarR)ak; nig¼rWk¾ kMriténéføEdlnwgCH\T§iBleTAelIGñktMrUvkar\NTanedaymUlehtuénkarcMNayr bs;rdæd¾x<s;nwgelcecjnUv crowding out EdlRbeyal. CakarBitTaMgcMeBaH {defecit spending} k¾dUcCacMeBaH {crowding out} KWEpñkénneya)ayfvikaenHRtUv)ancakecalEtRtwmenH ehIykrNIneya)ay GPivDÆn_RtUv)anbMeBjtYnaTIedayneya)ayhirBaØvtßúbnþeTAeTot. 2>3> dMeNIrkarénGtiprNaCalT§plénneya)ayfvika Edlmanninñakar KaMRTkarvinieyaKTun 2>3>1> lT§plénR)ak;cMNUldMbUg nigénR)ak;cMNUlBiténneya)ay fvika neya)ayfvikarEdlCa Keynes niym CakarBit)anbit)aMgnUveRKaHfñak; ya:geRcIn. eyagtamrUbmnþxagelI (M * V = P * X = Y) CaBitR)akdkarekIn eLIgNamYyéncMnYnfvikarEdlmanRbsiT§PaB (M * V) naMeTAeGaymankarekIn eLIgénR)ak;cMNUldMbUg (nominal income) Y(=X * P). k¾b:uEnþcMeBaHkarvinicä½y EdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énkarekIneLIgR)ak;cMNUlenH eKRtUvEtEbgEckfaetIkar ekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlenH manTMnak;TMngenAkñúgTMhMdUcKñaeTAnwgkarekIneLIg én R)ak;cMNUlBit rWk¾faetIkarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMNUlenHRKan;EtbgðajnUvkareFVIeGay manGtiprNaEdlCaéføénR)ak;cMNUlBitEdlefrmYy rWk¾faetIkarekIneLIgénR)ak;

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cMNUlenHmann½yfakarekIneLIgénéføpg ehIyk¾mankarrIklUtlas;énR)ak; cMNUlBitpgEdr. sMrab;bMNkRsayénTMnak;TMngenH KWRtUv)anKUsvasenAkñúgrUbPaBxag eRkamnUvRkahViktMNageGaykarpÁÁt;pÁg;kartMrUvkarénesdækic©CatimYy.

RkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg; A (supply curve A ) EdlCalkçN³esdækic©Cati bgðajeGayeXIj faetITMhMplitplNaEdlRtUvpÁt;pÁg;eday]sSahkrcMeBaH kMritéføEdlRtUveRCIserIsenAkñúgkMLúgeBlEdlsßitenACamUldæan ¬=enAkñúgkMLúg eBlmYy¦ kalNaktþabrikça nigrcnasm<½n§esdækic©RtUv)anpþl;eGay. RkahVikén karpÁt;pÁg;RbRBwtþeTACadMbUgCabnÞat;kat;epþk (horizontal) eRBaHfaplitkmμGac RtUvBRgIkrhUtdl;TMhMplitplsgÁm OX pgEdr cMeBaHkarBMuERbRbYlénéfø ¬=kar bg;tMél¦. TMnak;TMngRbePTmYyenH GacmanlT§PaBkalNaktþaEdlcaM)ac; sMrab;plitkmμdéTeTotbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarpÁt;pÁg;elIslb;mYy CamYynwgéfø énktþa ¬=karbg;tMélénktþa¦ EdlekIteLIgmYy k¾b:uEnþBMumann½yfakarFøak;cuHénkar bg;tMélénktþaplitkmμeT. rvag X nig X karekIteLIgénplitkmμnaMeTAeGay mankarekIneLIgénkMritéfø eRBaHktþaplitkmμEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karekIneLIgén 1

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144 # Economic Development

plitkmμ KWRbugeRbobsMrab;karpþl;eGayénkarbMeBjkarplitEtcMeBaHéføénktþa plitkmμ ¬karbg;tMélénktþaplitkmμ¦ EdlnwgekIneLIg. éføénktþaplitkmμd¾x<s; enHbegáIteGaymankarekIneLIgénkMritéføøCalkçN³esdækic©Cati. RkahVikénkar pÁt;pÁg;bgðajeGayeXIjnUvTMhMekIneLIgEdlCaviC¢man. cMeBaHTMhMplitkmμsgÁm OX KWRBMEdnsmtßPaBEdlCaesdækic©CatiRtUv)an sMercdl;. karekIneLIgénplitkmμbnþeTot BMuRtUvsMerc)anbnþeToteLIy eRBaHfa PaBmansßitenAénRBMEdnénktþaplitkmμ ¬maginal production¦ )anbegIátCakar kMNt;énplitkmμ EdlBMuRtUv)anTUTat;)anedaysarkareRbIR)as;kan;EteRcIneLIg énktþaplitkmμdéTeToteLIy. enAkñúgTMnak;TMngniekçbT Edl)anbkRsaybgðajenAkñúgemeronBImunénkar epÞredayceg¥oténkarGPivDÆn_ {Tun (= capital)} edIm,IeqøIytbeTAnwgcMnYn OX )an KWmanEtCamYynwgplitkmμNaEdlcMeBaHplitkmμenaHkareRbIR)as;énTunEdl )anpþl;eGaymYyRtUv)anpSMpÁúMCamYynwgcMnYnBlkmμ ¬=kMlaMgBlkmμ¦ Edlman lT§PaBbec©keTsGtibrima. dUcenHplitkmμén OX mann½yBMumanTal;EtesaHnUv kargareBjelj ¬=PaBKμankargareFVI¦ énktþa ¬Blkmμ¦ déTeTot eRkABIRKan;Et mann½yfa kareRbIR)as;Gs;visalPaBénlT§PaBbec©keTsx<s;Edl)anmkBIkar epÞrTund¾ceg¥otenaHEtb:ueNÑaH. bnþeTAeTotRkahVikénkartMrUvkar N EdlCaesdækic©srub k¾RtUv)anKUrpg Edr. RkahVki enH )anbgðajnUvTMhMénkartMrUvkarEdlCafvika M * V enAkñúgsßanPaB cab;epþIm. RkahVikéntMrUvkarenHbgðajCaTMrg;énhIuEBkb‘UlkalNa M k¾dUcCa V sMrab;cMnuceBlEdlCYbRbTHenaH KWefr. bnÞab;mkKW dX/X = - dP/P Edl mann½yfa karekIneLIgNamYyénR)ak;cMNUlBit X GaRs½yTAtamkarfycuH EdlmanTMhMTMnak;TMngesμIKñaénkMritéfø P nigRtLb;mkvij (= et vice versa). pÞúy eTAvij kalNa V ERbRbYlCamYynwgkMriténéføenaHdMeNIrRbRBitþénRkahVik N BMu GackMNt;)anc,as;las;eToteT. k¾b:uEnþbnþeTAeTot eyIgcab;epþImecjBIEdlfa V manRbtikmμEdlTak;TgenaHexSayCag P. 2

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enAkñúgkrNIenH eKGaccab;epþImecjya:gticbMputBIdMeNIrRbRBitþEdl)an KUrenAkñúgrUbPaBxageRkamEdlfa rvag dP/P nig dX/X ekIteLIgnUvTMnak;TMng Rcas; (inverse relation)³ EdlkalNakMriténéføkan;Etx<s;enaHR)ak;cMNUlBit (real income) EdlRtUvGachirBaØbTanCamYynwgcMnYnfvikardMbUg M Edlpþl; eGaymYyenaHkan;EtticeTA. edayfaRkahVik N )ansßabnaerobecjCarUbrag enAeRkamkarTTYlyk éncMnYnfvikardMbUgEdlpþl;eGaymYyenaH dUcenHRkahVikéntMrUvkarnImYy²eqøIytb eTACamYynwgcMnYnfvikaEdlkMNt;mYy. kalNacMnYnfvika KWkan;EtFMenaHRkahVik éntMrUvkarkan;EtrMkileTAeRkA. dUcenHcMeBaHkarBRgIkmYyéncMnYnfvika (= dM > 0) RkahVikéntMrUvkarrMkileTAsþaM TItaMgfμIrbs;va KWsßitenAelIRkahVikénkartMrUvkar N . A nig N kat;KñaRtg;cMnuc S . kUG½rDINaT½rén S bgðajeGayeXIjnUvTMhMBit R)akdénplitplsgÁmBitR)akd nigkMriténéfø. edaysarkarekIneLIgéncMnYn fvika cMnuckat;RtUv)anrMkileTA S . S bgðajenAkñúgkareRbobeFobCamYynwg S manplitplsgÁmBitR)akdEdlx<s;mYy ehIyk¾mankMriténéfød¾x<s;mYyEdr. Ca lT§plkarekIneLIgénplitkmμRtUvmankarCUndMeNIredaydMeNIrkarGtiprNamYy. CakarBit karekIneLIgénplitkmμsMrab;RkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg;mYyEdlpþl; eGayGacBMumankarekIneLIgénéfø kalNaRkahVikéntMrUvkarTaMgcas;TaMgfμIkat; GnuKmn_énkarpÁt;pÁg;Rtg;EmkEdlepþk (horizontal) rbs;va. TaMgenHbgðajeGay eXIjnUvrcnasm<½n§plitkmμénesdækic©CatiEdlCYbRbTHenHnUv output elasticity EdlCaRbePTx<s;mYy Edlmann½yfacMeBaHkarekIneLIgénplitkmμ KWBMuTamTar karekIneLIgénéføeT,Iy ³ ktþaplitkmμTaMgGs;EdlRtUvcaM)ac;sMrab;karekIneLIgén plitkmμ KWTTYlnUvéføEdlBMuERbRbYl. CakarBitTMnak;TMngRbePTenHGacBicarNa faCavism
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karbMeBjkarplitEdlkan;EtxøaMgkøamYyBIktþaplitkmμ EdlGacRtUvsMerc)an edaysarEtéføénktþaplitkmμenaH ¬karbg;tMélénktþaplitkmμ¦ kan;Etx<s; ³ Epñk plitkmμ EdlsMxan;latsn§wgqøgkat;Ggát; X X nigmanGtßn½yCaTMhMplitkmμ rvag OX nig OX . CalT§plkarekIneLIgénplitkmμEdlcg;)anenaH GacsMerc)an EtcMeBaHkarekIneLIgénkMritéføEdlekIneT,IgkñúgeBlCamYyKñaenaH. TaMgenH manmUldæanmkBIkarekIneLIgénkarbg;tMélktþaplitkmμ nigcMlgeTA eGaymankarekIneLIgénéføplitpl. CakarBitenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mannUv ktþaBlkmμenAkñúgPaBelIslb;. EtCalT§plkarCMrujénkarbMeBjkarplitxag elImanTMnak;TMngRKan;EtCamYynwgktþaplitkmμEdlBMuEmnCakMlaMgBlkmμdUcCaTu n nig FnFanFmμCati. CamYyenHTMhMEdlelcecjsMrab;karekIneLIgénTMhMplitkmμ nigénkMrit éfø KWkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;BitR)akd ¬P¢ab;CamYyenaHénkarcMeNj¦. eRkABI enHeTAeTotlT§plénkarekIneLIgénéføBMumansßti enAeLIy kalNakarrIkraldal éncMnYnfvikarRtUv)anGmdMeNIredaykarrMkileTAsþaM EdlRKb;RKan;mYyénRkahVikén karpÁt;pÁg;. qøgkat;bBaðaenH TMhMénplitkmμ X ekIneLIgCamYynwgkMriténéføEdl efr. TaMgenHmann½yfa ³ 1

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d (M * V) / M * V = dX / X

CamYyenHTMhMén X BMumanTMnak;TMngeTAnwgplitplsgÁmBitR)akdEdl Caesdækic©srubenaHeLIy eRkABIenHvamanTMnak;TMngEtCamYyTMhMplitkmμénEpñk EdlCafvikaénesdækic©CatiEtb:ueNÑaH. karkat;bnßyNamYyénEpñkCIvRBwtþ (subsistence sector) edIm,IplRbeyaCn_vis½yEdlCafvika TamTarcaM)ac;kar ekIneLIgéncMnYnfvikarEdleyageTAtamenaHmYy kalNakarvivDÆn_britþpriNa (deflation) EdlCaTUeTAekIteT,IgedaysarPaBCab;KaMgénéfød¾xøaMgkøa ehIyEdl GacnaMeTAeGaymankarfycuHénplitkmμenaHRtUv)anraraMg.

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kalNaesdækic©CatiCYbRbTHnUvkarekIneLIgmYyénplitplsgÁmBitR)akd edayenAeRkamlkçxNÐéncracrfvikarEdlefrmYyenaH mann½yfaTaMgenHCH \T§iBlbritþpriNa (deflation). edaysarbBaðaenH karekIneLIgénkMritéføBImunRtUv Gackat;bnßyTaMgRsug rWk¾mYycMENk. kalNaemKuNénTun KWkan;EtTab nig eBlEdlhucplénkarvinieyaKTunenaH KWkan;EtxøI ¬= Tak;TgeTAnwgbec©kviC¢aekIn eLIg¦ enaHkarekIneLIgénéføEdlCalT§plsmtulüecjBIskmμPaBénnimiμtkmμ fvika (money creation) KWkan;EttUc. bnÞab;mkenAkñúgrUbPaBxagelI mankarrMkil eTAsþaMénRkahVikpÁt;pÁg;eTAkñúgsßanPaB A enHmann½yfacMNuckat; S bgðaj nUvsßanPaBCacugbBa©b;. TaMgenHmann½yenAkñúgRKb;krNITaMgGs;nUvR)ak;cMNUl Bit X d¾x<s;mYyCagGVIEdlsßitenAsßanPaBcab;epþIm. kMriténéføEdlcugbBa©b;Gac x<s;Cag TabCag rWk¾esμIKña dUcenAkñúgsßanPaBénkarcab;epþImEdl)anbgðajeday S . TaMgenHmann½yfakarsMerc KWBMuEmnEteTAelIRbePTénhirBaØvtßúeTeRkABIenH eTAelIRbePTénkareRbIR)as;énkarcMNayEdlRtUvhirBaØbTanedaysarkarekIne LIgéncMnYnfvikapgEdr³ karvinieyaKTunEdlcg;bM)at;nUvPaBceg¥óténesdækic© rWk¾ cg;begáItnUvkEnøgkargarfμI ¬=pþl;kEnøgeFVIkargarfμI¦ GacelcecjnUvkarekIneLIg énplitkmμd¾x<s; nigCamYyenHGacraraMgnUveRKaHfñak;énkarekIneLIgénéfø. k¾b:uEnþ eTAelIEpñkepSgeTot k¾mankarvinieyaKTunEdlCamYyenaHmankarKMramKMEhg cMeBaHkarBMumansßitnUvlT§plénR)ak;cMNUlBitEdr. TaMgenH KWCakrNIEdlfakar vinieyaKTunnaMeTAeGaymankarelIslb;énsmtßPaB EdlBMuRtUvGaceRbIR)as;eGay Gs;visalPaBedaysarEtkartMrUvkarEdlBMuRKb;RKan;;. k¾dUcKñaenHpgEdrcMeBaHkar vinieyaKNaEdlsMrab;cMnuceBlénkarbeBa©jplitplrbs;xøÜn KWbec©kviC¢aRtUv )anedIrhYseTAmuxmunrYceRsceTAehIy. P½BVsMNagEdlfakarekIIneLIgénéføEdlCaTIbBa©b;Føak;cuHEtbnþicenaH KWCa BiesscMeBaHkarvinieyaKTunEdlmanlkçN³plitkmμedaypÞal;. pÞúyBIenH Edl CabBaað KWkarsßabnaénkarvinieyaKTunenAkñúgvis½yehdæarcnasm<½n§. enATIenH elcecjnUveRKaHfñak;énkarekIneLIgénéføya:gFM eRBaHfaRbePTénkarvinieyaKTun 2

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148 # Economic Development

enHbgðajPaKeRcInnUvryHeBlhucplEdlyUrGEgVg nigemKuNénTund¾x<s;. Ca karBitdUcCakarsßabnaénpøÚvfñl; pøÚvreTHePøIg nigRbB½n§bMBg;TamTarnUvryHeBl ya:gyUrqñaM. 2 rel="nofollow">3>2> \T§iBlénkarekIneLIgénéfø EdlCaGtiprNaeTAelIkarGPivDÆn_ esdækic© A. karviPaKEdlCary³eBlxøI kalNakMriténéfø EdlCaesdækic©CatienaHekIneLIgenAkñúgryHeBld¾yUr GEgVgmYyedaymUlehtuEdl)anbkRsayxagelI enaHkarekIneLIgénkMritéføenaH snμt;CacariklkçN³énGtiprNa (inflation). TaMgenH KWsMrab;karvinicä½yEdlCa neya)ayGPivDÆn_énGtiprNaenH TamTareGaykMNt;nUvkarCH\T§iBlrbs;vaeTA elIeKalbMNgénkarGPivDÆn_EdlCaesdækic©. kalNaeKykCamUldæannUvkar viPaKEdlCaryHeBlxøImYy EdlcMeBaHkarviPaKenaHGkb,kiriyaEdlRbkan;ykén Economic Subject BMuTan;)ankMNt;enAkñúgdMeNIrkarénGtiprNaenAeLIy enaHeK )anelIkbgðajeLIgnUvlT§plGPivDÆn_EdlviC¢manCaeRcIn. ya:gticbMputenAkñúg dMNak;kardMbUgéndMeNIrkarEdlCaGtiprNa eKGacniyay)anfakarGPivDÆn_ rW karvivDÆn_énR)ak;ebovtSn_dMbUg (nominal salary) Tl;nwgkarGPivDÆn_ rWkarvivDÆn_ énéføbgðajeGayeXIjkarrMkilEdlCaeBlevlamYy (salary-lay-hypothese). bnÞab;mkeTIbR)ak;ebovtSBit (real salary) Føak;cuHTnÞwmnwg {GRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúg ÉkCn} Bit ¬=karcMeNjénshRKin¦ ekIneLIg. CalT§plGñkkmμsiT§énTun KW sßitenAkñúgTMhMxøaMgkøaCagmunkñúgkarRbugeRbobedIm,Ipþl;kargareGaykMlaMgBlkr. enAkñúgrUbPaBxageRkamlT§plenH bgðajnUvcMNab;GarmμN_edaysarfa bnÞat;énR)ak;ebovtS OL EdlCaTMhMR)ak;ebovtSBit (real salary) gakeTArkG½kS Gab;sIus. edaysarbBaðaenHkarcMeNjGtibrima )anrMkilBI H eTA H ³ enAcMnuc H GnuKmn_Tinñpl nigbnÞat;R)ak;ebovtSfμI OL bgðajeGayeXIjTMhMénkarekIn eLIg (accumulation) EdlRsbKña. kareRbIR)as;kMlaMgBlkmμekIneLIgBI OT 1

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eTA ON nigbegáItnUvkarekIneLIgénplitplsgÁm (GDP) BI TH eTA NH . RsbeBlCamYyenaHkarekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) k¾ekIneLIgEdr eRBaHfaGRtaénR)ak;ebovtSRbQmeTAnwgplitplsgÁmKWfycuH. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgrUb xageRkamBMuRtwmEtmankarfycuHénGRtaebovtSEtb:ueNÑaHeT eRkABIenHR)ak;ebovtS srubk¾Føak;cuHpgEdr (FT > MN). enAkñúgkrNInIYy²R)ak;cMNUlénR)ak;ebovtS RbtikmμenAkñúgTMhMNamYyenaH KWGaRs½yeTAnwg)a:ra:Em:Rt ¬GaBaØatiefr¦ énGnuKmn_ litkmμ ³ )a:ra:Em:RtenaH CaGñkkMNt;nUvRbtikmμénkareRbIR)as;kMlaMgBlkmμeTA elIkarfycuHénR)ak;ebovtSBit. 1

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enAeRkamkarsnñidæanEdlsßitCamUldæanenATIenH lT§pledaypÞal; (directly effect) dUcxageRkamCalT§plTajecjBIGtiprNaenH ³ - karfycuHénR)ak;ebovtSBit EdleFVIdMeNIrCamYynwgkarekIneLIgénkMrit éfø)aneFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgnUvkarEbgEckktþaBlkmμ (factor allocation) nignaMeTAeGaymannUvTMhMplitkmμd¾x<s;mYy. CamYyenHkarfycuHénR)ak;ebovtS BitKaMRTnUveKalbMngénRbsiT§PaB (efficiency goal) EdlCakarBitBMuGacnaMeTA eGaymanPaBRbesIrbMputénkarEbgEckktþaplitkmμ)aneT,Iy. bBaðaenHsMerc

150 # Economic Development

)anenAkñúgrUbPaBxagelIRtg;cMnuc E. PaBeFVIeGayBitR)akdrbs;vasßitenARtg; lkçxNÐEdlsMxan; KWR)ak;ebovtSBitmYy (real salary) esμIsUnü k¾b:uEnþR)ak;ebovtS BitrebobenH BMuGacekIteLIg)anTal;EtesaHcMeBaHR)ak;ebovtSdMbUg (nominal salary) EdlviC¢man. sMrab;karTTYlyksßanPaBénplitplénkarEbgEck (factor allocation) Edl)anbgðajenATIenH KWBMuTamTardac;xatEdlfaR)ak;ebovtSBitFøak;cuHeLIy³ eyageTAtambMNkRsayrbs; Keynes karsßitenARTwgénkarekIneLIgénR)ak; ebovtSBitRtUv)anelcecjrYcCaeRscenAeRkayplitPaBénkargarEdlCaesdækic© CatienaHnUvkarekIneLIgénR)ak;cMeNjEdlCalkçxNÐsMrab;karekIneLIgénkargar Edl)anbgðajrYcmkehIyenAxagelI. CakarBitenATIenHGVI²TaMgGs; KWTamTarnUv shRKinEdlmansmtßPaBbMeBjkarplitCaDINamIkRKb;RKan;mYyEdlRbugeRbob edIm,ITTYlykBitR)akdnUvP½BVsMNagénkarlUtlas; rWénkarrIkraldalEdlRtUv bNþalmkBIGtiprNaenH. kalNaxVHxatnUvlkçN³ shRKinrebobenHenaH eRKaHfñak;ekIteLIgEdlfaplRbeyaCn_ rWcMNg;cMNUlcitþEdlCamuxCMnYjRtUv)an eRbIR)as;eTACaskmμPaBEdlCasμan rWRbfuy (speculativ activity) vij. enAkñúg krNIenHclkr rWsnÞúHénGtiprNa (impulse of inflation) RtUv)at;bg;nUv\T§iBl rbs;xøÜn. - karrMkilénéføktþaBlkmμ EdlTak;TgplRbeyaCn_énR)ak;ebovtSBit eFVI eGaykan;EtGaRkk;enAkñúgkrNICaeRcInnUvkarEbgEckénR)ak;cMNUl TnÞwmnwgkar eRbIR)as;énkMlaMgBlkmμd¾x<s;)anCH\T§iBlkan;EtRbesIreTAelIkarEbgEck ¬R)ak; cMNUl¦. \T§iBlEdlCabBa©b;énkarsMerceKalbMNgénkarEbgEckGaRs½yeTA nwgkarbkRsayBitR)akdéneKalbMngEbgEck4. TaMgenHKWGacBicarNafaman neya)ayEbgEckmanedaypÞal; nig edayRbeyal³ - edaypÞal; KwkarRtYtBinitüeTAelIR)ak;ebovtSn¾ nig éfø - edayRbeyal KwkarEbgEckRtLb;eLIgvij (Redistribution) edaymanviFankarBn§ nigkarepÞr R)ak;cMNUleTAesdækic©ÉkCnvij. 4

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PaBkan;EtRbesIreLIg k¾dUcCafamanPaBkan;EtGaRkk;eLIgénkarEbgEckR)ak; cMNUl. karekIneLIgEdlcg;)anénkarsnSMBitR)akd nigCamYyenaHhirBaØbTan énkarvinieyaKTunEdlCakic©bEnßmeTot GacRtUvsMerc)anenAeRkameKalkarN_én karEbgEckenH. lkçxNÐsMrab;va KWfadMeNIrkarénGtiprNaRtUvrkSarhUtdl; cenøaHRbehagrvagkarsnSMEdlCaBitR)akd nigkarsnSMEdlmanlkçN³RbesIr bMputRtUv)ankat;bnßy. eyageTAtamGnuKmn_énkarsnSMEdlCaburaNniym (classical saving function) CakarBitkarfycuHénR)ak;cMNUlBitR)akdEdlkMNt;edayGtiprNa naMeTAeGay ceteris paribus enARKb;krNITaMgGs;nUvTMhMénkarsnSMBitd¾x<s;mYy eRBaHfaTMhMenaHRtUv)ansnSMecjEtBIR)ak;cMNUlénTun k¾b:uEnþBMuRtUv)ansnSMecj R)ak;cMNUlEdlCaebovtSenaHeLIy ¬bMNkRsayrbs; Keynes¦. eRkABIenHTMhM énkarsnSMGackan;EtFMedaysar\T§iBlénlT§plénkarrkSasac;R)ak;Bit {(effect of controlling of real cash)} eRBaHGtiprNaman\T§iBldUcCaBn§eTAelIkarrkSa sac;R)ak; (controlling of real cash) nigqøgkat;bBaðaenHGacbegáIteGaymannUv karEbgEckRtLb;mYy (redistribution) BIGñktMrUvkarfvika ¬=CaÉkCn¦ eTAkEnøg Edlnimiμtkmμfvika ¬=Cardæ ¦. cMeBaHGtiprNamYy lT§PaBeRCIserIsénkarbg;tMél (opportunity cost) énkarrkSasac;R)ak;CakarBit KWekIneLIg eRBaHfaenAkñúgTMhMénGRtaGtiprNaman karekIteLIgnUvkarxatbg;. CalT§pl KW economic subjects TaMgGs;RtUvkat; bnßyénkarrkSasac;R)ak;suT§rbs;xøÜn sMrab;CaplRbeyaCn_énkEnøgEdlCanimiμtkmμfvika ¬=Cardæ¦. Et economic subjects BMu)anraraMgenAkñúgTMhMdUcKñanUvkarsnSM rbs;xøÜndUcrdæEdlGacBRgIkkarvinieyaKTunrbs;xøÜnedaylT§pl énkarEbgEck RtLb;xagelIenaHeLIy. dUcenHCalT§plTajecjBIenaHmankarekIneLIgénTMhM snSMEdlCaesdækic©Cati ¬bMNkRsayEdlCafvikar¦.

152 # Economic Development

karviPaKEdlCary³eBlEvg karviPaKmkdl;eBlenH KWCaFmμCatiénkarviPaKryHeBlxøI. karviPaKenH BMuBicarNaCaBiessBIRbtikmμnImYy²én economic subjects eTAelIGtiprNa Edl GaceFVIeGaymankarcab;GarmμN_enAkñúgkarERbRbYlmYy énkarRbkan;Gkib,kiriya rbs;xøÜn ¬economic subjects) eT,Iy. CaTUeTARbtikmμenHGacelcecjCadMbUg eRkayeBlkarrMkiléneBlevlamYy nigkalNaGtiprNa KWRtUv)anGnþrnIykmμCa mYynwg Subjects EdlCYbRbTHenaH. qøgkat;viFankarsMrbsMrYlén economic subjects enH lT§pl (effects) EdlKaMRTénkarGPivDÆn_ryHeBlxøI GacRtUv)ankat;bnßycMeBaHEpñkmYyya:gFM. enAkñúgkal³eTs³xøHGacbgðajeGayeXIjnUvpl (= consequence) EdlraraMgkar GPivDÆn_EfmeTot. eyageTAtam salary-lay-hypothese CadMbUg)anekIteLIg nUvsßanPaBlT§plénkarEbgEckkMlaMgBlkmμEdlCaviC¢man. bnÞab;mkkar GPivDÆn_énR)ak;ebovtSn_dMbUgsßitenARTwgeRkaykarekIneLIgénkMritéfø enaHmann½y faR)ak;ebovtSBitfycuH. ecjBIkarfycuHénR)ak;ebovtSBit mankarelcecjnUv lT§plekIneLIgénkargar rWkEnøgeFVIkargar ehIyk¾dUcCalT§plénplitkmμd¾x<s; mYy. enAkñúgsßanPaBénlT§plrIkduHdalenH GaceFVIeGayGñkTTYlykkargar rWBlkrsßitenAeRkamkarP½nþviBaØaNénfvika (illusion of money). enAkñúgkrNI enHBlkreCOeTAelIkareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgénR)ak; cMNUlmYyedayemIl eTAelIkarekIneLIgénR)ak;ebovtSdMbUg eTaHbICaR)ak;cMNUlBitrbs;xøÜnsßitenAnwg fál; rWk¾fycuHk¾eday. TaMgenHGacnaMeTAeGaymanPaBeBjcitþ rWrIkrayEdlCa subjectiv d¾x<s;mYy CagenAelImUldæanénTMnak;TMngBitR)akdEdl KWGacesμIPaB RtwmRtUvCagenaH. edaysarbBaðaenH TMnas;énkargarRtUvGacnwgBMuRsYcRsav nig kareFVI)atukmμEdlraraMgkarrIklUtlas;GacRtUv)anraraMg. CaBitR)akd kalNakarekIneLIgénéføEdlCaGtiprNasßitenAkan;EtyUr enaH karsßitenAeRkamkarP½nþviBaØaNénfvikarénBlkrkan;EtticeTA. dUcenHGtip B.

rNaEdleTACaCMgWraMér:)an)at;nUv\T§iBlEdlKaMRTénkarrIklUtlas;rbs;xøÜn eRBaH

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fa {sil,³esok} énGtiprNaman\T§iBlyUrGEgVg)andrabNaEtman mnusS eTAemIlsil,HesokenaH nigTukeGaye)akbeBaäat)an. eRBaHfa economic

)ansMrYlxøÜneGayRtUveTAtambTBiesaFn_énGtiprNaEdlmkdl;eBl enHrbs;xøÜn nigsakl,gbnþénGtiprNaenHCaBRgag enaHGRtaénGtiprNaCanic© CakalRtUvEtFMeLIgkalNa economic subjects RtUvsMerc)anEfmeTotnUv lT§plénR)ak;ebovtSn_BitEdlcg;)anenaH. k¾b;uEnþGtiprNaEdlkan;EtekIneLIg KaMRTCabnþbnÞab;nUvsnÞsSn_énstism,CBaس eRBaHfaGtiprNacUlrYmcMENkkat; bnßynUvkarP½nþviBaØaNénfvikar (illusion of money) rbs;BlkrEdr. dUcenH eTAelIkarsMlwgyUrGEgVgRtUv)anminTukcitþ nigEdlfaetIkarGPivDÆn_énGtiprNa GaccUlrYmcMENksMrab;PaBsMerc)and¾l¥RbesIrmYyéneKalbMNgEbgEckénktþa BlkmμEdr rWGt;. k¾dUcKñaenHpgEdr \T§iBlviC¢manEdl)anTajecjBIxagelIénGtiprNaRtUv )anelIkCasMnYr eTAelIkarbegáItTunEdlCaesdækic©Cati kalNaeKBicarNaeTA elIRbtikmμyUrGEgVgén economic subjects. kalNakarfycuHénR)ak;ebovtSBit EdlsgÇwmnwg)anrbUt)at; eRBaHkarrMBwgénGtiprNaEdleyageTAtamenaH rWmYy k¾snÞsSn_nIykmμénR)ak;ebovtSraraMgkarekIneLIg énR)ak;ebovtSdMbUgeGaysßitenA eRkayénGRtaekIneLIgénkMritéføEdlCaesdækic©srub enaHlT§plénkarbegáItTun EdlCa Keynesniym énkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlsrub BMusßitenAelIpøÚvedIm,ICapl RbeyaCn_énmUlFnniymeLIy. dUcenHkarbegáInsnÞúHénkarbegáItTunGacman lT§PaBEtedaysarlT§plénkarrkSasac;R)ak;Bit (effect of controlling of real cash) EdlCabMNkRsayénfvikaEtb:ueNÑaH. eRkABIenHcMeBaHGtiprNaEdlkan;EtmanGnuPaB KWRtUvelcecjCamYYynwg lT§pldéTeTot EdlCH\T§iBlCakarraraMgeTAelIkarbegáItTunEdlCaplitkmμ. TaMgenHBMuRtUvGacbdiesdæ)an EdlfaeTAelIkaremIleXIjyUrGEgVgénkarman GtiprNa TMrg;déTeToténkarrkSarTukéntMél dUcCabirkçaénRTBüsm,tþiEdlBMuEmn Caplitkmμ rWCasMParHmantMéldUcCadIFøI karsþúkTukénmas nigrbs;rbrmantMél subjects

154 # Economic Development

déTeTotnwgRtUv)anEsVgrk. eRkABIenaH cMeBaHGñkvinieyaKKinCaeRcInsßitenACakar ep¥ógeTArkskmμPaBEdlkan;EtekIneLIgénkarRbfuykñúgkrNIGtiprNasßitenAka n;EtyUr k¾dUcCacMeBaHkarrg;caMénkarekIneLIgénéføbnþeTAeTot. CalT§plkar snSMenAkñúgTMhMya:gRkas;ERklRtUv)annaMeTArkeKalbMNgénbrikça EdlBMuEmn plitkmμ ¬eTACakarsþúk¦. edayRBMEdnénkarep¥ógeTArkPaBRbfuyRbfanEdlCa TUeTAenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHmansPaBkan;Etx<s;enaH mann½yfaCajwk jab;karrMkilénGtiprNad¾eTogTat;naMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgya:gxøaMgénskmμ PaBCMnYjEdlRbfuyRbfan. eRKaHfñak;bnþeTotmYy )ansegáteXIjEdlfacMeBaH economic subjects CaeRcIn karRbugeRbobénkarsnSM rWk¾karRbugeRbobénkarvinieyaKTunnwgfycuHCa TUeTA. CMnYsbBaðaenH KWGtibrimaénkareRbIR)as;enAeBlbc©úb,nñ. ecjBIenHelc ecjCalT§plnUvkardkvinei yaKTun TaMgenHbkRsay)anfakarCYsCulEdlcaM)ac; rWkarvinieyaKTunCafμIénTunplitkmμsßitenAeRkamsßanPaBEdlBi)ak rWBMuRKb;RKan;. dUcenHkarsþúkénTunEdlCaesdækic©CatiRtUvkat;bnßy. kalNaeKBicarNaeTAelITMnak;TMngesdækic©GnþrCati enaHeKGackMNt;nUv lT§plGviC¢amanmkBIGtiprNaCaeRcIn. kalNaRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH man TMnak;TMngBaNiC¢kmμCamYynwgRbeTsdéT EdlGRtaGtiprNarbs;eK KWtictYc enaHkMriténéføEdlekIneLIgelOnenAkñúgRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH naMeTAeGayman karcuHexSayénsmtßPaBnaMecj nignaMeTAeGaymankartMrUvkarnaMcUlEdlkan;Et xøaMgeLIg. enAeRkamkarsnñidæanEdl)aneXIjenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH Edl GRtabþÚrR)ak;gakeTArkPaBefr CalT§plelcecjnUvkarkgVHtulükarénkarbMeBj karplit ehIyCalT§plbnþ KWkarhUrecjénrUbIyb½NÑ nigénmaskan;EtxøaMg eLIgBIRbeTsEdl)anCYbRbTHenaH. edaysarbBaðaenH eFVIeGaymankarkat; bnßynUvlT§PaBEdlpÁt;pÁg;sMrab;karGPivDÆn_énplitplvinieyaKTun EdlcaM)ac; ecjBIbreTs.

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dMeNIrkarGPivDÆn_BMuRtUv)anKaMRTEfmeToteT,Iy pÞúyBIenHeTAvijvanwgRtUv )ancab;RhVaMg. k¾dUcKñaenHkarGPivDÆn_énGtiprNaKaMRTPaKeRcIn nUvkarhUrTuneTA eRkARbeTsEdlenATIenaHGacpþlk; arbMrugTuksMrab;TMrg;énbirkça ¬=sþúk¦ Edlsnþsi ux mYy. dUcenHenATIenHTMhMénkarbegáItTunkñúgRbeTsRtUv)anraraMg nigdMeNIrkarén karGPivDÆn_eyageTAtamenaH KWkan;EtyWt. karrkeXIjCaBiesaFniym cMeBaHkarviPaKCalkçN³BiesaFniym (empirecal analysis) énTMnak;TMng rvagGRtaGtiprNa nigel,ÓnénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© CadMbUgeKGacsakl,gedIm,I TajecjBIkareRbobeFobtamExSepþkEdlCaGnþrCati (international horizontal comparison) nUvTMnak;TMngEdlkMNt;sMxan;³² (significant relations). enAkñúg taragmYy KW]TahrN_sMrab;kt;RtaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_EdlmancMnYnRbCaCn elIsBI 1 lan nigsMrab;kt;RtaTUrelxedayeyageTAtamenaH dUcCaGRtakMeNIn GDP RbcaMqñaMCamFüm nigGRtaGtiprNakñúgkMlugeBlmYy. karpþl;Tinñn½yenH RtUvTajeTAdak;kñúgtaragmYyeTotCama:RTIk (matrix) edIm,IRsavRCavnUvrlkénkarEbgEck (frequency distribution) RkumepSg²énGRta kMeNIn GDP nigénGRtaGtiprNa. CaTUeTAkareRbobeFobénExSepþkenH pþl;sBaØanUvTMnak;TMngGviC¢mand¾sMxan; (significant negative relation) mYyrvagGRtaekIneLIgén GDP nigGRtaGtiprNa EdleKkMrti EteTAelIEtGRtaGtiprNaEdlmandanya:geRCA ]TahrN_eTAelIGRta GtiprNaelIsBI 20%. pÞúyeTAvij cMeBaHGRtaGtiprNaEdlsmrmüBMubgðaj rUbPaBdUckrNIxagelIeGay)anc,as;las;eLIy. dUcenHehIyenAelImUldæanenH BMumanlT§PaBcemøIyeGayc,as;las;EdlfaGtiprNa KW]btßmÖénkarrIklUtlas; rWk¾raraMgEdllT§plenHRtUvEtkMNt;eGay)anc,as;las; edaykarRsavRCavEdl CaBiesaFniym (empirical research) déTeTotya:geRcIn. C.

156 # Economic Development

CakarBitkalNaeKlUkédRtLb;bkmkvij eTAelIkrNIénRbeTsEdlman GtiprNaya:gelOnvij enaHrUbPaBbgðajRtUvGac)anbkRsayya:gc,as; ³ drab Na {GtiprNahYsehtu (hyperinflation)} mansßitenA enaHlT§plEdlCakar raraMg énkarGPivDÆn_maneRcInelIslb;. CaTUeTAkarrMkilénGtiprNakan;EtxøaMg KaMRTCabnþbnÞab;nUvsnÞsSn_énstism,CBaس TaMgenHmann½yfaKuNsm,tþiénkar P½nþRcLMénfvikaEdlBMusmRsbenaH ¬karP½nþRcLMenHrIkraldalcMeBaH]sSahkr Cajwkjab;tictYcCagcMeBaHBlkr¦ nwgeFVIdMeNIreTArkPaB)at;bg;. bnÞab;mkPaB GviC¢manénGtiprNa KWvanwgekIneT,IgelIslb;. enaHmann½yfaecjBIGtiprNaBMu man\T§iBlEdlRTRTg;énkarGPivDÆn_eToteLIy. pÞúyeTAvijeKBi)akeFVIkareGabRkesabnUvlT§plénkarrIklUtlas; EdlCa viC¢man nigGviC¢manNas;cMeBaHGtiprNaEdlsmrmü. eRkABIenHlT§plenHERb RbYlBIRbeTsmYyeTARbeTsmYy nigBIcMnuceBlmYyeTAcMnuceBlmYyeTot. Ca cugbBa©b; eKBMuGacvinicä½yeGay)anc,as;las;EdlfaGtiprNaEdlkMNt;mYyman \T§iBlCaplRbeyaCn_énkarrIklUtlas; rWk¾Gt;enaHeT. dUcenHTaMgGs;enHKμanGVI EdlsßitenAeRkAelIkarBnül;enAkñúgkrNIc,as;las; EdlfaetImanPaBelIslb; énlT§plEdlCaviC¢man rWk¾GviC¢man. kalNaeKdak;RbQmTl;muxKñanUvsBaØa (+rW -) énkarERbRbYlénGRtaTaMg BIrEdl)anbgðajrvagkMlugeBlmYyeKeXIjman 56 krNI ¬RbeTs 56¦ man sBaØapÞúyKña nig 25 krNI ¬RbeTs 25¦ mansBaØadUcKñacMeBaHkarERbRbYl nImYy²rbs;vaénkMeNIn GDP nigénGRtaGtiprNa. dUcenH manEtRbEhl 30% énRbeTsEdl)aneFVIkarsegát mankarekIneLIg ¬fycuH¦énkarlUtlas; GDP Ca mYynwgkarekIneLIg ¬fycuH¦énGtiprNa. ÉRbEhlCa 70% énRbeTsEdl)an eFVIkarsegát sßitenAkñúgTMnak;TMngEdlpÞúyBIenHeTAvij. lT§plenHeKGacsnμt; müa:gEdlfa karbegáInsnÞúHénGtiprNabegáItCaBitR)akdnUvkarxUcxaténkarrIk lUtlas;yUrGEgVg nigmüa:geTot\T§iBlEdlxUcxaténkarGPivDÆn_énGtiprNaenH

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eFVIeGaycab;GarmμN_CadMbUgcMeBaH per capita Edlx<s; eRBaH per capita d¾tictYc manlT§PaBénkMritfvikanIykmμEdlCaRbePTenaH KWtictYcbMput. 3> viFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayfvikarsMrab;RTRTg;énkarRbugeRbobsnSM bTBiesaFn_GviC¢man EdlRbeTsCaeRcInRtUv)aneFVICamYynwgneya)ay karR)ak;TabEdl)anbgðajxagelI cMeBaHGñkesdæviTUepSg²naMeGaymankarmnÞil sgS½yya:gxøaMgmYyeTAelIEdlfaneya)ayenH vasmRsbeTAnwgsUrs½BÞrbs; RbeTsGPivDÆn_Edr rWeT. BuMRtwmEtGRtaGtiprNaEdlekIneLIgd¾x<s;CamYynwg lT§plénkarGPivDÆn_EdlCaTUeTAGviC¢manrbs;va eRkABIenHeTotPaBsuCI MerAnIykmμ énTunénplitkmμEdlmankarxUcxaténkarGPivDÆn_ya:xøaMg EdlRtUv)anekIteLIg edaysarGRtakarR)ak;Tab nigbegáIteGaymankareRbIR)as;EdlBMumanRbsiT§PaB mYyénTunEdlCalkçN³esdækic©xVHxat )annaMeTAeGayEdlfaPaBcaM)ac;EdlRKb; RKan;énKMeragkarsnSMd¾FM sMrab;hirBaØvtßúénkarvinieyaKTunRtUv)anrkeXIjeLIgvij enAkñúgTMhMEdlnwgekIneLIgmYy. Goldsmith, TsSn³Tanénneya)ayfvikaEdlRtUvcab;GarmμN_eday Mchinon nig Shaw KW)anbegáIteLIgsMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_EdlmanTunxVH xat. eyageTAtamKat;RbeTsenaH RtUvTamTargakecjTaMgRsugmYyBITIpSarTun EdleKobsgát;edaykarR)ak;TabEdlkMNt;edaysßab½n. RbeTsenHTamTar Edlfaneya)ayfvikarBMuRtUvRbugRby½tñ rWEfrkSaCacMbgsMrab;kar]btßmÖénkarRbug eRbobénkarvinieyaKTunénshRKineT eRkABIenHRtUvEfrrkSasMrab;karRbmUlpþúMénkar snSMEdlCaÉkCnedIm,ITTYl)annUvFnFan EdlRtUvcaM)ac;sMrab;hirBaØvtßúénkar vinieyaKTun. kalNaeKcab;epþImecjBIkarsnñidæanénRTwsþIEdlCaburaNniym (classical theory) enaH buraNEbbfμI (neo-classical theory) EdlfakarekIneLIgénTMhMén R)ak;snSMCamYynwgGRtakarR)ak;ekIneLIg nigCamYykarCYyénkarekIneLIgén GRtakarR)ak;enaH karekIneLIgénGRtakarsnSMEdlCalkçN³esdækic©CatiRtUv)an

158 # Economic Development

sMerc)an nigCamYyenaHkarekIneLIgénskþanuBlénhirBaØvtßúsMrab;karvinieyaKTun k¾RtUvsMerc)anEdr. bMNkRsayenHRtUv)anKaMRTedayGMNHGMNageTAelIkar RsavRCavEdlCaBiesaFniymrbs; Gupta Chandavarkar nig Fry ³ GñkesdæviTU TaMgenH )anRsavRCavsMrab;RbeTsCaeRcInEdlRtUv)anRsavRCav. edaysarBYk Kat;eTIbeK)anrkeXIjnUvshTMnak;TMngEdlviC¢mansMxan;mYy (significantly positiv correlation) rvagTMhMénkarR)ak;Bit nigTMhMénkarbegáItkarsnSMeday esdækic©RKYsar. CakarBit\T§iBlviC¢manénkarR)ak;BiteTAelIkarbegáIténkarsnSM EdlCaÉk CnRtUv)anTUTat;edayRbtikmμGviC¢manmYyénkarbegáItkarsnSM EdlCalkçN³rdæ ¬edaysarkatBVkic©esva:CMBak;énrdæ cMeBaHkarekIneLIgénkarR)ak;enaH¦ sMrab;kar viPaKénkarsnSMEdlCalkçN³esdækic©srub. k¾b:uEnþeTaHbIkñúgkrNIenHk¾eday ecjBIkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;GacbgðajnUvlT§pl énkarbegáItTunEdl viC¢manmYy. enaHmann½yfakarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak; Ca]TahrN_GaccUlrYm cMENkEdlfaTMhMénkarrkSasac;R)ak;RtUv)ankat;bnßy nigRtUv)aneRbIR)as;sMrab; karekIneLIgmYyénbrikçaTunsMrab;sßab½nhirBaØvtßú. qøgkat;bBaðaenHehdæarcna sm<½n§hirBaØvtßúGacBRgIkskþanuBlhirBaØvtßú\NTanrbs;xøÜn. TaMgenaHmann½yfa lT§PaBsMrab;hirBaØvtßúénkarGPivDÆn_ EdlCaesdækic©Cati)aneFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIr eLIg. TaMgGs;enH BitR)akdRtwmRtUvEdlfakarmansßabnarYcCaeRscénehdæa rcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßú GacnaMeTAeGaymankarekIneLIgya:gxøaMgmYyénkarbegáItkar snSM EdlCahirBaØvtßúedayqøgkat;karTij rWdak;CaBaküsUmTijénhirBaØvtßúskmμ. k¾b:uEnþlT§plenHGaceFVIeGaykan;EtxøaMgeLIgEfmeTot edayneya)ayGRtakar R)ak;EdleyageTAtammYy. CakarBitbTBiesaFn_CaRbvtþisaRsþEdl)anTaj ecjBIétva:n;kñúgkMlugTsvtSn_ 50 nigRbeTskUer:xagt,ÚgkñúgkMlugTsvtSn_ 60 )anbgðajeGayeXIjfaP½BVMNagRbePTenHekIteLIg sMrab;RbmUlpþMúénkarsnSM Edlkan;EtxøaMgenAkñúgTMhMEdlKYreGaycab;GarmμN_³ enAkñúgRbeTsTaMgBIkarR)ak;

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énkarsnSMdMbUg (nominal saving interest) )aneFVIeGayekIneLIgya:gxøaMg Edlfa karykkarR)ak;Bit)anbgðajenAkñúgTMhMRbEhl 15%. CakarBitedaysarbBaðaenH vis½yFnaKarRtUv)anhUrcUlnUvFnFanya:g Rkas;ERkl. TaMgGs;enHelcecjPaKeRcInEdlfakarsnSMEdlBMuEmnCahirBaØvtßú CaeRcIn dUcCa mas nigkarsþúkRtUv)anbMElgkñúgry³eBlya:gxøIeTACahirBaØvtßú. dUcenHGRtakarR)ak;RtUvpþl;eGayGñksnSMnUvkarCMruj rWkarelIkTwkcitþkarsnSMrbs; eKeGaydak;TunCaGtßiPaBenAkñúgtulükarénFnaKar nigEdlBuMEmnCaTMrg; Camas elah³FatumantMélRbePTsþúkdéTeToténGcln³vtßú rWk¾vtßúFatuedImepSg²eT,Iy. edIm,IkarBarkaryl;RcLMepSg²Edl)anelIkeLIg GRtakarR)ak;BMuGnuBaØat eGayeLIgdl;kMritmYy EdlfakarekIneLIgenaHnaMeTAeGaymanPaBelIslb;mYy énkarsnSMelIskarvinieyaKeT,Iy. sMrab;TMhMénkarekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) karsnSMEdlGaRs½ynwgGRtakarR)ak;sgÁm nigkarvinieyaKTun EdlGaRs½yGRtakarR)ak;épÞkñúg nigGRtakarR)ak;sgÁm¦ manTMhMGtßn½ydUcKña. dUcenHGRtakarR)ak;nImYy² Edlcg;)anCaGRtakarR)ak;EdlBMunaMeTAeGayman \T§iBlénkarBnüWt ¬EdlGaRs½ynwgkarsnSMk¾dUcCaEdlGaRs½ynwgkarvinieyaK¦ sMrab;karekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) eLIy. k¾b:uEnþlkç½NÐenHbMeBj )anEtsmtaGRtakarR)ak;dUcEdlsmtaGRtakarR)ak; Edl)anbgðajenAkñúg rUbPaBxagelI ¬enAkñúgemeronneya)ayénGRtakarR)ak;¦ enARtg;karR)ak; i . cMeBaH GRtakarR)ak;EdltictYcmYyGacnaMeTAeGaymankarsnSMEdltictYcmYy cMeBaH GRtakarR)ak;Edlx<s;mYyEdleFVIeGaymankarvinieyaKTuntictYcGacnaM eTAeGaymankarbegáItTunEdlBMuRKb;RKan;mYy. eRkABIenH neya)ayfvikaEdl esrIPavUbnIykmμRbePTenHeTAelITpI SarfvikarEdlRtUv)anRKb;RKg GacmanlT§pl EdlviC¢man EdlfacenøaHRbehagénGRtakarR)ak;rvagTIpSarfvikarEdlRtUv)an RKb;RKg nigTIpSarfvikaEdlBMumanfvikarRKb;RKan; rWBMu)anRKb;RKan; (financial dualist) GacRtUv)anbiTP¢ab;CaCMh‘an² nigqøgkat;bBaðaenHTIpSarfvikaEdlBMuRtUv )anRKb;RKgGacRtUv)aneFVIeGayeRkoms¶Üt. 2

160 # Economic Development

enAkñúgemeronesdækic©TVikniym )anbgðajeGayeXIjenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_xøHmanekIteLIgnUvTVikniyménhirBaØvtßú (financial dualist). CamYyenaH TIpSarfvikaEdlRKb;RKgRtUv)anbkRsay rWemIleXIjCajwkjab; ¬eyaleTAelI neya)ayénGRtakarR)ak;TabEdl)anbgðajxagelI¦ nUvGRtakarR)ak;d¾TabmYy. k¾b:uEnþcMeBaHTIpSarenHmanCaTUeTAEtvinieyaKKinecjBIvis½yTMenIbEtb:ueNÑaH. pÞúy eTAvijGñkvinieyaKKinénvis½y EdlCaRbéBNIRtUvCMBak;bMNuleTAelITIpSarfvika EdlBMuRtUv)anRKb;RKgCamYynwgkMriténGRtakarR)ak;rbs;eK EdlEpñkxøHx<s;CaTI bMput. k¾b:uEnþGRtakarR)ak;x<s;enHmansuBlPaBEtsMrab;\NTanEtb:ueNÑaH É GRtakarR)ak;énR)ak;beBaØI rWkarbNþak;TunenAkñúgTIpSarfvikaEdlBMuRKb;RKgmanGRta CaTUeTATabbMputkñúgkrNIGñkx©IfvikaEdlCaÉkCncg;TTYl)annUvR)ak;beBaØI rWkar bNþak;TunxagelIenaH. CamYyTMnak;TMngenH kareFVIeGayekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;sMrab;R)ak;;beBaØI nigsMrab;\NTanenAelITpI Sar EdlRtUv)anRKb;RKgGacRtUvmanskmμPaBnUv\T§Bi l EdlviC¢manya:gxøaMg ³ edaysarkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;énR)ak;beBaØIGaceFVI eGaysMercbMngnUvlT§plénkarRbmUlpþúMkarsnSM EdlCakarBRgIknUvskþanuBlén hirBaØb,TanénTIpSarEdlRtUv)anRKb;RKg. qøgkat;bBaðaenH nigkñúgkrNIneya )aykarR)ak;enHRtUv)anedIrRsb rWCUndMeNIredaykarsßabnaénRbB½n§ehdæarcna sm<½n§hirBaØvtßúpgGaceFVIeGayGñktMrUvkar\NTanecjBIvis½yRbéBNIeTAx©IbMNule nAkñúgTIpSarhirBaØvtßúEdlRtUv)anRKb;RKg ³ TIpSarfvikaEdlBMu)anRKb;RKgGacRtUv eFVIeGayrIgs¶ÜtCaCMh‘an² ehIyTVikniyménhirBaØvtßúGacnwgRtUvbM)at;ecal. Mckinnan )anbkRsayeTAelITidæPaBbnþeTotmYy. sMrab;Kat;fvikabgðaj Ca]TahrN_ rWCaviFankarN_d¾sMxan;sMrab;karekIneLIg (accumulation) énplit plTunEdlCaplitkmμ. TMnak;TMngenH Kat;TajecjCadMbUgBIskmμPaBBit Edl fahirBaØbTanénkarvinieyaKTunEdlFM KWTamTarnUvbrikçasac;R)ak;CamFümd¾x<s; mYyCaghirBaØbTanénkarvinieyaKTunEdltUc. CaRtLb;mkvij karvinieyaKTun EdlFMenaH KWcaM)ac;sMrab;karsMercbMNgénmaRtdæanesdækic© (economic of

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énRbeTsenaH. ehtuenHTMnak;TMngviC¢manenH ekIteLIgrvagTinñplénTun nigTMhMénkarvinieyaKTun rWk¾GRtaénkarvinieyaKTunEdlCamYynwgplitplsgÁm Edl)anpþl;eGay kalNaGRtaénkarvinieyaKTunkan;EtFMenaH TinñplénTunk¾kan; Etx<s; nigbnÞab;mkkarrkSasac;R)ak; rWGakb,kiriyaénkarrkSasac;R)ak;Bit EdlcaM )ac;enaHk¾kan;EtTUlMTUlaypgEdr. müa:gvijeTotenAelIépÞénesdækic©srub TMhMénkarsnSMEdlCahirBaØvtßúRtUv ekIneLIg kalNaR)ak;cMNUlecjBIkarsnSMenHekIneLIg TaMgGs;enHCalT§pl d¾c,as;las;ecjBIbTBiesaFn_RbeTsétva:n; nigkUer:. CamYyenH karekIneLIgén GRtakarR)ak;eTAelIkarsnSMénR)ak;beBaØIGacBRgIknUvRkbx½NÐhirBaØvtßú EdlcaM)ac; sMrab;RbtibtiþkarN_énkarvinieyaKTun nigedaysarbBaðaenH lT§plénkarrkSa sac;R)ak;Bti nwgekIneLIg nigGaceFVeI GaymanRbtibtþki arN_nUvectnaénkarvinei yaK d¾FMeT,Ig. RtLb;mkvijTajecjBIenaH mannUvlT§plénkarekIneLIgPaBGac cMeNj)an rWTinñplénTunEdldUckarkt;sMKal;rbs; Mckinnan Cajwkjab;FM CagkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;EdlelcecjeLIgBIlT§plenH. scale)

enAeRkamTidæPaBenHkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;GacRtUvkMlacitþ rWpþl; kMlaMgcitþdl;karvinieyaKTun nigBMuGacRtUveFVIeGaymankarGs;sgÇwmeLIy.

CakarBitneya)ayfvikarkñúgRbeTs EdlRtUvesrIPavUbnIykmμBuMGacedaH RsaybBðaénkarGPivDÆn_TaMgGs;)aneLIy. dUcCaGVIepSgEdlRtUv)anelIkeLIgrYc mkehIy KWktþaCaeRcInEdlsMrab;karbegáInsnÞúHéndMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_k¾)an edIrtYnaTICamYyenaHsMxan;pgEdr. k¾b:uEnþkarcUlrYménkarGPivDÆn_d¾BiessénTI pSarTunBMuRtUvGnuBaØatieGayvaytMélTabeLIyenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ dUcenH karTamTarCamUldæaneyageTAtamesrIPavUbnIykmμkan;EtxøaMgkøamYy énTIpSar hirBaØvtßúRtUvEtelIkeLIgmkniyay. CakarBitbTBiesaFn_énRbeTsEdlRtUv)anGPivDÆn_rYc elcecjeFVIeGay eCOCak; EdlfakareFVIbnþbnÞab;énviFankarN_esrIPavUbnIykmμsMrab;CMnYjTIpSar hirBaØvtßúEdleyageTAtamdMeNIrkarénkarGPivDÆn_ KWsMrab;ryHeBlyUrmanRb

162 # Economic Development

eyaCn_CagkarRtYtBinitüd¾BiessEdlRtUveFVIniy½tkmμ (regulate) edaypÞal;eTA elITIpSarhirBaØvtßú. PaBERbRbYlEdlcaM)ac;GacRtUv)anRbtibtþiCaCMh‘an rWk¾Pøam² dUcEdlTaMgGs;enH )ankt;sMKal;kñúgkrNIRbeTsétva:n; nigkUer:CaedIm. k¾b:uEnþ

CaTUeTAbBaØatiþCarYmEdlmansBlPaBdUckarGHGagxagelI KWsMrab;TIenHBMumaneT³ RbeTsnImYy²manRbePTpÞal;xøÜnEdlCasßab½n (institutional identities)Etmþg nigedaymanRbePTpÞal;xøÜndUcenH eKRtUvEtBicarNaeTAtamneya)ayTIpSar hirBaØvtßúEdleyageTAtamenaH.

mUldæanRKwHénneya)ayhirBaØvtßú 1> karbgáðajesckþIsucriténviFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayhirBaØvtßú CaEpñkTIBIr énneya)aysklEdlCama:RkUesdækic©EdlelcecjTnÞwmnwg neya)ayfvika KWneya)ayhirBaØvtßú. enAeRkamsBaØaN {neya)ayhirBaØvtßú} KWeKeGabRkesabnUvviFankarN_TaMgGs;EdlRbtibtþi rWEdlman\T§iBleTAelI esdækic©saFarN³ (public economics). rhUtmkdl;eBlenH viFankarN_Edl CahirBaØvtßúmandUcCa cMNUlrbs;rdæ ¬=neya)ayénkarcMNUl¦ nig¼rWk¾karcMNay rbs;rdæ ¬=neya)ayénkarcMNay¦ EdlCakmμvtßú. esckþIsucritEdlCalkçN³ esdækic©énneya)ayhirBaØvtßúGacsMerc)anCaTUeTA edaysarkarcg¥úlbgðajEdl fakarsMerccitþénkartMrUvkar nigrWk¾énkarpÁt;pÁg;Edldac;edayET,kBIKña nigCamYy EdlfakarsMerccitþnimYy²enaHRtUv)ankac;cgáÚtdwknaMedayemkanicénTIpSar vanwg eFVIeGaymanCalT§plxUcxateKalbMNgénPaBrIklUtlas; dUcCakñúgeKal bMNgEbgEckkMlaMgBlkmμ (= allocation goal) nig/rWk¾eKalbMNgekIneLIgén Tun (=accumulation goal) rWk¾eFVIeGaymanCalT§plxUcxaténeKalbMNgEbg EckR)ak;cMNUlEdlKWRtUvEtEkERbBIrdæ. k¾b:uEnþkarXaMgTb;k¾)ansegáteXIjEdr EdlfaviFankarN_RbePTenH KWGac sMrab;sMerc)anénPaBRbesIrbMputénneya)ayGPivDÆn_. EtCakarBitRbePTneya )ayhirBaØvtßúBMuRtUvbgçMeFVIeT CaRTwsþITaMgviFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayénkarerobry H

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k¾dUcCaEdlCaneya)ayDINamIk (regulation and dynamic instruments) ecjBI EpñkdéTeToténneya)ayesdækic©k¾)ancUlrYmcMENksMrab;eKalbMNg EdlRtUv cg;)anenaHEdr. TaMgenHmann½yfa sMrab;eKalbMNgEdlRtUvcg;)anenaHGac cab;epþmI ecjBIneya)ayfvikaEdlmanTisedACaskl rhUtdl;kareFVvI Fi ankarN_ GnþraKmn_EdleRCIserIsedaypÞal;NamYy. EtPaBcaM)ac;énviFankarN_neya )ayhirBaØvtßúRtUvya:gticbMputRtUvEtCasaebkçPaB (relativity). eyagtamkarbkRsayEdlCamUldæanxagelIenH lT§PaBsMxan;énviFan karN_EdlCaneya)ayhirBaØvtßúenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUvelIkykmkBnül; . CamYyenaH eyageTAtamkarEbgEckEdl)aneFVIBIxagedIm eKEbgEckrvagviFan karN_EdlCaneya)ayénkarcMNUl nigviFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayénkar cMNay. cMeBaHkarviPaKenATIenH KW\T§iBlnImYy²énviFankarN_hirBaØvtßúTaMgenH EdlmaneTAelIeKalbMNgEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_RtUv)anbgðajCanic©Cakal. 2> viFankarN_EdlCaneya)ayénkarcMNUl 2>1> RbB½n§énkarcMNUlenAkñúgRbeTs karEbgEckCabnÞab;bnSMdMbUgmYyénkarcMNUlEdlCasaFarN³enAkñúgR) ak;cMNUlEdlCasareBIBn§ bgðajeGayeXIjfaCaTUeTAenAkñúgRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_Bn§ KWCaRbePTcMNUlEdlsMxan;bMput. cMeBaHkarcMNUlénesdækic© saFarN³ rab;bBa©ÚlTinñplecjBIRTBüsm,tþi karpÁt;pÁgTMnijénshRKasrdæ nig karepÞrplitpl nigRTBüFnecjBIbreTs. k¾b:uEnþRkuménkarcMNUlEdlBMuesμIsac; enH begáIt)anCaEpñkya:gtUcmYyéncMNUlsrub ebIeyageTAtamkarviPaKTinñn½y TaMgenHtamExSepþk (horizontal analysis). CaBitR)akd enAkñúgRbeTsxøHRtUv)anrMBwgfashRKassaFarN³GaceFVI esdækic©)anTTYlR)ak;cMeNj ehIyEdlshRKasenaH GacnaMykeTAeGayrdæ nigqøgkat;bBaaðenH GacnwgcUlrYmcMENksMrab;kareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIg éncMNUlrbs;rdæ. k¾b:uEnþkarrMBwgRbePTenH)anbgðajeGayeXIjCajwkjab;

164 # Economic Development

BMuGaceFVIeTA)aneLIy ³ enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIn shRKasrdæ KWpÞúkhYskMritCamYynwg Parkic©sgÁm dUcCa]TahrN_ karbegáItkEnøgkargar rWkarrkSaeGayenAesßrénéfø EdlTabsMrab;plitplKnøwH EdlkarbMeBjrbs;eKenHeFVIeGaymanlT§PaBPaK eRcInnUvkarxatbg;CMnYsénkarcMeNjEdlRtUvrMBwgTukenaHvij. eRkABIenHshRKasrdæxVHxatnUv kardwknaMCMnYj (business management) EdlmanKuNPaB nigsmtßPaBbMeBjkarplitRKb;RKan;. TaMgenaHmann½yfa eKBMuRtUvGacKitCamYynwgkareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIrCabnþbnÞab;mYyéncMNUlrbs;r dæ edaysarkarhUrcUlénkarcMeNjrbs;shRKassaFarN³eLIy. PaKeRcIn shRKasrdæbgðajeGayeXIjCasßanb½nén]btßmÖFn EdlCMnYsBIkarpþl;énkar cMNUlcUlrdæ KWpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgEtkarcMNayecjBIrdæeTAvij. EtcMeBaHshRKasEr: dUcCaFüÚgfμ nigeRbgkat enAkñúgRbeTsxøH dUcCa BiessRbeTsEdlnaMecjeRbgkat GaceFVIeGaymanlT§PaBéncMNUld¾FMTUlay rbs;rdæ edaysarkarhUrcUlénkarcMeNjrbs;shRKasenaH. k¾b:uEnþkarcMNUl enHGacRtUvcat;TukdUcCakarcMNUlecjBIkarykBn§énshRKasedaypÞal;mYy edayeyageTAtam\T§iBlrbs;va. dUcenHeKGaclHbg;sMrab;kareFVIkarBicarNa eTAelIcMNUlRbePTenHEtvapÞal;)an. eRkABIenHeTot eKGacelIkElgkarbgðaj CaTUeTAsMrab;RkumRbePTcMNUlEdlenAesssl;enH dUcCa{karepÞrecjBI breTs} EdledIrtYCacMNUlya:gsMxan;mYy kalNaesdækic©rdæénRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_mYyRtUv)anTTYlCMnYyedaypÞal;BIrdædéTeTot. TidæPaBEdlTak;Tg eTAnwg {karepÞrBIbreTs} enHeyIgnwgelIkykmksikSaenAeBleRkay.

dUcenHkarBiPakSaénneya)aykarcMNUlénrdæenATIenHmanRBMEdnEteTAelI neya)ayBn§.

RbB½n§Bn§énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHpþl;lkçN³enAkñúgeKaledABIrénRbB½n§B n§énRbeTs]sSahkmμ. k- enAkñúgeKaledAEdlCabrimaN TMhMénbnÞúkEdlCaBn§enAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_ KWTabya:gxøaMgeRbobeTAenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμ. edayeyageTA

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tam empirical analysis GRtaénbnÞúkBn§ ¬=plEckrvagTinñplBn§ nigGDP¦ KWenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_Cajwkjab;esμIEtBak;kNþalénTMhMGRtaBn§enAkñúgRb eTs]sSahkmμ. cMeBaHGRtabnÞúkénBn§d¾tictYcenH enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ enaH KWmanmkBImUlehtuepSg² ³ - CadMbUg per capita d¾Tab GaceFVIeGaymanEtskþanuBlénBn§d¾tictYc mYysMrab;RbeTsenH. k¾dUcCasmtßPaBénkarsnSMEdr skþanuBlénBn§rbs; RbeTsmYyGaRs½ytYya:geTAelIPaBelIslb;én per capita eTAelIR)ak;cMNUl EdlsMrab;CIvPaBGtibrima. kalNa per capita énRbeTsmYykan;EtTabenaH skþanuBlénBn§Edlmank¾kan;Ettic. - sMrab;krNIepSgeTot cMENkénEpñkCIvRBitþ (subsistance sector) Edl pþl;EtlT§PaBénviFankarN_d¾tictYcsMrab;karykBn§ edaysarEtmankarBi)akén kareGabRkesabTUrelxBIEpñkenH. CalT§plsßitenACajwkjab;Etvis½y]sSa hkmμEtb:ueNÑaHEdlCaGas½ydæansMrab;viFankarN_neya)ayBn§EdlenAesss l;enaH. k¾b:uEnþvis½yenH bgðajeGayeXIjenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHBMumannUv skþanuBlénTunEdlpþl;ePaKplsMrab;karykBn§mYyenaHeLIy edaymUlehtu TMhMd¾tUcrbs;vis½yenHenAkñúgRbeTsenH. - elIsBIenHeTAeTotsßanPaBénkarGb;rMbNþúHbNþal Edljwkjab;k¾Tab sMrab;RbCaCn cMeNHdwgBMuRKb;RKan; stism,CBaسEdlxVHxaténkatBVkic©Bn§ rdæaPi)alTn;exSay TMnak;TMngneya)ayBMumanesßPaB k¾dUcCardæ)alhirBaØvtßú EdlBukrlYy nigEdlbMeBjkargarPaKeRcInxVHxat KWCH\T§iBlraraMgeTAelIkar pþl;ePaKplénBn§nImYy². CaBitR)akd ktþaEdlCH\T§iBlGviC¢maneTAelIskþanuBlBn§énRbeTsmYy nwg)at;bg;Gtßn½yrbs;xøÜn CamYynwgsßanPaBénkarGPivDÆn_EdlnwgekIneLIgenaH TaMgenHmann½yfa GRtabnÞúkBn§EdlnwgekIneLIgCaCMh‘an²mYyGacRtUvrMBwg. x- TnÞwmnwwgbnÞúkBn§d¾tictYcenH eKGacbgðajnUvcariklkçN³énkarEckdac; BIKñaEdlCaKuNPaBrvagRbB½n§Bn§énRbeTs]sSahkmμ nigRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_.

166 # Economic Development

enAkñúgenaHcMENkénBn§edaypÞal;enAkñúgTinñplénTunrbs;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWtictYcCagenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμ. cMeBaHRkuménBn§edaypÞal;rab;bBa©ÚlCa mYyenaH nUvBn§TaMgLayNaEdlmanTisedAeTAelIkareGabRkesabedaypÞal; énBn§EdlCabuKÁl ]TahrN_ dUcCaBn§elIR)ak;cMNUl Bn§elIKMnRTBüsm,tþi Bn§elIRTBüsm,tþiEdlekIneT,Ig rWBn§énkarcMNayTUeTA nigBn§EdlCasMPar³ ]TahrN_ dUcCaBn§saCIvkmμ Bn§eTAelIktþaplitkmμEdlCaBiess Bn§eTAelIkar manplitpl EdlBiess k¾dUcCaBn§eTAelIkarekIneLIgénrbs;mantMél. pÞúyBIenHBn§edayRbeyalmanTisedAeTAelIEtkareGabRkesabedayRbe yalénBn§EdlCabuKÁl ]TahrN_ dUcCaBn§Ky Bn§eTAelIkartMrUvkarEdl Biess ¬]TahrN_ saMg karehV Et sá Rsaebo Rsa. l.¦ rWBn§énhirBaØvtßúpþac; mux nigBn§EdlCasMParH ]TahrN_ dUcCa Bn§eTAelIplcMNUlTUeTA. CakarBit RbB½n§Bn§énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcIn bgðajeGayeXIjTMhM d¾elIslb;mYy énBn§edayRbeyalenAkñúgRbB½n§Bn§rbs;RbeTsTaMgenaH. eRBaH faBn§enH )anpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgRbePTepSg²énkareRbIR)as;cMNUl ]TahrN_ dUcCa eTAnwgskmμPaBénkarTijrbs;RbCaCnCaedIm. dUcenH eKGaceFVIeGaygaysMerc )an CagkarykBn§edaypÞal;Edl)andak;eTAelIKMnénRTBüsm,tþi rWk¾eTAelI eKaledAénR)ak;cMNUl eRBaHKMnrRTBüsm,tþi rWk¾R)ak;cMNUlenaH eKBMuGacman lT§PaBeGabRkesab nUvmUldæanvas;sÞg;eGayc,as;las;)aneTenAkñúgkrNI CaeRcIn. TnÞwmnwgenAkñúgRbeTs]sSahkmμ Bn§edaypÞal; nigedayRbeyalrkSa )anCamYynwgTinñplRbhak;RbEhlesμIKñamYyenaH sMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_vij bgðajeGayeXIjnUvGRtaBn§ EdlpÞúyBIenaH ¬60 – 90% énGRtaBn§ KW)anmkBIBn§ edayRbeyal¦. karelIkElgecjBIrcnasm<½n§RbePTenH KWmanEtsMrab;RbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_NaEdlmansßitenATMhMya:gFMénvtßúFatuedIm CaBiesseRbgkat. karsakl,gCaeRcInEdlRtUv)aneFVIeLIg edIm,IGnuvtþn_énkarEkERbrcna sm<½n§EdlmanTisedAeTAelIPaBpþl;pld¾xøaMgkøamYyénBn§edaypÞal;enAkñúgRbeT

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skMBugGPivDÆn_xøH KWPaKeRcInRtUv)anTTYlbraC½y edayktþaEdldUcKñanwgktþa EdlCamUlehtusMrab;GRtaBn§d¾tictYcénRbeTsenaHrYceTAehIy. CakarBitcMeBaH kareRbIR)as;EdlCalT§plénc,ab;Bn§EdlnwgbegáIteLIgenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivD Æn_CaeRcIn KWeKGacsMerc)annUvTinñplBn§d¾x<s;CagnUvTinñplBn§EdlCakrNI BImunmk. TaMgenHmanCa]TahrN_ dUcCaeRkayBIkarEkrTMrg;énrdæ)alhirBaØvtßú kñúgRbeTs TinñplBn§cMeBaHc,ab;Bn§EdlBImunBMuERbRbYlenaH GacRtUv)anekIneLIg ]TahrN_enAhVIlIBIn )anekIneT,IgrhUtdl; 80%. k¾b:uEnþkareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIrénrdæ)alhirBaØvtßúrebobenH GacsMerc)an enAkñúgkarGnuvtþn_EtCamYynwgkarRbwgERbgya:gxøaMg. eRkABIenHkareFVIeGaykan; EtRbesIrenH CMTas;eTAnwgTisedAtYnaTIénRkúmEdlmantYnaTIRKb;RKg. enAeRkam kal³eTs³enH rdæaPi)alénRbeTsCaeRcInTajeTAmuxEfmeTotedIm,IP¢ab;eday c,ab;Bn§EdlmandMbUgenaH eTAnwgRbPBBn§fμIepSg²eTot. müa:geTotTaMgBn§Edl )anekIneLIg ehIyk¾dUcCaBn§EdlCaskþanuBlfμI BMuGnuBaØatiRtUvvinicä½yEtPaBpþl; ePaKplEdlCasareBIBn§rbs;vaEtb:ueNÑaHeT PaKeRcInRbB½n§Bn§srubénRbeTs mYybgðajnUvviFankarN_sMrab;sMerc)anéneKalbMNgEdlCaesdækic©srub. dUc enH karykBn§TUeTARtUvEtvinicä½yfaetIkarGnuvtþn_CafμI karrkSaTuk rWk¾karbM)at;ecal rbs;va naMeTAeGaymankMritsMerc)anRbesIrmYy cMeBaHeKalbMNgénPaBrIklUt las; (= factor allocation + capital accumulation) nigeKalbMNgénkarEbg Eck (income distribution) EdrrWeT?. enAeRkamTsSn³enH naMeGayCabnþeTAenH eKRtUvsikSaRsavRCavGMBIlT§plepSg² énkarBRgIkBn§edayRbeyal nigBn§ edaypÞal;. 2>2> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarBRgIkénBn§edayRbeyal eRBaHfaenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ karRbmUlBn§edayRbeyalelcecj gayCagkarRbmUlBn§edaypÞal; dUcenHCadMbUglT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarBRgIkbnþ eTotmYyénkarykBn§edayRbeyalRtUv)ansikSaRsavRCavpgEdrenATIenH. enA kñúgkarBiPakSaEdlCaGnþrCatienATIenH RtUvbgðajCadMbUgeTAelIBn§énplcMNUl

168 # Economic Development

TUeTAeTAelIBn§énkartMrUvkarEdlCaBiess k¾dUcCaeTAelIBn§daénBaNiC¢kmμ eRkARbeTsEdlCaBiessBn§Ky KWCalT§pléncMnuccab;epþImsMrab;kareFVIeGay kan;EtRbesIreLIgénPaBpþl;ePaKplEdlCasareBIBn§énRbB½n§Bn§Edl)anekIteLI genH. enAeBlenHeyIgRtUvsikSaBI\T§iBlCamUldæanénBn§edayRbeyaleTAelIeKa lbMNgEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_ ehIyEdlnwgmanplRbeyaCn_enATIenH kalNaeKcab;epþImBIsßanPaBEdlmkdl;eBlenHBMuTan;)anRbmUlBn§edayRbeya lenAeLIy. TaMgenHCalT§plecjBIkarGnuvtþn_ rWkarRbtibtþiénBn§EdlCaRbePT enH. CaTUeTAmannUvkarekIneLIgéføcMeBaHplitpl Edl)anCYbRbTHedaysarkar ykBn§edayRbeyalenaH eRBaHfaBn§edayRbeyal hak;bIdUcCaR)ak;ebovtS rWk¾karbg;tMélénkarR)ak; rWk¾CakarcMNayeTAelIvtßúFatuedImEdr. l. edaymanPaBCaTMhMénkarbg;tMélenAkñúgkarKNnaéføénshRKasenaH Bn§edayRbeyalenaH )aneFVIeGayRkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg;TIpSarénplitplEdl )anCYbRbTHenaHrMkileTAelIesμInwgcMnYnénGRtaBn§enaH. enAkñúgrUbxageRkam KWCa lT§plTaMgenHEdl)anbgðajP¢ab;CamYynwgRkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg; nigénkartMrUvkar EdlgayRsYlmYy. A tagbgðajCaRkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg;BImun. A tagbgðajnUv RkahVikpÁt;pÁg;EdleyageTAtameRkayBIkarRbmUlBn§. GRtaBn§Edl)ankMNt;Ca cMnYnfvikaEdlefrkñúg 1Éktaplitpl KW S T (=P U). bnÞab;mksmta rWtulüPaBénEføekIneLIgBI P eTA P TnÞwmnwgcMnYnplitplfycuHBI X mk X . ecjBIrUbPaBxageRkam eFVIeGayelcecjeLIgEdlfatulüPaBénéføekIn eLIgticCagcMnYnBn§EdlTaMgenHmann½yfaGñkpÁt;pÁg;TTYl)anplcMNUlsuT§ticC agBImun. Bn§enHRtUv)anErkBn§TaMgedayshRKas k¾dUcCaedayTaMgGñkeRbIR)as; Edr. cMENkBn§énGñktMrUvkar rWGñkeRbIR)as; KWkan;EtFM kalNakartMrUvkarkan;Et BMueGLasÞIk (= going to full inelastic) TaMgenHmann½yfa kalNaGñktMrUvkar XaMgTb;kan;EtticnUvkartMrUvkarénplitplEdl)anCYbRbTHeRkayBIkarekIneLIgé néfømYy. kalNakarpÁt;pÁg;kan;EteGLasÞIk (=going to full elastic) TaMgenH 0

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mann½yfa kalNaGñkpÁt;pÁg;eRkayBIkarfycuHmYyénéføsuT§rbs;eK)aneFVIRbti kmμkan;EtxøaMgCamYynwgkarbgçaMgTb;énkarpÁt;pÁg;plitplrbs;eK. karbEgVrénBn§d¾eBjeljmYyeTAelIGñktMrUvkar rWGñkeRbIR)as;ekItmaneLIg kalNaGñkpÁt;pÁg;ERbRbYlKμanTIbBa©b; ¬=RkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg;RbRBitþeTACabnÞat; epþk (horizontal) RsbeTAnwgG½kSGab;sIus¦ rWk¾kartMrUvkar KWCab;KaMgrwgqÁwgTaMg Rsug¬=RkahVikénkartMrUvkarRbRBwtþeTACabnÞat;Ekg (vertical) eTAnwgG½kSGab;sIus dUcenAkñúgkrNIénRkahVik N enAkñúgrUbPaBxageRkam¦. CamYyenH enAkñúgkrNI Edl)anbgðajenAxageRkayeKenH KWcMnYnplitplEdlRtUvlk;beBa©jsßitenA esßr (X ). TnÞwmnwgcMeBaHkarpÁt;pÁg;EdlERbRbYlKμanTIbBa©b; cMnYnplitpl EdlRtUvlk;beBa©jenaHRtUvfycuH k¾b:uEnþcMeBaHRkahVikénkartMrUvkarenAmandMeNIr RbRBitþCaFmμta. 1

0

ecjBIkarRbmUlBn§edayRbeyal vanwgmanlT§plCa\T§iBlEdlTak;Tg eTAnwgkrNITaMgBIrénPaBrIklUtlas; (growth goal) TaMgenHmann½yfaTak;Tg TaMgeTAnwgeKalbMNgénkarEbgEckktþaplitkmμ (goal of factor allocation)

170 # Economic Development

k¾dUcCaTak;TgTaMgeTAnwgeKalbMNgénkarekIneLIgénTun (goal of capital accumulation) pgEdr³ - lT§plénkarekIneLIgénTun (allocation effect) eFVIeGaysMerc)an kalNakarekIneLIgénéføEdl)anbgðajCaRbtikmμeTAelIkarRbmUlBn§edayRbe yal)anCYbRbTHeTAelIplitplnImYy²enAkñúgTMhMepSg²Kña. k¾b:uEnþCamYyenH enAkñúgPaBBiténneya)ayGPivDÆn_k¾RtUvEtKitpgEdr eRBaHfaTMhMénkarekIneLIg énéfø KWGaRs½yeTAnwgeGLasÞikénkarpÁt;pÁg; (elasticity of supply) nigeGLasÞIk éntMrUvkar (elasticity of demand) enAelITIpSarplitplnImYy². enAkñúgPaBBit eGLasÞIkénkarpÁt;pÁg; nigénkartMrUvkarsßitenAmanCaeRscepSg²KñacMeBaH plitplepSg²KñaEdr EdlnaMeTAeGaymanlT§plénéfønImYy²epSg²KñaEdr. dUcenH CalT§plecjBIkarRbmUlBn§edayRbeyalmannUvkarrMkilmYyénéføEdl Tak;TgKña. edaysarkarERbRbYlénGRtaBn§eTAtamRbePTplitplTaMgGs;enaH CamUldæanelcecjRKb;krNITaMgGs;nUvlT§plmankarekIneLIgnUvkarrMkilénéføE dlGacbnþeGaymannUvlT§plénkarsMerc)ankan;EtRbesIreLIgéneKalbMngEb gEckénFnFanCaBiessktþaplitkmμ (resource allocation goal). ehtuenH viFankarN_énBn§edayRbeyalecjBIplEdl)anelIkeLIgGacRtUveRbIR)as;enAkñú gplRbeyaCn_énkarekIneLIgRbsiT§PaB (efficiency) énesdækic©CatiEdl)an BicarNaenaH. - lT§plénkarekIneLIgénTun (capital accumulation) EdlviC¢manGac ekItmaneLIg kalNaRBwtþikarN_énkarbegáInTunEdlmanPaBRbesIrbMputenaHmin RKb;RKan; ehIymansßitenAEtedaysarkarRbugeRbobsnSMEdlxVHxatmYy nigkal NaedaylT§plénkarRbmUlBn§edayRbeyal EpñkmYyénR)ak;cMNUlNamYy EdlGacRtUveRbIR)as;edayÉkCnsMrab;karTijrbs;eRbIR)as;RtUvmanP¢ab;nUvkarbg; Bn§edayRbeyalenaH KWRtUv)anERbkøayeTACaR)ak;cMNUlBn§ ehIyEdlbnÞab;mk KWTukbMrugsMrab;eKalbMngénkarvinieyaKTunenAkñúgRbeTs. k¾b:uEnþ drabNamanEt plitplxøHRtUv)anTTYlbnÞúkCamYynwgBn§Edl)anbgðajenaH enaHeKBMuGac

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niyay)anCaGtßiPaBfaetICaBitR)akdkareRbIR)as;EdlCaÉkCnenaHRtUv)anXaMgT b;eLIy eRBaHkarfycuHénkarcMNaysMrab;plitplmYyGacRbQmmuxeTAnwg karekIneLIgénkarcMNaysMrab;plitpldéTepSgeTotvij. dUcenH kalNa CamYynwgkarCYyénBn§edayRbeyal karekIneLIgénkarsnSMkñúgTMrg;énkarkat; bnßyénkareRbIR)as;EdlCaÉkCnRtUvGacsMerc)an. k¾b:uEnþTaMgGs;enaH KWRtUv maneKalbMNgsmrmüEdlfaRtUvykBn§eTAelIplitplTaMgGs;EdlRtUvCatMrUvk aredaykarTTYlykBn§enaH. enAkñúgkrNIenH Bn§énplcMNUlTUeTAmYynaMeTAeGaymankaekIneLIgénéfø TUeTAmYy ehIyedayeyaleTAelIbBaaðenH R)ak;cMNUlBiténplitplEdlCYb RbTHedaysarkarRbmUlBn§enaH KWfycuH. CalT§pl GñkEdlCYbRbTHenaHGac tMrUvkarnUvkareRbIR)as;rbs;xøÜnfymkenAEtcMnYnd¾tictYcmYyénplitplEdlCYbR bTHnwgkarcgBn§enaH. enAkñúgrUbxagelIRkahVikéntMrUvkar nigénkarpÁt;pÁg;énGñk EdlCYbRbTHénkarRbmUlBn§enaH bgðajnUvkarfycuHénkareRbIR)as;enH. )ann½y facMnYnplitpl)anfycuHBI X eTA X . cMeBaHRkahVikénkartMrUvkarEdlBMueGLasÞIkEtmþg Bn§edayRbeyalrebob xagelIRtUvbdiesdæEtmþg³ eBlenHBn§edayRbeyalRtUv)anhirBaØbTanTaMgRsug edaysarkarkat;bnßyénkarsnSMÉkCn enaHmann½yfa karfycuHénkareRbIR)as; BitEdlcg;)anBMuGacekItman ¬RkahVik N ¦ eT,Iy. k¾b:uEnþsßanPaBenH KWGnuBaØat elIkElg)an. kalNaeKsMlwgemIlTUeTAeTAelIplitplmYycMnYnEdlRtUv)antMrUvkarEte dayTMnak;TMngénR)ak;cMNUld¾x<s;enaH eKnwgeXIjya:gticbMputcMeBaHEpñkmYy énGñkTij KW)at;bg;nUvlT§PaBedIm,IhirBaØbTanénéfød¾x<s;enaHEdlecjBIkarsnSM rbs;xøÜnmkdl;eBlenaH. CakarBitcMeBaHRkumenH dMeNIrkarénkarbgçitbgçMsnSM EdlbNþalmkBIBn§RtUvEtdak;CakarGnuvtþn_edayeyaleTAelIPaBCak;Esþg. CakarBitvNѳénR)ak;cMNUlEdlx<s; nigmFümGacRtUvbNþaleGaymankarsnSM ticedaysarBn§edayRbeyal. k¾b:uEnþTaMgGs;enH BMuelcecjBitR)akdeT,Iy 0

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172 # Economic Development

EdlfaRkumenH enAkñúgTMhMeBjeljénkarykBn§edayRbeyalmannUvlT§pl elcecjnUvkarsnSMd¾tictYcenaHeT,Iy eRBaHfakartMrUvkarénplitpleRbIR)as; rbs;eK ya:gticbMputmanRbtikmμeTAtaméføeGLasÞIkxøHEdr. ehtuenH cMeBaH RkumenH mankarelcecjnUvkarfycuHénkarbegáItkarsnSMrbs;eKEdleyageTA tamcMnYnBn§ ehIyebIsßitenARbQmmuxeTAnwgTidæPaBesdækic©srub KWelcecjnUv karekIneLIgénkarsnSMénsßab½nsaFarN³. dUcenHBn§edayRbeyalelcecj smRsbBitR)akdedIm,IXaMgTb;énkareRbIR)as; edIm,IplRbeyaCn_EténkarsnSM nigqøgkat;bBaðaenHedIm,IBRgIknUvTMhMénkarbegáItTun)an drabNardæ KWsßitenA kñúgsßanPaBsMrab;eRbIR)as;énR)ak;cMNUlBIBn§enH eTACakarbegáInTunrbs;xøÜn (capital accumulation goal). k¾b:uEnþneya)ayR)ak;cMNUlmYy EdlmanTisedAEteTAelIBn§edayRb eyal)anpþl;nUvlT§plEdlBMubMeBjcitþ ³ Bn§enHman\T§iBlCaBn§GvDÆn³ (regressiv effect) ya:gF¶n;F¶rmYy. \T§iBlEdlGvDÆn³enH ekIteLIgCaBiess kalNaRbB½n§énBn§edayRbeyalenHraMgTb;eTAelIkarRbmUlBn§énplcMNUlTUe TAebIBMumanneya)ayEbgEckNamYy)aneFVIbnþeTot eRBaHEpñkEdlmanR)ak; cMNUlTabRtUv)anCYbRbTHnUvbnÞúkBn§enHEdldak;elIplitplnImYy²xøaMgCagRku mRbCaCnEdlmanR)ak;cMNUlx<s;. dUcenH eyageTAtammUlehtuEdlCaneya )ayEbgEck eKRtUvdak;bEnßmcMeBaHBn§énplcMNUlTUeTAnUvBn§EdlCakartMrUvkar BiesseTAelIplitplNaEdlRtUv)anTijPaKeRcInedayGñkEdlmanR)ak;cMNUl x<s;. Ca]TahrN_ Bn§éntMrUvkarBiessEdlCaRbePTCMrujneya)ayEbgEckenH KWeKdak;kMNt;eTAelI {Bn§RbNit (luxery tax)} Ca]TahrN_ Bn§eTAelILan TUrTsSn_ eRKOgGlgáa plitplnaMcUlRbNit²CaedIm. edIm,IbMeBjbEnßmeTA elIenaH eKGacqøgkat;karrMedaHBn§ecj rWrMsayBn§ecjBIRkbx½NÐBn§énBn§ kartMrUvkar rWBn§énplcMNUlTUeTA sMrab;plitplNaEdlbgðajenAkñúgcegáam TMnijénGñkEdlmanR)ak;cMNUlTab rWRkIRk edaykñúgTMhMd¾x<s;mYy Ca]TahrN_

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dUcCaBn§eTAelIkartMrUvkares,ógGaharCamUldæanCaedIm nigCamYyenHk¾GacRtUv kat;neya)ayéføEdleyageTAtamenaH sMrab;shRKassaFarN³Edr. k¾b:uEnþPaKeRcInmankarRbQmmuxTl;nwgkarBicarNaEdlCasareBIBn§én{n eya)ayRbqaMgPaBGvDÆn³ (= policy of anti – regressivity)} EdlmanmUldæan eTAelIkarrMedaHBn§ecjsMrab;plitplxøHpgEdr. CakarBit Bn§dak;eTAelIkar cMNayénkareRbIR)as;sMrab;kartMrUvkarEdlcaM)ac;énkarrs;enA ]TahrN_ dUcCa es,ógGaharCamUldæan KWpþl;ePaKplxøaMgNas; nigefrEfmeTot. enaHmann½y fa karsakl,gxøaMgkøaedIm,IeGayeKalbMNgEdlCaneya)ayEbgEckCapl RbeyaCn_éneKalbMNgéncMNUlrdæEdlkan;EtRbesIrmYyenaH KWBMuGacekIneLIg )aneTkñúgkrNIenH KWTaMgGs;enaHmanEtkarFøak;cuH. ecjBIkarGegátenH rvageKalbMNgénkarEbgEck ¬resource allocation¦ nigeKalbMNgénPaBrIklUtlas; GacekIteLIgnUvTMnas;EdlRtUvelcecjenAkñúg krNICaeRcInEdlCaplRbeyaCn_éneKalbMNgénPaBrIklUtlas;. cMeBaHPaB KμankMhus karsMerccitþenH GacGnuBaØatiedayGMNHGMNagEdlfaCamYynwgkar CYyén GDP d¾x<s;lT§plénkarEbgEckEdlkan;EtRbesIr GacGnuBaØatsMerc )aneCaKC½yCagkarsMerccitþeFVIeGaymankarEbgEck ¬énR)ak;cMNUl¦ Pøam² mYy. k¾b:uEnþTMnas;enH GacedaHRsay)ancb;cugcb;edImEtedaysarkarvinicä½y éntMélEdlCaneya)ayEtb:ueNÑaH. CalT§plRbB½n§Bn§edayRbeyalGacrkeXIjnUvGVIEdlBMub:HBal;eTAnwgbT dæanénkarEbgEckEdl)anpþl;eGaymYy. k¾b:uEnþbnÞab;mkelcecjCabBaðafμIeTot EdlfaRbB½n§Bn§EdlmanmUldæaneTAelIBn§edayRbeyalCajwkjab;mineGLasÞIc sMrab;PaBrIklUtlas;eT,Iy³ eGLasÞIcénTinñplBn§edayRbeyalRtUvvaytMél Cajwkjab;CaTMnak;TMngd¾tictYcCamYyPaBrIklUtlas; enaHmann½yfakarERbRbYl EdlTak;TgnwgTinñplBn§ ( = dT / T , T = tax, i = the kind of products met with tax) GaRs½yeTAnwgkarekIneLIgEdlTak;Tgén GDP (= dY / Y ,Y= GDP) enaH KWtictYc. TaMgenHmann½yfaTinñplBn§EdlhUrecjBIBn§enH ekIteLIg i

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174 # Economic Development

smamaRtminRKb;RKan; (under proportional) eTAnwg GDP nigeKGac niyaymüa:geTotfaBn§edayRbeyalmansuBlPaBCaBn§EdlBMueGLasÞIcmYy³ Δi=(dTi / Ti) / (dY / Y)

eGLasÞIcTinñplBn§mYy = TinñplecjBIBn§

Δi = Ti

Y = GDP

rUbmnþxagelIGacBRgIkeTACa

Δi= (dTi / Ti) / (dGi / Gi) * (dGi / Gi) / (dY /Y);

mUldæanrgVas;énBn§plcMNUlTUeTA. mUldæanrgVas;énBn§plcMNUl TUeTAmYy)anbgðajecjBI GDP EdldkecjnUvplitplNaEdlBMuTTYlkñúg karBicarNasMrab;karbg;bEnßménBn§. TaMgGs;hñwgGacCaplitplénkartMrUvkar EdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karrs;enA ¬]TahrN_ es,ógGaharCamUldæan¦ edayecjBI mUlehtuEdlCaneya)ayénkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlKWBMuRtUv)anykBn§. k¾b:uEnþ GacCaplitpl ]TahrN_ dUcCaesva:kmμCaeRcInenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH edaysarmUlehtuénkareGabRkesabd¾Bi)akénTUrelxk¾RtUv)anenAeRkArgVg;BIkar ykBn§Edr. CamYyenaH karBMuykBn§enHk¾Føak;eTAkñúgRkumplitplEdlBMu)an pøas;bþÚrKñaenAkñúgTIpSarEdlCafvika (exemple : products of subsistence sector) eRBaHplitplenHRtUv)aneFVIBaNiC¢kmμedayqøgkat;karbþÚrCaFmμCatienAkñúgvis½yCi vRBitþi (subsistence sector) enaHEtb:ueNÑaH. eyageTAtambTBiesaFn_Edl )anelIkeLIgxagelIeKGacTajecj)anfacMENkénplitplenAkñúgvis½yCIvRBitþi nigk¾dUcCaplitplénkartMrUvkarEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karrs;enA ]TahrN_es,óg GaharCamUldæanenaH enAkñúgTMhMplitkmμsrub KWnwgfycuH CamYynwgkarekIn eLIgén GDP TnÞwmnwgEpñkénesva:kmμRtUv)anekIneLIg. k¾b:uEnþeGLasÞIcén mUldæanrgVas; G KWGaRs½yeTAnwgkarekIneLIgEdlCamYykarekIneT,IgTaMgenH RkumplitplTaMgenHRtUv)anTajbBa©ÚlsMrab;Bn§énplcMNUlTUeTA ³ Gi =

i

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kalNaEpñkénplitplCIvRBitþi rWk¾plitplénkartMrUvkarEdlcaM)ac; sMrab;karrs;enAmankan;Ettic rWk¾kalNacMENkénesva:kmμenAkñúgTinñplBn§ enAkñúgRbB½n§Bn§EdlRtUv)anBicarNaenaH KWkan;EtFM enaHeGLasÞIcénmUldæan rgVas; G k¾kan;EtFM nigCamYyenaHeGLasÞIcénTinñplBn§k¾kan;EtFMEdr. eRkABIenHeTot eGLasÞIcénplitplBn§EdlviC¢manmYyénRbB½n§sruubénBn§ edayRbeyalGacpþl;eGaymanRbsiT§iPaB kalNaBn§énkartMrUvkarBiessEdl )anrMlwkBImunRtUvbnþRbmUleTAelIplitplEdlRtUv)antMrUvkarelIslb;BIGñkEdl manR)ak;cMNUlx<s;. eyageTAtamkarBicarNaenH eKBMuGackMNt;CaGtßiPaB faeGLasÞIcénTinñplBn§énRbB½n§Bn§edayRbeyalmYy KWtUcCagmYyenaHeLIy. cariklkçN³GvDÆn³énBn§edayRbeyal (regressiv effects of the indirect tax) KWGacRtUvbM)at;ecaledaykarsßabnaénrcnasm<½nBn§EdleyageTAtamenaH nig kñúgkal³eTs³xøH GacRtUvERbkøayeTACaRbePTBn§EdlvDÆn³ (progressiv effects) mYyEfmeTotpg. lT§PaBenH RtUv)anbBa¢ak;ya:gc,as;edaysarkarRsavRCavCa BiesaFniymrbs; Chelliah enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_cMnYn 27 sMrab;kMlug ryHeBlmYy EdlCamYyenaHRtUv)anKNnaeXIjfaeGLasÞIkénTinñplBn§Ca mFümmYy KWesμI 2,4. k¾b:uEnþ kalNardæcg;begáIncMENkBn§EdleyageTAtammYyénBn§eday RbeyalenAkñúg GDP enAkñúgdMeNIrénPaBrIklUtlas;énesdækic©enaH eKBMuGac bgðajeGayeXIjbEnßmeTotnUveGLsÞIkTinñplénBn§NamYyEdleKTamTarcg;)a nenaHeLIy. i

2>3> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarBRgIkBn§edaypÞal; eTaHbIlT§pld¾GnueRKaHenH EdlRtUv)anrkeXIjenAkñúgTMnak;TMngeTAnwg lT§PaBénkarBRgIkénBn§edayRbeyalmYyk¾eday eyageTAtambMNkRsayén esdæviTUCaeRcIn eKBMuRtUvlHbg;enAkarBRgIkénBn§edaypÞal;eLIy. GRtabnÞúkBn§d¾ tictYc nigcMENkd¾tUcénBn§edaypÞal;enAkñúgTinñplBn§srubenAkñúgRbeTskMBug

176 # Economic Development

GPivDÆn_CaeRcIn GacbgðajeGayeXIjfa cMeBaHBn§edaypÞal;enH nUvEtsßitenACa skþanuBlénkarykBn§ ehIyEdlRbEhlCamanvisalPaBFMCagBn§edayRb eyaleTAeTotpg. dUcenH eTaHbImankarBi)akénkarRbmUlEdl)anBnül; BIxagelIk¾eday skþanuBlenHRtUvEtykmkeRbIR)as;edIm,ICaplRbeyaCn_énkar begáInsnÞúHhirBaØvtßúpÞal;xøÜnsMrab;karGPivDÆn_. eRkABIenH karykBn§edaypÞal; pþl;eGayenAlT§PaBEdlRbesIrCagRbB½n§énBn§edayRbeyal kñúgkarGgán;sma CikénsgÁÁmEdlCaGñkTTYlbnÞúkBn§eyageTAtammaRtdæan rWTMhMpþl;eGayén smtßPaBbMeBjkarplitEdlCabuKÁlsmaCikénsgÁmenaH. CaBiessBn§énR)ak;cMNUlTUeTAEdlmanTMrg;vDÆn³mYy GacelcecjedIm,I eFVIeGayecjCakarBiténkarykBn§EdlmanninñakareTArksmtßPaBénkarbMeBjka rplitenH nigCamYyenaH KWsmRsbcMeBaHkarBicarNad¾xøaMgkøaeTAelITidæPaBén PaByutþiFm’sMrab;neya)aycMNUl nigneya)ayEbEckrbs;rdæ. TnÞwmnwgenaH Bn§énR)ak;cMNUlEdlCavDÆn³mYybgðajnUveGLasÞIcén Tinñplrbs;vasßitenAelI 1( elasticity of the tax yield > 1) ya:gc,as; eRBaHfaCa bTBiesaFn_enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ cMENkd¾FMénplitkmμCIvRBitþenAkñúg GDP KWfycuHenAkñúgcgVak;énkarGPivDÆn_ TnÞwmnwgEpñkEdlCafvikaénesdækic©CatinwgekIn eLIgeyageTAtamenaHedaymansmamaRtelIslb;. eyageTAtammUlehtuenH Bn§énR)ak;cMNUlEdlvDÆn³mYybgðajeGayeXIjCakarcab;GarmμN_BiesssMrab; visalPaBénskþanuBlBn§EdlmansßitenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. k¾b:uEnþcMeBaH karsakl,génkarRbtibtþikarN_énBn§enH eKRtUvBicarNapgEdrEdlfakareGab Rkesab nigkarRsavRCavénTMhMR)ak;cMNUlEdleRbIR)as;CamUldæan rgVas;énBn§ KWmanlT§PaBEtkñúgTMhMEdlmanRBMEdnmYyEtb:ueNaÑHsMrab; economic subjects CaeRcInenAkñúgRbeTsTaMgenaH. eRkABIenHeTotGacCYbRbTHnUvkartTl;ya:geRcIn BIsMNak;RbCaCnEdlmanR)ak;cMNUlTab EdlmancMnYnya:geRcInelIslb;enA kñúgRbeTsenaH.

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bBaðaEdlCardæ)al nigbec©keTsk¾dak;RBMEdneTAelIlT§PaBénkarRbEm RbmUlénBn§edaypÞal;enHEdr. eyageTAtamelak Goode Ca]TahrN_dMbUgRtUv bMeBjnUvlkçxNÐdYcxageRkamsin eTIbeKGacmanlT§PaBeRbIR)as;d¾eCaKC½ymYy énkarykBn§énR)ak;cMNUlenaH ³ - TaMgGs;enHRtUvmansßitenArYcCaeRscnUvesdækic©CatimYyEdlPaKeRcIn RtUvEtmanlkçx½NÐCafvikarenARKb;vis½yTaMgGs;. - TaMgGs;enaHRtUvmanGRtaénGñkecHGkSrx<s;énGñkbg;Bn§Gakr. - cMeNHdwgKNnIRtUvBRgIkeGay)anTUlMTUlay nigÉksarKNnIRtUveFVI eLIgedayPaBesμaHRtg; nigKYreGayTukcitþ. - GñkEdlbg;Bn§RtUvmankatBVkic© rWmancMNg;enAkñúgRbePT nigTMhMén karbg;Bn§. - karykBn§BMuGnuBaØatieGaycab;c,amCakarKMramkMEhgéntYnaTIrbs;buKÁl eLIy. - rdæ)alBn§ KWRtUvesμaHRtg; nigTukcitþ. edaysarEtlkç½NÐenH enAkñugkrNICaeRcInenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWBMu )anhuceGaynUv»kasénkarykBn§énR)ak;cMNUlenaHeT,Iy. karykBn§én R)ak;cMNUlTUeTAmYyénRbeTsTaMgenaH Cajwkjab;BMuGaceFVIeGayeTACakarBit )aneLIy. CakarBitkarRbmUlBn§edaypÞal;enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ RbmUlpþMú EteTAelIvis½yshRKas. enATIenaHkariyal½yBn§ Gacrk)anPaKeRcInnUvKNnI EdlmanreboberobrymYyEdlgayRsYlnUvkarvaytMél nigkarGnuvtþn_énkarbg; Bn§ rWkarykBn§. karcUlcitþénkardak;bnÞúkBn§eTAelIshRKasenH pþl;eGay CaTIbBa©b;nUvbnÞúHEdlfaenAkñugRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ Bn§edaypÞal;eTAelIR)ak; cMNUlénshRKas dUcCaCacMbgBn§saCIvkmμ k¾dUcCakarbg;R)ak;sm,Tan sßitenACaGtßiPaBx<s;bMputenAkñúgcMeNaménRbB½n§Bn§edaypÞal;.

178 # Economic Development

CamYynwgrcnasm<½n§RbePTmYyenHénRbB½n§Bn§edaypÞal; eGLasÞIcén TinñplBn§EdlRbwgERbgGacmanlT§PaBsMerc)anFMCag 1. b:uEnþrcnasm<½n§enH k¾TMnas;Tl;nwgPaByutþiFm’Edr edaymUlehtuénkare)aHbg;ecalénkarykBn§ edaypÞal;eTAelIsmaCikénsgÁmnImYy²epSgeTot. dUcenHeKBMuRtUve)aHbg;ecal énBn§R)ak;cMNUlbuKÁlEdlmanTMrg;CavDÆn³eLIy. eyageTAtamkarBi)akénkar eGabRkesabTUrelxEdlniyayxagelIeK)aneGayeyabl;sMrab;RbeTskMBugGPi vDÆn_ nUvRbePTBiessénkarykBn§R)ak;cMNUlEdlmanRBMEdnmYy. CamYy eyabl;enH eKalbMNgEdlRtUvBüayameFVI KWkarGnuvtþn_Bn§eTAelIR)ak;cMNUl Edlya:gticbMputcMeBaHrgVg;RbCaCnNa rWk¾kareRbIR)as;eTAelIRbPBR)ak;cMNUl NaEdlgayeFVIkareGabRkesabsMrab;karykBn§)an. CacMbgTMrg;énBn§R)ak;cMNUlenH GacCYbRbTHeTAelIRbCaCnénEpñkEdl rs;enATIRkug rWk¾EdlsßitenAkñúgvis½y]sSahkmμ. CamYyenaHEdr eKGacRtUvkt; sMKal;eTAelIkrNIBIr ³ - krNITI 1 kalNaBn§énR)ak;cMNUl XaMgTb;eTAelIEtrgVg;buKÁlEdl kMNt;mYy ehIyEdlRtUv)anemIleXIjfaCaGñkTTYlR)ak;cMNUld¾x<s;Biess mYy. cMeBaHRbePTBn§enH TMhMd¾FMénGñkmanR)ak;cMNUlTab sßitenABMumankaryk Bn§eT. k¾b:uEnþenATIenHGacekIteLIgnUveRKaHfñak;énRbtikmμBn§ cMeBaHGñkEdlman katBVkic©bg;Bn§. CaBiessRbtikmμenHGacFM kalNaEpñkya:gFMmYyénGñkTTYl R)ak;cMNUlsßitenABMumankarykBn§. - gaynwgRbtibtþikarCagBn§énR)ak;cMNUlEdlkMNt;RBMEdnbrimaNdUc xagelI KWGacmanEtkrNITI2enHeT EdlCaBn§R)ak;cMNUlkMNt;RBMEdnKuN PaB. cMeBaHkrNIenHeKbnßykarykBn§eTAelIvtßúBn§nImYy²EdlgayGaceGabRk esab ]TahrN_ dUcCaBn§eTAelIRbePTR)ak;cMNUlénTun R)ak;cMNUlénkar CYlpÞH nigdI. l. EdlsMrab;vtßúTaMgenaH eKGacrkeXIjmUldæanrgVas;énBn§ya:g gayRsYl. dUcenHkarykBn§RtUvCYbRbTHeTAelIbuKÁlTaMgGs; ¬RBwtþikarN_én katBVkic©Bn§manPaBRtwmRtUvsMrab;buKÁlTaMgGs;¦ nigCaBitR)akdBMuGaRs½yeTAnwg

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TMhMénR)ak;cMNUlsrubrbs;eKeT,Iy. karRbmUlénBn§R)ak;cMNUlEdlkMNt; RBMEdnbrimaN rWKuNPaBrebobenHGaceFVICaBiess enAkñúgRbeTsNaEdlenAkñúg RbeTsenaHmansßitenAkarEbgEckénR)ak;cMNUlEdlBMuesμIKña. enATIenHPaKeRcIn RKb;RKan;nUvkarRbmUlBn§énRsTabvNѳx<s; edIm,IrkSa)anénBn§R)ak;cMNUlEdl TUeTAmanyutþiFm’ Edlpþl;plCasareBIBn§ nigEdleGLasÞIcénTinñpl. k¾b:uEnþ CaTUeTABn§énR)ak;cMNUlk¾GacRtUvbEgVrTaMgRsugeTAelIRkumNamYypgEdr. edIm,I kMNt;énlT§plEbgEck ¬cMNUl¦ suT§ eKRtUvEtRtYtBinitünUvTMnak;TMngnImYy² EdlfaetIBn§enaHRtUvbEgVrTaMgRsugeTAeGayGñkNa rWRkumsgÁmNa? nigTMhM b:uNÑaenaH? dUcenHehIy GñkesdæviTUxøH)anTamTarpgEdrkñúgkarRbmUlbEnßmsMrab;Bn§ énR)ak;cMNUl nUvBn§edaypÞal;NaEdlminGacbEgVrTaMgRsugdUcEdl)anrMlwk xagelI. enATIenH RtUvRbtibtþiCaBiessnUvBn§énRTBüsm,tþienAkñúgkrNIepSg² rbs;va dUcCaeTAelIBn§dI Bn§kmμsiT§énTun Bn§énekrþ×mrtk nigénGMeNay ehIyk¾dUcCaBn§eTAelIRTBüsm,tþisuT§Edr. krNIenHGacpþl;eGay)an TnÞwmnwg PaBminbEgVrTaMgRsugrbs;vaenaH nUvKuNsm,tþiEdlfakrNIenHTb;XaMgCaTUeTA eTAelIEtGñkEdlmanR)ak;cMNUlx<s;Etb:ueNaÑH. CaTUeTAcMeBaHkareGaykitþiys éneyabl;Edl)anpSBVpSayenATIenH eKRtUvBicarNaCanic©Cakal faetIBn§eday pÞal;enHman\T§iBlya:gNaeTAelIGakb,kiriyaénkarsnSM nigénkareRbIR)as;én EpñkÉkCnenaH. CamUldæankarekIneLIgénBn§edaypÞal;mann½yfa CakarfycuHénR)ak; cMNUl EdlmansßitenAEpñkÉkCn. k¾b:uEnþCaTUeTAmanEtR)ak;cMNUlBIdI nigR)ak; cMNUlBITunya:gtictYcbu:eNÑaH EdlRbQmmuxeTAnwgR)ak;cMNUlBIR)ak;ebovtS EdlCaerOgRtUvKitGMBIBn§edaypÞal;enaH. CalT§pl kalNaeKpat;ecjén karbEgVrTaMgRsugénBn§eTAelIR)ak;cMNUlTaMgBIrenaH CabzmPaBEdlGacrkpl cMeNj)anBIcMNUléndIFøI k¾dUcCaénTunÉkCnRtUv)ankat;bnßy. kñúgkrNIenH lT§plénkarRbmUlBn§eTAelIkarbegáItkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCn KWGaRs½yeTAnwgfa

180 # Economic Development

etIR)ak;cMNUlénBn§RtUvTajykecjmkeRbIR)as; enAkñúglT§PaBeRCIserIsNa mYy eRBaHfa ³ - eyageTAtamlT§plbgðajEdlCaGnþrCati GRtasnSMBIPaBrkpl cMeNj)anGMBIdIFøI KWTab. dUcenHedIm,Ibg;Bn§sMrab;dIFøI eKRtUv)anhirBaØbTansMrab;Bn§enH KWPaKeRcIn ecjBIkarkat;bnßyénkareRbIR)as;EdlCaÉkCn nigTaMgGs;enHeFVIeGayfycuH énkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCnenaH. bBaðaenHGacRtUvTUTat;eLIgvijEtedaysarkar eRbIR)as;nUvviFIsaRsþEbgEckeT,Igvij tamryHkarvinieyaKénR)ak;cMNUlEdl)an mkBIBn§TaMgenH CamYynwgkarKitKUrCamYynwgkarekIneLIg ¬EdlbNþalmkBIkar ykBn§¦ énGRtaBn§EdlCaesdækic©srubenaH. - CakarBiteKGaccab;epþImkarykBn§enH ecjBIEpñkmYyya:gFMénkarsnSM EdlCaÉkCn. k¾b:uEnþCamYyenH enAkñúgvis½yshRKaseKRtUvEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl énTunCaBIr TImYyR)ak;cMNUlénTunEdlRtUvEbgEck ]TahrN_dUcCaR)ak;cMeNj nigTIBIrR)ak;cMNUlénTunEdlminRtUvEbgEck. R)ak;cMNUlénTunEdlminRtUv EbgEckbgðajeGayeXIjnUvkarsnSMkñúgTMhMd¾x<s; Edlmann½yfakarykBn§Gac manelcecjnUvlT§plénkarkat;bnßykarbegáIténkarsnSM. pÞúyeTAvijR)ak;cM NUlénTunEdlRtUvEbgEckRtUv)ansnSMEtbnþicbnÞÜc ÉcMENkR)ak;cMNUlEdl enAsl;RtUvhUreTAkñúgkareRbIR)as;. karykBn§énTunEdlRtUvEbgEckGacRtUvCH \T§iBleGaymankarfycuHEdlsmamaRtminRKb;RKan;énkarsnSMEdlCaÉkCn. TaMgenHmann½yfaGRtasnSMénesdækic©CatiGacnwgRtUvekIneLIgcMeBaHkareRbIR)as;E dlmanlkçN³CavinieyaKénR)ak;cMNUlEdl)anmkBIBn§enaH. dUcenH Tazi nig Aschim TamTarnUvRbB½n§Bn§edaypÞal;mYy EdlCa Bn§edaypÞal;EdlekIneLIgx<s;CalMdab; ¬gradually progressiv¦ eTAelIR)ak; cMNUlénRKYsarÉkCnEdlkñúgenaHmanR)ak;cMNUlénTunEdlRtUvEbgEckdUcCaR)a k;cMeNjCaedIm nigkarykBn§d¾tictYceTAelIR)ak;cMNUlénshRKas nigBn§én R)ak;cMeNjEdlBMuBitR)akd. rcnasm<½n§Bn§enH RtUvbMeBjbRgÁb;edaykarKaMBar

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BIBn§énkareRbIR)as;énR)ak;cMNUlnImYy²énRKYsarÉkCnEdl)ancUlrYmcMENkviC¢ mansMrab;dMeNIrkarénkarbegáItTunrbs;RbeTsenaH. TnÞwmnwgkarBMuykBn§BIcMENkR)ak;cMNUlEdleRbIR)as;sMrab;eKalbMNgs nSMEdlCaplitkmμ ]TahrN_dUcCacMNUlsMrab;karvinieyaKeTAelIsnøwkPaKh‘un rWk¾karbegáIt rWkarBRgIkénshRKasfμI karcMNayNaEdlRtUvGnuvtþn_enAkñúg plRbeyaCn_énkarbegáItTunFnFanmnusS ]TahrN_dUcCacMNUlsMrab;karbg; éføsalaeron k¾RtUvEtKaMBaredaykarBMuykBn§Edr. eyageTAtam Kaldor karbg;Bn§énkarcMNay mann½yfaCakarykBn§BIcMENkR)ak;cMNUlTUeTAEdl RtUvcMNaysMrab;EteKalbMNgénkareRbIR)as;Etb:ueNÑaH. TnÞwmnwgenaH cMNUl sMrab;karbegáItkarsnSM rWk¾karTijénplitplvinieyaK dUcCakarTijFnFan FmμCati FnFanCMnYy nigbrikçaeragcRkk¾sßitenAecjBIkarykBn§Edr. 2>4> RBMEdnénkaEkrTMrg;neya)ayBn§ 2>4>1> karEkTMrg;énBn§ nigsmtßPaBénBn§ kalNaeKeRbobeFobTidæPaBEdlGacelIkeLIgenATIenH CamYynwgRbB½n§ Bn§BitR)akdénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH enAkñúgkrNICaeRcIneKeFVIeGaydwgc,as; nUvtMrUvkarénkarEkTMrg;d¾TUlMTUlaymYy. k¾b:uEnþeKBMuGacTajnUvdMbUnμan Edlman sBlPaBTUeTAsMrab;RbB½n§Bn§d¾l¥RbesIrénRbeTsmYyeLIy eRBaHfaenAkñúgRbB½n§ l¥RbesIrEdleRbobeFobenH KWRtUvBicarNaepSg²KñaeTAelIBiessPaBEdlCa lkçN³sßab½n nigEdlCarcnasm<½n§énRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH. dUcenHTaMgenH GnuBaØatpþl;lT§pltictYc sMrab;karcg;eKobsgát; rWCMrujeGayRbB½n§Bn§énRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_eTAkñúgbøg; rWKMrUrYmmYy k¾dUcCasMrab;cg;pþl;eGaynUvbBaØatþiÉksiT§ d¾l¥itl¥n;CamYynWgsuBlPaBTamTard¾FMeFgNamYyenaH. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgRKb;krNI eKRtUvEtRbugRby½tñkñúgkareFVIRtab;tamEdlBMumankar XaMgTb;mYyénTMrg;énkarykBn§dUcenAkñúgrebobénRbeTs]sSahkmμ. RbB½n§én karykBn§énRbeTsenaH KWFMFat;eLIgCaRbvtþisaRsþenAeRkamkarBicarNaén

182 # Economic Development

lkçxNÐRbePTénRbeTsTaMgenaHEtb:ueNÑaH. karepÞrRbB½n§Bn§eTAelIRbeTsmYy CamYylkçxNÐEdlepSgenaH GacnaMeGaymankarrMxan rWk¾xUcxatCabnþbnÞab; edayBMu)annaMmkeGaynUvTMhMEdlRtUv)ansgÇwménkarcg;;sMercéneKalbMNgEd lCaesdækic©enaHeT,Iy. kareFVIeGaykøayeTACaRTg;RTayfμIEdlRbjab;Rbjal; eBk rWk¾EdlRCuleBk nigRbB½n§Bn§Edlsakl,gedIm,IbgçMeGaymanTMenIb PavUbnIykmμénkarGPivDÆn_EdlmanlT§PaBelOnmYyGacnaMeGayCaBitR)akdBMu)a neCaKC½yeLIy. plvi)akénkarsMrbsMrYlenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWFMeFg EdlfakarsMrbsMrYlenaH nwgBMuRbQmmuxTl;nwgkartMrUvxøÜnEdlBMumankarKitKUr mYyeLIy. eRkABIenH esdækic©Cati KWGacresIbTl;nwg\T§iBlEdlbegáIteGayman britþprNa (deflation or depressiv economics). TaMgenH mann½yfaeKBMuGac begáIneLIgEfmeTotnUvbnÞúkBn§srubd¾FJn;F¶renaHeLIy. eyaleTAelImUlehtuenH lT§PaBEkTMrg;énneya)ayBn§ Cajwkjab;man RBMEdnd¾ceg¥ót CamYynwgkarkMNt;énsmtßPaBBn§. dUcenH eKRtUvbegáItnUvcMNuc sMrab;cMNaMmYyfa etIesdækic©CatiGacRTaMRTCalkçN³esdækic©nUvbnÞúkBn§NamYy EdlfaBMuRtUveGaymankarxUcxatnUveKalbMNgEdl)anrkSaTukCaTisedAeKalbM NgenaH rWk¾BMuRtUveGaykat;bnßynUvkMrit rWTMhMénkarsMerceKalbMNgEdlmkdl; eBlenaHrbs;esdækic©CatienaHeT,Iy. dUcenHsmtßPaBénBn§ KWbBa¢ak;nUvkUtaén bnÞúkBn§Gtibrima EdlecjBIkarsegátemIlCalkççN³vinicä½yfaCaesdækic© ehIy EdlBMuRtUvGnuBaØateGaymankarelIslb;eTAelIplRbeyaCn_énkarGPivDÆn_énRbe TsenaHeLIy. kUtabnÞúkBn§RtUv)aneGayniymn½yrYcCaeRsc faCaplEck énTinñplBn§elIplTunCatidul (GDP). dUcenHTaMgGs;enHsßitenAEdlfa GDP RtUvemIleXIjfa CaGñkkMNt;dMbUgénsmtßPaBBn§ kalNaeKKNnaRtLb; GDP eTACa per capita enaH PaBxusKñarvag per capita nigR)ak;cMNUlCamFüm (average income) EdlsMrab;rs;ranGb,rima (basic need) KWCaGñkGacbBa¢ak; eGayeXIjnUv {economic surplus} ehIyEdlenAkñúgkrNIRCulniymxøH GacRtUv ykPaBelIsénesdækic©enaHCaBn§)an.

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k¾b:uEnþeyageTAtammUlehtuCaeRcIn viFIsaRsþrebobenHGacmanbBaðaTaMg edaysarkarykBn§ k¾dUcCaTaMgedaysarkarcMNayénrdæEdlRtUvhirBaØbTan CamYynwgcMNUlénBn§enaH. bBaðaenH nwgRtUv)anelcecjeLIgnUv\T§iBlTIBIr eTot Edledaysarkarqøgkat;TMhMEdlERbRbYlmYyénkarpÁt;pÁg;ktþaplitkmμ k¾dUcCaedaykarqøgkat;karEbgEckktþaplitkmμnImYy²enaH )anCH\T§iBleTAelI TMhMénR)ak;cMNUlCati. eKGacbkRsaymüa:geTotfa ³ GDP EdlenAkñúgenaH BMu)anBicarNaeTAelIlT§plénBn§EdlTTYlykeyageTAtamTMhMénkarykBn§nImY y²enaH KW GDP enaHGacmannUvtMélepSgvij. kñúgkrNIenHkareRbIR)as;én GDP sMrab;kMNt;énsmtßPaBBn§ nwgCYbRbTHnUvbBaðalM)ak. GñkkMNt;bnþeTotmYyénsmtßPaBBn§ KWrcnasm<½n§plitkmμénRbeTsEdl CYbRbTHenaH. enAkñúgRbeTs CamYynwgcMENkd¾FMmYyénkargarenAkñúgvis½y ksikmμ k¾dUcCamYynwgplitPaBkargarEtbnþicbnÞÜcmYyedaymUlehtumanEt rcnasm<½n§plitkmμEdlCaeragcRktYc² nigBlkmμsIuCMerAenaH KWsmtßPaBénBn§ CaTUeTA k¾ticCagRbeTsEdlvis½yesdækic©manlkçN³CaTunsIuCMerA ehIyebIeK eRbobeFobeTARbeTsEdlmanlkçN³TunsIuCMerAenaHmansmtßPaBBn§KWFMCag. CabnþeTAeTotsmtßPaBénBn§GaRs½yeTAnwgTMhM rWkMriténTMnak;TMngBaNiC¢ kmμeRkARbeTsénRbeTsmYy. enAkñúgkarBitkarnaMecj nigkarnaMcUlbgðaj eGayeXIjnUvRbPBEdlgaycab;ykbec©keTsBn§mYy edaysarEtPaBeGab RkesabTUrelxEdlBMumanbBaðarbs;va. tamkardkBiesaFn_d¾smrmü cMENkmYy d¾FMénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsenAkñúg GDP KWPaKeRcInqøúHbBa©aMgnUvGaMgDIkaT½r sMrab;ÉktaplitkmμEdlFM nigTunsIuCMerAEdleFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvkMriténfvikar nIykmμenAkñúgesdækic©mYy nigCamYyenaHRbtibtþieGayman\T§iBlCaviC¢maneTAelI smtßPaBBn§ (tax capacity) énRbeTsenaH. TMhMénTIRkugPavUbnIykmμ nigTMhM én]sSaPavUbnIykmμénesdækic©mYy k¾sßitenACajwkjab;enAkñúgTMnak;TMngd¾s¥it rmYtCamYynwgTMnak;TMngesdækic©eRkARbeTsEdr. TaMgenaH)ann½yfaecjBIvis½y

184 # Economic Development

BaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsd¾FMmYyeKGacTajecjpgEdrnUvsmtßPaBBn§d¾x<s;mYyeda yeyaleTAelImUlehtuénskmμPaB]sSahkmμEdleyageTAtamenaH. TnÞwmnwgktþaesdækic©TaMgenH GgÁFatuCaeRcInEdlCalkçN³sgÁm Ca lkçN³neya)ay k¾dUcCaRbCasaRsþk¾)anCH\T§iBleTAelIsmtßPaBénBn§Edr. rcnasm<½n§énBn§EdlCaRbePTsMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcInEdlkt;sMKal;ed aysarcMENkd¾FMmYyénGMNacRKYsar bgðajeGayeXIjCajwkjab;nUvrUbsaRsþ Ca\T§iBlkMlaMgEdlBnüWténkarykBn§d¾eCOnelOnmYy. esdækic©rYmEdlpÁt;pÁg; xøÜnÉgrebobenH raraMgy:ageRcInnUvTMnak;TMngEdlmanlkçN³CaTIpSar Edl lkçN³TIpSarenHsmrmüd¾FMmYyénesdækic©Cati nigeFVIeGayBi)aknUvkareGabRk esabEdlCalkçN³Bn§énR)ak;cMNUl. ktþaEdlraraMgmYysMrab;karykBn§Edl RKb;RKan;mYy KWCajwkjab;pgEdrsßitenAelIkMriténkarsikSaGb;rMd¾TabmYy ³ PaBBMuecHGkSr nigkarxVHxatcMenHdwgKNnI KWeFVIeGaylM)aksMrab;kardak;Bn§ nig karGnuvtþn_énkarkMNt;Bn§. CaTIbBa©b;kMriténTIRkugPavUbnIykmμ k¾dUcCaGayukal énRbCaCn k¾CH\T§iBlenAkñúgTMhMd¾xøaMgeTAelIlT§PaBedIm,IeFVIkarRbmUlBn§ rWk¾ Gnuvtþn_c,ab;Bn§. kñúgkrNIenH cMeBaHkarsakl,génkareGabRkesabEdlCa lkçN³BiesaFn_niyménsmtßPaBBn§ eKRtUvEtBicarNaTnÞwmnwglkçN³vinicä½y EdlCaesdækic©enaH nUvcMnYnCaeRcInbEnßmeToténTidæPaBEdlCasgÁm neya)ay nigRbCasaRsþ kalNaeKcg;TTYl)annUvlT§plEdlCaPsþútageBjsmtßPaB mYyenaH. eyageTAtammUlehtuénPaBlM)akenH eK)ansakl,gCaeRcIn edIm,IkMNt; smtßPaBénBn§CamYynwgkarCYyénTMhMepSg²eTot. Kaldor )antMNagnUvniekçbT EdlfasmtßPaBénBn§RtUv)ankMNt;edaysarPaBGtierkéntMrUvkareRbIR)as;EdlCa BitR)akdmanelIsBIkarrs;enACaGb,rima. k¾b:uEnþkarsnñidæanrebobenHk¾elc ecjnUvbBaðaEdlCamUldæanbBaðaén GDPEdr eRBaHfamUldæanénbBaðaenHman TnÞwmnwgkareRbIR)as;sBaØaN {karrs;enACaGb,rima (= existence minimum)” )anTajeTAmunenAkñúgkMlugeBlnImYy²nUvkartMrUvkareRbIR)as;éneBlGnaKtEdl

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xusBIkartMrUvkareRbIR)as;éneBlbc©úb,nñ. CaTIbBa¢b;karsakl,gnImYy²énkar kMNt;énsmtßPaBBn§ naMeTAeGaymanlT§plEdlminc,as;las; eRBaHfaCamYy enaHmanEtTidæPaBGtibrimaEdlCabec©keTsEtb:eNÑaHEdlsßitenAelIpøÚvenaH. pÞúyeTAvijeTAelIkarTamTar énPaBl¥RbesIrénlçN³esdækic©k¾dUcCaeTA elIGkb,kiriyaEdlCa subjectiv énRbCaCncMeBaHrdæ nigcMeBaHkarykBn§ RtUv)an TTYlykmkBicarNaEtbnþicbnÞÜcb:ueNÑaH. enaHmann½yfa kalNaeKalkarN_ Gtibrima Edl)anbriyayenATIenHCalkçN³bec©keTsenaHRtUv)ane)aHbg;ecal nUvTMnak;TMngCamUldæanEdlfaviFankarN¾neya)ayBn§EdlCMTas;eTAnwgKMnites dækic© mansßitenACaeRscenAkñúgRbeTskMBugCYbRbTHenaH TaMgGs;enHGacnaM eGaymanRbtikmμesdækic© EdlBMucg;)anenAkñúgTMhMd¾xøaMgkøamYy sMrab;GñkEdl)an CYbRbTHCamYynwgneya)ayBn§enaH. CalT§pl brikçaTunEdlsßitenAbMrugTuukGac RtUvkat;bnßy eRBaHGñkmankmμsiT§iTun KWBMuRbugeRbobeRbIR)as;énTunrbs;eK rWk¾eK bBa¢ÚnEpñkmYyénTunrbs;eKeTAbreTs. karfycuHénkareRbIR)as;Tun rWbrikçaTun rebobenHmYy GaceFVIeGaydMeNaHRsayénBn§EdlmanlkçN³bec©keTsl¥ RbesIrenaH eTACamanlT§plesdækic©GaRkk;mYy CagdMeNaHRsayénBn§Edl manlkçN³bec©keTsBMuRKb;RKan;mYy. CaeKalbMNgsmrmü TaMgGs;enaHKW GnuBaØatedIm,IRsavRCavsMrab;karsMerccitþGMBIEpnkarERbRbYlénBn§BitR)akd faetI PaBeFVIeGayCaBitR)akdrbs;vanaMeTAeGaymankarsMerc)anéneKalbMNgEdll¥ RbesIrmYyCagkñúgkrNIEdlTaMgGs;enaHKWRtUv)ane)aHbg;ecalnUvPaBeFVIeGayeTA CaBitR)akdénEpnkarenaH. bBaðalM)akEdl)anerobrab;enATIenH BIkarkMNt;edayRtwmRtUvénsmtßPaB Bn§ )anbNþaleGaymanGñkesdæviTUCaeRcIn)andak;sßitenACamUldæannUvTMhMvas; esdæviTUTaMgenaH)anbegáItnUvRkumnImYy²énRbeTsEdlmanPaBesμIKñaeTAelIktþaEd lRtUvCatMNagd¾sMxan;cMeBaHTMhMlkç½NÐénsmtßPaBBn§. CacMbgTaMgGs;enH Tak;TgeTAnwgGaMgDIkaT½r per capita TMnak;TMngBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs nigk¾dUcCa karbUkbBa©ÚlKñaénvis½yesdækic© GDP. bnÞab;mkeK)anbkRsayeTAelImUldæan

186 # Economic Development

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188 # Economic Development

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karCMrujénkarR)ak;eLIy eRBaHenAkñúgEpñkesdækic©NamYyEdlBMuTan;manbMrugnUv ehdæarcnasm<½n§hirBaØvtßúRKb;RKan; karCMrujenaH KWmankarBi)akedIm,IeFVIeGaykøay eTACakarBit. enATIenHTMhMénebLasac;R)ak;énkarRbfuyRbfan RtUvRKbdNþb; elIslb;CacMbgedaylT§PaBsMrab;karTijénplitpleRbIR)as;. enAkñúgkrNI enH plénkarekIneLIgBn§ KWmanEtkardak;bnÞúkeTAelIebLasac;R)ak;énkarRbfuy RbfanEdleFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvel,Óncracrénfvika nigeFVIeGaymankarrMkil RkahVikénkartMrUvkareTAsþaMenaH. TaMgenHmann½yfakarfycuHénplitplsgÁm EdlBIedImdMbUgRtUv)ankat;bnßy EtpÞúyeTAvijlT§plénkarekIneLIgéføRtUv)aneFVI eGayxøaMgkøa. k¾b:uEnþkarRsavRCavEdlCaBiesaFn¾niymCaeRcIn )anpþl;eGayeXIjfa lT§plenHelcecjCaTUeTAexSay. kñúgkrNIenH TaMgGs;enH KWsnñidæanCakar Bit)anfa karekIneLIgéntMrUvkarEdlCaÉkCnsnμt;faBMuRKb;RKan;eLIy edIm,I begáIteLIgvijnUvkMriténR)ak;cMNUlBit X Edlcas;enaH. k¾b:uEnþenA kñúgkrNIenH kNþab;édsaFarN³GaceFVIeGaymankarrMkilRkahVik énkartMrUvkarrhUtdl;sßan PaB N edaymeFüa)ayénkarBRgIkcMnYnfvikarbnþeTAeTot. bnÞab;mkCalT§pl eKTTYl)anBitR)akd X k¾b:uEnþkMriténéfø Edlx<s;FmμtamYyKW P . ecjBIenH eKGacemIleXIj EdlfalT§plekIneLIgénéføCadMbUgedayBIkarykBn§d¾x<s; GacRtUv)aneFVIeGayxøaMgkøaedayqøgkat;kartMrUvkarEdlCalkçN³fvikarbEnßmmYyé nÉkCn nigénrdæ. cMeBaHkarRbugRby½tñsMrab;karsmøwgryHeBlyUr lT§pl énsmtßPaBénkarvinieyaKTunEdlRtUvhirBaØbTanedaysarBn§ GacbegáItnUvkar kat;bnßyénlT§plénkarekIneLIgénéføCadMbUgenH. TnÞwmnwg\T§iBlRtLb;eRkayTUeTAedayGtiprNaEdl)anbkRsayrYceTAe lIkarGPivDÆn_esdækic© KWTaMgenHenAmansMrab;bgðajeToteTAelIkarERbRbYlEdl GaRs½yeTAnwgGtiprNaénkUtasnSM. CamYyenH RtUvEtKitKUrCanic© kalNatarag tMélénBn§EdlekIneLIgCalMdab; (progressiv) mYymansßitenA. kalNatarag tMélBn§enaH manninñakareTArkTMhMFmμta enaHecjBIGtiprNamannUvlT§pl 1

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190 # Economic Development

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192 # Economic Development

eKalbMNgénkareFVIeGayman\T§iBleTAelIdMeNIrRbRBitþénesdækic©ÉkCn rWk¾rdæk¾ RtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚlenATIenHEdr. c). RkuménkarcMNaysMrab;sgÁm rab;bBa©ÚlP¢ab;CamYynUvkarcMNayénkar epÞrTaMgGs; (transactions) Edl\T§iBledaypÞal;rbs;va manRBMEdnEteTAelI karEbgEckrYménR)ak;cMNUl eTaHbIGacecjBIkarcMNayenHmannUvedayRb eyalénlT§plTak;TgnwgkarEbgEckktþaplitkmμ (factor allocation) niglT§ plénkarekIneLIgTun (capital accumulation) k¾eday. enAkñúgcMnucmUldæanénGtßbTCaeRcIn cMeBaHlT§plkarvivDÆn_énkarcMNay rbs;rdæenAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_sßitenAelIbBaðaénkarcUlrYmsMrab;karbegáItTun énesdækic©Cati. cMeBaHkarviPaKeTAelIcMNUlBn§RtUv)anelIkeLIgrYcCaeRsc EdlfakarpSarP¢ab;ya:gs¥itrmYtmYyrvagskmμPaBénrdæ nigkarbegáItTunEdlCa ÉkCn KWekItmaneLIg. TaMgenHGacKitfamanTMnak;TMngmYy EdlCamYyTMnak; TMngenaHlT§PaBénneya)ayBn§EdlRtUv)anBiPakSanaMeGayCaBitR)akdmankare kIneLIgénkarsnSMEdlCalkçN³rdæ k¾b:uEnþEtkñúglkçxNÐEdlfakarcMNUlBIBn§ enHBMuRtUv)aneRbIR)as;sMrab;hirBaØbTanénkareRbIR)as;EdlCalkçN³rdæeT,Iy. k¾b:uEnþbBaðaenH CalT§plTMlak;bnÞúkeTAelIkarsnSMEdlCalkçN³ÉkCn. lT§plénkarsnSMEdlviC¢man enAkñúgKMniténkarkat;bnßycenøaHRbehagénkar snSM nigCamYyenaH enAkñúgKMniténkarbegáItsnÞúHénPaBrIklUtlas; KWminRtUvrMBwg eGayCaBitR)akd)aneLIy eRBaHkrNIénkarxVHxatTunEdlCamUlehturaraMgkar GPivDÆn_ KWGacbNþalmkvijnUvkarxVHxatTunsMrab;karsnSM. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgsßan PaBrebobenH GacmansMrab;rdæCamYynwglT§PaBénkarlHbg;eTAelIviFankarN_ EdlCaneya)aycMNUlbEnßmeTot nigk¾b:uEnþRtUvbegáInénkarsnSMrbs;rdæ. cMeBaHkarcMNUlEdlpþl;eGaydUcbBaðaxagelIGacsMerc)aneCaKC½y Et edayqøgkat;karEkTMrg;énkarcMNay. eyageTAtamelak Adic nig Peacock sBVéf¶enHenAkñúgRbeTsCaeRcIn karBicarNaénneya)ayfvikasMrab;kareFVIeGay kan;EtRbesIreLIgénkarsMerceKalbMNgEdlCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_ KWTak;TgPaK

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eRcInEteTAelIEpñkcMNUlénesdækic©rdæEtb:ueNÑaH. pÞúyeTAvijviFankarN_EkTMrg; eTAelIEpñkcMNayeRcInEtelIkElg eTaHbIenAkñúgkrNICaeRcInkarEkrTMrg;;eTAelI EpñkenHekIteLIgnUvP½BVsMNagd¾FMpgEdr sMrab;karbegáInsnÞúHénkarGPivDÆn_dUcCa CamYynwgneya)ayBn§Edr. kalNaeKcab;epþImecjBIrcnasm<½n§énkarcMNay rbs;rdæEdlcab;epþImpþl;eGaymYyenaH karekIneLIgénkarsnSMrdæcMeBaHcMNUl EdlRtUv)anpþl;eGaymYy KWGacmanlT§PaBeTAekItluHRtaeKGackat;bnßynUvkar eRbIR)as;EdlCalkçN³rdæ k¾dUcCakarcMNayénkarepÞrepSg² (transactions). CamYynwgkarCYyrbs;karsnSMenH karvinieyaKEdlCasaFarN³RtUv)anhirBaØb Tan. EtkarBinitüenAkñúgKMeragfvikarCatiénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_bgðajeGay eXIjkarcMNayCakarepÞreTAelIesdækic©ÉkCn rWesdækic©RKYsar KWBMuCaFMdMueLIy rWk¾KμanGtßn½y. dUcenHkarkat;bnßyénkarepÞrenH GacekIteLIgEtkñúglT§PaB kMNt;dUcCakarRtUvXaMgTb;énkargarsgÁmEdlrdæ)anTTYlykCaedIm. ehtuenH karviPaKCabnþbnÞab;RtUveGabRkesabEtCamYynwglT§PaBeRCIserIsénkareRbIR)as; éncMNUlrdæ sMrab;TisedAénkareRbIR)as; rWk¾TisedAénkarvinieyaKEdlCalkçN³ rdæ. CamYyenH eKKYEtcab;GarmμN_ rWBicarNaEdrfakarkNt;lkçN³rvagRbePT énkarcMNayTaMgBIr KWeRscEtcitþrhUteTAdl;kMrithYsRbmaNNamYyeT,Iy. dUcenHlkçN³vinicä½yénkarEbgEck rWkarkMNt;lkçN³EdlsMxan; KWCary³eBl énkarsßitenAEdlRtUvrMBwgrbs;plitplEdlRtUvCYbRbTHenaH ³ kalNaBak;B½n§ eTAnwgplitplsMercEdlRtUvplit rWk¾Tijedayrdæ ehIyEdlRtUvtMrUvkarTnÞwmnwg fvikaRbcaMqñaMrbs;CatienaH KWsßitenAkñúgkarcMNayCakareRbIR)as;. eRkABIenH eKrab;bBa©ÚlpgEdr nUvkarcMNayeTAelIvis½ykarBark¾eTAkñúgkareRbIR)as;rbs;rdæ Edr. pÞúyeTAvij kalNaplitplEdlCYbRbTHenaH BMutMrUvkarenAkñúgkMlugfvikar RbcaMqñaMEdl)anCYbRbTHenaHeT TaMgenHBak;B½n§eTAnwgplitplvinieyaKTun.

194 # Economic Development

3>2> lT§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarkat;bnßyénkareRbIR)as;EdlCardæ eyageTAtambMNkRsayénesdæviTUepSg² karcMNayénrdæenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_ KWelIsTMhM (over dimension) enAkñúgTMnak;TMngsMrab;TMhMénkar cMNaysrubrbs;rdæ. dUcenHedIm,IeGayTMhMénkarsnSMEdlCaesdækic©CatiekIn eLIg eKRtUveRbIR)as;cMNUlrbs;rdæEdlsMrab;eKalbMNgeRbIR)as;enaH eTACa sMrab;eKalbMNgvinieyaKvij. eyageTAtamkaremIleXIjrbs;elak Please karlMeGogsMrab;eKalbMNgkareRbIR)as;ecjBIkarekIneLIg énR)ak;cMNUlenAkñúg RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWx<s;ebIeRbobeFobeTA eRBaHfaGñkneya)ayenAkñúgRbeTs enHCajwkjab; KWBuMmansmtßPaB k¾dUcCalT§PaBedIm,IeFVIEpnkarnUvkarcMNay EdlRbRBitþeTAenaHeGaymansßitenATukbMrugenAkñúgTMhMd¾RKb;RKan; énmeFüa)ay hirBaØvtßúsMrab;karvinieyaKTunEdlmanlkçNCaplitkmμenaHeT. qøgkat;bBaðaenH TaMgenHvaekIteLIgnUv de facto cMeBaHPaBGaRs½yénkarcMNayénkareRbIR)as; EdlCasaFarN³ya:geRcInBIkarcMNUlBIBn§ TnÞwmnwgTMhMénkarvinieyaKCasa FarN³manya:gtictYcBIkarcMNUlBIBn§d¾x<s;enH. eyaleTAelITMnak;TMngenH k¾dUcCaeyaleTAelI\T§iBlRtLb;énneya)ayBn§eTAelIkarsnSMCaÉkCnEdlRtUv)anBiPakSarYcBImunenaH KWGacekIneLIgnUv eRKaHfñak;EdlfakarekIneLIgénGRtabnÞúkBn§naMeTAeGaymankarfycuHmYyénGRta snSMsMrab;esdækic©Cati. bBaðaenHeKeGayeQμaHfa :Please–Effect :. k¾b:uEnþeKBMuGacTTYlyknUvlT§plenH sMrab;Ca»kasedIm,IbdiesdænUvlT§ PaBEdlRtUv)anBiPakSaBImunénkareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgénhirBaØvtßúsMrab;GPiv DÆn_énma:RkUesdækic©edaysarEtkarykBn§sIuCMerAenaHeT,Iy ³ sMrab;müa:g krNI CaeRcIn)anbgðajeGayeXIjenAkñúgenaH mankarekIteLIgnUvshTMnak;TMng (correlation) EdlviC¢manxøaMgkøamYyrvagGRtabnÞúkBn§ nigGRtaBn§. ÉsMrab;müa:geTot PaBGsmtßPaBénrdæaPi)alnImYy² edIm,IeRbIR)as;karekIneLIg éncMNUlBIBn§sMrab;hirBaØbTan cMeBaHkarvinieyaKBMubgðajeGayeXIjnUvPsþútag sMrab;PaBBMuGacsßitmanenAEdlCamUldæanénlT§PaBrebobenHeLIy. dUcenHedIm,I

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eFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgénhirBaØvtßúsMrab;GPivDÆn_ma:RkUesdækic© ]bsKÁneya )ayFM²RtUvEtelatrMlg edIm,Idak;nUvdMeNIrkarénkarsikSaeGayenAkñúgclna sMrab;rdæaPi)al. CabnÞab;mkeTotmannUvsMnYEdlecaTeLIgeTotfa etIEpñkGMeNayplNa mYy kñúgcMeNamkareRbIR)as;rbs;rdæsMrab;karkat;bnßyrebobenH GnuBaØatiTTYl )annUvplRbeyaCn_énkarbegáInkarvinieyaKsaFarN³eGay)anya:gxøaMgenaH. enATIenHRtUvBicarNaEdlfa sMrab;EpñkénkareRbIR)as;EdlCasaFarN³ KWrab; bBa©ÚlnUvkarcMNayCaeRcInEdlbgðajCakarcMNayEdlCaplitkmμ nigcUlrYm cMENkedaypÞal; nigedayRbeyalsMrab;karbNþúHbNþalénTunFnFanmnusS. TidæPaBenH CYbRbTH]TahrN_eTAelIkarcMNayCaeRcInenAkñúgEpñkEdleKehAfa {Basic Needs} mann½yfakarcMNaysMrab;es,ogGahar suxPaB karksarTICMrk nigkarGb;rMbNþúHbNþal. cMENkrbs;karcMNayenHenAkñúgkarcMNaysrub énrdæaPi)alkNþalRtUvCaeRcInCag 40% eTAeTotsMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH. karkat;bnßymYyénkarcMNayenH edIm,ICaplRbeyaCn¾énkarvinieyaKsaFarN³ GacnaMeTAeGayBMumankarbnþeTotcMeBaHkarBnüWténel,OnkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©eT,Iy CMnYsenHeTAvijmanEtkarbegáInsnÞúHEfmeTot. k¾b:uEnþPsþútagenH eKBMuGacCakrNITUeTAenAeLIyeT. CaBiessTidæPaBén kareRbIR)as;EdlCaplitkmμenH BMuTan;RtUvGackøayeTACaEpñksrubénkareRbIR)as; EdlCasaFarN³enAeLIyenaHeT. cMeBaHkareRbIR)as;EdlCasaFarN³RtUvrab; bBa©ÚlpgEdr ]TahrN_dUcCakarcMNayeTAelIbuKÁlik nigsMPar³sMrab;rdæ)al k¾dUcCakarcMNayeTAelIvis½ykarBarEdlTaMgBIrenHRtUv)anemIleXIjCajwkjab; faGRbsiT§PaB (inefficient). k¾b:uEnþya:gticbMMputCakarcMNayelIsTMhM enAkñúg kareRbobeFobcMeBaHlT§plplitPaBEdlGacmanlT§PaBrbs;va. cMeBaHEpñk cMNayTaMgBIrmancMnYnelIsBIBak;kNþalénkarcMNayénrdæ dUcCaenAkñúgRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_xøHbgðajeGayeXIjcMENkénkarcMNaysMrab;vis½ykarBarenAkñúgk arcMNayénrdæaPi)alkNþal KWeRcInCag 10% eTAeTot TnÞwmnwgGRtaenHeK)an

196 # Economic Development

eXIjmanEtenAkñúgRbeTsEt 2 b:ueNÑaHenAkñúgcMeNamRbeTs]sSahkmμEdl RtUv)anelIkykmkBicarNaenaH. enHmann½yfaenAkñúgkrNICaeRcInmansßitenA esssl;nUvskþanuBlbnþeTotmYyénviFankarN_karsnSMrbs;rdæ EdlkareFVIeGay sMerc)ankarsnSMenaHGacGnuBaØatieGaymannUv\T§iBlCaviC¢maneTAelITMhMénkar sMerceKalbMNgénTisedAtYnaTIEdlCaesdækic©srub. 3>3> lT§§PaB nigRBMEdnénkarEkrTMrg;énkarcMNayeTAelIkarvinieyaKTun EdlCarbs;rdæ TnÞwmnwgkarkat;bnßyénkareRbIR)as;EdlBMuplitkmμ k¾mankarekIteLIgCa jwkjab;pgEdrnUvlT§PaBedIm,IbegáInRbsiT§PaB (efficiency) énkareRbIR)as;én karsnSMCaesdækic©srub. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgkrNICaeRcInrcnasm<½n§énkarvinieyaKTun EdlCasaFarN³BMu)anbgðajeGayeXIjnUvTMrg;NaEdlRtUvmanenAkñúgplRbeya Cn_éneKalbMNgénkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©eT,Iy. TaMgenHmann½yfa\T§iBlénkarsMEdg rWkarsMEjgEdleK)anCYbenAkñúg vis½yÉkCnk¾RtUv)aneXIjCajwkjab;enAkñúgvis½ysaFarN³Edr. RbePTlT§pl énkarsMEjgenAelIépÞrdæ KWCakarlMeGogeTAelIkarvinieyaKRbNitEdlmantMél (prestig investment) BMuCaplitkmμ. karvinieyaKenHRsUbyknUvmeFüa)ay rWTun EdlkMBugsßitenAkñúgsPaBxVHxat ehIyEdlecjBIkarvinieyaKenH KWBMumannUv lT§plénsmtßPaBEdlCaskþanuBlNamYyeLIy. Ca]TahrN_dUcCakarsg; rWsßabnanUvvimanrdæaPi)alfμI²CaeRcIn sNæaKarTTYleP¶ovFM² sMNg;bUnIydæanFM² k¾dUcCakarRbtibtþiénkarcMNaysMEjgeTAelIEpñkeyaFa nigkarTijGavuFyuT§P½NÐ EdlCajwkjab;BMumantMélCayuT§saRsþenaHeLIy. TnÞwmnwgkarcMNayénkarsMEjg nigkarbgðajenaH k¾mannUvKMeragxøHeTot EdrEdlelatrMlghYsBIkarsMEjgenaH. TaMgGs;enaH ]TahrN_dUcCakar sßabnaya:gqab;rh½s rWk¾hYsmaDéncMNtynþehaHqøgTVIb shRKasénRkumh‘un GakascrCati sMNg;eragcRkGKÁIsnIFM² RbB½n§pøÚvfñl;FM²xVat;ExVg. l. nig. l.

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karcMNayenH CacMbgbMerIbMras;nUvneya)ayk¾dUcCakariyaFibetyüEtb:ueNÑaH KW BMumanTisedAeTArkkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©Catid¾manRbsiT§iPaBeLIy eRBaHfakrNI enHktþaplitkmμEdlkMBugxUtxat rWxVHxatenaHRtUv)antMrUvkarBMusmRsbeTAtam TisedA ³ kareRCIserIsKMeragBMumanninñakareTArklMdab;fñak;énGtßiPaBEdlCa lkçN³esdækic©eLIy. CaBitR)akdlT§plénkarsMEjg rWk¾énkarbgðajenHGacCaclkrén esdækic©sMxan;mYyEdr. k¾b:uEnþvaGacbegáItnUvkarraraMgénkarGPivDÆn_pgEdr. Ca mYynwgenHBiessRtUvBicarNa kalNaecjBIeKalbMNgEdldak;eGayx<s;enaH BMuRtUvTajecjnUvlT§plEdlCasniTan nigEdlRtwmRtUvenAkñúgTMnak;TMngén KMeragEdlTamTarenaH nigénTunsMPar nigTunFnFanmnusSEdlRtUvcaM)ac;sMrab; karRbtibtþirbs;KMeragenaH. lT§plplitkmμEdlBMuRKb;RKan;mYyénKMeragnImYy² GacbNþaleGaymankarxUcxaténesdækic©Catisrub Edl KWCakarxUcxatGacRtUv kat;bnßycMeBaHkareRbIR)as;EdlCasniTanmYyéncMNUlsaFarN³. CaBitR)akdeKRtUvEtRtYtBiniüeTAelITMnak;TMngkrNInImYy²fa etIecjBI RbePTénkarcMNayEdlBitR)akdmYymannUvlT§plGPivDÆn_EdlviC¢man rWEdl GviC¢man rWk¾KμanTal;EtesaH. 3>4> karcMNayénrdæ nigkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUl karviPaKnImYy²nUvRbePTcMNayrbs;rdæepSg²EdlTamTarenATIenHBMuRtUv)a nGnuBaØateGaymanRBMEdnEteTAelIkarcUlrYmcMEnkénPaBrIklUtlas;énneya)ay hirBaØvtßúEtb:ueNÑaHeT. karviPaKenaH RtUvEtBicarNabEnßmeTotpgEdrnUv\T§iBl énneya)ayhirBaØvtßúeTAelIkarEbgEckR)ak;cMNUlénGnþr³buKÁl. enAeRkam TidæPaBenH karsMxan;énTMnak;TMngEpñkcMNayfvikardæBMuecjmkCaTIbBa©b;Edlfa kñúgkrNIénRbB½n§Bn§Edlman\T§iBlvDÆn³enaHmanbgðajEteTAelIkrNIéneKalbM NgEbgEckNaEdl)ankat;bnßyénkarRbmUlpþMúénR)ak;cMNUlsßitCakmμvtßúb:ueNÑ aHeT. pÞúyeTAvijkarfycuHEdlRsbKñaenaHEdrk¾mancMENkénRbCaCnEdlrs;

198 # Economic Development

enAkñúgsßanPaBRkIRkdac;xat KWBMuRtUv)anBicarNaKitKUredayneya)ayénBn§enH eLIy ebIsinNaCaeKsmøwgCalkçN³TUeTAEtmþgénlT§PaBlT§pledayRbeyal ]TahrN_dUcCaGMBIkarekIneLIgénkargarEdlbNþalmkBIneya)ayBn§mYyenaH. enATIenHneya)ayhirBaØvtßúRtUvEtlUkédeFVIkarEksMrYleTAelIEpñkénkarcMN ayfvika. k¾b:uEnþkñúgenaHpgEdr cMeBaHkarfycuHmYyéneKalbMngEbgEckeTAelI karkat;bnßyénkarRbmUlpþúMénR)ak;cMNUl KWBMuRKb;RKan;sMrab;karviPaKénlT§pl EbgEckénneya)ayBn§eLIy eRBaHfalT§plEbgEcksuT§ (net distribution effect) énskmμPaBrbs;rdæBMuGaRs½yeTAelIEtfa GñkNaEdlErkBn§nUvbnÞúkBn§ enaHeT eRkABIenHk¾GaRs½ypgEdrfa GñkNaEdlTTYlenAkñúgkarRsUbnUvpl RbeyaCn_BIkarcMNayEdlRtUvhirBaØbTanenATIenaH. TaMgenH KWsnñidæanfaviFan karN_EdlCaneya)ayes,ógGaharEdlmaneKalbMNgCacMbgnUvkarpÁt;pÁg;Ed lRtUvkan;EtRbesIrmYYyCamYynwges,ógGaharCamUldæan RtUv)anmkdl;GñkRk dac;xatPaKeRcIn. )ann½yfaecjBIviFankarN_enaH cMeNjCacMbg KWRkum RbCaCnNaEdlsßitenAEpñkxageRkaménBIra:mIdénR)ak;cMNUl. k¾dUcKñaenHEdr kalNaviFankarN_enH RtUv)anhirBaØbTanCamYykarCYyénBn§Edlman\T§iBl GvDÆn³k¾eday k¾lT§plsuT§énviFankarN_enHk¾GacenACakar]btßmÖ rWkarRTRTg; énkarEbgEckEdr ³ TMnak;TMngenHGacecjCarUbrag kalNa\T§iBlEdlxUcxat énkarEbgEckecjBIneya)ayBn§RtUv)anTUTat;elIslb;eday\T§iBlEdl]btßmÖ rWRTRTg;énkarEbgEckecjBIneya)aycMNay. Psþútagc,as;las;d¾tictYcénkarBicarNaeTAelIlT§plénkarEbgEckCag kñúgkrNIsßanPaBénes,ógGaharxagelI k¾GacTTYl)ancMeBaHviFankarN_EdlCa mYynwgviFankarN_enaH kareFVIeGaykan;EtRbesIreLIgmYyénsßanPaBsuxaPi)al sßanPaBTIlMenA nigsßanPaBénkarGb;rMbNþúHbNþal ³ enATIenH TaMgGs;hñwg GaRs½yeTAnwgnimμitkmμ rWkarerobcMcat;Ecgd¾c,as;las;énviFankarN_edaysegát emIleTAelIlT§plénkarcMNayrbs;va faetIviFankarN_enaH manenAsl;én smaCiksgÁmEdlRkIRkPaKeRcInEdrrWeT rWk¾etIecjBIviFankarN_enaHmankar

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cMeNjeTAelIbuKÁl rWsmaCiksgÁmEdlsßitenArYcCaeRscenAkñúgtYnaTIénR)ak; cMNUlEdl)anGnueRKaHrYcCaeRscehIyenaHrW?. ]TahrN_ dUcCakarBinitüeTA elIkarcMNaysMrab;vis½yGb;rMsaFarN³ dUcCakar]btßmÖrbs;rdæsMrab;karGb;rMenA saklviTüal½yCaedIm faetIsmaCiksgÁmEdlRkIRkPaKeRcIn)anTTYl rW)an cUlrYm rWeRbIR)as;énkarGb;rMd¾x<s;enaHEdrrWeT. TidæPaBdUcKñaenHEdreKeXIjmankñúgvis½yénkarpÁt;pÁg;suxPaB nigkarsg;TI lMenA ³ TaMgGs;enHCanic©CakalRtUvEtRsavRCav faetIGñkEdleRbIR)as;én sßab½nenH sßitenAkñúgRsTab;R)ak;cMNUlNa enaHebIsinCaeKcg;RsavRCavnUv \T§iBlénkarEbgEckEdlCaTIbBa©b;énkarcMNayrbs;rdæenaH. mUldæanRKwHénneya)ayrUbIyb½NÑ 1> neya)ayrUbIyb½NÑ nigtulükarénkarbg;R)ak; ¬CBa¢IgTUTat;¦ 1>1> cMNab;GarmμN¾CadMbUg cMeBaHkarBicarNamkdl;eBlenH sMrab;karnimμitkmμénneya)ayfvikar nig neya)ayhirBaØvtßú KWeK)andkecjnUvTMnak;TMngesdækic©eRkARbeTsénRbeTs Edl)anelIkeLIgmkniyayenaH eTaHbITMnak;TMngenHmanGtßn½ysMxan;sMrab; CH\T§iBlelIviFankarN_neya)ayesdækic©épÞkñúgya:gNak¾eday. cMeBaHkar bgðajénKNnIERbRbYlRTBüsm,tþiCati enAkñúgTMnak;TMngCamYynwgmUldæanRTwsþI énkarbegáItTun KWRtUv)anbkRsayeGayeXIjfa karvinieyaKTunsuT§RtUvKñaCa mYynwgFnb,maN rWR)ak;rYm ecjBIkarbegáItkarsnSMkñúgRbeTs nigkarTTYl \NTansuT§BIeRkARbeTsEdlRtUveGaymantulüPaBeTAnwg»nPaB rWkarxVHxat énhirBaØvtßúenAkñúgRbeTs. karTTYlyk\NTansuT§BIeRkARbeTs bgðajeGay eXIjGtierkénkarnaMcUleRcInCagkarnaMecj eRBaHfaCBa¢IgTUTat;Canic©Cakal RtUvmantulüPaB. TaMgenH KWmanTMnak;TMngdUcxageRkam ³ I.

200 # Economic Development

rWk¾ ³ karnaMecj + TunnaMcUl

= karnaMcUl

+

TunnaMecj

viFankarN_karBaresdækic©eRkARbeTsénneya)ayesdækic©épÞkñúg KWTam TarEdlfaPaBeFVIeGaysMerc)annUvcMnYnsnSM nigcMnYnénkarvinieyaKTunEdl)an eRKagTuk BMuRtUvTMlak;kMhusedaysarsßanPaBéntulüPaBCBa¢IgTUTat;eLIy. k¾b:uEnþCamYynigkMhusrebobenH Canic©Cakal KWRtUvEtKitKUrkalNaCBa¢IgTUTat; BMumantulüPaB. eyageTAtamkarBiPakSad¾TUlMTUlay GMBIkareRCIserIseGay RtwmRtUvéncMENktulüPaB ¬enAkñúgemeronKNnICBa¢ÍgTUTat;srub)anmkBIcMENk tulüPaBCaeRcIn¦ bMNkRsaymYy)anykmkGnuvtþn_ EdlfasMrab;karkMNt;én smPaBCBa¢ÍgTUTat;enAkñúgkarGnuvtþn_BitR)akdénneya)ayesdækic©eRkARbeTs KNnIénmas nigénrUbIyb½NÑ k¾dUcCakarERbRbYlEdlGacekIteLIgenAkñúgtYnaTI (foreign position) énRbeTsEdlCYbRbTHenaH Tl;nwgsßab½nrUbIyvtßúbreTs ¬P¢ab;CamYyenaH dUcCa IMF = international monetary fonds CaedIm¦ KWRtUv)an dkecj rWBMuRtUv)anrab;bBa©ÚleT,Iy. dUcenH kalNaCBa¢IgTUTat;bgðajeGayeXIjGtierkénkarbg;cUl ¬mann½y esμInwgkarnaMcUlplitpl nigesvakmμ TegVIBIbreTsedayBMuKitR)ak;cMNUl k¾ dUcCakarnaMcUlénTun¦ elIskarbg;ecj ¬mann½yesμInwgkarnaMcUlplitpl nigén esvakmμ TegVIeTAbreTsedayBMuKitR)ak;cMNUl nigk¾dUcCakarnaMecjénTun¦ enaHeKniyayfa {CBa¢IgTUTat;skmμ} rWk¾fa {CBa¢IgTUTat;Gtierk}. enAkñúgkrNI EdlpÞúyBIenHénkarelIslb;énkarbg;ecjelIskarbg;cUl KWCBa¢ÍgTUTat;eyag eTAtamkrNIenaHCa {Gkmμ} rWk¾{»nPaB}.

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202 # Economic Development

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204 # Economic Development

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206 # Economic Development

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208 # Economic Development

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eRcInBMuGaceTArYc)aneLIy eRBaHTUrelxEdlcaM)ac;sMrab;karKNnaénrUbIyb½NÑ rYmenH enAkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøHsßitenATukbMrugBMuRKb;RKan;. dUcenHeKRtUv )anXaMgTukeTAelIxøWmsar rWlT§plgay²Edl)aneGabRkesabxøH²faCa lkçxNÐEdlcab;GarmμN_BiesssMxan;énBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs. kalNarUbbIyvtßúbMrugRtUv)anhYtEhg edaysarEtPaBsmPaBEdlBMuman tulüPaBmYyénrUbIyvtßúénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RbQmTl;nwgrUbIyb½NÑbMrug ¬rWrUbIy b½NÑnaMmux¦ rWk¾rUbIyb½NÑrYm enaHmann½yfamankarKMramkMEhgénkarraraMgEdlCa rdæ)aléncracrplitpl nigcracrénTun. neya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edlmanninña kareTAnwgéførUbIyvtßúRtUv)anbMeBjbEnßmedaysniTankmμénrUbIyvtßúEdl)andak;eT ACacMnYnrUbIyvtßú. viFankarN_sniTankmμrUbIyvtßúrebobenH mann½yCacMbgnUv karp¥akénPaBEdlGacbþÚr)an (convertibility). )ann½yfa p¥akénkarbþÚreday esrIénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsCamYyrUbIyb½NÑbreTs nigp¥akénkarbþÚredayesrI rUbIyb½NÑbreTsCamYyrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTssMrab;CnkñúgRbeTs k¾dUcCaCnbreTs. CMnYjénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsTaMgGs;RtUvEtRtYtBinitüedayrdæPaKeRcIn. cMNUl énrUbIyb½NÑbreTsecjBIplitplnaMecj nigBIkarnaMcUlénTunRtUvpþl;eGay CadMbUgeTAkariyal½yrUbIyvtßú. GñknaMecjGacmanlT§PaBnaMecj EtkalNaeK TTYlkarpþl;cMENkEdlCalkçN³rdæmYyénrUbIyb½NÑTaMgenaH. Cajwkjab;viFankarN_sniTankmμénrUbIyb½NÑenH RtUveFVIpSarp¢ab;eTAnwg TMnak;TMnak;TMngCamYynwgGRta rWkUtaénkarnaMcUl (import quota). CamYyenH bBaðaénkarpþl;cMENkénkUtanaMcUlRtUvQrelIkarcMlgBIkarpþl;cMENkénrUbIyb½ NÑpgEdr. dUcenHGñknaMcUlEdlCaBitR)akdmannUvkmμsiT§énsiT§inaMcUl (import licencing) k¾b:uEnþeKBMuRtUv)anpþl;cMENkénrUbIyb½NÑEdlcaM)ac;edIm,InaMcUlenaHeT dUcenHeKnwgsakl,gCajwkjab;edIm,ITijnUvrUbIyb½NÑenAelITIpSarggwt. k¾b:uEnþ GRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlRKbdNþb;enATIenaH sßitenAPaKeRcInx<s;CagelIGRtabþÚrR)ak; EdlCapøÚvkar. elIsBIenHeTAeTotGRtabþÚrR)ak;enHpþl;eGaysMrab;GñkpÁt;pÁg; rUbIyb½NÑ nUvkarCMrujénkarlk;d¾FMCagkarpþl; rWk¾kardak;énrUbIyb½NÑenHeTAkñúg

210 # Economic Development

FnaKarkNþal. TIpSarggwtenHCalT§plénTMnak;TMngmYyEdlcMeBaHTMnak;TMng enHsßab½nrUbIyvtßú KWBMusßitenAkñúgsßanPaBedIm,IbMeBjcitþnUvPaBGtierkéntMrUvkar rUbIyb½NÑenAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑtamry³karpÁt;pÁg;bEnßmEdleyageTAtammYyena HeLIy. k¾b:uEnþTIpSarggwtenH bgðajnUvkMhusqÁg;énRbsiT§PaB (efficiency) én neya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlCapøÚvkarenaH. dUcenHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcInsakl,g edIm,IeFVIeGayrIgs¶ÜtnUvTIpSar ggwténrUbIyb½NÑenaH edayviFankarN_déTeTot ]TahrN_dUcCaedayeFVIeGay Rsbc,ab;énTIpSarenaH rW{TIpSarEdlRsbKña} rWk¾RbtibtþiénGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlCa BhuKuN5. k¾b:uEnþRbB½n§énsniTankmμénrUbIyb½NÑxagelI )anTMlak;bnÞúkya:gxøaMg eTAelIsßab½nrUbIyb½NÑnUvParkic©d¾lM)akenAkñúgeKalbMNgénkarRKb;RKg nigén karEbgEck rWk¾karpþl;cMENkénrUbIyb½NÑ nigénkarRtYtBinitüénTIpSarggwtenaH. eyageTAtamenaH eRKaHfñak;d¾FMénsßab½nrUbIyb½NÑ KWkarBMuRtUv)aneFVIeGayRtwmRtUv eTAtamkarTamTarEdlRtUv)anelIkeLIgCamYysßab½nenaHeT,Iy. karRbtikmμya:g yWt rWk¾CalkçN³esdækic©Edl{xus} nigCalT§plepSg²BIkrNIenH Gacman ekIteLIgnUvkarraraMgénsßab½nrcnasm<½n§plitkmμEdlmanRbsiT§PaBmYyénRbeTs Edl)anCYbRbTHenaH. cMeBaHbBaðaenHkarRbtibtþiénParkic©EdlCasßab½nenaH )anP¢ab;eTAnwgTMhM ya:gFMénTunsMPar³ nigTunFnFanmnusSEdlkMBugxVHxaténRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_. enAeRkamrebobyl;eXIjEbbenH TaMgenHelcecjCamanRbeyaCn_Edlfakar bg;tMélénkarsMrbsMrYledaysmPaBnIykmμEdlRtUvdak;eTAxusenaH KWBMuRtUv cMeBaHRbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlCaBhuPaK TIpSarrUbIyb½NÑRtUvbMEbkCacMENkeTAkñúgcMENk TIpSarya:geRcIn. karbMEbkEdlCajwkjab; KWkarbMEbksMrab;cracrénTMnij nigcracrénTun. enA kñúgcMeNaméncracrTMnijGacRtUvbMeBjnUvPaBeFVIeGayxusKñabnþeTot eyageTAtamkarnaMecj nignaMcUl nigenATIenaHk¾eyageTAtamRbePTénTMnijEdl)ankMNt;. enAelIpøÚvenHeKGackMNt; sMrab;skmμPaBepÞr (transaction) énesdækic©eRkARbeTsEdlepSg²Kña nUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edl epSg²Kña. cugqñaM 1984 RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_cMnYn 25 )anbgðajnUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlCa BhuPaKenH ]TahrN_dUcCa Mexiko )anbgðajeGayeXIjGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlepSg²KñacMnYn 5. 5

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eGaymanCaTMhMenaHeT nigkarERbRbYlmYyénGRtabþÚrR)ak;kñúgeKalbMNgraraMg rWkac;cgáÚténBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsRtUvEtniymeFVI. 2>2> RbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþt rWbt;Ebn pÞúyBIRbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; enAkñúgneya)ayénGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edlskmμ mYysßab½nhirBaØvtßú)andkfyxøÜnya:gxøaMgecjBIneya)ayenaH kalNakarsMerc citþbnÞabeTArkPaBGENþtedayesrImYyénGRtabþÚrR)ak;. éføénrUbIyb½NÑenATIenH BMuRtUv)ankMNt;edaykrNIEdlCapøÚvkareLIy eRkABIenHéføenHbgðajeGayeXIj enAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑenAkñúgEl,grYmKñaénkarpÁt;pÁg; nigénkartMrUvkarEtb:ueNÑaH. enAkñúgeKalkarN_cMeBaHRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;RbePTmYyenH karrkSa\riyabT énrUbIyb½NÑbMrugedayqøgkat;FnaKarkNþal KW\tRbeyaCn_ eRBaHGsmtaenAelI TIpSarrUbIyb½NÑRtUv)anlb;bM)at;edaysarynþkarénGRtabþÚrR)ak; (mechanism of exchang rate) nigBMuEmnqøgkat;kareFVIGnþraKmn_CalkçN³rdæ)alNamYyeLIy. k¾b:uEnþrUbIyb½NÑbMrugRtUvsßitenACacaM)ac; kalNaneya)ayénPaBGENþtEdl manipulation mYyRtUv)anGnuvtþn_. enAkñúgkrNIenH RtUv)ansakl,gedIm,IduHxat;nUvPaBeLIgcuHBMuRtwmRtUv (erratic fluctuation) énGRtabþÚrR)ak; ¬=mann½yfakarERbRbYlEdlmanry³eBlxøI énGRtabþÚrR)ak;ecjBIry³eBlEvgrbs;va¦ Edlpþl;eGayedaysarkarvivDÆn_én ktþaesdækic©BitEdlqøgkat;Ettamry³GnþraKmn_énTIpSarEtb:ueNÑaH. edayehtu enH eKalbMNgEdlCaneya)ayrUbIyvtßú KWkarTamTareGaymanesßrPaBmYy énGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlmanRbsiT§PaBBitR)akd. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgkrNIxøHTaMgGs;enH GnuBaØateGaymankarvaytMélya:glM)ak faetIkarlUkédénFnaKarkNþalEdl bMerInUvkarduHxat;énkarERbRbYlCary³eBlxøIenaH rWk¾faetIkarlUkédenHBMuekIteLIg nUvectnaeFVIeGayxus rWk¾EkERbénkarvivDÆn_GRtabþÚrR)ak;enaHya:gticbMputsMrab; ry³eBlmFüm. enAeRkamkal³eTs³EbbenH mann½yfa{PaBGENþtEdlRkxVk;} mansßitenArYcCaeRsc.

212 # Economic Development

k¾bgðajdUcKñaenHEdrnUvTMrg;énGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlGENþt mYy. crowling peg enHk¾dUcCaPaBGENþtedayesrIénGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edr Etxus KñaRtg;faGRtabþÚrR)ak;RbePTenHeFVIclnaCamFümry³eBlyUreTAelIEtkMriténGRta bþÚrR)ak;Bit rWk¾EdlfakarERbRbYl énGRtabþÚrR)ak;BitRtUv)anRbtibtþikñúgry³eBlyUr eTAtamGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlmanRbsiT§PaBmYy. k¾b:uEnþPaBbt;EbnénGRtabþÚrR)ak; EdlCary³eBlyUrenHsßitenARbQmmuxTl;nwgdMNak;kalénesßrPaBEdlCary³ eBlxøI TnÞwmnwgkñúgdMNak;kalenH krNIEdlCaneya)ayrUbIyvtßú)anpþl;eGaynUv GRtabþÚrR)ak; nigkarGPivDÆn_bnþrbs;va. cMeBaHGMeBIRbRBwtþrebobenH karERbRbYl énPaBsmPaBnwgGacsMerc)aneCaKC½yenAkñúgcenøaHeBld¾xøI nigeyageTAtam GRtaxusKñad¾TabenaH cenøaHRbehagEdlmanlT§PaBd¾ceg¥oténkarvivDÆn_Gacnwg RtUv)anFana. " Crowling peg "

3> karvaytMélCaneya)ayGPivDÆn_énRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;TaMgBIr 3>1> GRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; 3>1>1> mUldæanénPaBTal;Rck ³ neya)ayGPivDÆn_épÞkñúgRbQm nWgsßirPaBxageRkA cMeBaHkarbgðajénGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; lkçxNÐmUldæanénsmtßPaBtYnaTIrbs; vaRtUv)anTMlak;elIPaBcaM)ac;Edlfaneya)ayesdækic©kñúgRbeTsRtUvkMNt;eTAta mneya)ayénRbeTsénrUbIyb½NÑbMrug ¬rUbIyb½NÑnaMmux¦6 eRBaaHedIm,IeGayGRta bþÚrR)ak;sßitenARtg;EtGRtaénPaBsmPaB enAeRkayeBlEdlmankarrMkilén RkahVikénkarpÁt;pÁg; nig/rWk¾RkahVikénkartMrUvkarénrUbIyb½NÑenaH. k¾b:uEnþCaTUeTA krNIEdlCaneya)ayesdækic©énRbeTsnImYy² BMucg;)anbnþicbnÞÜceLIykñúgkar - TaMgenHmann½yfakarsMrbsMrYlénneya)ayesdækic©TamTarnUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdldUcKñaebHbiT k¾dUcCaGRtakarR)ak;dMbUgEdlRtUvKñarvagRbeTsénrUbIyb½NÑbMrug ¬=rUbIyb½NÑnaMmux ¦ nigRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_enaH.

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raraMgEpñk\T§iBlépÞkñúgrbs;xøÜnrebobenH nigedIm,Ipþl;eGayCaGtßiPaBnUveKal bMNgesßrPaBénGRtabþÚrR)ak;. CalT§plGacnaMmknUvTMnas;d¾xøaMgkøarvagneya )ayGPivDÆn_kñúgRbeTs nigPaBmansißrPaBenAxageRkA (external stability) Edl CaTIbBa©b;TMnas;enHbgçMeGaymanParkic©énGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;rhUtmkdl;eBlenH. TMnas;Edl)anbkRsayenATIenH KWmankan;Etc,as;kalNaRbeTs kMBugGPivDÆn_enaHGnuvtþn_nUvneya)ayhirBaØvtßú nigneya)ayfvikaEdlBRgIkmYy (expansiv money policy) kñúgkareRbobeFob rWRbQmeTAnwgRbeTs rUbIyb½NÑbMrug ¬=rUbIyb½NÑnaMmux¦ enaH. karrIkraldalEdlpSarP¢ab;CamYy éncMnYnfvikakñúgRbeTseebobenH )anCMrujnUvtMrUvkarkñúgRbeTsénplitplEdl RtUveFVICMnYj nigEdlBMuRtUv)aneFVICMnYj ehIyRsbeBlCamYyKñanwgeFVIeGay ekIneLIgénéfø. pÞúyeTAvijéføenAkñúgRbeTsénplitplbreTssßitenAefr eday mUlehtuénGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;. CalT§plkartMrUvkarnaMcUlnwgekIneLIg nigTaMg Gs;enHeFVIeGayGkmμéntulükarénkarbMeBjkarplit rWkarmannUvGtierkénplit plnaMcUl rWk¾man»nPaBéntulükarénkarbMeBjkarplit. sMrab;karTUrTat;én»nPaBtulükarbMeBjkarplitenH GaceFVIeGaymankar sakl,gtamryHkarekIneLIgEdlCardæ)almYyénkMritGRtakarR)ak;;dMbUg (nominal interest rate) edIm,ICMrujeGaymanbEnßmnUvkarnaMcUlénTun rWk¾eFVIeGay mankarkat;bnßyénkarnaMecjTuneTAeRkARbeTs. k¾b:uEnþ kalNaGñkvinieyaKTun KiteTAdl;dMeNIrkarénGtiprNaenaH eKKNnaeXIjCamYynwgkarfycuHtMélén rUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs nwgecjnUvlT§plénkar)at;bg;plEdlGacrkcMeNj)anenA kñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. PaKeRcInedaymUlehtuénkarrMBwgénkarfycuH tMélénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsenaH KWGacnaMeGayekItmannUvkarnaMecjénTunsuT§mYy ehIyEdlRsbKñaenaH naMeGaymankarfycuHnUvrUbIyb½NÑbMrugénRbeTs nigEdl naMeTAeGaymanPaBkan;EtGaRkk;mYyénCBa¢ÍgTUrTat;EdlBMuGacrkSa)ankñúgsßanPa Bsmta)anCamYykrNIenaHyUrGEgVg)aneLIy. TMnak;TMng ³

214 # Economic Development

rWk¾

karnaMcUl + karnaMecjénTun = karnaMecj + karnaMcUlénTun kartMrUvkarrUbIyb½NÑ + karpÁt;pÁg;rUbIyb½NÑ

bgðajeGayeXIjfarUbIyvtßúénRbeTsEdlmanGtiprNa KWvaytMélekIn eLIg rWk¾faGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlmanRbsiT§PaBsßitenAeRkamGRtabþÚrR)ak;BitEdlGRta enaH)anqøúHbBa©aMgTMnak;TMngénTMhMTijBitR)akd. smPaBxageRkAmYy (external balance) RtUvGacsMerc)aneLIgvij kalNaGRtabþÚrR)ak;RtUv)anERbRbYleyageTAtamPaBxusKñaénGRtaGtiprNaenaH . TaMgGs;enHGacekIteT,Ig kalNaeKTukeGaymannUvkrNIEdlfarUbIyb½NÑbMrug énRbeTsenaHRtUveRbIeGayhYtEhg nigkarsMrbsMrYlén\NTanrbs;eKRtUv)an eRbIR)as;Gs;visalPaBtamryHRbeTsGñkpþl;\NTan rWk¾kalNasßab½nrdæ)an raraMgnUvkarmanrnaMgEdlCalkçN³rdæmYyénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs dUcCakar dak;nUvkUtaénkarnaMcUl nigviFankarN_sniTankmμ (rational instruments) énrUbIyb½NÑCaedIm. karP¢ab;eTAnwgrUbIyb½NÑrYmk¾BMuraraMgnUvPaBTal;Rck;enHEdr EtTMhMénkarERb RbYlrvagGRtabþÚrR)ak;dMbUg (nominal exchange rate) nigGRtabþÚrR)akBit (real exchange rate) RtUv)ankat;bnßyedaysarEtrUbIyb½NÑrYmEdl)anerobcMman sPaBTUlMTUlay. cMeBaHkarP¢ab;rUbIyb½NÑrYmenH k¾man\T§iBlenAkñúgdMeNIrén eBlevlanUvPaBGsmPaBenAkñúgCBa¢ÍgTUrTat; eRBaHkarsMrbsMrYlénrUbIyb½NÑrYm nigCamYyenaHGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlCaeTVrPaKk¾RtUvepÞogpÞat;esμIKñaedayeyageTAtamG RtaGtiprNaEdlxusKñaenaHEdr. 3>1>2> kMriténPaBbt;Ebn CalT§plénGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; CaeKalkarN_GRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; rWk¾GRtabþÚrR)ak;efrkt;sMKal;edaykMritén PaBbt;Ebn EdlcMeBaHkMriténPaBbt;EbnenHmannUvkarpøas;bþÚrdMNak;kalénkar

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ekIneLIgx<s;bMput nigkarfycuHtMélTabbMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs. dMNak;kal TaMgBIrqøúHbBa©aMgeyageTAtamkarERbRbYlénkMritéføkñúgRbeTs. kalNarUbIyvtßú kñúgRbeTssßitenAkñúgdMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s;bMput enaHelcecjnUv sm
216 # Economic Development

kareFVIeGaycuHexSayéndMeNIrkarenHGacmanlT§PaB)an kalNa plitplnaMcUlGacCMnYs)anedayplitplkñúgRsuk nigplitkrkñúgRsuk)aneFVI RbtikmμeTAelIkarpøas;bþÚréntMrUvkarenaH RBmTaMgCamYynwgkarekIneLIgénplitkmμ EdleyageTAtamenaH. EtTaMgGs;enHGacnaMeTAeGaymanlT§PaBEdlraraMgkar ekIneLIgénéførebobenH)an luHRtaEteGLasÞIcénkarpÁt;pÁg;rbs;plitkrkñúgRsuk Edl)anCYbRbTHenaHKWx<s;. k¾b:uEnþCamYynwgenH eKk¾minrMBwgfamaneGLasÞIc rebobenHenAkñúgvis½yesdækic©TaMgGs;enaHeLIy. CaBiessenAkñúgvis½yénes,óg GaharCamUldæan karekIneLIgénplitkmμrebobenHBMuGaceTArYceLIy. CalT§pl rcnasm<½n§énGtiprNamYyRtUv)anbgðaj ehIyecjBIGtiprNaenaHRsTab; RbCaCnEdlmanR)ak;cMNUlTabRtUv)anCYbRbTHCaBiessya:gxøaMg. karBicarNadUcKñaenHEdr GacRtUv)aneFVIsMrab;karERbRbYlénéføplitpl naMecjenAkñúgÉktarUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs. CalT§plénkarfycuHtMélrUbIyvtßú kñúgRbeTs eFVIeGaykarnaMecjénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaHRtUvcuHefaksMrab;TIpSar breTs. kalNatMrUvkarénbreTs ehIynigCaBiesséføeGLasÞIcekIneT,IgenaH breTsnwgbegáInkarnaMcUlrbs;xøÜnecjBIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. karekIneLIg énkarnaMcUlrbs;breTsenaH RtUv)anbMeBjcitþEtcMeBaHeGLasÞÍcénkarpÁt;pÁg; EdlKμanTIbBa©b;eBjeljedayecjBIkarekIneLIgénplitkmμEdlbgáredayPaB GMeNayplmYy. k¾b:uEnþ kalNakarpÁt;pÁg;énkarnaMecjBMueGLasÞÍceBjelj nigkalNaplitplnaMecjRtUv)antMrUvkaredaykñúgRbeTspgEdrenaH vanwgeFVI eGayéfønwgekIneLIgenAkñúgÉktarUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs nigpþl;eGayGtiprNanUv clkrbEnßmeTot. CamYynwgkarekIneLIgxøaMgkøamYyénGtiprNakñúgRbeTs RbeTsenaHnwgCYbRbTHCakarBitenA {rgVg;KYreGaytk;søt;} (circulus vitiosus = vicious circle) EdlenAkñúgenaHkarfycuHéntMélrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs nigGtiprNa nwgbMerIbMras;KñaeTAvijeTAmkdUcCargVg;. eRBaHfaGRtabþÚrR)ak;BitFananUvCMnajkmμEdleyageTAtam]tþmPaBénkareR bobeFob (comparativ cost advantage) enaHkarERbRbYlénGRtabþÚrR)ak;dMbUg

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218 # Economic Development

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Gs;visalPaBnUvKuNsm,tþiEdlCary³eBlxøIrbs;eK nigkarekIneLIgénéføRtUvedIr eTAmuxmunkarBRgIkplitkmμ. bnÞab;mkeyageTAtamenaHbnþicbnÞÜc GacekIteLIg nUvlT§plERbRbYlénkargar. cMeBaHPaBxusKñaénGRtaGtiprNaEdlRtUvpþl;eGaymYy TisedA nigTMhM ERbRbYléncrnþTunenAkñúgTMhMNamYyenaH KWGaRs½yeTAnwgkarGPivDÆn_énGRtabþÚr R)ak;dMbUg. kalNaGRtakarR)ak;dMbUgenH RtUv)ankMNt;eGayefredaysßab½n nigcMeBaHPaBxusKñaénGRtaGtiprNaEdlRtUvpþl;eGaymYyenaH karR)ak;Bit (real interest rate) KWRtUveXIjfafycuH eRBaHedaymUlehtuénGRtaGtiprNad¾x<s; enAkñúgRbeTsKitCamYynwgGRtaGtiprNaenAbreTs. kalNaTIpSarrUbIyb½NÑ EdlKitCaeBlevla (time investments)mansßitenA karxatbg;énKuNsm,tþi karR)ak;EdlGacekIteLIgkñúgkal³eTs³mYyekIneT,Ig eRBaHfaGRtavKÁ rWryHeBl kMNt; nigkarbg;tMélkarBarénGRtaénGñkdak;TuneGayx©IEdlCabreTs KWekIn eLIgEdr. TaMgenHpþl;sBaØafa Gñkdak;TuneGayx©IKiteTAdl;karGPivDÆn_én esdækic©BitR)akd nigKNnaCamYynwgkarfycuHtMélrUbIyvtßúénRbeTskMBug GPivDÆn_enaH. bnÞab;mkkarnaMcUlénTunsßitenABMuRKb;RKan;. PaKeRcIndMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s;bMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs RtUv )ankt;sMKal;edaykarnaMecjénTuneTAeRkARbeTs. GñkvinieyaKTunbreTsEdl RtUv)ansMerceCaKC½yrYcehIyk¾edayk¾epÞrplcMeNjEdlGacrk)aneTAkñúgrUbIy b½NÑbreTsEdr. sMrab;bBaðaenH GacekItmaneLIgnUvPaBBMuBitR)akd rWGsnþisux EdlekIneLIgmYyénkarepÞrRtLb;mkvijénkarcMeNjmkkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_e naH CaBiessk¾cMeBaHGñkvinieyaKTunbreTsEdlmanTisedAyUrGEgVgpgEdr. karcab;ykviFankarN_sniTankmμénrIbIyb½NÑEdlnwgykmkeRbIR)as;edIm,IraraMgé nkarnaMTunecjeTAeRkARbeTsnwgriteFVIeGaykan;EtGaRkk;nUvkarvinieyaKTunsMrab; GñkvinieyaKTunbreTs nigkan;EtbegáInnUvkarnaMecjénTuneTotEtb:ueNÑaH. sMrab;Gñkdak;TuneGayx©IEdlCaGñkkñúgRbeTs k¾)anTTYlnUvP½BVsMNagén karcMeNjd¾eRcInenaHpgEdr kalNaGñkkñúgRbeTsenaH)anTijrUbIyb½NÑ

220 # Economic Development

breTsEdlRtUv)anfycuHtMélTabbMputenAkñúgdMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s; bMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsrbs;xøÜn. rUbIyb½NÑbreTsEdl)anTijenaH RtUvGñk kñúgRbeTsenaHGaclk;RtLb;vijenAkñúgéfømYyd¾x<s;enAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑeRkaye BlEdlkarfycuHtMélénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsEdlRtUvelceLIg. cariklkçN³ enH)anmkEdlfaenAkñúgdMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s;bMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbe Ts karEkrERbcaM)ac;énGRtabþÚrR)ak;RtUvEtFMCagbBaðaTaMgGs; eRBaHedIm,IeFVIeGay mankarGPivDÆn_énsmPaBTMhMTij. pÞúyeTAvijenAdMNak;kalbnÞab;énkarfycuH tMélTabbMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs k¾GacelcecjnUvkarhUrcUlénrUbIyb½NÑ breTsya:gelOnenAkñúgryHeBlxøIEdr. qøgkat;bBaðaenHlT§plviC¢mansMrab; GñkkñúgRbeTscMeBaHkarfycuHtMélTabbMputEdlCaryHeBlxøIénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeT sk¾RtUv)ankat;bnßy. enAeRkamrebobyl;eXIjEbbenH RbeTsEdl)anCYbRbTH enaH GacGnuBaØatibMrugTuk rWeRbIR)as;nUvTunbreTsEdlCaÉkCnsMrab;eKalbMNg énkarvinieyaKTuntictYcCagnUvbBaðaTaMgLayNa EdlelcecjCatMélénkarcg; )anénesdækic©srub. CaBitR)akd enAkñúgdMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s;bMput énrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs \NTanbreTsEdlnwgRtUvTTYlyk RtUvsßitenAkñúgkar TTYlykcMeBaHEtlkçx½NÐGnueRKaHb:ueNÑaH. k¾b:uEnþeRkayBIkarelateq2> GRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþtedayesrI enAkñúgkarnwkdl;énbBaðalM)akénGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;enH eK)aneGaydMbUnμan dl;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_PaKeRcInfa cMeBaHkarkMNt;énGRtabþÚrR)ak;TukeGayva

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sMerc)anedayesrIenAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑ. qøgkat;bBaðaenH GnþraKmn_énrdæBMuRtUv caM)ac;eFVIeT,Iy eRBaHfaGsmPaBenAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑGacbM)at;)anedaypÞal; edaysarkarERbRbYlénéføénrUbIyb½NÑEdleFVIBaNiC¢kmμenaH. rYcmkRtUvepþatkar snSMsMéceTAelIneya)ayesdækic©EdlmanninñakareTAelIkareFVIeGaysMerc)anén tulüPaBxagkñúgvij. enaHmann½yfa eKalbMNgEdlCaTIpSarkñúgRbeTsRtUvEtrk eGayeXIjnUvkarBicarNad¾kan;EtxøaMgkøamYy. GRtabþÚrR)ak;Edl)anbgðajenAelITIpSarrUbbIyb½NÑmanPaBsmPaB KWdUc KñaCamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit kalNaskmμPaBepÞrénesdækic©eRkARbeTsedIreTA tamlkçxNÐénesdækic©BitR)akd. enAkñúgkrNIenH GRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþtedayesrI rWGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;Ebn (floating exchang rate) KWCalT§plRtwmRtUv (logical) énkardwknaMesdækic©EdlCaesdækic©TIpSar. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgRbB½n§bþÚrR)ak;mYyenHGac bgðajEdlfaBMueyageTAtamlkç½NÐénesdækic©BitR)akdenaHeT,Iy. CaBitR)akd karERbRbYlénéføplitplEdlRtUveFVIBaNiC¢kmμenAkñúgRbeTs k¾dUcCaenAeRkA RbeTsGaceFVIeGaymankarrMkilnUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;rhUtdl;TMhMénkarTijénrUbIyvtßúkñú gRbeTsRtUvKñarNþM rWesμIKñaCamYynwgTMhMénkarTijrUbIyb½NÑbreTs Eteday KNnaeTAtamGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlERbRbYlenaH. k¾b:uEnþkarsMrbsMrYlenH enAelI TIpSarplitplRbtibtþieTAenAkñúgsPaBya:gyWt. CMnYsbBaðaenHenAkñúgryHeBlxøI TMnak;TMngénkMritGRtakarR)ak;dMbUg KWCa TMhMEdlkMNt;enAelITIpSarTunkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs sMrab;TMnak;TMngpøas;bþÚr énrUbIyb½NÑ. CamYyenaHGRtabþÚrR)ak;ERbRbYlrhUtdl;PaBxusKñarvagGRtabþÚr R)ak;EdlRtUvrMBwgTuk nigGRtabþÚrR)ak;BitR)akdsuIKña rWRsbKñaeTAnwgPaBxusKña énGRtakarR)ak;rvagkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs. qøgkat;bBaðaenHenAelITIpSarTun bgðajeGayeXIjmannUvkarERbRbYl portfolio d¾elOnmYy eRBaHfakarERbRbÜlén éføEdlbNþalmkBIGRtabþÚrR)ak;enAkñúgkmμsiT§iRTBüsm,tþiEdlenAkñúgRbeTs k¾dUc CaEdlenAeRkARbeTs)anERbRbYlnUvplEdlGacrkplcMeNj)anBIkardak;Tunb reTsenaH. CalT§plskmμPaBepÞrénTunk¾mankarERbRbYl.

222 # Economic Development

enAeRkamkarBicarNaénTMnak;TMngenH neya)ayesdækic©EdlBRgIkmYy rWneya)ayfvikarEdlBRgIkmYy dUcCaenAkñúg]TahrN_ecjBIkarsegátCaryH eBlEvg GaceFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvéføkñúgRbeTs nigbegáIteGaymankarfycuHtMél énGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit rWk¾karfycuHtMélénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs. k¾b:uEnþkñúgryHeBlxøI karfycuHénGRtakarR)ak;EdlCaTUeTApSarP¢ab;CamYynwgneya)ayfvika nigneya )ayhirBaØvtßúEdlBRgIkenaH naMeTAeGaymankarnaMecjénTunmYy EdlGaceFVI eGayrujnUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;elIGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bitrbs;xøÜn. CamYyenaHGñknaMecjénTun mineGIeBIdwg (ignore) nUvkarBitEdlfa CamYynwgkarekIneLIgénkMritéfø kartMrUvkar énfvika nigGRtakarR)ak;kñúgRbeTsekIneLIgvijeT,Iy. dUcenHkMhusénkar snñidæanEdl\tex©aH eFVIeGayekItmaneLIgnUvsmPaBTIpSarrUbIyb½NÑEdlRsbKña nwgGsmPaBénCBa¢ÍgTUrTat;EdlCaryHeBlyUrmYy eRBaHrUbbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs Edlvas;eTAnwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit KWRtUvfycuHtMélya:gTab. k¾b:uEnþCamYynwgkarekIneLIgénGRtakarR)ak;kñúgRbeTs karekIneLIgéntMél rUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsk¾maneLIgvijrhUtdl;sMerc)anGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit. Speculators kñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTsEdl)annaMecjTunrbs;xøÜn enAkñúgkarrMBwgénkarfycuH tMélénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsteTAeTot emIleXIjeBlenHCamYynwgkarxatbg; edaypÞal; rWk¾eKRbQmmuxTl;nwgTinñplkarR)ak;EdlpÞúymYy. dUcenHenAkñúgkar emIleXIjryHeBlyUr karRbfuyRbfan (speculation) EdlnwgeFVIeGayGesßrPaB rebobenHBMumanryHeBleLIy eRBaHfa Speculators EdlBMuKiteqVgyl;BIkar GPivDÆn_BitenaH SpeculatorsenaHnwgRTaMRTnUvkarxatbg;teTAmuxeTot nigCaTI bBa©b; TMhMxVHxatrbs;xøÜnnwgeFVIeGayxøÜnxÞatecjBITIpSar. pÞúyeTAvijenAkñúgryHeBlxøI BMuGacRtUvbdiesdæ)aneLIy EdlfaskþanuBl énkarRbfuuyRbfan (speculation) Edlman KWBMuTan;beBa©jEdlGacbNþaleGay manPaBBMunwgnénGRtabþÚrR)ak;. edaysarbBaðaenH neya)ayesdækic©EdleKal bMNgrbs;xøÜneFVIeGaymansißrPaBénGRtabþÚrR)ak;BitEdlmanRbsiT§PaB KWRtUvman ninñakareFVIGnþraKmn_enAkñúgTIpSarrUbIyb½NÑedIm,IduHxat;énPaBeLIgcuHEdlBMueTotTa

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t; nigCamYyenaH FananUvmUldæanénkarGPivDÆn_CabnþbnÞab;énlkçx½NÐesdækic© eRkARbeTs. kalNaPaBBMunwgnrEdlXøatecjBIsmPaBCaryHeBlxøIrebobenH énGRtabþÚrR)ak;RtUvGacbM)at;ecal karfycuHtMélEdlsmb,maNénrUbbIyvtßú énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH GacsßitenARbQmTl;nwgkarekIneLIgéføénplitpl naMcUlEdleyageTAtamPaBBuMnwgnrenaH. CamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; enAkñúg dMNak;kalénkarekIneLIgtMélx<s;bMput GtiprNakñúgRbeTsEdlmanRtUvnaMeGay manCacMbgnUvkarkat;bnßyxøaMgxøamYy nigbnÞab;mknaMeGaymankarfycuHénkar begáInsnÞúHclkrénGtiprNacMeBaHdMNak;kalénkarfycuHtMélTabbMputénGRta bþÚr. cMeBaHGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþt rWGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;Ebn clkrénGtiprNaEdlRtUv naMcUl KWe)aHbg;nUvsmb,maN ¬=EdlesμIKμanrGak;rGYl¦ enH. karbEnßmsnÞúH énkarvivDÆn_énéføkñúgRbeTsBMuRtUv)anrMBwgfamaneLIy. enAeRkamlkç½NÐc,as;las; GRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;EbnGackat;bnßyEfmeTot nUvkarekIneLIgénéfø ³ eRBaHfakarekIneLIgéføénplitplnaMcUlRbRBitþeTACabnþ bnÞab;enAkñúgCMh‘and¾tUc nigBMucMhr TaMgenHCaP½BVsMNagd¾FMmYyekIteLIgEdlfa economic subjects BMusßitenAeRkam :karP½nþRcLMénfvikar (illusion of money) :. dUcenHRbtikmμénrUbbIyb½NÑBMuekItmaneLIgenAelIRKb;rN³sirS dUcEdlRbtikmμ enH ekIteLIgenAkñúgkrNIénkarfycuHtMélrUbbIyvßúkñúgRbeTsPøam²enaHeT,Iy. enAeRkamsPaBEbbenH R)ak;ebovtSmanRbtikmμCadMbUgCamYyEtnwgkarBnüaeBl énkarekIneLIgénéfø ehtuenHhaniP½yénR)ak;ebovtSn¾-éfø-s<Wra:l;RtUv)ankat; bnßy. edayfakarekIneLIgéføénvis½yplitplkñúgRbeTsEdlkMNt;eday GtiprNaGacRsbeTAnwgkarekIneLIgéføénplitplBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsEdled aysarEtkarfycuHtMélrUbbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs dUcenHéføEdlTak;Tgrbs;va KWGac sßitenAefrbnþeTot nigFananUvkarGPivDÆn_mindac;mYyénplitkmμEdleyageTA tamk,Ünxñat]tþmPaBénkarbg;tMéleRbobeFob (comparativ cost advantage). qøgkat;bBaðaenH cMeBaHkarERbRbÜlénTUrelxPøam² clkrénGtiprNa EdlCalT§plecjBIPaBtwgEtgénrcnasm<½n§manelcecjbnþicbnÞÜc. CaBiess

224 # Economic Development

vis½yBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsGacTajcMeNjecjBIPaBtwgEtgénGRtabþÚrR)ak;rebo benHmYy. karRsUbcUlénkarnaMcUlEdlekIteLIgkñúgkMlugéndMNak;kalkarekIn eLIgtMélx<s;bMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs KWk¾dUcCakarrIkraldalénkarnaMecj (export boom) Edl)anekIteLIgCamYynwgkarfycuHtMélTabbMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúg RbeTsEdr. karbnþBRgIkkarGPivDÆn¾énlkçx½NÐesdækic© edIm,ICMruj rWdas;etOn GñkEdlmanTunsMrab;karvinieyaKTunenAkñúgvis½yEdlGacrkplcMeNj)anrbs;e KenaH k¾GaRs½yya:gsMxan;eTAnwgkMriténGRtabþÚrR)ak; CaBiessvis½ynaMecjk¾ RtUv)anKaMRTedayRbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþtEdr. drabNakartMrUvkarénbreTs manRbtikmμeGLasÞIceTAelIkarcuHefakénkarnaMecjénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH CalT§plénkarfycuHtMélrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsk¾GaceFVIeGaymankarekIneLIgénka rbg;tMélplitkmμEdlCalT§plecjBIGtiprNaenAkñúgRbeTsenaH ehIyEdl nwgeFVIGaymankarekIneLIgéntMélnaMecjenAkñúgÉktarUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsCanic©. CalT§plecjBIenaH naMeTAeGaymankarBRgIkénplitkmμ nigCamYyenHEdrnaMeTA eGaymankarekIneLIgR)ak;cMNUl nigkargar. lT§pldUcKñaenHEdrk¾)anelceLIgenAkñúg {]sSahkmμénkarnaMcUlplit plCMnYs}7 Edleday]sSahkmμenHRtUv)anTTYlyksm
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bBaðaenH vaCabBaðaGMBIkarEbgEckRtLb;mYy (reallocaltion) énFnFanEdlecjBI karemIleXIjénesdækic©srubnwgrMBwgfamanPaBviC¢man. k¾b:uEnþkarfycuHtMélén rUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTssßitesßr (permanent reduction) mYy naMeGaymankarEbg EckRtLb;énR)ak;cMNUlEdlCaRbeyaCn_sMrab;GñkEdlTajR)ak;cMNUlBIkareRbIR )as;Tun. enAeRkambBaðaenH sßitenAedayKμansgS½ynUvbBaðaneya)ayd¾FMmYy EdlGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþt)annaMmkCamYysMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. ecjBIGRtabþÚrR)ak;bENþtk¾pþl;plcMeNjpgEdr dl;Gñkdak;TuneGayx©I EdlCabreTs. plcMeNjEdlGacrk)anénkarvinieyaKTunedaypÞal;énbreTs Gacvas;)anP¢ab;CamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit eRBaHfaplcMeNjEdlGacrk)an enaH BMuGacsßitenAeRkam\T§iBleLIgcuHedaysardMNak;kalekIneLIgtMélx<s; bMput nigkarfycuHtMélTabbMputénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTseToteT. cMeBaHbBaðadUcKña enHEdr CamYynwgkarekIneLIgénesrIPavUbnIykmμénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs cMeBaH GñkvinieyaKTunbreTs)anrYcputBIhaniP½yénesdækic©EdlbgçitbgçMd¾FMmYy EdleFVI eGayBYkeKBMuGacmanlT§PaB repatration énR)ak;cMeNjrbs;xøÜn)an. enAeRkam kal³eTs³rebobenH crnþénTunÉkCn)anhUrcUlmkkñúgRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH CabnþbnÞab;. RbQmmuxTl;nwgbBaðaenH krNIneya)ayesdækic©GacmanbMNulenAkñúg breTsEtenAkñúgTMhMmYyd¾tictYc eRBaHfa\NTanbreTsEdlsßitenATukbMrugBMu {écñeGayefak)aneLIy}. bBaðaTaMgenHeFVIeGayenAkñúgkarBicarNaBIkarxVHxat TunénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_CaeRcInRtUv)andwgCavicarN³BaØNfaCabBaðaKuNsm,tþi . k¾b:uEnþ RbQmTl;nwgenaHk¾mannUvKuNsm,tþiEdlfaCamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt; Ebn PaBcaM)ac;énbMNul rWk¾karCMBak;CafμIsMrab;hirBaØvtßúén»nPaBCBa¢ÍgTUrTat;k¾ RtUv)anrYcputpgEdr. lkçxNÐsMxan;EdlfaRbB½n§bþÚrR)ak;Edlbt;EbnmYyGaclatRtdagnUv\T§iB lviC¢manrbs;vaeTAelIplitkmμkargar nigcracrTun KWkareFVIeGayeTACakar BiténGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit. kalNaenAkñúgTsSn³vis½yEdlCaryHeBlxøIekIteLIgnUv

226 # Economic Development

karERbRbYlya:gxøaMgénGRtabþÚrR)ak;dMbUg (nominal exchange rate) enaH lT§pl xagelIenaHGacRtUveFVIeGayxUcxatTaMgRsug eRBaHcracrénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs RtUvTTYlbnÞúkF¶n;F¶r TnÞwmnwgmanhaniP½yénkarlk;ecj nigCamYynwgkarman haniP½yénGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edr. drabNaPaBeLIgcuHénGRtabþÚrR)ak;)anrkSaenAkñúg RBMEdnd¾ceg¥ótmYyenaH karkat;bnßyénTMhMBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTsedaysarkar manénTIpSarkMNt;eBlrUbIyb½NÑ (money market) GacnwgRtUv)anraraMg. CaBit R)akdekIteLIgnUvesckþIsgÇwmEdlfaesckþIRtUvkarnUvlT§PaBsßirPaBénGRtabþÚrR) ak;EdlnwgGPivDÆn_CamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;EbnGacnaMeTAeGaymankarelcecj eLIgCabnþbnÞab;mYyénTIpSarkMNt;eBlrUbIyb½NÑ (money market) Edlmansßit enAkñúgsßanPaBeyageTAtamtYnaTIEdlcg;)an k¾b:uEnþdMeNIrkarenHRtUvTamTarnUv eBlevlad¾sMxan;mYy. dUcenHkñúgryHeBlxøI cMeBaHGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;EbnenH eKRtUvEtmanneya)ay énGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlskmμmYyRtUvsßitenACacaM)ac;. neya)ayskmμenaH KWCakar RbwgERbgedIm,IeGayGRtabþÚrR)ak;dMbUg (nominal exchange rate) xiteTArkGRta bþÚrR)ak;Bit (real exchange rate) enAkñúgdMeNIrvivDÆn_éneBl nigk¾dUcCaedIm,IeGay manesßrPaBénkarvivDÆn_enaH. Parkic©enHGacRtUvbMeBj)anedaygayedaysar neya)ay {karbENþtedayRkxVk;} rWk¾ {crowling peg}. enAkñúglT§pl RbB½n§TaMgBIr KWdUcKñaeTAvijeTAmk eRBaHkrNIneya)ayesdækic©TaMgenHekIteT,Ig edaysarEtkareFVIGnþraKmn_BIrdæeTAelITIpSarrUbIyb½NÑ (invisibly hand of the government for the currency market) mann½yfa kareFVIRbtikmμeTAelIkar ERbRbYlénGRtabþÚrR)ak;dMbUgEdlecjBIpøÚvEdlmincg;)anenaH eGayrkSa)annUv PaBsmRsbeT,Igvij (=karbENþtedayRkxVk;). k¾b:uEnþ crowling peg bgðajnUv KuNsm,tþiEdlfa economic subjects TaMgGs; GacKitKUreTAelIkarvivDÆn_bnþeTot énGRtabþÚrR)ak;)angayCagRbePTGRtabþÚrR)ak;epSg². eRBaHfaGRtaERbRbYlén PaBCacMhrrbs; crowling peg RtUv)anRbkasR)ab;mun dUcenHhaniP½yénGRta bþÚrR)ak;GaceFVIeGayeTACaGb,rima)an. pÞúyeTAvijcMeBaH {karbENþtEdlRkxVk;}

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TaMgenHCajwkjab; Bi)aksMrab;karEbgEckrvagPaBEdlGacekIteLIgedayécdnü karrMxanEdlCaryHeBlxøInigryHeBlEvg nigkarGPivDÆn_esdækic©EdlsMxan; sMrab;karsMrbsMrYlénGRtabþÚrR)ak;enaH. dUcenHenAeRkamlkçx½NÐenH KW {crowling peg} RtUvEtTaj ykmkmunén {PaBbENþtEdlRkxVk;} enaH. kalNaviFankarN_neya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;RtUvcab;ykkñúgRkbx½NÐén {crowling peg } mYyRtUv)anlatRtdagnUv\T§iBlesdækic©rbs;vaenaH karyl;RBm rWkaredIrRsbKñad¾s¥itrmYtmYyénneya)ayfvika nigneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;Cati KWRtUvEtTamTareFVI. TMnak;TMngenHRtUveXIjkan;Etc,as;kalNaeKdwknaMRbtikmμén tulükarTun rWCBa¢ÍgTun eTAelIkarfycuHtMélénrUbIyvtßúmYy ³ cMeBaHkarsMerccitþ dak;eGayx©ITun Gñkdak;TuneGayx©ImanninñakareTAtamGRtakarR)ak;dMbUgEdlekIt eLIgenAkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTs k¾dUcCakarERbRbYlénGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edl RtUvrMBwgTuk. CamYynwgkarfycuHtMélénrUbIyvtßú nigCamYynwgGRtakarR)ak;dMbUg (nominal interest rate) EdlBMuERbRbYlenaH sMrab;GñkEdldak;TuneGayx©ICa breTs nwgmankarfycuHnUvTinñplkarR)ak;énkmμsiT§RTBüsm,tþirbs;xøÜnenAkñúg RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_EdlxøÜn)andak;TuneGayeRbIR)as;enaHenAkñúgÉktarUbbIyb½ NÑbreTskñúgTMhMd¾eBjeljénGRtafycuHénrUbbIyvtßúénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ena H. pÞúyeTAvijcMeBaHkarR)ak;dMbUgEdlefr sMrab;skmμPaBenAeRkARbeTs rWkardak;TuneGayx©IenAeRkARbeTs eKnwgTTYl)annUvTinñplkarR)ak;ekIneLIgenA kñúgÉktarUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTsenAkñúgTMhMénGRtaekIneLIgéntMélrUbIyb½NÑbreTsen aH. enAeRkamRBwtþkarN_eebobenH elcecjnUvhaniP½y EdlfaGñkdak;Tun kñúgRbeTs ¬domestic investors¦ nigGñkdak;TunbreTs ¬foreign investors¦ dkTun rbs;xøÜnecjBIRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. kalNakarvivDÆn_enHcg;RtUveGaykat; bnßy enaHkrNIneya)ayfvikarRtUvEteFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvGRtakarR)ak;dMbUg enAkñúgRbeTseGaymanTMhMGRtaesμIrKñanwgGRtafycuHtMélénrUbIyvtßúkñúgRbeTs enaHmann½yfasmPaBkarR)ak;rvagTIpSarTunkñúgRbeTs nigeRkARbeTssßitenA Canic©nirnþr_.

228 # Economic Development

4 rel="nofollow"> plénneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak; ecjBIkarRbtibtþixagelIRtUveXIjya:gc,as;las;faRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtU vGnuvtþn_nUvneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;mYyEdlFananUvPaBeFVIeGayBitR)akdénGRtabþÚr R)ak;. TaMgenHCalkçx½NÐd¾sMxan;EdlfaGRtabþÚrR)ak;RtUvEtRtwmRtUveTAtamParkic© CamUldæanrbs;va EdlKWCaGaMgDIkarT½rén]tþmPaBénkarbg;tMéleRbobeFob nig GacnaMmkCamYynUvkarsßabnaénrcnasm<½n§plitkmμEdleFVIeGayekIneLIgnUvR)ak; cMNUlyUrGEgVg nigkMeNInkargarsMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_enaH. sMrab;PaBeFVI eGayBitR)akdénGRtabþÚrR)ak;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mYymanCamUldæannUvpøÚvBIrCa cMhr ³ sMrab;pøÚvTImYy TaMgGs;enHGacP¢ab;rUbIyvtßúxøÜneTAnwgrUbIyb½NÑnaMmuxmYy rWeRcIn nigneya)ayfvika k¾dUcCaneya)ayhirBaØvtßúrbs;xøÜnmanninñakareTAtam RbeTsEdlxøÜn)anpSarP¢ab;enaH. pÞúyeTAvij kalNasV½yPaBd¾FMmYyénneya )ayesdækic©épÞkñúgRtUvsßitenACaGtßiPaBenaH TaMgenHTamTarnUvGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;Ebn d¾FMmYy ebIsinNaParkic©EbgEck (allocation) énGRtabþÚrR)ak;BMuRtUv)aneFVIeGay kan;EtGaRkk;. kñúgkrNIenHelcecjCaBiesssMrab;RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_xøH )ancab;yk nUvRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;Edlbt;EbnmYy eRBaHfaenAkñúgRbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;Edl BMubt;EbneBjelj eKRtUvEteFVIeGaysMerc)aneCaKC½yCanic©nUvkarsMrbsMrYl d¾s¥itrmYtmYy rWk¾karedIrRsbKñaénneya)aycMnYnfvikadUcCaneya)ayGRtakar R)ak; nigénneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;. karRbqaMgénkareGaydMbUnμanénneya)ay GRtabþÚrR)ak;enH )anelIkeLIgnUvkarniyayCMTas;EdlfacariklkçN³EdlCa RbePTénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_GacraraMgnUvkarsßabna nigkareRbIR)as;d¾maneCaK C½yénRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;EbnmYy. GñkesdæviTUCaeRcIn)anbBa¢ak;fa PaBpÞal; xøÜnEdlCaesdækic© nigEdlCasßab½nénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_TamTarnUvneya)ay GRtabþÚrR)ak;EdleyageTAtamenaH. CamYyenH CaRbePTénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ RtUv)ancat;cMNat;fñak;nUvlkçN³dUcxageRkam ³

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- TMhM rWkMritd¾tUcmYyénkarbegáIteLIgeGaymaneRcInmuxepSg²Kña (diversification)

- kartMrUvkarnaMcUlEdlBMueGLasÞIcmYy rWk¾karpÁt;pÁg;énkarnaMecjEdlBMu eGLasÞIcmYy - PaBCMnYs)and¾tUcrvagplitplénBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs nigplitpl esdækic©kñúgRbeTs - vis½yhirBaØvtßúEdlmansmtßPaBtYnaTIBMuRKb;RKan;mYy - smtßPaBRbtikmμd¾tictYcmYyéncrnþTuneTAelIkarERbRbYlénGRta karR)ak; dUcenHeyageTAelImUldæanénkarsnñidæanenH cMeBaHRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ RtUvEtTajykkarBicarNaeTAelIneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;mYyEdlgakecjBIPaBb t;EbnnIykmμénGRtabþÚrR)ak;mYy rWGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;Ebn. edayKμankarsgS½y RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_bgðajeGayeXIjnUvlkçN³kMNt;EdlsMrab;BicarNacMeBaH karBiPakSaénRbB½n§GRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlsmRsbmYy dUcEdl)anniyayxagelI. k¾b:uEnþTaMgGs;enH enAEtCasMnYrEdlfaCamYynwgdMeNIrRbRBitþEdl)anbkRsay xagelIGacRtUveFVIeGay)ansMercCalT§plGnuvtþn_EdrrWeT kalNaPaBBMucuHsRmug )anekIteLIgGMBIEdlfaetIGVIRtUvGackt;sMKal;Ca {RbePTénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_} enaH. PaBEdlminrYmKñaEtmYyenAkñúgkarsnñidæanéncariklkçN³RbePTénRbeTskM BugGPivDÆn_enHehIy GaceFVIeGaymankarxitxMRbwgERbgelcecjeLIgedIm,IeGay niymn½ynUvRbePTénRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_edayqøgkat;karErkBn§rYmKñaénPaBpÞal; xøÜnenH nigecjBIenaHedIm,Icg;kMNt;edIm,IsßabnanUvneya)aybþÚrR)ak;Edlsm Rsb. EtRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_ KWepSg²BIKña dUcenHvaekIteLIgnUvhaniP½yénkar eGaydMbUnμanEdlCaneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;TUeTAEdlBMuRtwmRtUveTAtamsßanPaBRbe PTc,as;las;énRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_TaMgenaH. enAeRkamkarBicarNaTidæPaBenH

230 # Economic Development

TaMgenH elcecjnUvlMnaMsmrmüedIm,IraraMgeTAelIkarbgðajénlkçx½NÐtYnaTI nigénplEdl)anpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgneya)ayGRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlkMNt;mYysMrab;RbeT skMBugGPivDÆenaH. eyageTAtamenaHlT§plEdl)anTajecjBIxagelIGac segçbCarYmdUcteTA ³ a). RbB½n§énGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;EbnmYyRtÚv)anbgðajenAkñúgk,Ünc,ab;tMranUvlT§ PaBeRCIserIsEdlKYrBicarNamYysMrab;karykmkGnuvtþ ebIsinNahaniP½yén PaBRbfuyRbfan (speculation) edaysarTIpSarrUbIyb½NÑ nigkarmanGnþraKmn_én sßab½nrUbIyvtßúGacRtUv)anbM)at;ecal)an. RbB½n§enHpSarP¢ab;nUvPaBEdlGaceFVI eGayBitR)akdénGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit CamYynwglT§PaBsV½yPaBd¾FMénkrNIEdlCa neya)aysareBIBn§ nigneya)ayfvika eRBaHneya)ayTaMgenH KWGacedaHrYcput ecjya:gq¶ayBIkatBVkic©sMrab;karFanakarBarénsmPaBesdækic©eRkARbeTs. b) k¾b:uEnþkalNaRbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_mYy BMumannUvTIpSarkMNt;eBlén rUbIyb½NÑEdlmansmtßPaBtYnaTIcaM)ac;enaHeT enaHTaMgGs;enaHRtUvpSarP¢ab; rUbIyvtßúrbs;xøÜneTAnwgrUbIyb½NÑnaMmuxmYy rWk¾eRcIn8. karP¢ab;CamYyrUbIyb½NÑ naMmuxmYyGaceFVIeGaymanKuNsm,tþi)an luHRtaNaEtBaNiC¢kmμeRkARbeTs CamYynwgRbeTsEdl)anP¢ab;rUbIyvtßúenaHRtUv)anGnuvtþmanTMhMlatsn§wgFMeFg. pÞúyeTAvijkalNarcnasm<½n§naMcUl nigrcnasm<½n§naMecjmankarrayBaseBj eRcInmuxkñúgtMbn; GRtabþÚrR)ak;EdlpSarP¢ab;eTAnwgrUbIyb½NÑrYm KWsßitenACa GtßiPaB. k¾b:uEnþenAkñúgkrNITaMgGs; RbeTskMBugGPivDÆn_RtUvsMrYleGay enAkñúgPaBepSgKñaBIGRtabþÚrR)ak;efrEdlCaRbB½n§ Bretton Wood System GRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;mYy mann½y faBMuEmnCaGRtabþÚrR)ak;lMdab;xatenaHeLIy eRBaHfarUbIyb½NÑnaMmuxTaMgGs;Edlkøay edaypÞal; rWedayRbeyaleTACarUbIyb½NÑnaMmuxsMrab;GRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab; KWERbRbYledayÉkraCü. bnÞab;mkkarERbRbYlenH epÞreTAelIRbeTsnImYy²eyageTAtambTdæanmaRtaénkarP¢ab;. enA kñúgkrNIenH TMrg;nImYy²énGRtabþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;bgðajeGayeXIjkareLIgcuHénGRtabþÚrR)ak; ¬RbQm muxTl;nwgrUbIyb½NÑEdlenAesssl;TaMgGs; CamYynwgGRtabþÚrR)ak;bt;Ebn rWk¾CamYynwgGRta bþÚrR)ak;P¢ab;¦ eTAnwgsþg;daepSg²eTotmYy.

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RtUvnUvneya)ayesdækic©rbs;xøÜn eyageTAtamkarP¢ab;nImYy²enaH. kalNa TaMgGs;enHminGaceFVIeTAekIt enaHPaBEdleGayeTACakarBiténGRtabþÚrR)ak;Bit TamTareGaymankarsMrbsMrYlCabnþbnÞab;mYyénsmPaBeyageTAtambTdæan én PaBxusKñaénGtiprNa eRBaHkñúgkrNIkarP¢ab;rYbIyb½NÑrYmRtUvføwgEføgnUvPaBxusKña énGtiprNa.

232 # Economic Development

Éksareyag Adelman I. / Morris C. T: Society, Politics and Economic Development: quantitative Approach, Baltimore 1967 Adelman I. / Morris C. T.: Economic growth and Social Eguity in Developing countries, Stanford 1973 Baters N.: Development Indicators, in: Journal of Development Studies 1971/1972 Bird, R. M.: A New Look at Indirect Taxation in Developing Countries, in: World Development, Band 15 (1987) Bird, R. M.: Taxation and Employment in Developing Countries, in: Finanzachiv, N. F. Band 40 (1982) Bird, G.: Should Developing Countries Use Currency Depreciation as a Toll of Balance of Payments Adjustment?, in: Journal of Development Studies Band 19 (1982/83) Black, S. W.: Exchange Policies for Less Developed Countries in a World of Floating Rates, New Jersey 1976 Bloom D. E./Freeman R. B.: The Effects of Rapid Population Growth on Labor and Employment, in: Population and Development Review 1986 Boeke J. H.: Economies and economic Policy of Dual Societies, New York 1953 Cardozo, O. C.: Flexible Exchange Rates, Inflation and Economic Development, in: World Development, Band 4 (1976) Chenery H. B.: Redistribution with Growth, Oxford 1974 Crockett, A. D./Nsouli, S. M.: Exchange Rate Policies for Developing Countries, in: Journal of Development Studies, Band 13 (1976/77) Drake, P. J.: Money, Finance and Development, Oxford 1980 Easterlin R. A.: Population and Economic Change in Developing Countries, Chicago-London 1980 Easterlin R. A.: Effects of Population Growth on the Economic Development of Developing Countries, in: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 1967 Feldsieper, M./Yaar, M.: Weckselkurssysteme fuer Entwicklungslaender. Option and Probleme, Berlin-Heidelberg-Tokyo 1983 Goode, R.: Government Finance in Developing Countries, Washington D. C. 1984

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Hemmer, H.-R.: Wirtschaftsprobleme der Entwicklungslaender, Muenchen 1988 Hicks N.L./Strection P.: Indicator of Development, in: World Development 1979 International Labor office: Employment, growth and Basic Needs A One world Problem, Geneva 1976 Jung, W. S.: Financial Development and Economic Growth: International Evidence, in: Economic Development and Cultural Change, Band 34 (1985/1986) Khatkhate, D.: National and International Aspectss of Financial Policies in LDC’s, in: World Development, Band 10 (1982) Lewis, S. R. jr.: Taxation for Development. Priciples and Applications, New York-Oxford 1984 Mckinnon R. I.: Money and Capital in Economic Development, Washington D.C. 1973 McNicoll G.: Consequences of Rapid Population Growth-An Overview. World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 691, Washington D. C. 1984 Mikesell R. / Zinser J.: The Nature of the Saving Function in Developing Countries: A Survey of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature, in: Journal of Economic literature 1973 Myint H.: Dualism and the internal Integration of the Underdeveloped Economies, in: Banca Nazionale de Lavoro 1970 Newlyn, W. T.: Measuring Tax Effort in Developing Countries, in: Journal of Development Studies, Band 21 (1984/85) Ochel, W.: Die Entwicklungslaender in der Weltwirtschaft, Koeln 1982 Palma G.: Dependency: A Formal Theory of Underdevelopment or Methodology for the Analysis of Concrete Situation of Underdevelopment? in: World Development 1978 Raschen, M.: Geldmenge, Inflation und wirtschaftliche Entwicklung in der Dritten Welt, Bochum 1986 Rose, K.: Theorie der Aussenwirtschaft, Muenchen 1986 Rostow W. W.: The Economic of Take-off in Sustained Growth, London 1963 Rostow W. W.: The Stages of Economic Growth, Gottingen 1960 Smith S./ Toye J.: Trade and Poor Economies, in: Journal of Development Studies 1978/79 Stewart F. / Streeten P.: New Strategies for Development: Poverty, Income Distribution And growth, in: Oxford Economic Paper (1976)

234 # Economic Development

Thirlwall, A. P.: Inflation, Saving and Growth in Developing Economies, New York 1974 U Tun Wai: Financial Intermediaries and National Savings in Developing Countries, New York-Washington-London1979 Uphoft N.T. / Ilchman CO. F.: The Political Economy of Development, Berkeleylas Angeles-London 1972 Wolfson, D. J.: Public Finance and Development Strategy, BaltimoreLondon 1979 Yaari M. E. / Rawls / Edgeworth / Sharply /Nash: Theories of Distributive Justice Reexamined, in: Journal of Economic Theory 1981

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR M.Sc. Agr. CHAN BONNIVOIT was born on 30. December 1969 in Kbal Kaoh Village, Kaohdach Commune, Mok Kampol District, Kandal Province, Cambodia. 1987: Baccalaureate, Preah Sisovath High School, in Cambodia. 1987-1988: Studied German language, Royal University of Phnom Penh in Cambodia. 1988-1989: German language Certificate, Herder Institute in Germany. 1989-1991: Studied Medicine, Karl Marx University (Leipzig University) in Germany. 1991-1997: Diploma in Agriculture and Master of Science in Economics and Social Science of Agriculture (M.Sc. Agr.), Martin Luther University Halle Wittenberg in Germany. 1997-1998: Ph.D. Candidate, Hohenheim University in Germany. February 1999: Return to Cambodia. March 1999-August 2000: Assistant farming systems advisor for Church World Service Cambodia (CWS) Since 2001: Private Lecturer for ASEAN Economics and Investment Management for Norton University. Since 2002: Official for Department of ASEAN and international Organization of the Commerce Ministry. 2002-2004: Private Lecturer for Investment Management for Royal University of Phnom Penh. Since 2004: Private Lecturer for Economic Development and International Economic for Royal University of Agriculture Chamcar Doung PUBLICITY

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Agricultural production’s plan for Quellendorfer & Zehbitzer Agrar Enterprise AG (Joined Publicity in German, 1996) Agricultural Trade of Kingdom of Cambodia: Structure, Development and Perspective (in German, MLU 1997) Concept of agricultural economic and marketing (in Khmer, CWS 1999) Concept of rural credit (in Khmer, CWS 1999) Concept of micro enterprise (in Khmer, CWS 2000)

236 # Economic Development

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Agriculture situation analysis of CWS’s project target areas in Kandal, Svay Rieng and Kompong Thom provinces (Joined Publicity in English, CWS June 2000) Many Research.