Dr. Tal Pavel - Phd Dissertation - English Abstract

Changes in Governmental Restrictions over the use of Internet in Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates between the Years 2002 – 2005

Tal Pavel Department of Middle Eastern History

Ph.D. Thesis

Submitted to Senate of Bar-Ilan University

Ramat-Gan, Israel

July 2007

This work was carried out under the supervision of Prof. Eliezer Tauber (Department of Middle Eastern History) and Dr. Mordechai Kedar (Department of Arabic), Bar-Ilan University

Table of Contents Introduction..........................................................................................................................1 Research Objective.......................................................................................................1 Methodological Background..........................................................................................1 Postulations...................................................................................................................4 Chapter A – The Internet – Filtering Methods and Circumvention in Internet Filtering.......7 Internet Filtering.............................................................................................................7 The Internet and its Role in Totalitarian Regimes.....................................................9 Totalitarian Regimes Control of the Internet.......................................................11 Internet Filtering - How Does it Really Works ?......................................................13 Access Blockage.................................................................................................13 Inclusion Filtering............................................................................................13 Exclusion Filtering ..........................................................................................13 Blocking Method.................................................................................................15 Blocking Place...................................................................................................17 Local..............................................................................................................17 Organizational................................................................................................17 National..........................................................................................................18 Content Filtering ................................................................................................18 Regulatory Blocking...........................................................................................20 Monitoring..........................................................................................................20 Circumvention.............................................................................................................20 Circumvention Websites ..................................................................................21 Circumvention Programs .................................................................................22 Tutorials..............................................................................................................24 Linkage...............................................................................................................25 Personal Knowledge ........................................................................................25 Chapter B – Internet Usage Restriction: The State of the Research ...............................27 Experiments.................................................................................................................27 Internet Filtering ....................................................................................................27 Jonathan Zittrain & Benjamin Edelman..............................................................27 OpenNet Initiative...............................................................................................28 Models and Indexes ..................................................................................................30 Authority Characteristic ..........................................................................................30 Level of Democracy/Autocracy - Polity IV Project..............................................30 Worldwide Governance Indicators......................................................................31 Levels of Restrictions .............................................................................................32 Alexander Gruhler...............................................................................................32 Reporters Without Borders.................................................................................32 Information Technology and Communication Accessibility ....................................33 Digital Access Index (DAI)..................................................................................33 Total Country Connectivity Measure (TCCM).....................................................34 Internet Diffusion.....................................................................................................35 Richard Beilock, Daniela V. Dimitrova................................................................35 Global Diffusion of the Internet Project (GDI).....................................................36

Nikhilesh Dholakia, Ruby Roy Dholakia, Nir Kshetri..........................................37 B. Bazar & G. Boalch..........................................................................................38 Sean McLaughlin................................................................................................43 Researches.................................................................................................................46 Mauro F. Guillen &Sandra L. Suarez.................................................................46 Michel Elie...........................................................................................................47 Eszter Hargittai...................................................................................................49 Eric Arnum & Sergio Conti..................................................................................51 Social Factors Influence over Internet Diffusion ...................................................53 Demography........................................................................................................53 Leo W. Jeffres.....................................................................................................53 Gender................................................................................................................54 Nikhilesh Dholakia, Ruby Roy Dholakia, Nir Kshetri..........................................54 Age......................................................................................................................55 Regime Policy, Monopoly and Political Freedom Influence over Internet Diffusion55 Government Policy..............................................................................................55 Political Freedom Vs. Economical Freedom .....................................................56 Katsuyoshi Okui..................................................................................................56 Human Capital Influence Over Internet Diffusion .................................................57 Education............................................................................................................57 English Language ..............................................................................................58 Internet Influence over Society .............................................................................58 Paul DiMaggio, Eszter Hargittai , W. Russell Neuman, and John P. Robinson..58 Internet and Arab Society...................................................................................61 Chapter C – The Restrictions of Internet Use in Iran and the Arab World – in Principle and in Practice..........................................................................................................................64 Communication and Internet in Iran and the Arab World...........................................64 Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World..............................................72 Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World - in Principle......................73 Fear of Internet Expansion.................................................................................73 Oppositional Activity.......................................................................................73 Defending Tradition and Cultural Identity.......................................................73 Preserving Tradition and Religious Values ...................................................74 Preserving Control over the Communication ................................................74 Intellectuals as Western Culture Agents.........................................................75 Metods of Supervision........................................................................................75 Access Prevention..............................................................................................76 Regulatory.....................................................................................................76 Technological.................................................................................................76 Economical....................................................................................................76 Access Blocking and Filtering ...........................................................................77 Online Activity Monitoring .................................................................................78 Circumvention.....................................................................................................78 Public Discourse ................................................................................................79 Supervision of the Internet in Iran and the Arab World - de Facto .........................79 Iran......................................................................................................................80 Internet Usage...............................................................................................80 Activity of the Establishment ........................................................................82 Legislation......................................................................................................84 Supervision....................................................................................................85

ISPs............................................................................................................86 Users..........................................................................................................87 Websites.....................................................................................................87 Internet Cafes ...........................................................................................87 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites....................................................88 Websites....................................................................................................88 Weblogs.....................................................................................................91 Arrests.............................................................................................................92 Circumvention.................................................................................................99 Tunisia.................................................................................................................99 Legislation.....................................................................................................100 ISP............................................................................................................101 Internet Cafes ..........................................................................................102 Supervision...................................................................................................103 Users........................................................................................................103 ISPs..........................................................................................................104 Internet Cafes ..........................................................................................104 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................105 Arrests..........................................................................................................107 Libya..................................................................................................................108 Internet Usage..............................................................................................110 Arrests...........................................................................................................110 Bahrain..............................................................................................................111 Internet Usage..............................................................................................112 Cost...............................................................................................................113 Legislation.....................................................................................................113 Supervision...................................................................................................115 Websites...................................................................................................115 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................116 Arrests...........................................................................................................119 Jordan...............................................................................................................120 Internet Usage..............................................................................................121 Legislation.....................................................................................................121 Supervision...................................................................................................122 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites ................................................122 Arrests..........................................................................................................123 Qatar.................................................................................................................123 Chapter D – Internet Freedom Index ..............................................................................126 1. Basic Assumptions...........................................................................................128 2. Model Sources.................................................................................................129 3. Database Preparation for Statistical Processing, Index Scoring Computation130 Phase A – Data Aggregation...........................................................................131 Phase B – Raw Value Formula Computing....................................................132 Phase C – Parameters Standartization..........................................................133 Phase D – Indices, Formula Parameters and Formula Computation.............134 4. The Research in Context of the Model............................................................136 5. Internet Freedom Index – Parameters, Weights, Scores and Legend 137 6. Models Main Findings.........................................................................150 Chapter E – Internet in Syria..........................................................................................151

History..........................................................................................................151 Pilot Project.......................................................................................................152 Project Planning............................................................................................153 Project Goals................................................................................................153 Implementation.............................................................................................153 Subscribers – Target Audience.....................................................................153 Cost...............................................................................................................154 Public Access Project........................................................................................154 Implementation.............................................................................................154 Subscribers – Target Audience ....................................................................154 Communication Speed.................................................................................155 Future Internet Project......................................................................................155 Internet in Syria Today......................................................................................157 Internet Usage..............................................................................................157 Cost...............................................................................................................160 Legislation.....................................................................................................162 Supervision...................................................................................................163 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................166 Public Discourse...........................................................................................168 Arrests and Harassments of Internet Users and Journalists........................168 Journalists' Arrests...................................................................................169 Journalists' Harassments ........................................................................170 Internet Users Arrests ..............................................................................170 Circumvention...............................................................................................173 Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........174 Chapter F – Internet in Egypt ..........................................................................................178 History...........................................................................................................178 Internet Usage..............................................................................................185 Legislation.....................................................................................................188 Supervision...................................................................................................188 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................191 Public Discourse .........................................................................................191 Arrests..........................................................................................................191 Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........193 Chapter G – Internet in Saudi Arabia...............................................................................196 History...........................................................................................................196 Cost...............................................................................................................200 Legislation.....................................................................................................201 Internet.....................................................................................................201 Internet Cafes...........................................................................................204 Supervision...................................................................................................205 Internet.....................................................................................................206 Cellular Phones........................................................................................208 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites .................................................209 The Method..............................................................................................209 The Contents............................................................................................211 Public Discourse .........................................................................................216 Arrests 217 Circumvention...............................................................................................217

Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites ..........219 Chapter H – Internet in U.A.E..........................................................................................223 History...........................................................................................................223 Internet Usage..............................................................................................227 Cost...............................................................................................................229 Legislation.....................................................................................................230 Supervision...................................................................................................231 Internet Filtering and Blocking of Websites..................................................234 Public Discourse...........................................................................................236 Arrests..........................................................................................................237 Circumvention...............................................................................................238 Disscusion and Conclusions – Characteristics of Blocked Websites...........239 Chapter I – Summary and Conclusions...........................................................................241 Appendices......................................................................................................................254 A – Glossary..............................................................................................................254 B – Tools for Internet Content Filtering......................................................................260 C – Internet Penetration Rate and Usage Growth in Middle East and North Africa. 261 D – Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index – Reporters Without Borders ........262 E – Freedom House – Press Freedom Rankings....................................................263 F – World Public Sector Report 2003: e-Government at the Crossroads................264 References.......................................................................................................................265 English...................................................................................................................265 Arabic....................................................................................................................298 French...................................................................................................................301 Abstract..................................................................................................................................

Abstract This dissertation studies the status of the Internet while examining the change in restrictions controlling it in four Middle Eastern states: Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and U.A.E, between the years 2002-2005. First we examine the issue of Internet filtering including the motives, the means and the methods used in order to limit the free access to the Internet in these states. Then we examine issues concerning the use of the Internet in the Arab world, while focusing on the limitations of use rising from problems of illiteracy in English and Arabic, poor technology and communication infrastructure, alongside limited readiness on the part of the governments to accept free use of the Internet. These problems were and still are the main obstacles to expansion of use of the Internet in Arab countries. At the same time, and despite these limitations, the rate of growth of the use of the Internet in the Arab world is the highest in the world (311.9% - almost twice as high as the world rate). Yet conclusions from the Internet Freedom Model presented in this study show that these issues not only were they obstacles in the past, but still limit the diffusion of the Internet and prevent it from becoming free in the surveyed countries. In the Arab world commerce was the main catalyst of Internet diffusion in contrast to the universities that led the development of the Internet in the Western world. Still the delaying factors in the Arab world were and are the

governments, each for its own reasons – political legitimacy, religion, culture and ethics. A society willing to absorb technological novelties is the product of a liberal attitude to access of information and exchange of views. Arab rulers often declare the need to reform the attitude of the establishment towards the citizens, yet they fear that this change may lead to instability of their rule, may sever the traditional roots of the people and may damage the standing of the rulers. This contradiction between the declared and real meaning, leads to the fact the region's problems regarding Internet diffusion is a combination of technical , political and cultural ones. At first the authorities encourage use of the Internet, partly in order to enjoy the economic advantages of the Internet. Later they realize the danger of the becoming a tool in the hands of those who wish to destabilize their legitimacy or the potential of the Internet, by means of its contents, to harm the culture and ethics of the citizens. Finally comes the stage in which the government starts to restrain the use of the Internet in order to protect the religious, cultural and political values existing in the country, at the same time maintaining control over the media and opposing changes, mainly of western origin. The means to these ends are: Technological – by limiting access to the Internet; Legislative – monitoring of online activity and Economical - by fixing high prices of Internet use. Opposing these measures are always citizens who try to bypass the government's restrictions and by different methods reach the desired contents in the Internet.

In all of the Middle Eastern countries described in this work as a background (Iran, Tunisia, Libya, Bahrain, Jordan, Qatar), one can see a pattern of different levels and means

for governmental restrictions: Qatar and Bahrain being

relatively lenient and Iran and Tunisia strict to the point of arresting Internet users. Studies have been done regarding Internet accessibility and restrictions. Some are field studies trying to figure the scope and the patterns of the phenomenon in specific countries. Other studies have made models and set criteria by which to compare the level of Internet accessibility in different countries. Some researches have made an attempt to learn about the connection between cultural, governmental and technological parameters and the level of restrictions of free use of the Internet. This work is based on a unique model developed for this purpose – Internet Freedom Index - that has 36 parameters arranged in six groups: Internet and Communication; Society; Economy; Level of Freedom in the Country; Aspects of Restricted Regulation of Internet use; The Measure of Enforcement of Existing Regulations. As stated above, this model examined four different countries during four years: 2002-2005, while examining the history of the Internet absorption process in each country, Internet usage rate and cost, existence of restrictive legislature concerning Internet use, degree of supervision and restrictions of press and personal freedom, varied expressions in the public discourse on this topic, scruting of restricted Web sites and the reasons for these restrictions, arrests and harassment of Web users and journalists, and the means by which the citizens bypass these restrictions.

Analyzing the Internet Freedom Index Model conclusions revealed the high importance of Human Capital (Education, Literacy), level of technological readiness, communication and personal computers deployment and the measure of economical freedom in the country. The discourse also deals with the changes in each of these factors over the period of 2002-2005. Based on the Internet Freedom Index, of the four countries surveyed U.A.E enjoys the most freedom, yet it is deteriorating most quickly over three consecutive years. It has the lowest improvement rate by the Internet Freedom factors as compared to the other three countries. Actually the rest of the three countries (Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia) have the most potential – each one of them by making the necessary improvements of the relevant parameters for advancement on the Internet Freedom Index in the coming years.